BEFEBENCE

699
He vanls lo sa lIal il's nol a lIing. As a nallev oJ Jacl, il's naIl
ScolcI, one oJ lIe lIings I pavlicuIavI disIiIe. And il's lIe onI
lIing I gol Jov CIvis-lnas |nol lIe IollIe, lIe ScolcI il cane in a
diJJevenl IollIe). Il is nol a nallev oJ vieIding lIe OEB ov lIe BaiI
Nevs Ieve lo eslaIIisI anlIing nonenlous: I'n onI asIing vI
CIappeII vanls us lo laII Iis va. He lIinIs lIal iJ ve asI, WIal is
lIe ScolcI in lIal IollIe idenlicaI vilI? ve von'l Ie aIIe lo ansvev
ouvseIves, and so viII give up lIinIing il's a lIing. Bul lIe ScolcI
in lIal IollIe is |lIe sane as) lIe vIisIe in lIal IollIe, lIe Iiquid
in lIal IollIe, lIe sluJJ I'n aIoul lo give ou Iecause I can'l sland
il. |I don'l see lIal lIe queslion, WIal is lIis cop oJ lIe JOUBNAL
OF FHILOSOFHY idenlicaI vilI? gels ansvevs lIal ave an Iellev
lIan lIose.)
And Ie vanls lo sa lIal il conslilules a lIing, even vIen ou
nix il vilI soda. He is nol conlenl vilI lIe idea lIal lIe lIing
oJ vIicI il is a pavl is ScolcI and soda, ov a gIass oJ ScolcI and
soda: I don'l Inov vI. He vanls lo sa lIal lIe ScolcI in lIal
ScolcI and soda conslilules ov conposes sonelIing aII ils ovn, and
so Ie adopls lIe device oJ pveJixing 'Ieap oJ' ov 'aggvegale oJ'
lo vovds Jov sluJJs, lo guavanlee lIal ve'II aIvas Iave |a counl-
noun pIvase Jov?) a lIing an sluJJ conposes. And I don'l see lIal
iJ ve ave so suve lIal lIeve aIvas viII Ie a lIing conposed oJ an
sluJJ ve encounlev, ve nigIl as veII jusl pveJix 'lIing conposed oJ'
and Ie done vilI il. And, anva, vI sIouId ve Ie so suve?
BUSSELL M. BANCY
CovneII Univevsil
MEANINO ANB BEFEBENCE
*
U NCLEAB as il is, lIe lvadilionaI doclvine lIal lIe nolion
neaning possesses lIe exlension/inlension anIiguil
Ias cevlain lpicaI consequences. TIe doclvine lIal lIe
neaning oJ a levn is a concepl cavvied lIe inpIicalion lIal nean-
ings ave nenlaI enlilies. Fvege, Iovevev, veIeIIed againsl lIis ps-
cIoIogisn. FeeIing lIal neanings ave puIIic pvopevl-lIal lIe
sane neaning can Ie gvasped I nove lIan one pevson and
*
To Ie pvesenled in an AFA
snposiun on
BeJevence, BecenIev 28, 1973.
Connenlalovs viII Ie CIavIes CIaslain and KeilI S. BonneIIan: Jov BonneIIan's
papev, see lIis JOUBNAL, lIis issue, 711-712: FvoJessov CIaslain's connenls ave
nol avaiIaIIe al lIis line.
A vev nucI expanded vevsion oJ lIis papev viII appeav in voIune 7 ov 8
oJ Minnesola Sludies in lIe FIiIosopI oJ Science |ediled I KeilI Oundevson),
undev lIe lilIe TIe Meaning oJ 'Meaning'.
700 THE JOUBNAL OF FHILOSOFHY
I pevsons al diJJevenl lines-Ie idenliJied concepls |and Ience
inlensions ov neanings) vilI aIslvacl enlilies valIev lIan nenlaI
enlilies. Hovevev, gvasping lIese aIslvacl enlilies vas sliII an
individuaI pscIoIogicaI acl. None oJ lIese pIiIosopIevs douIled
lIal undevslanding a vovd |Inoving ils inlension) vas
jusl
a nallev
oJ Ieing in a cevlain pscIoIogicaI slale |sonevIal in lIe
va in
vIicI Inoving Iov lo Jaclov nunIevs in one's Iead is jusl a nal-
lev oJ Ieing in a cevlain vev conpIex pscIoIogicaI slale).
SecondI, lIe linevovn exanpIe oJ lIe lvo levns 'cvealuve vilI
a Iidne' and 'cvealuve vilI a Ieavl' does sIov lIal lvo levns canI
Iave lIe sane exlension and el diJJev in inlension. Bul il vas
laIen lo Ie oIvious lIal lIe vevevse is inpossiIIe lvo levns can-
nol diJJev in exlension and Iave lIe sane inlension. InleveslingI,
no avgunenl Jov lIis inpossiIiIil vas evev oJJeved. FvoIaII il
veJIecls lIe lvadilion oJ lIe ancienl and nedievaI pIiIosopIevs, vIo
assuned lIal lIe concepl covvesponding lo a levn vas jusl a con-
junclion oJ pvedicales, and Ience lIal lIe concepl covvesponding lo
a levn nusl aIvas pvovide a necessav and suJJicienl condilion Jov
JaIIing inlo lIe exlension oJ lIe levn. Fov pIiIosopIevs IiIe Cavnap,
vIo accepled lIe veviJiaIiIil lIeov oJ neaning, lIe concepl cov-
vesponding lo a levn pvovided |in lIe ideaI case, vIeve lIe
levn Iad conpIele neaning) a cvilevion Jov IeIonging lo lIe
exlension |nol jusl in lIe sense oJ necessav and suJJicienl condi-
lion, Iul in lIe slvong sense oJ va oJ vecognizing vIelIev a
given lIing JaIIs inlo lIe exlension ov nol). So lIeov oJ neaning
cane lo vesl on lvo uncIaIIenged assunplions
|1) TIal Inoving lIe neaning oJ a levn is jusl a nallev oJ Ieing
in a cevlain pscIoIogicaI slale |in lIe sense oJ pscIoIogicaI
slale, in vIicI slales oJ nenov and IeIieJ ave pscIoIogicaI
slales: no one lIougIl lIal Inoving lIe neaning oJ a vovd vas
a conlinuous slale oJ consciousness, oJ couvse).
|2) TIal lIe
neaning oJ a levn delevnines ils exlension |in lIe
sense lIal saneness oJ inlension enlaiIs saneness oJ exlension).
