g) o!

a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing,

--- that the &%./ect in*o(*e& t0o 'i&cip(ine&1 p&)cho(og) an' "athe"atic&1 an' 0o%(' e$%i e1 in o 'e to .e t eate' a'e$%ate()1 that one .e .oth a p&)cho(ogi&t an' a "athe"atician- O0ing to the lack of thi& co"po&ite e$%ip"ent1 the &%./ect ha& .een in*e&tigate' .) "athe"atician& on the one &i'e1 .) p&)cho(ogi&t& on the othe --2Ha'a"a '1 13451 page 1-6

CHAPT ER1

THE PSYCH OLOG Y OF ADVA NCED MATH EMATI CAL THINK ING
DAVID TALL In the opening chapte o! The Psycholo gy of lnvention in the Mathema tical Field, the "athe"at ician #ac$%e& Ha'a"a ' high(ighte ' the !%n'a"en ta( 'i!!ic%(t) in 'i&c%&&ing the nat% e o! the p&)cho(o

E7ponent& o! the t0o 'i&cip(ine& a e (i+e() to *ie0 the &%./ect in 'i!!e ent 0a)& 8 the p&)cho(ogi&t to e7ten' p&)cho(ogica( theo ie& to thin+ing p oce&&e& in a "o e co"p(e7 +no0(e'ge 'o"ain 8 the "athe"atician to &ee+ in&ight into the c eati*e thin+ing p oce&&1 pe hap& 0ith the hope o! i"p o*ing the $%a(it) o! teaching o e&ea ch- A(tho%gh 0e 0i(( con&i'e the nat% e o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing ! o" a p&)cho(ogica( *ie0point1 o% "ain ai" 0i(( .e to &ee+ in&ight& o! *a(%e to the "athe"atician in hi& o he p o!e&&iona( 0o + a& e&ea che an' teache 9e .egin .) (oo+ing at pe tinent p&)cho(ogica( con&i'e ation& 0hich 0i(( (a) the !o%n'ation& !o i'ea& int o'%ce' not on() in the e"ain'e o! the chapte 1 .%t in the .oo+ a& a 0ho(e- 9e then !oc%& o% attention on the !%(( c)c(e o! acti*it) in a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing, ! o" the c eati*e act o! con&i'e ing a p o.(e" conte7t in "athe"atica( e&ea ch that (ea'& to the c eati*e !o "%(ation o! con/ect% e& an' on to the !ina( &tage o! e!ine"ent an' p oo!- 9e po&t%(ate that "an) o! the acti*itie& that occ% in thi& c)c(e a(&o occ% in e(e"enta ) "athe"atica( p o.(e"8&o(*ing1 .%t the po&&i.i(it) o! !o "a( 'e!inition an' 'e'%ction i& one !acto 0hich 'i&ting%i&he& a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing- 9e 0i(( a(&o !in' that teaching %n'e g a'%ate "athe"atic& o!ten p e&ent& the !ina( !o " o! the 'e'%ce' theo ) athe than ena.(ing the &t%'ent to pa ticipate in the !%(( c eati*e c)c(e- In the 0o '& o! S+e"p 213:161 c% ent app oache& to %n'e g a'%ate teaching ten' to gi*e &t%'ent& the product of mathematical thought athe than the process of mathematical thinking. Not on() "a) c% ent "etho'& o! p e&enting a'*ance' "athe"atica( +no0(e'ge !ai( to gi*e the !%(( po0e o! "athe"atica( thin+ing1 it a(&o ha& anothe 1 e$%a(() &e io%&1 'e!icienc), a logical presentation may not be appropriate for the cognitive development of the learner. In'ee'1 "%ch o! the e"pi ica( theo ) epo te' in the (ate chapte & o! the .oo+ e*ea(& cogniti*e o.&tac(e& 0hich a i&e a& &t%'ent& &t %gg(e to co"e to te "& 0ith i'ea& 0hich cha((enge an' cont a'ict thei c% ent +no0(e'ge &t %ct% e- Fo t%nate()1 0e a e a(&o a.(e to epo t e"pi ica( e*i'ence that app op iate &e$%ence& o! (ea ning an' in&t %ction 'e&igne' to he(p the &t%'ent acti*e() con&t %ct the concept& can p o*e high() &%cce&&!%(-

