JACOB BOEHME

By Gerard Casey JACOB BOEHME, a speculative a ! !evote! Ch"istia m#stic o$ the hi%hest o"!e", &as bo" i 1'7( ea" )oe"lit* i )e"ma #. His pa"e ts &e"e poo" peasa ts a ! Boehme &as ac+uai te! &ith pove"t# $"om bi"th to !eath. He "eceive! as a bo# o l# the ba"est i itiatio i to the "u!ime ts o$ a $o"mal e!ucatio , a little i st"uctio i "ea!i % a ! &"iti % a ! the customa"# eleme ts o$ "eli%ious teachi %. He &as $"om the be%i i % i t"ospective a ! &ith!"a& a ! &as , pe"haps as a co se+ue ce o$ this ,put to mo"e tha his sha"e o$ solita"# &o"he"!i % sheep a ! cattle i the $iel!s a"ou ! his villa%e. At this time the visio a"# eleme t i his ma-e,up became appa"e t. O o e occasio he tol! his $athe" that he ha! $ou ! a ! climbe! to the top o$ a mou tai . .he"e o the summit he sa& $ou" "e! sto es lea!i % i to a cave &hich &as $ille! &ith li%ht "a!iati % $"om a %ol!e vessel. At this he &as sei*e! &ith $ea" a ! "a a&a#. /ate", accompa ie! b# othe" bo#s to %ive him cou"a%e, he attempte! to "etu" to the cave but coul! ot $i ! it a%ai . His ph#sical st"e %th &as ot %"eat. 0o" this "easo , i his $ou"tee th #ea", his pa"e ts app"e tice! him to a shoe,ma-e" "athe" tha se ! him i to the heav# &o"- !o e b# his $athe" o the la !. A sto"# has come !o& to us $"om this pe"io! o$ his li$e. O e !a# &he he &as alo e i the shop a st"a %e" came i a ! as-e! $o" a pai" o$ shoes. .he ma pai! $o" the shoes a ! "etu" e! i to the st"eet bu" su!!e l# tu" e! bac- a ! calle! to him 1 Jacob, come $o"th 2 3 4u"p"ise! that the st"a %e" shoul! - o& his ame Jacob obe#e! a ! "a out to the ma &ho, too- both his ha !s i his a ! loo-i % at him ea" estl# sai! 1Jacob, #ou are as yet only small but the time &ill come &he #ou will be great. 5ou

&ill su$$e" much mise"# a ! pe"secutio but be b"ave a ! pe"seve"e. )o! loves #ou a ! &ill be %"acious to #ou 3. .his e6pe"ie ce i !uce! a !eep "estless ess i him a ! so he le$t his maste" a ! set out as a 7ou" e#i % cobble". .his le! to a time o$ ha"!ship a ! i secu"it# a ! a%o i*i % i e" co $licts &hich &as b"ou%ht to a e ! &he he $ou ! a ! &as accepte! b# a othe" maste". 4oo a$te" his, e te"i % the se"vice o$ his e&, maste" he "eco"!s that o e !a#, as he be t ove" his last, he &as li$te! up i to a co !itio o$ blesse! peace. He &as lit up &ithi b# a !ivi e li%ht $o" seve !a#s. 1.he t"iumph that &as the i m# soul 8 ca ot !esc"ibe 9 8 ca o l# li-e it to a "esu""ectio $"om the !ea! 1 3 But out&a"!l# the"e &as othi % pa"ticula"l# oticeable about hi M,. A $"ie ! &"ote late"9 1His bo!il# appea"a ce &as some&hat mea . He &as small o$ statu"e, ha! a lo& $o"ehea!, p"omi e t temples, a ac+uili e ose, a sca t# bea"!, a $eeble voice. He &as mo!est i bea"i %, u assumi % i co ve"satio , patie t9 a ! %e tle,hea"te!. O e ma"- !"e& atte tio :uiet %"e# e#es su!!e l# spa"-li % to a heave l# blue . . . .3 8 the #ea" 1'94 he "etu" e! to )oe"lit* a ! some #ea"s late" ma""ie! a %i"l o$ the to& . .he ma""ia%e &as a happ# o e. His &i$e bo"e him $ou" chil!"e a ! p"ove! he"sel$ a thou%ht$ul a ! co si!e"ate &oma ot u a&a"e o$ the value o$ the u usual ma she ha! ma""ie!. 0o" the e6t te #ea"s he p"actise! his c"a$t, &as atte tive to his househol! a$$ai"s, &as -i !l# to all &ho app"oache! him. ;u"i % this pe"io! he ha! t&o visio a"# e6pe"ie ces that &e"e to p"ove the sou"ce o$ the )o!i to6icate! &is!om "eveale! i his &"iti %s. O e !a# his e#e $ell upo a pewter dish reflecting back to him in marvellous splendour the morning su li%ht. He &as imme!iatel#