I sIaII avgue lIal lIese lvo assunplions ave nol joinlI salisJied I
an nolion, Iel aIone an nolion oJ neaning. TIe lvadilionaI con-
cepl oJ neaning is a concepl vIicI vesls on a JaIse lIeov.
ABE MEANINOS IN THE HEAB?
Fov lIe puvpose oJ lIe JoIIoving science-Jiclion exanpIes, ve sIaII
suppose lIal sonevIeve lIeve is a pIanel ve sIaII caII Tvin EavlI.
Tvin EavlI is vev nucI IiIe EavlI in Jacl, peopIe on Tvin EavlI
even speaI EngIisI. In Jacl, apavl Jvon lIe diJJevences ve sIaII
speciJ in ouv science-Jiclion exanpIes, lIe veadev na suppose
BEFEBENCE
70I
lIal Tvin EavlI is exaclI IiIe EavlI. He na even
suppose lIal
Ie Ias a BoppeIgangev-an idenlicaI cop-on Tvin
EavlI, iJ
Ie visIes, aIlIougI n slovies viII nol depend on lIis.
AIlIougI sone oJ lIe peopIe on Tvin EavlI
|sa, lIose vIo
caII lIenseIves Anevicans and lIose vIo caII lIenseIves Canadi-
ans and lIose vIo caII lIenseIves
EngIisInen, elc.) speaI
EngIisI, lIeve ave, nol suvpvisingI, a Jev lin diJJevences Ielveen
lIe diaIecls oJ EngIisI spoIen on Tvin EavlI and slandavd
EngIisI.
One oJ lIe pecuIiavilies oJ Tvin EavlI is lIal lIe Iiquid caIIed
valev is nol H20 Iul a diJJevenl Iiquid vIose cIenicaI JovnuIa
is vev Iong and conpIicaled. I sIaII aIIveviale lIis cIenicaI
JovnuIa sinpI as 7YZ. I sIaII suppose lIal 7YZ is
indislinguisI-
aIIe Jvon valev al novnaI lenpevaluves and pvessuves. AIso,
I sIaII
suppose lIal lIe oceans and IaIes and seas oJ Tvin EavlI conlain
7YZ and nol valev, lIal il vains 7YZ on Tvin EavlI and nol
valev, elc.
IJ a space sIip Jvon EavlI evev visils Tvin EavlI, lIen lIe
supposilion al Jivsl viII Ie lIal 'valev' Ias lIe sane
neaning on
EavlI and on Tvin EavlI. TIis supposilion viII Ie covvecled vIen
il is discoveved lIal valev on Tvin EavlI is 7YZ, and lIe EavlI-
ian space sIip viII vepovl sonevIal as JoIIovs.
On Tvin EavlI lIe vovd 'valev' neans 7YZ.
SnnelvicaII, iJ a space sIip Jvon Tvin EavlI evev visils
EavlI, lIen lIe supposilion al Jivsl viII Ie lIal lIe vovd 'valev' Ias
lIe sane neaning on Tvin EavlI and on EavlI. TIis supposilion
viII Ie covvecled vIen il is discoveved lIal valev on EavlI is
H20, and lIe Tvin EavlIian space sIip viII vepovl
On EavlI lIe vovd 'valev' neans H20.
Nole lIal lIeve is no pvoIIen aIoul lIe exlension oJ lIe levn
'valev' lIe vovd sinpI Ias lvo diJJevenl neanings |as ve sa): in
lIe sense in vIicI il is used on Tvin EavlI, lIe sense oJ valevTE,
vIal ve caII valev sinpI isn'l valev, vIiIe in lIe sense in vIicI
il is used on EavlI, lIe sense oJ valevE, vIal lIe Tvin EavlIians
caII valev sinpIe isn'l valev. TIe exlension oJ 'valev' in lIe
sense oJ valevE is lIe sel oJ aII vIoIes consisling oJ 1120 noIe-
cuIes, ov sonelIing IiIe lIal: lIe exlension oJ valev in lIe sense oJ
valevTE is lIe sel oJ aII vIoIes consisling oJ 7YZ noIecuIes, ov
sonelIing IiIe lIal.
Nov Iel us voII lIe line IacI lo aIoul 1750. TIe lpicaI EavlIian
speaIev oJ EngIisI did nol Inov lIal valev consisled oJ Idvogen
and oxgen, and lIe lpicaI Tvin-EavlIian speaIev oJ EngIisI did
702 THE JOUBNAL OF FHILOSOFHY
nol Inov lIal valev consisled oJ 7YZ. Lel Oscav1 Ie sucI a
lpicaI EavlIian EngIisI speaIev, and Iel Oscav2 Ie Iis
counlevpavl
on Tvin EavlI. You na suppose lIal lIeve is no IeIieJ lIal
Oscav,
Iad aIoul valev lIal Oscav2 did nol Iave aIoul valev. IJ
ou
IiIe, ou na even suppose lIal Oscav1 and Oscav2 veve exacl dupIi-
cales in appeavance, JeeIings, lIougIls, inleviov nonoIogue, elc.