4 DAVID TALL 1- COGNITIVE CONSIDERATIONS 9e .egin .) (oo+ing1 not at the (ogic an' o 'e o! the p%.(ic e*i'ence o! "athe"atica( thin+ing !o%n' in e&ea ch a tic(e& an' te7t8.oo+&1 .%t at the 0a) in 0hich the&e cohe ent e(ation&hip& a e .%i(t in "athe"atica( e&ea ch an' i"p(ication& !o ho0 thi& "ight .e i"p(e"ente' in teaching an' (ea ning1-1 DIFFERENT KINDS OF MATHEMATICAL MIND 9 iting in the !i &t 'eca'e o! thi& cent% )1 the ce(e. ate' "athe"atician Hen i Poinca ; a&&e te',
It i& i"po&&i.(e to &t%') the 0o +& o! the g eat "athe"atician&1 o e*en tho&e o! the (e&&e 1 0itho%t noticing an' 'i&ting%i&hing t0o oppo&ite ten'encie&1 o athe t0o enti e() 'i!!e ent +in'& o! "in'&- The one &o t a e a.o*e a(( p eocc%pie' 0ith (ogic< to ea' thei 0o +&1 one i& te"pte' to .e(ie*e the) ha*e a'*ance' on() &tep .) &tep1 a!te the "anne o! a Va%.an 1 0ho p%&he& on hi& t enche& again&t the p(ace .e&iege'1 (ea*ing nothing to chance- The othe &o t a e g%i'e' .) int%ition an' at the !i &t &t o+e "a+e $%ic+ .%t &o"eti"e& p eca io%& con$%e&t&1 (i+e .o(' ca*a( )"en o! the a'*ance' g%a '2Poinca ;1 131=1 p- >1?6

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

He &%ppo te' hi& a g%"ent& .) cont a&ting the 0o + o! *a io%& "athe"atician&1 inc(%'ing the !a"o%& Ge "@n ana()&t&1 9eie &t a&& an' Rie"ann1 e(ating thi& to the 0o + o! &t%'ent&,
9eie &t a&& (ea'& e*e )thing .ac+ to the con&i'e ation o! &e ie& an' thei ana()tic t an&!o "ation&< to e7p e&& it .ette 1 he e'%ce& ana()&i& to a &o t o! p o(ongation o! a ith"etic< )o% "a) t%" th o%gh a(( hi& .oo+& 0itho%t !in'ing a !ig% e- Rie"a "1 on the cont a )1 at once ca((& geo"et ) to hi& ai'< each o! hi& conception& i& an i"age that no one can !o get1 once he ha& ca%ght it& "eaning--- A"ong o% &t%'ent& 0e no tice the &a"e 'i!!e ence&< &o"e p e!e to t eat thei p o.(e"& A.) ana()&i&A1 othe & A.) geo"et )A- The !i &t a e incapa.(e o! A&eeing in &paceA1 the othe & a e $%ic+() ti e' o! (ong ca(c%(ation& an' .eco"e pe p(e7e'2Poinca ;1 131=1 p- >1>6

S%ch a g%"ent& a.o%t the !o%n'ation& o! "athe"atic& (e' to the 'e*e(op"ent o! &e*e a( 'i!!e ent &t an'& o! "athe"atica( phi(o&oph) at the .eginning o! the t0entieth cent% )- The intuitionist *ie0 ep e&ente' .) K onec+e a&&e te' that "athe"atica( concept& on() e7i&t 0hen thei con&t %ction i& 'e"on&t ate' ! o" the intege &1 the formalist *ie0 o! Hi(.e t a!!i "e' that "athe"atic& i& the "eaning!%( "anip%(ation o! "eaning(e&& "a +& 0 itten on pape 1 0hi(&t the logicist *ie0 o! R%&&e((1 'ec(a e' that "athe"atic& con&i&t& o! 'e'%ction& %&ing the (a0& o! (ogicP acti&ing "athe"atician& ten' to 'i&tance the"&e(*e& ! o" e&ote ic a g%"ent& an' &i"p() get on 0ith thei 0o + o! &tating an' p o*ing theo e"&- Th%& the t0entieth cent% ) ha& &een the 'e"i&e o! K onec+e A& *ie0& an' the t i%"ph o! a p ag"atic "i7t% e o! !o "a(i&" an' (ogic- It ha& &een the c eation o! a (a ge n%".e o! !o "a( &)&te"& .a&e' on (ogica( 'e'%ction ! o" !o "a( 'e!inition& an' a7io"& 8 an app oach that &% *i*e' the appa ent() "o ta( .(o0 &t %c+ .) GG'e(A& inco"p(etene&& theo e"1 that an) a7io"atic &)&te" inc(%'ing the intege & "%&t contain t %e &tate"ent& that cannot .e p o*e' .) a !inite &e$%ence o! &tep& 0ithin the &)&te"The te7t.oo+ .) Ci&hop 213E:6 on con&t %cti*e ana()&i& 8 0hich in&i&t& on a(go ith"ic con&t %ction p oo!& an' 'i&a((o0& p oo! .) cont a'iction a(one 8 &ee"& .%t an i&o(ate' &ing%(a it) in the ')na"ic !(o0 o! t0entieth cent% ) "athe"atica( c eati*it)Ne*e the(e&&1 the ecent int o'%ction o! co"p%te techno(og) "a) )et &ee a ne0 enai&&ance in con&t %cti.i(it) .eca%&e o! the 0a) that co"p%te & "anip%(ate 'ata,
Co"p%te & ha*e a!!ecte' "athe"atic& a& ine*ita.() a& the 'e*e(op"ent o! ai( oa'& a!!ecte' patte n& o! (an' 'e*e(op"ent- 9ith co"p%te & it i& po&&i.(e to te&t h)pothe&e& an' co"pi(e 'ata 0ith ea&e that !o "e () 0o%(' ha*e .een acce&&i.(e1 i! at a((1 on() *ia the "o&t &ophi&ticate' techni$%e&Thi& ha& a!!ecte' not on() the &o t o! $%e&tion& that "athe"atician& 0o + on1 .%t the *e ) 0a) that the) thin+- One ha& to a&+ one&e(! 0hich e7a"p(e& can .e te&te' on a co"p%te 1 a $%e&tion 0hich !o ce& one to con&i'e conc ete a(go ith"& an' to t ) to "a+e the" e!!icient- Ceca%&e o! thi& an' .eca%&e a(go ith"& ha*e ea(8(i!e app(ication& o! con&i'e a.(e i"po tance1 the 'e*e(op"ent o! a(go ith"& ha& .eco"e a e&pecta.(e topic in it& o0n ight2E'0a '&1 13D:6

