Origin of hominins

Miocene period: 5-22 million year ago, Age of Apes LCA between Homo and Pan 5-7 mya Molecular clocks are tools used to approximate the point of time of divergence between two species, assuming that mutation rate, which is the same as substitution rate, is directly proportional to time. Most mutation have no phenotipic effect on the organism (neutrality theory). Molecular clocks are imprecise references, for substitution rate varies between species due to life spam differences and first reproduction age difference (generation effect difference), specific metabolic rate proportional to mutation rate, and methylation of cytosines which tend to mutate rapidly into thymine. Bipedality is believedto be the genealogic origin of hominoids. It manifests in the anatomical morphology and the relative proportions of body parts Overview of Hominin Evolution Humans to chimpanzee last common ancestor (HC-LCA): ape sized brain and body, intermembreal index greater than 1, long fingers, sharp and long caninces (dimorphic), quadruped, diet consisted mostly on plants leafs and fruits. Next hominin (6-7 mya) in lineage had dull canines and was bipedal (Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orrorin tugenensis, oldest known hominins), Sahelanthropus tchadensi: 360 cc brain, skull had a massive brow ridge, position and orientation of foramen magnum suggest that was bipedal. Ardipithecus kabadda, 5.8- 5.2 mya, reduced caninces similar to Sahelanthorpus, shorter bowl like pelvis suggesting bipedlaism Ardipithecus ramidus, 4.4 mya, ape like skull similar to Sahelanthorpus, 300350 cc brain, shorter bowl like pelvis --> bipedlaism, vertically oriented foramen magnum, grasping hallux (thumb), arboreal species that walked bipedally when it venture on the ground, habitat= woodland with forest patches, omnivorous, 50 kg, 120cm tall, feed on trees and ground poorly on open environments resources, reduced canine/premolar complex, moved capablyin trees, monomorphic size, Australopithecus, 4 mya,terrestrial bipeds which continued to used treed for food and protection, genus lasted nearly 3 my. Australopithecus afarensis, africanus, pelvis is short and bowl-shaped, bringing the gluteal muscles around to the side of the body, as in modern humans, for trunk stabilization during bipedalism, and the first toe is in line with the other toes, arched, long forearms, curved fingers and toes, most probably lived in savannah and

woodland, 390-515 cc brain (similarcognition of living apes), small and sexually dimorphic body size (30kg fe. 40 kg ma), blunt and monomorphic canines, larger molars with thicker enamel, diet included hard low quality plant food. Homo, 2.3 mya, first specimens showed similar brain size to Australopithecus but different molar teeth, at least 1.8 mya they used stone tools to buthcer animal carcasses, adding energy-rich meat and bone marrow in the plan diet. Homo habilis, first of genus Homo, 2.3- 1.4mya, simple stone tools. Homo Erectus, 1.9 mya - 100 kya, lacked forelimb adaptation for climbing, ecologically flexible possible by higher cognition levels, brain size up to 1250 cc, reduceld molar size. Homo heidelbergensis, diverged from ercetus 700 kya, hunter, levallois style tools, by at least 400 kya manipulated fire. Homo neanderthalensis, cold adapted hominins with stout physique, complex behavior, similar brains as contemporary, diverged fom heidelbergensis 250 kya. Homo sapiens, diverged from heidelbergensis 200 kya, increased behavioral sophistication, brain size 1400 cc, broader tool set and clever hunting techniques. by 100 kya spread throgh Eurasia, Australia and Americas. Orrorin is associated with open woodland habitats with dense woodland or forest in the vicinity, possibly along lake margins Sahelanthropus ranging from gallery forest at the edge of a lake, to savanna woodland, to open grassland,probably dominance of shrub/bushland and grassy woodland habitats within the Chadian lake basin. Ardipithecus kadabba is associated with riparian woodland and floodplain grassland along water margins. Ardipithecus ramidus is found in closed woodland habitats with possible patches of forest at Aramis and associated with bushland and grassland habitats at Gona Canines: Bipedality: possibly caused to maintian low temperatures in savannah and to protect from predators. Advantages: carry babies, food, and tools, lower temperature, higher vision range. Hominin lineage through fossil record Earliest hominins lack derived features found in later hominins, and their inclusion in the hominin lineage is largely based on a reduction in canine size, absence of the C/P3 honing complex, and the presence of morphological

adaptations for habitual or obligate bipedality generally found in the postcranial skeleton, particularly in the pelvis and hindlimb.