Yel lIe exlension oJ lIe levn 'valev' vas jusl as nucI H20 on
EavlI in 1750 as in 1950: and lIe exlension oJ lIe levn 'valev' vas
jusl as nucI 7YZ on Tvin EavlI in 1750 as in 1950. Oscav1 and
Oscav2 undevslood lIe levn 'valev' diJJevenlI in 1750 aIlIougI lIe
veve in lIe sane pscIoIogicaI slale, and aIlIougI, given lIe slale oJ
science al lIe line, il vouId Iave laIen lIeiv scienliJic connunilies
aIoul JiJl eavs lo discovev lIal lIe undevslood lIe levn 'valev'
diJJevenlI. TIus lIe exlension oJ lIe levn 'valev' |and, in Jacl, ils
neaning in lIe inluilive pveanaIlicaI usage oJ lIal levn) is nol
a Junclion oJ lIe pscIoIogicaI slale oJ lIe speaIev I ilseIJ.'
Bul, il nigIl Ie oIjecled, vI sIouId ve accepl il lIal lIe
levn 'valev' Iad lIe sane exlension in 1750 and in 1950 |on IolI
EavlIs)? Suppose I poinl lo a gIass oJ valev and sa lIis Iiquid is
caIIed valev. M oslensive deJinilion oJ valev Ias lIe JoIIoving
enpivicaI pvesupposilion lIal lIe Iod oJ Iiquid I an poinling lo
Ieavs a cevlain saneness veIalion |sa, x is lIe sane Iiquid as
,
ov x is lIe saneL as ) lo nosl oJ lIe sluJJ I and olIev speaIevs in
n Iinguislic connunil Iave on olIev occasions caIIed valev.
IJ lIis pvesupposilion is JaIse Iecause, sa, I an-unInovn lo ne
-poinling lo a gIass oJ gin and nol a gIass oJ valev, lIen I do nol
inlend n oslensive deJinilion lo Ie accepled. TIus lIe oslensive
deJinilion conves vIal nigIl Ie caIIed a deJeasiIIe necessav
and suJJicienl condilion lIe necessav and suJJicienl condilion Jov
Ieing valev is Ieaving lIe veIalion saneL lo lIe sluJJ in lIe gIass:
Iul lIis is lIe necessav and suJJicienl condilion onI iJ lIe en-
pivicaI pvesupposilion is salisJied. IJ il is nol salisJied, lIen one oJ a
sevies oJ, so lo speaI, JaIIIacI condilions Iecones aclivaled.
TIe Ie poinl is lIal lIe veIalion saneL is a lIeovelicaI veIalion
vIelIev sonelIing is ov is nol lIe sane Iiquid as lIis na laIe an
indelevninale anounl oJ scienliJic invesligalion lo delevnine.
TIus, lIe Jacl lIal an EngIisI speaIev in 1750 nigIl Iave caIIed
7YZ valev, vIeveas Ie ov Iis successovs vouId nol Iave caIIed
7YZ valev in 1800 ov 1850 does nol nean lIal lIe neaning oJ
'valev' cIanged Jov lIe avevage speaIev in lIe inlevvaI. In 1750
1 See Jn 2, p. 710 IeIov, and lIe covvesponding lexl.
BEFEBENCE 703
ov in 1850 ov in 1950 one nigIl Iave poinled lo, sa, lIe
Iiquid in
LaIe MicIigan as an exanpIe oJ valev. WIal cIanged vas lIal
in 1750 ve vouId Iave nislaIenI lIougIl lIal 7YZ Iove lIe veIa-
lion saneL lo lIe Iiquid in LaIe MicIigan, vIeveas in 1800 ov
1850 ve vouId Iave Inovn lIal il did nol.
Lel us nov nodiJ ouv science-Jiclion slov. I sIaII suppose lIal
noIIdenun pols and pans can'l Ie dislinguisIed Jvon aIuninun
pols and pans save I an expevl. |TIis couId Ie lvue Jov aII I Inov,
and, a Jovliovi, il couId Ie lvue Jov aII I Inov I vivlue oJ Inoving
lIe neaning oJ lIe vovds aIuninun and noIIdenun.) We viII
nov suppose lIal noIIdenun is as connon on Tvin EavlI as
aIuninun is on EavlI, and lIal aIuninun is as vave on Tvin
EavlI as noIIdenun is on EavlI. In pavlicuIav, ve sIaII assune
lIal aIuninun pols and pans ave nade oJ noIIdenun on
Tvin EavlI. FinaII, ve sIaII assune lIal lIe vovds 'aIuninun'
and 'noIIdenun' ave svilcIed on Tvin EavlI 'aIuninun' is lIe
nane oJ noIIdenun, and 'noIIdenun' is lIe nane oJ aIuninun.
IJ a space sIip Jvon EavlI visiled Tvin EavlI, lIe visilovs Jvon
EavlI pvoIaII vouId nol suspecl lIal lIe aIuninun pols and
pans on Tvin EavlI veve nol nade oJ aIuninun, especiaII vIen
lIe Tvin EavlIians said lIe veve. Bul lIeve is one inpovlanl diJ-
Jevence Ielveen lIe lvo cases. An EavlIian nelaIIuvgisl couId
leII vev easiI lIal aIuninun vas noIIdenun, and a Tvin
EavlIian nelaIIuvgisl couId leII equaII easiI lIal aIuninun
vas noIIdenun. |TIe sIuddev quoles in lIe pveceding sen-
lence indicale Tvin EavlIian usages.) WIeveas in 1750 no one
on eilIev EavlI ov Tvin EavlI couId Iave dislinguisIed valev Jvon
valev, lIe conJusion oJ aIuninun vilI aIuninun invoIves
onI a pavl oJ lIe Iinguislic connunilies invoIved.
TIis exanpIe naIes lIe sane poinl as lIe pveceding exanpIe.