O! co% &e1 the e a e not /%&t t0o 'i!!e ent +in'& o! "athe"atica( "in'1 .%t "an)K onec+e ag ee' 0ith 9eie &t a&& that (ogica( p oo! 0a& o! pa a"o%nt i"po tance an' t an&cen'e' int%iti*e *i&%a( a g%"ent&1 .%t thei !%n'a"enta( .e(ie!& in the nat% e o! "athe"atica( concept& 0e e *e ) 'i!!e ent- 9eie &t a&& 'ec(a e' that Ban i ationa( n%".e ha& a& ea( an e7i&tence a& an)thing e(&e in the 0o (' o! concept&B1 .%t K onec+e 0a& %na.(e to accept the act%a( in!init) o! ea( n%".e &1 a&&e ting that BGo' ga*e %& the intege &1 the e&t i& the 0o + o! "anB- Ca&e' on the 9eie &t a&&ian notion o! the act%a( in!init) o! ea( n%".e &1 Canto 0a& a.(e to p o'%ce an in!inite co%nting a g%"ent to &ho0 that the e a e &t ict() B"o eB ea( n%".e & than a(ge. aic n%".e & 2&o(%tion& o! po()no"ia( e$%ation& 0ith intege coe!!icient&6- He the e!o e c(ai"e' that the e e7i&t& a ea( non8a(ge. aic n%".e 1 0itho%t gi*ing an e7p(icit "etho' to con&t %ct one- Thi& 0a& anathe"a to K onec+e 0ho ca%&e' Canto A& pape to .e e/ecte' ! o" p%.(ication in C e((eA& #o% na( in 1D:=-

The ea&on !o ai&ing the&e 'i!!e ence& in "athe"aticianA& pe ception& i& to heighten the ea'e &A a0a ene&& o! thei o0n pa t in (i!eA& ich tape&t )1 0ith a pe &ona( *ie0 o! "athe"atic& that 0i(( 'i!!e in "an) 0a)& ! o" the conception& o! othe &- It "a) co"e a& a &% p i&e 0hen one !i &t ea(iFe& that othe peop(e na*e a'ica(() 'i!!e ent thin+ing p oce&&e&- It happene' to the a%tho 0hen %&ing pict% e& to he(p &t%'ent& *i&%a(iFe i'ea& in "athe"atica( ana()&i&1 at a ti"e 0hen he 'i' not $%e&tion the i"p(icit .e(ie! that &%ch an app oach 0a& %ni*e &a(() *a(i'- 9hi(&t 0 iting a te7t .oo+ on co"p(e7 ana()&i&1 a co((eag%e in the ne7t oo" 0a& engage' on a &i"i(a ente p i&e1 )et the (atte A& .oo+ ha' a("o&t no pict% e& at a((- He on() inc(%'e' a 'iag a" i((%&t ating the a g%"ent o! a co"p(e7 n%".e a!te a g eat 'ea( o! hea t &ea ching- To hi" a ea( n%".e 0a& an e(e"ent o! a co"p(ete o 'e e' Fie('2&ati&!)ing &peci!ic a7io"&6 an' a co"p(e7 n%".e 0a& an o 'e e' pai o! ea( n%".e &- The a g%"ent o! a co"p(e7 n%".e (x,y) 0a& 'e!ine' a& a ea( n%".e a &%ch that x y co&Ha6 I 1 1 F 11 >&in2a6 I 1 < >< > V7 J) KH J)