Vol 14, No.1, 197 7 Jacob Boeh m e - - Gerard Case y

"apt i to a p"o$ou ! i &a"! ecstas# i &hich , as it seeme! to him , he coul! see i to the !eepest hea"t o$ thi %s. He &as to call his $i"st &"iti % 9 1Mo" i % )lo&3. 4ome #ea"s late" this visio &as complete! b# a othe" , i &hich all that ha! "emai e! i some !e%"ee chaotic a ! $"a%me ta"# became cohe"e t , a pe"$ect &hole. .he i te"ve i % pe"io! ho&eve" ha! bee o e o$ !eep ps#chic !istu"ba ce a ! !ise+uilib"ium. .he li%ht at times $a!e! i to a a %uishe! i e" !a"- ess 9 times &he he coul! !o othi % but cli % to the memo"# o$ his visio as he labou"e! i 1 the m#ste"# o$ i i+uit# 3 1 as a chil! %oes to school 3. 5et the visio &e t o 1 b"ee!i % &ithi 3 1 %"a!uall# u $ol!i % li-e a #ou % pla t3. He e te"e! i to the visio o$ 1 the th"ee,hea!e! lil# 3. He - e& the bliss o$ 1 b"eathi % the sce t o$ the lil# 3. He &as able to c"# out &ith the poet 3 behol! the cohesio o$ all 9 ho& pe"$ect 1 3 0o" Boehme his visio o$ the th"ee,hea!e! lil# &as his visio o$ the Blesse! ."i it#9 A ! o& he be%a , to $eel li-e &"iti % !o& somethi % o$ his i e" visio s. <"iti % i the eve i %s a ! at o!! mome ts a&a# $"om, his last, he &"ote his $i"st &o"- 1Mo" i % )lo&3 , a title cha %e! late" at the su%%estio o$ a $"ie ! to 3Au"o"a3. Boehme &as livi % at a time o$ i te se a ! bitte" "eli%ious co t"ove"s# i Eu"ope. .he ti!es o$ =e$o"matio a ! Cou te",=e$o"matio &e"e $lo&i % st"o % a ! $ast. C"uelt# a ! viole ce i the most e6t"eme !e%"ee &e"e &eapo s me !i! ot hesitate to use i thei" attempts to impose thei" o& "eli%ious !oct"i es o othe"s. Boehme3s &"iti % be%a to ci"culate amo % $"ie !s a ! all &ho &e"e i te"este! 9 $o" it &as a a%e o$ e6t"ao"!i a"# i te"est i "eli%ious matte"s. Ve"# soo a ma usc"ipt &as !iscove"e! a ! sei*e! b# the /uthe"a pasto" o$ )oe"lit*. He !e ou ce! it as he"etical , a cha"%e i those !a#s ca""#i % &ith it the %"immest possibilities. Boehme &as summo e! be$o"e the Cit# Cou cil a ! at $i"st se te ce! to e6ile $"om his ative to& , a ha"! e ou%h matte" $o" a poo" ma . .his se te ce &as ho&eve" +uic-l# "e!uce! under pressure from the more moderate members of