IJ
Oscav,
and Oscav2 ave slandavd speaIevs oJ EavlIian EngIisI and
Tvin EavlIian EngIisI, vespecliveI, and neilIev is cIenicaII ov
nelaIIuvgicaII sopIislicaled, lIen lIeve na Ie no diJJevence al
aII in lIeiv pscIoIogicaI slales vIen lIe use lIe vovd 'aIuninun':
nevevlIeIess, ve Iave lo sa lIal 'aIuninun' Ias lIe exlension
aIuninun in lIe idioIecl oJ
Oscav,
and lIe exlension noIIdenun
in lIe idioIecl oJ Oscav2. |AIso ve Iave lo sa lIal Oscav1 and Oscav2
nean diJJevenl lIings I 'aIuninun': lIal 'aIuninun' Ias a diJ-
Jevenl neaning on EavlI lIan il does on Tvin EavlI, elc.) Again
ve see lIal lIe pscIoIogicaI slale oJ lIe speaIev does nol delev-
nine lIe exlension |ov lIe neaning, speaIing pveanaIlicaII)
oJ lIe vovd.
704 THE JOUBNAL OF FHILOSOFHY
BeJove discussing lIis exanpIe JuvlIev, Iel ne inlvoduce a non-
science-Jiclion exanpIe. Suppose ou ave IiIe ne and cannol
leII an eIn Jvon a IeecI lvee. We sliII sa lIal lIe exlension oJ 'eIn'
in n idioIecl is lIe sane as lIe exlension oJ 'eIn' in anone eIse's,
viz., lIe sel oJ aII eIn lvees, and lIal lIe sel oJ aII IeecI lvees is
lIe exlension oJ 'IeecI' in IolI oJ ouv idioIecls. TIus 'eIn' in n
idioIecl Ias a diJJevenl exlension Jvon 'IeecI' in ouv idioIecl |as il
sIouId). Is il veaII cvediIIe lIal lIis diJJevence in exlension is
IvougIl aIoul I sone diJJevence in ouv concepls? M concepl
oJ an eIn lvee is exaclI lIe sane as n concepl oJ a IeecI lvee
|I IIusI lo conJess). IJ soneone IevoicaII allenpls lo nainlain lIal
lIe diJJevence Ielveen lIe exlension oJ 'eIn' and lIe exlension oJ
'IeecI' in n idioIecl is expIained I a diJJevence in n pscIo-
IogicaI slale, lIen ve can aIvas veJule Iin I conslvucling a
Tvin EavlI exanpIe-jusl Iel lIe vovds 'eIn' and 'IeecI' Ie
svilcIed on Tvin EavlI |lIe va 'aIuninun' and noIIdenun'
veve in lIe pvevious exanpIe). Moveovev, suppose I Iave a
BoppeIgangev on Tvin EavlI vIo is noIecuIe Jov noIecuIe iden-
licaI vilI ne. IJ ou ave a duaIisl, lIen aIso suppose n BoppeI-
gangev lIinIs lIe sane vevIaIized lIougIls I do, Ias lIe sane sense
dala, lIe sane disposilions, elc. Il is aIsuvd lo lIinI Iis pscIo-
IogicaI slale is one Iil diJJevenl Jvon nine el Ie neans IeecI
vIen Ie sas eIn, and I nean eIn vIen I sa eIn. Cul lIe
pie an va ou IiIe, neanings jusl ain'l in lIe Iead!
A SOCIOLINOUISTIC HYFOTHESIS
TIe Iasl lvo exanpIes depend upon a Jacl aIoul Ianguage lIal
seens, suvpvisingI, nevev lo Iave Ieen poinled oul lIal lIeve is
division oJ Iinguislic IaIov. We couId IavdI use sucI vovds as 'eIn'
and 'aIuninun' iJ no one possessed a va oJ vecognizing eIn lvees
and aIuninun nelaI: Iul nol evevone lo vIon lIe dislinclion
is inpovlanl Ias lo Ie aIIe lo naIe lIe dislinclion. Lel us sIiJl lIe
exanpIe: considev goId. OoId is inpovlanl Jov nan veasons il is a
pvecious nelaI: il is a nonelav nelaI: il Ias snIoIic vaIue |il
is inpovlanl lo nosl peopIe lIal lIe goId vedding ving lIe veav
veaII consisl oJ goId and nol jusl IooI goId): elc. Considev ouv
connunil as a Jaclov in lIis Jaclov sone peopIe Iave lIe
joI oJ veaving goId vedding vings: olIev peopIe Iave lIe
joI oJ seIIing goId vedding vings: sliII olIev peopIe Iave lIe
joI oJ leIIing vIelIev ov nol sonelIing is veaII goId. Il is nol al
aII necessav ov eJJicienl lIal evev one vIo veavs a goId ving |ov a
goId cuJJIinI, elc.), ov discusses lIe goId slandavd, elc., engage
in Iuing and seIIing goId. Nov is il necessav ov eJJicienl lIal evev
BEFEBENCE
705
one vIo Ius and seIIs goId Ie aIIe lo leII vIelIev ov nol sone-
lIing is veaII goId in a sociel vIeve lIis Jovn oJ disIonesl is
unconnon |seIIing JaIe goId) and in vIicI one can
easiI consuIl
an expevl in case oJ douIl. And il is cevlainI nol
necessav
ov eJJi-
cienl lIal evev one vIo Ias occasion lo Iu ov veav
goId Ie aIIe lo
leII vilI an veIiaIiIil vIelIev ov nol
sonelIing is
veaII goId.
TIe Jovegoing Jacls ave jusl exanpIes oJ nundane division oJ
IaIov |in a vide sense). Bul lIe engendev a division oJ Iinguislic
IaIov evev one lo vIon goId is inpovlanl Jov an veason Ias lo
acquive lIe vovd 'goId': Iul Ie does nol Iave lo acquive lIe nelIod
oJ vecognizing vIelIev sonelIing is ov is nol goId. He can veI on a
speciaI suIcIass oJ speaIevs. TIe Jealuves lIal ave genevaII lIougIl
lo Ie pvesenl in conneclion vilI a genevaI nane-necessav and
suJJicienl condilions Jov nenIevsIip in lIe exlension, vas oJ
vecognizing vIelIev sonelIing is in lIe exlension, elc.-ave aII
pvesenl in lIe Iinguislic connunil consideved as a coIIeclive Iod:
Iul lIal coIIeclive Iod divides lIe IaIov oJ Inoving and en-
pIoing lIese vavious pavls oJ lIe neaning oJ 'goId'.
TIis division oJ Iinguislic IaIov vesls upon and pvesupposes lIe
division oJ nonIinguislic IaIov, oJ couvse. IJ onI lIe peopIe vIo
Inov Iov lo leII vIelIev sone nelaI is veaII goId ov nol Iave
an veason lo Iave lIe vovd 'goId' in lIeiv vocaIuIav, lIen lIe
vovd 'goId' viII Ie as lIe vovd 'valev' vas in 1750 vilI vespecl
lo lIal suIcIass oJ speaIevs, and lIe olIev speaIevs jusl von'l
acquive il al aII. And sone vovds do nol exIiIil an division oJ
Iinguislic IaIov 'cIaiv', Jov exanpIe. Bul vilI lIe incvease oJ
division oJ IaIov in lIe sociel and lIe vise oJ science, nove and
nove vovds Iegin lo exIiIil lIis Iind oJ division oJ IaIov.
'Walev', Jov exanpIe, did nol exIiIil il al aII IeJove lIe vise oJ
cIenislv. Toda il is oIviousI necessav Jov evev speaIev lo Ie
aIIe lo vecognize valev |veIiaII undev novnaI condilions), and
pvoIaII nosl aduIl speaIevs even Inov lIe necessav and suJJi-
cienl condilion valev is H20, Iul onI a Jev aduIl speaIevs couId
dislinguisI valev Jvon Iiquids lIal supevJiciaII vesenIIed valev.
In case oJ douIl, olIev speaIevs vouId veI on lIe judgnenl oJ
lIese expevl speaIevs. TIus lIe va oJ vecognizing possessed I
lIese expevl speaIevs is aIso, lIvougI lIen, possessed I lIe
coIIeclive Iinguislic Iod, even lIougI il is nol possessed I eacI
individuaI nenIev oJ lIe Iod, and in lIis va lIe nosl vecIevcId
Jacl aIoul valev na Iecone pavl oJ lIe sociaI neaning oJ lIe vovd
aIlIougI unInovn lo aInosl aII speaIevs vIo acquive lIe vovd.
Il seens lo ne lIal lIis pIenonenon oJ division oJ Iinguislic
7o6
THE JOUBNAL OF FHILOSOFHY
IaIov is one lIal il viII Ie vev inpovlanl Jov socioIingu-islics lo
invesligale. In conneclion vilI il, I sIouId IiIe lo pvopose lIe
JoIIoving IpolIesis
HYFOTHESIS OF THE UNIVEBSALITY OF THE BIVISION OF LINOUISTIC LABOB
Evev Iinguislic connunil exenpIiJies lIe sovl oJ division oJ Iin-
guislic IaIov jusl descviIed: lIal is, il possesses al Ieasl sone levns
vIose associaled cvilevia ave Inovn onI lo a suIsel oJ lIe speaIevs
vIo acquive lIe levns, and vIose use I lIe olIev speaIevs depends
upon a slvucluved coopevalion Ielveen lIen and lIe speaIevs in lIe
veIevanl suIsels.
Il is eas lo see Iov lIis pIenonenon accounls Jov sone oJ lIe
exanpIes given aIove oJ lIe JaiIuve oJ lIe assunplions |1 and 2).
WIen a levn is suIjecl lo lIe division oJ Iinguislic IaIov, lIe avev-
age speaIev vIo acquives il does nol acquive anlIing lIal Jixes
ils exlension. In pavlicuIav, Iis individuaI pscIoIogicaI slale cev-
lainI does nol Jix ils exlension: il is onI lIe socioIinguislic
slale
oJ lIe coIIeclive Iinguislic Iod lo vIicI lIe speaIev IeIongs lIal
Jixes lIe exlension.
We na sunnavize lIis discussion I poinling oul lIal lIeve ave
lvo sovls oJ looIs in lIe vovId lIeve ave looIs IiIe a Iannev ov a
scvevdvivev vIicI can Ie used I one pevson: and lIeve ave looIs
IiIe a sleansIip vIicI vequive lIe coopevalive aclivil oJ a nunIev
oJ pevsons lo use. Wovds Iave Ieen lIougIl oJ loo nucI on lIe
nodeI oJ lIe Jivsl sovl oJ looI.
INBE7ICALITY ANB BIOIBITY
TIe Jivsl oJ ouv science-Jiclion exanpIes-'valev' on EavlI and on
Tvin EavlI in 1750-does nol invoIve division oJ Iinguislic IaIov,
ov al Ieasl does nol invoIve il in lIe sane va lIe exanpIes oJ
'aIuninun' and 'eIn' do. TIeve veve nol |in ouv slov, anva)
an expevls on valev on EavlI in 1750, nov an expevls on
valev on Tvin EavlI. TIe exanpIe does invoIve lIings vIicI
ave oJ JundanenlaI inpovlance lo lIe lIeov oJ veJevence and aIso
lo lIe lIeov oJ necessav lvulI, vIicI ve sIaII nov discuss.
Lel W1 and W2 Ie lvo possiIIe vovIds in vIicI I exisl and
in vIicI lIis gIass exisls and in vIicI I an giving a neaning
expIanalion I poinling lo lIis gIass and saing TIis is valev.
Lel us suppose lIal in W1 lIe gIass is JuII oJ H20 and in W2 lIe
gIass is JuII oJ 7YZ. We sIaII aIso suppose lIal W1 is lIe acluaI
vovId, and lIal 7YZ is lIe sluJJ lpicaII caIIed valev in lIe
vovId W2 |so lIal lIe veIalion Ielveen EngIisI speaIevs in W1 and
EngIisI speaIevs in W2 is exaclI lIe sane as lIe veIalion Ielveen
EngIisI speaIevs on EavlI and EngIisI speaIevs on Tvin EavlI).