the Council a ! the shoema-e" &as o"!e"e! i stea! to 1 stic- to his last 3, -eep his i!eas to himsel$ a ! &"ite o mo"e. 0o" a time he obe#e!. But his opi io s &e"e - o& a ! b"ou%ht him 1much i% omi #, shame a ! "ep"oach, bu!!i %, blossomi % $"om !a# to !a#. His busi ess. o lo %e" suppo"te! him. .he pasto", )"e%o"ius =ichte", co ti ue! to !e ou ce him publicl# $"om the pulpit. He &as s ee"e! at a ! i sulte! i the st"eets 9 1 he smells ove"much o$ cobble"3s pitch 1 3 &e t the c"#. At le %th he &as $o"ce! to sell his shop a ! set out as a &a !e"e". .o live he sol! &oolle %loves $"om !oo" to !oo" th"ou%h the villa%es a ! to& s. 0o" $ive #ea"s he obe#e! the comma ! to &"ite o mo"e but at last coul! o lo %e" "esist the i e" impe"ative to sha"e his visio &ith othe" me th"ou%h &"iti %. He sta"te! to &"ite a%ai . >"ivatel# the ma usc"ipts be%a to ci"culate &hich &e"e late" to ea" his &o"- a u i+ue place amo % the spi"itual &"iti %s o$ the &o"l!. Mea &hile he ha! bee %ai i % ma # $"ie !s 9 ma # o$ them lea" e! a ! i $lue tial me . Ea"l# i 1?@4 his $"ie ! Ab"aham vo 0"a c-e bu"% publishe! a selectio o$ his &"iti %s u !e" the title 9 3.he <a# to Ch"ist3. =ichte" imme!iatel# acte!. Boehme &as a%ai cha"%e! a ! ba ishe!. He &as ot eve allo&e! to see his &i$e a ! chil!"e . He $ou ! "e$u%e &ith a $"ie ! i ;"es!e . 4oo he &as summo e! be$o"e the Electo"al Cou"t o a cha"%e o$ he"es#. He ma!e a p"o$ou ! imp"essio o the boa"! o$ theolo%ia s a ! !ivi es calle! to e6ami e his case b# the Electo". .he cha"%e &as !ismisse! but Boehme &as a%ai &a" e! to be ca"e$ul. He &as b# o& mo"tall# ill. Mea &hile his implacable e em# =ichte" ha! !ie! a ! it &as $ou ! possible $o" him to "etu" to )oe"lit*. He &as ca""ie! bac- to his home a ! the"e !ie! sho"tl# a$te" mi! i%ht o Novembe" @1st, 1?@4. 4ho"tl# be$o"e his !eath he u"%e! his so .obias to 3 ope the !oo" &i!e" that he mi%ht hea" mo"e clea"l# that heave l# music3. A little late" he sai! 1No& 8 %o to >a"a!ise3 a ! so !ie!. He. &as i his $i$tieth #ea".
8

His oppo e ts i )oe"lit* t"ie! to p"eve t

him "eceivi % a bu"ial se"vice. His $"ie !s set

over his grave a wooden c"oss &ith the i sc"iptio 9 , He"e "ests Jacob Boehme, bo" o$ )o!,3 !ie! i Ch"ist, seale! b# the Hol# )host3. .he c"oss &as to" !o& b# the a!he"e ts o$ =ichte". Boehme3s metaph#sical, m#stical a ! "eli%ious !oct"i es a"e so sea"chi %, !etaile! a ! pe et"ati % , so vast i thei" scope a ! implicatio s , o$te too, it must be a!mitte! so obscu"e i thei" e6p"essio , that his thou%ht coul! &ell occup# the stu!# o$ a li$etime. He became - o& as the $athe" o$ )e"ma philosoph# a ! his i $lue ce has bee t"ace! a ! ac- o&le!%e! i the &o"- o$ /eib i*, Aa t, 0ichte, a ! 4chelli %. He%el spo-e o$ him as 1 that ma o$ mi%ht# mi ! 39 4chope haue" co $esse! he coul! ot "ea! him &ithout a&e a ! tea"s. 8 the $iel!s o$ theolo%# a ! m#sticism his &o"- has bee eve mo"e p"o$ou !l# semi al. Names li-e <illiam /a&, Baa!e", Oeti %e", 4t. Ma"ti , Mau"ice a ! i ou" time Be"!#aev bea" &it ess to this. )oethe use! Boehme3s u $athomable i tuitio s i to the metaph#sical si% i$ica ce o$ the $emi i e i 10aust3. 4i" 8saac Ne&to closete! himsel$ $o" mo ths to stu!# Boehme , $asci ate! b# his !oct"i es o$ motio a ! $o"ce a ! his theolo%#. All this bei % so, &e ca o l# %ive the b"ie$est outli e o$ some aspects o$ his basic thou%ht o$ most co ce" to "ea!e"s o$ The Mountai n Path. Boehme. !i$$e"s $"om the. Ch"istia i*e! Ne&,plato ism o$ Ec-ha"t , the othe" sup"emel# %"eat Ch"istia . m#stic , i that his visio is $a" mo"e "a!icall# Biblical. His % osis is e6p"esse! $o" the most pa"t th"ou%h t"a!itio al m#ths a ! s#mbols "athe" tha i i tellectuali*e! co cepts. .his co""espo !s to its mo"e "a!icall# sea"chi % +ualit#. /et us loo- at his .h"ee,hea!e! /il# 9 .he Blesse! ."i it# "oote! as it is i the m#ste"# o$ Ungrund. No comp"ehe !i % app"oach ca be ma!e to Boehme b# "ea!e"s &ho ca ot ,. &hateve" ma# be the "easo , sha"e i some !e%"ee ho&eve" limite! his intuition of the