BEFEBENCE 707
TIen lIeve ave lvo lIeovies one nigIl Iave concevning lIe nean-
ing oJ 'valev'
|1) One nigIl IoId lIal 'valev' vas vovId-veIalive Iul conslanl
in neaning |i.e., lIe vovd Ias a conslanl veIalive neaning). On
lIis lIeov, 'valev' neans lIe sane in W1 and W2: il's jusl lIal
valev is H20 in W1, and valev is 7YZ in W2.
|2) One nigIl IoId lIal valev is H20 in aII vovIds |lIe sluJJ
caIIed valev in W2 isn'l valev), Iul 'valev' doesn'l Iave lIe sane
neaning in W1 and W2.
IJ vIal vas said IeJove aIoul lIe Tvin EavlI case vas covvecl,
lIen |2) is cIeavI lIe covvecl lIeov. WIen I sa lIis |Iiquid) is
valev, lIe lIis is, so lo speaI, a de ve lIis-i.e., lIe Jovce oJ n
expIanalion is lIal valev is vIalevev Ieavs a cevlain equivaIence
veIalion |lIe veIalion ve caIIed saneL aIove) lo lIe piece oJ
Iiquid veJevved lo as lIis in lIe acluaI vovId.
We nigIl snIoIize lIe diJJevence Ielveen lIe lvo lIeovies as
a scope diJJevence in lIe JoIIoving va. On lIeov |1), lIe JoIIov-
ing is lvue
|1') |Fov evev vovId W) |Fov evev x in W) |x is valev _ x Ieavs saneL
lo lIe enlil veJevved lo as lIis in W)
vIiIe on lIeov |2)
|2') |Fov evev vovId W) |Fov evev x in W) |x is valev
-x Ieavs saneL
lo lIe enlil veJevved lo as lIis in lIe acluaI vovId W1)
I caII lIis a scope diJJevence Iecause in
|1') 'lIe
enlil veJevved
lo as lIis' is vilIin lIe scope oJ 'Fov
evev vovId W'-as lIe
quaIiJing pIvase 'in W' naIes expIicil-vIeveas in |2') 'lIe enlil
veJevved lo as lIis' neans lIe enlil veJevved lo as 'lIis' in
lIe acluaI vovId, and Ias lIus a veJevence independenl oJ lIe
Iound vaviaIIe 'W'.
KvipIe caIIs a designalov vigid |in a
given senlence) iJ |in lIal
senlence) il veJevs lo lIe sane individuaI in evev possiIIe vovId in
vIicI lIe designalov designales. IJ ve exlend lIis nolion oJ
vigidil lo suIslance nanes, lIen ve na expvess KvipIe's lIeov
and nine I saing lIal lIe levn 'valev' is vigid.
TIe vigidil oJ lIe levn 'valev' JoIIovs Jvon lIe Jacl lIal vIen
I give lIe oslensive deJinilion lIis |Iiquid) is valev, I inlend
|2')
and nol
|1').
We na aIso sa, JoIIoving KvipIe, lIal vIen I give lIe oslen-
sive deJinilion lIis |Iiquid) is valev, lIe denonslvalive 'lIis' is
vigid.
708 THE JOUBNAL OF FHILOSOFHY
WIal KvipIe vas lIe Jivsl lo oIsevve is lIal lIis
lIeov
oJ lIe
neaning |ov use, ov vIalevev) oJ lIe vovd 'valev' |and olIev
naluvaI-Iind levns as veII) Ias slavlIing consequences Jov lIe
lIeov
oJ necessav lvulI.
To expIain lIis, Iel ne inlvoduce lIe nolion oJ a cvoss-vovId
veIalion. A lvo-levn veIalion B viII Ie caIIed cvoss-vovId vIen il is
undevslood in sucI a va lIal ils exlension is a sel oJ ovdeved paivs
oJ individuaIs nol aII in lIe sane possiIIe vovId. Fov
exanpIe, il is
eas lo undevsland lIe veIalion sane IeigIl as as a cvoss-vovId veIa-
lion jusl undevsland il so lIal, e.g., iJ x is an individuaI in a vovId
W1 vIo is 5 Jeel laII |in W1) and is an individuaI in W2 vIo is 5
Jeel laII |in W2), lIen lIe ovdeved paiv x, IeIongs lo lIe exlension
oJ sane IeigIl as. |Since an individuaI na Iave diJJevenl IeigIls in
diJJevenl possiIIe vovIds in vIicI lIal sane individuaI exisls,
slviclI speaIing, il is nol lIe ovdeved paiv x, lIal conslilules an
eIenenl oJ lIe exlension oJ sane
IeigIl as,
Iul valIev lIe ovdeved
paiv x-in-vovId-W1, -in-vovId-W2.)
SiniIavI, ve can undevsland lIe veIalion saneL |sane Iiquid as)
as a cvoss-vovId veIalion I undevslanding il so lIal a Iiquid in
vovId W1 vIicI Ias lIe sane inpovlanl pIsicaI pvopevlies |in
W1) lIal a Iiquid in W2 possesses |in W2) Ieavs saneL lo lIe Iallev
Iiquid.
TIen lIe lIeov ve Iave Ieen pvesenling na Ie sunnavized I
saing lIal an enlil x, in an avIilvav possiIIe vovId, is valev iJ
and onI iJ il Ieavs lIe veIalion saneL |conslvued as a cvoss-vovId
veIalion) lo lIe sluJJ ve caII valev in lIe acluaI vovId.
Suppose, nov, lIal I Iave nol el discoveved vIal lIe inpovlanl
pIsicaI pvopevlies oJ valev ave |in lIe acluaI vovId)-i.e., I don'l
el Inov lIal valev is H20.
I
na Iave vas oJ
vecognizing valev
lIal ave successJuI |oJ couvse,
I
na naIe a snaII nunIev oJ nis-
laIes lIal I von'l Ie aIIe lo delecl unliI a Ialev slage in ouv scien-
liJic deveIopnenl), Iul nol Inov lIe nicvoslvucluve oJ valev. IJ I
agvee lIal a Iiquid vilI lIe supevJiciaI pvopevlies oJ valev Iul a
diJJevenl nicvoslvucluve isn'l
veaII valev, lIen n vas oJ vecog-
nizing valev cannol Ie vegavded as an anaIlicaI speciJicalion oJ
vIal il is lo Ie valev. BalIev, lIe opevalionaI deJinilion, IiIe lIe
oslensive one, is sinpI a
va oJ
poinling oul a slandavd-poinling
oul lIe sluJJ in lIe acluaI vovId sucI lIal, Jov x lo Ie valev, in
an vovId, is Jov x lo Ieav lIe veIalion saneL lo lIe novnaI nen-
Ievs oJ lIe cIass oJ IocaI enlilies lIal salisJ lIe opevalionaI deJini-
lion. Walev on Tvin EavlI is nol valev, even iJ il salisJies lIe
opevalionaI deJinilion, Iecause il doesn'l Ieav saneL lo lIe IocaI
BEFEBENCE 709
sluJJ lIal salisJies lIe opevalionaI deJinilion, and IocaI sluJJ lIal
salisJies lIe opevalionaI deJinilion Iul Ias a nicvoslvucluve diJJev-
enl Jvon lIe vesl oJ lIe IocaI sluJJ lIal salisJies lIe opevalionaI
deJinilion isn'l valev eilIev, Iecause il doesn'l Ieav saneL lo lIe
novnaI exanpIes oJ lIe IocaI valev.
Suppose, nov, lIal I discovev lIe nicvoslvucluve oJ valev-
lIal valev is H20. Al lIis poinl I viII Ie aIIe lo sa lIal lIe
sluJJ on Tvin EavlI lIal I eavIiev nislooI Jov valev isn'l veaII
valev. In lIe sane va, iJ ou descviIe, nol anolIev pIanel in lIe
acluaI univevse, Iul anolIev possiIIe univevse in vIicI lIeve is
sluJJ vilI lIe cIenicaI JovnuIa 7YZ vIicI passes lIe opevalionaI
lesl Jov valev, ve sIaII Iave lo sa lIal lIal sluJJ isn'l valev Iul
neveI 7YZ. You viII nol Iave descviIed a possiIIe vovId in vIicI
valev is 7YZ, Iul neveI a possiIIe vovId in vIicI lIeve ave IaIes
oJ 7YZ, peopIe dvinI 7YZ |and nol valev), ov vIalevev. In Jacl,
once ve Iave discoveved lIe naluve oJ valev, nolIing counls as a
possiIIe vovId in vIicI valev doesn'l Iave lIal naluve. Once ve
Iave discoveved lIal valev |in lIe acluaI vovId) is H20, nolIing
counls as a possiIIe vovId in vIicI valev isn'l H20.
On lIe olIev Iand, ve can pevJeclI veII inagine Iaving ex-
peviences lIal vouId convince us |and lIal vouId naIe il valionaI
lo IeIieve lIal) valev isn'l H20. In lIal sense, il is conceivaIIe lIal
valev isn'l H20. Il is conceivaIIe Iul il isn'l possiIIe! ConceivaIiIil
is no pvooJ oJ possiIiIil.
KvipIe veJevs lo slalenenls lIal ave valionaII unvevisaIIe |assun-
ing lIeve ave sucI) as epislenicaII necessav. Slalenenls lIal ave
lvue in aII possiIIe vovIds Ie veJevs lo sinpI as necessav |ov sone-
lines as nelapIsicaII necessav). In lIis levninoIog, lIe poinl
jusl nade can Ie veslaled as a slalenenl can Ie |nelapIsicaII)
necessav and epislenicaII conlingenl. Hunan inluilion Ias no
pviviIeged access lo nelapIsicaI necessil.
In lIis papev, ouv inlevesl is in lIeov oJ neaning, Iovevev, and
nol in lIeov oJ necessav lvulI. Wovds IiIe 'nov', 'lIis', 'Ieve'
Iave Iong Ieen vecognized lo Ie indexicaI, ov
loIen-veJIexive-i.e.,
lo Iave an exlension vIicI vavies Jvon conlexl lo conlexl ov
loIen lo loIen. Fov lIese vovds, no one Ias evev suggesled lIe
lvadilionaI lIeov lIal inlension delevnines exlension. To laIe
ouv Tvin EavlI exanpIe iJ I Iave a BoppeIgangev on Tvin EavlI,
lIen vIen I lIinI I Iave a IeadacIe, Ie lIinIs I Iave a Iead-
acIe. Bul lIe exlension oJ lIe pavlicuIav loIen oJ 'I' in Iis
vevIaIized lIougIl is IinseIJ |ov Iis unil cIass, lo Ie pvecise), vIiIe
lIe exlension oJ lIe loIen oJ 'I' in
n vevIaIized lIougIl is ne
7IO THE JOUBNAL OF FHILOSOFHY
|ov n unil cIass, lo Ie pvecise). So lIe sane vovd, 'I',
Ias lvo
diJJevenl exlensions in lvo diJJevenl idioIecls: Iul il does nol
JoIIov lIal lIe concepl I Iave oJ nseIJ is in an va diJJevenl Jvon
lIe concepl n BoppeIgangev Ias oJ IinseIJ.
Nov lIen, ve Iave nainlained lIal
indexicaIil exlends
Ieond
lIe oIviousI indexicaI vovds and novpIenes |e.g., lIe lenses oJ
vevIs). Ouv lIeov can Ie sunnavized as saing lIal vovds IiIe
'valev' Iave an unnoliced indexicaI conponenl valev is sluJJ
lIal Ieavs a cevlain siniIavil veIalion lo lIe valev avound Ieve.