m#ste"# he calls Ungrund - the 1 u %"ou !e! 3. =e$lecti % some o$ Boehme3s e6p"essio s &e ma# sa# 9 Bngrund is : the p"imal sou"ce, the u co !itio e! $"ee!om, the u c"eate! "oot o$ all 9 o$ both )o! a ! <o"l!. 8t is s#mboli*e! b# Boehme as .he ;a"-. 8t is the abo"i%i al No ,thi %, Vacuit#, Voi!. 5et it is utte", u co !itio e! c"eativit# a ! $"ee!om. 8t is a <omb teemi % &ith all the i $i ite pote tialities o$ c"eatio . As pu"e sou"ce, pote tialit#, he calls it .he Mothe" a ! at times as "e$lecti % the .h"ee,hea!e! /il# i the ;a"- o$ Ungrund as 1.he .h"ee Mothe"s 3 o" the 1Esse ce o$ All Be%i i %s C All Mothe"s 39 8t is p"obabl# the aspect o$ Boehme3s thou%ht &hich most out"a%e! =ichte" but o e p"o$ou !l# co %e ial to the Catholic !oct"i e o$ 1.he Mothe" o$ )o!3. 8 have %ive it emphasis he"e because it is esse tial to all Boehme3s thou%ht a ! must al&a#s be -ept i mi !. 8 Boehme all is the ma i$estatio o$ Ungrund - proceeds $"om it, "etu" s to it. 5et Ungrund is i 8tsel$ No,thi % ,,the e6 ibilo out o$ &hich both )o! a ! C"eatio sp"i %. 8 this u utte"able m#ste"# o$ othe" ess be#o ! all possibilit# o$ !e$i itio , i this Ab#ss be#o ! the ;eit# , lies the sou"ce o$ all , i this 3 u %"ou !e! )"ou ! 3 o$ the ve"# )o!hea! itsel$. <ith the )o!hea! &e a""ive at the ba"est possibilit# o$ !e$i itio 9 it is the Esse ce o$ all Esse ces , the /i$e,%ivi % =oot o$ all e6iste ce. .his Ete" al )o!hea! co,e6ists i the 0athe", the 4o , a ! the Hol# )host 9 a ."i it# o$ /i%ht ma i$esti % out i to E6iste ce the pote tialities i he"e t i the 30emi i e3 ;a"- o$ Ungrund. .he 0athe" %e e"ates the 4o ete" all# a ! the Hol# )host ete" all# 1 p"ocee!s3 $"om both 0athe" a ! 4o . .he 4o as ;ivi e <o"! ete" all# 1 c"eates 3 out o$ the ihit , the othi % o$ Ungrund, i the eve",!a& i % mo" i % o$ a eve" e&l# c"eate! ;a# 9 Ete" al Natu"e. Ete" al atu"e $lo&s out i a t"iple ma i$estatio calle! .he 0i"e,3<o"l!, .he /i%ht,<o"l! a ! the ;a"-,<o"l!. .hese th"ee 1 &o"l!s 3 i te"pe et"ate all levels a ! a"e mo!es o$ a si %le livi % &hole. 0"om this Ete" al Natu"e $lo& all possible &o"l!s i eve"# possible mo!e o$ suc

cessio , tempo"al o" o ,tempo"al, ima%i able to us o" be#o ! ou" ima%i i %. Ete" al Natu"e is the i $i ite >le um o" 0ull ess i &hich all c"eate! .eleme ts, esse ces, p"i ciples a ! pote tialities o$ all possible &o"l!s a"c co tai e! 9 amo % them ou" pa"ticula" &o"l!. Ete" al Natu"e is the "e$lectio i the c"eate! o"!e" of Ungrund i the B c"eate! o"!e". 8 his cosmolo%# Boehme "eveals a$$i ities &ith the thou%ht o$ He"aclitus a ! Empe!oc1es. 1 8 5ea a ! Na# all thi %s co sist3. 1 4t"i$e is $athe" o$ all3. .he c#clic $i"es o$ the cosmos $lo& $"om the c"eative 3$iat3 o$ the eve",livi % ;ivi e 0i"e. In %oo! a ! evil, love a ! hate, is i he"e t i the ve"# substa ce o$ Ete" al Natu"e a ! co se+ue tl# i the st"uctu"es o$ the Cosmos. Cosmos is the Chaos o$ Ete" al Natu"e st"ivi % to "eali*e the 0o"ms a ! Ha"mo ies o$ the Ete" al A"chet#pes he"e the thou%ht is >lato ic. <ithi the ci"cles o$ the Cosmos this co $lict is i escapable , it is &ove i to the $ab"ic o$ c"eatio . Boehme "e7ects all thou%ht o$ )o! as evolvi % i time, i the Cosmos. )o! t"a sce !s c"eatio . )o!3s act o$ c"eatio is ot a tempo"al act. C"eatio is 3othe"3 tha )o!. Neve"theless c"eatio "e$lects the hi!!e li$eC o$ the B c"eate! that b"i %s it i to bei %. .he ;a"-&o"l! i c"eatio is a "e$lectio o$ Ungrund- . .he 0i"e,&o"l! is a "e$lectio o$ the u c"eate! 0i"e o$ the 0athe". .he /i%ht,&o"l! "e$lects the 1 t"uth, beaut# a ! %oo! ess3 o$ the 4o . .he 4o is the B c"eate! /i%ht &hich shi es out i to the !a"- ess o$ Ungrund a ! the !a"-,&o"l! o$ c"eatio . .he Hol# 4pi"it 1 p"ocee!s 3 $"om this c"eative i te",pla# o$ the ;ivi e 0i"e a ! /i%ht a ! i the Hol# 4pi"it a"ise the ;ivi e A"chet#pes o$ c"eatio &hich $lo& ,out i to tempo"al "eali*atio i Ete" al Natu"e. .he B c"eate! 0i"es o$ the )o!hea! a"e the sou"ce o$ the /i%ht 0i"e a ! ;a"- 0i"e o$ Ete" al Natu"e , o$ %oo! a ! evil ali-e. /et us tu" $"om Boehme3s !oct"i e o$ )o! a ! Natu"e to his !oct"i e o$ Ma . Ma is a c"eate! bei % i . Natu"e. He is othe" tha )o!. 5et he is c"eate! i the ima%e o$ )o!. He"e Boehme3s Ch"istolo%# comes out as ce t"al to his &hole visio . His !oct"i e o$ Ch"ist is esse tiall# o"tho!o6. Ch"ist is the