Walev al anolIev line ov in anolIev pIace ov even in anolIev
pos-
siIIe vovId Ias lo Ieav lIe veIalion saneL lo ouv valev in
ovdev lo Ie valev. TIus lIe lIeov lIal |1) vovds Iave inlensions,
vIicI ave sonelIing IiIe concepls associaled vilI lIe vovds I
speaIevs: and |2) inlension delevnines exlension-cannol Ie lvue oJ
naluvaI-Iind vovds IiIe 'valev' Jov lIe sane veason il cannol Ie lvue
oJ oIviousI indexicaI vovds IiIe 'I'.
TIe lIeov lIal naluvaI-Iind vovds IiIe 'valev' ave indexicaI
Ieaves il open, Iovevev, vIelIev lo sa lIal 'valev' in lIe Tvin
EavlI diaIecl oJ EngIisI Ias lIe sane neaning as 'valev' in lIe
EavlI diaIecl and a diJJevenl exlension-vIicI is vIal ve novnaII
sa aIoul 'I' in diJJevenl idioIecls-lIeveI giving up lIe doclvine
lIal neaning |inlension) delevnines exlension, ov lo sa, as ve
Iave cIosen lo do, lIal diJJevence in exlension is ipso Jaclo a diJ-
Jevence in neaning Jov naluvaI-Iind vovds, lIeveI giving up lIe
doclvine lIal neanings ave concepls, ov, indeed, nenlaI enlilies
oJ an Iind.2
Il sIouId Ie cIeav, Iovevev, lIal KvipIe's doclvine lIal naluvaI-
Iind vovds ave vigid designalovs and ouv doclvine lIal lIe ave in-
dexicaI ave Iul lvo vas oJ naIing lIe sane poinl.
We Iave nov seen lIal lIe exlension oJ a levn is nol Jixed I
a concepl lIal lIe individuaI speaIev Ias in Iis Iead, and lIis is
lvue IolI Iecause exlension is, in genevaI, delevnined sociaII-
lIeve is division oJ Iinguislic IaIov as nucI as oJ veaI IaIov-and
2
Ouv veasons Jov
vejecling lIe Jivsl
oplion-lo sa lIal 'valev' Ias lIe sane
neaning on EavlI and on Tvin EavlI, vIiIe giving up lIe doclvine lIal nean-
ing delevnines veJevence-ave pvesenled in TIe Meaning oJ 'Meaning'. TIe
na Ie iIIuslvaled lIus Suppose 'valev' Ias lIe sane neaning on EavlI and
on Tvin EavlI. Nov, Iel lIe vovd 'valev' Iecone pIonenicaII diJJevenl on
Tvin EavlI-sa, il Iecones 'quaxeI'. FvesunaII, lIis is nol a cIange in
neaning pev se, on an viev. So 'valev' and 'quaxeI' Iave lIe sane neaning
|aIlIougI lIe veJev lo diJJevenl Iiquids). Bul lIis is IigII counlevinluilive.
WI nol sa, lIen, lIal 'eIn' in n idioIecl Ias lIe sane neaning as 'IeecI' in
ouv idioIecl, aIlIougI lIe veJev lo diJJevenl lvees?
BEFEBENCE 7II
Iecause exlension is, in pavl, delevnined indexicaII. TIe exlension
oJ ouv levns depends upon lIe acluaI naluve oJ lIe pavlicuIav lIings
lIal sevve as pavadigns, and lIis acluaI naluve is nol, in genevaI,
JuII Inovn lo lIe speaIev. TvadilionaI senanlic lIeov Ieaves oul
lvo conlviIulions lo lIe delevninalion oJ veJevence-lIe conlviIu-
lion oJ sociel and lIe conlviIulion oJ lIe veaI vovId: a Iellev
senanlic lIeov nusl enconpass IolI.
HILABY FUTNAM
Havvavd Univevsil
SUBSTANCES AS INBIVIBUALS *
pUTNAM'S cenlvaI conlenlions seen lo ne IolI lvue and ex-
lveneI inpovlanl. M conlviIulion lo lIe snposiun viII,
lIeveJove, nol laIe lIe Jovn oJ a cvilicaI vepI. Inslead, I
vanl lo laIe up a poinl lIal is, pevIaps, pevipIevaI lo Fulnan's
nain concevns, Iul one lIal I Iave Jound lIe need lo gel slvaigIl
aIoul in lIinIing aIoul lIese nallevs.
Fulnan gives us a lIeov aIoul Iov nanes oJ suIslances and
species, 'valev', 'goId', 'ligev', elc., Junclion, a lIeov lIal is in-
consislenl vilI lIe conjunclion oJ lvo assunplions aIoul neaning
lo Ie Jound jusl aIoul vIevevev one IooIs in lIe Iislov oJ pIiIo-
sopIicaI senanlics. Fulnan poinls oul lIal lIis lIeov is vev cIose
lo one deveIoped I SauI KvipIe. And, using KvipIe's nolion oJ
vigid designalovs, Ie sas |707), ve na expvess KvipIe's lIeov and
nine I saing lIal lIe levn 'valev' [Jov exanpIe] is vigid. Nov
KvipIe inlvoduced vigid designalovs in Iis papev, Naning and
Necessil, 1 Jivsl in conneclion vilI
singuIav levns, in pavlicuIav,
pvopev nanes. A vigid designalov is a levn lIal designales lIe sane
individuaI in evev possiIIe vovId.
TIe poinl I visI lo discuss Ias lo do vilI lIe veIalionsIips
anong lIvee lIeses vIicI ave lo Ie Jound in KvipIe's papev |1) a
lIesis aIoul pvopev nanes concevning lIe va in vIicI lIe ave
connecled vilI vIal lIe nane: |2) a lIesis aIoul lIe veJevenls oJ
*AIslvacl oJ a papev lo Ie pvesenled in an AFA
snposiun on BeJevence,
BecenIev 28, 1973, connenling on HiIav Fulnan, Meaning and BeJevence,
lIis JOUBNAL, lIis issue, 699-711.
1
In BonaId Bavidson and OiIIevl Havnan, eds., Senanlics oJ NaluvaI Lan-
guage |BovdvecIl BeideI: Nev YovI Hunanilies, 1972), pp. 253-355.