)o!,Ma , the Me!iato", the B"i!%e ac"oss the %ap bet&ee the u c"eate! ete" al a ! the c"eate! tempo"al. Ch"ist is the B ive"sal Ma . 8 !ivi!ual ma becomes 1 at,o e 3 &ith )o! i to the oute" !a"- ess , that is he "etu" s to Ungrund. .hat he ca ma-e this choice, that he has this $"ee!om is a m#ste"# that ca ot be "atio ali*e! o" "atio ali*e! a&a#. Ma li-e )o! is "oote! i the ultimate u !i$$e"e tiate! $"ee!om o$ Ungrund. 0"ee!om is the u c"eate! a ! eve i the ci"cles o$. Ete" al Natu"e ma sha"es i this $"ee!om. Ma as ;ivi e 8ma%e "e$lects the m#ste"# a ! ultimate $"ee!om o$ the c"eative i te"pla# bet&ee /i%ht a ! ;a"- i 3 the )o!hea! 8tsel$. 8 this m#ste"# lies the sou"ce o$ all the ba$$li % e i%mas i the spi"itual li$e o$ ma . 0o" this $"ee!om is e6pe"ie ce! b# ma as 1 othi % ess 3 u til it $"eel# "eceives i to itsel$ the 4i% atu"e o$ the ."i it#. .his mea s that $"ee!om ca ot be "eali*e! ob7ectivel# i the ob7ecti$ie! &o"l! o$ 1$alle 3 ma . Ma is 1 $alle 3 i so $a" as he &ills sepa"atio $"om )o!. O e $acto" i this e+uatio ou" mo!e" ihilistic e6iste tialists such as 4a"t"e a ! Hei!e%%e" u !e"sta ! ve"# &ell. .hat is the huma $acto". .he ;ivi e $acto" is $o" them o ,e6iste t as the# a"e &illi % , o" at least t"#i % to &ill , sepa"atio $"om )o!. But sepa"atio $"om )o! mea s "etu" to Ungrund ,. to othi % ess , a &o"! &ith &hich the# ma-e much pla#. Boehme is al&a#s i te sel# a&a"e o$ the m#ste"# o$ the &ill. He "esists a # attempt to "atio ali*e a&a# this m#ste"#, be it i )o! o" ma . He e+uall# emphasi*es the o"ie tatio s o$ the &ill i ma ecessa"# to secu"e his e t"a ce to the ;ivi e /i%ht,&o"l! i.e. to 4alvatio . .hese a"e $aith, hope, love, cou"a%e, patie ce. .hese vi"tues all i volve each othe". .a-e to%ethe" the# co $o"m the &ill o$ ma to the <ill o$ )o! as "eveale! i Ch"ist 9 the 4o . Boehme3s visio o$ the &o"l! a ! ma i the &o"l! is e !lessl# !# amic 9 cau%ht up i the m#ste"ies o$ the &ill i both ma a ! )o!. 0o" him c"eatio is a vast p"ocess o$ bi"th a ! "ebi"th 9 o$ li$e $"eel# "etu" i % o" $"eel# "e$usi % to "etu" to its sou"ce i )o! ,, o" be#o ! )o! as ."iu e >e"so , to Ungrund itsel$. .his last possibilit# is ho&eve"

to Boehme , as it must be $"om the poi t o$ vie& o$ the c"eate! pe"so , a state o$ Ete" al /oss. 8t is Ete" al ;eath. Ete" al li$e =esu""ectio be#o ! !eath , is i God and i )o! alo e. <ithi the cate%o"ies a ! !isti ctio s Bochme ma-es, this positio is i co t"ove"tible. 0o" Boehme the "est is sile ce. Ho&eve" his !oct"i es ta-e i thei" $ull ess, i the $act that all his !oct"i es "est o his a$$i"matio that 1the Ete" al )oo! is the Ete" al O e 3 , a >loti ia ote that b"i %s him i to ha"mo # &ith Ec-ha"t , seem to impl# a u utte"e! accepta ce o$ the a cie t Ch"istia !oct"i e o$ 1 the =estitutio o$ All .hi %s 3 a Apocatastasis, as the )"ee- 0athe"s ha! it, that is o$ B ive"sal 4alvatio . .his seems as a co se+ue ce , a i he"e t ecessit# i his thou%ht. .hat Boehme hesitate! to ma-e it ca be u !e"stoo!, 8 thi -, as $lo&i % $"om his i te se a&a"e ess o$ 0"ee!om as a ulti

mate m#ste"# &hich ca ot be "atio ali*e!. 0o" Boehme the last &o"! coul! ot "est &ith 1 a i he"e t ecessit# 3. He &as i a # case co te t to leave the issue , &he"e it shoul! be le$t , &ith )o!. 0o" m#sel$ as a Ch"istia 8 &oul! sa# that i Boehme 8 $i ! all the eleme ts o$ a $ull# Ch"istia theosoph# &hich !oes ot sh"i - as too ma # Ch"istia s have !o e , $"om a t"ul# u ive"sal visio o$ ma a ! his !esti # i )o!. 5et this is achieve! o a %e ui el# Biblical basis &hich mea s it is mo"e i ha"mo # &ith the "eal "oots o$ Ch"istia it# tha the m#sticism o$ Ec-ha"t &hich o&es so much to3 Neo,plato ism, o" the theolo%# o$ 4t. .homas A+ui as &ith its A"istotelia bias. Boehme3s &o"- ma# the"e$o"e become the i st"ume t o$ a mo"e "eal u !e"sta !i % o$ Ch"istia it# amo % the o ,Ch"istia t"a!itio s o$ the &o"l!.