1 Se.a&tien 'e Va%.an 21E==81:?:6 0a& a F ench "i(ita ) enginee 0ho e*o(%tioniFe' the a t o! &iege c a!t an' 'e!en&i*e !o ti!ication&-

E
DAVID TALL 0he e &in an' co& 0e e 'e!ine' .) ea( po0e &e ie&- The theo ) 'i' not e$%i e a geo"et ica( "eaning- He too+ thi& ha ' (ine to "a+e &% e that hi& a g%"ent& 0e e the p o'%ct o! (ogica( 'e'%ction an' not 'epen'ent an)0he e on geo"et ic int%ition- At the ti"e the a%tho 0a& &)"pathetic to thi& phi(o&ophica( *ie0point1 .%t con&i'e e' it too &ophi&ticate' !o &t%'ent&- It 0a& &o"e con&i'e a.(e ti"e (ate that the ea(iFation 'a0ne' that not a(( &t%'ent& &ha e' the geo"et ic point o! *ie0- No one *ie0 ho('& %ni*e &a( &0a)1-> META8THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The 'i&c%&&ion o! the p ece'ing &e&&ion i& a &a(%ta ) e"in'e that an) theo ) o! the p&)cho(og) o! (ea ning "athe"atic& "%&t ta+e into acco%nt not on() the g o0ing conception& o! the &t%'ent&1 .%t the conception& o! "at% e "athe"atician&- Mathe"atic& i& a &ha e' c%(t% e an' the e a e a&pect& 0hich a e conte7t 'epen'ent- Fo e7a"p(e1 an ana()&tA& *ie0 o! a 'i!!e entia( "a) .e *e ) 'i!!e ent ! o" Chat o! an app(ie' "athe"atician1 an' a gi*en in'i*i'%a( "a) &t i+e %p 'i!!e ent attit%'e& to thi& concept 'epen'ing on 0hethe it i& con&i'e e' in an ana()tic o app(ie' conte7t- 9e 0i(( &ee 2chapte 116 that &%ch attit%'e& can ca%&e con!(ict& in &t%'ent& tooAt a !a 'eepe p&)cho(ogica( (e*e( 0e a(( ha*e &%.t() 'i!!e ent 0a)& o! *ie0ing a gi*en "athe"atica( concept1 'epen'ing on o% p e*io%& e7pe ience&- Fo e7a"p(e1 the Bco"p(etene&& a7io"B !o the ea( n%".e & i& *ie0e' .) &o"e a& B!i((ing in a(( the gap& .et0een the ationa( n%".e & to gi*e a(( the point& on the n%".e (ineB- S%ch a *ie0 "a) i"p() Chat the e i& Bno oo"B to !it in an) "o e n%".e &, the n%".e (ine i& no0 Bco"p(eteB- The B ea(B n%".e (ine1 in pa tic%(a cannot contain Bin!inite&i"a(&B 0hich a e &"a((e than an) po&iti*e ationa( )et not Fe o- C%t1 !o othe &1 Bco"p(etionB i& on() a technica( a7io" to a'/oin the (i"it point& o! ca%ch) &e$%ence& o! ationa( n%".e &- In thi& ca&e it i& pe !ect() po&&i.(e to e".e' the ea( n%".e & in a *a iet) o! (a ge n%".e !ie('&1 0hich inc(%'e in!inite&i"a(& an' in!inite n%".e &- It i& thi& *ie0 0hich (ea'& to the "o'e" in!inite&i"a( theo ) o! Bnon8&tan'a ' ana()&i&B- The (atte i'ea1 ho0e*e 1 i& anathe"a to "an) "athe"atician&1 inc(%'ing Canto 1 0ho 'enie' the e7i&tence o! in!inite&i"a(& on the g o%n'& that i t 0a& not po&&i.(e to ca(c%(ate the ecip oca( o! an in!inite n%".e in hi& theo ) o! ca 'ina( in!initie&- E*en to'a) "an) "athe"atician& a e t o%.(e' .) the in!inite&i"a( i'ea& o! non8&tan'a ' ana()&i&< the) "a) not 'en) it& (ogic1 .%t the) &en&e a 'eep8&eate' p&)cho(ogica( %nea&e a& to it& *a(i'it)Th%& an) theo ) o! the p&)cho(og) o! "athe"atica( thin+ing "%&t .e &een in the 0i'e conte7t o! h%"an "enta( an' c%(t% a( acti*it)- The e i& not one t %e1 a.&o(%te 0a) o! thin+ing a.o%t "athe"atic&1 .%t 'i*e &e c%(t% a(() 'e*e(ope' 0a)& o! thin+ing in 0hich *a io%& a&pect& a e e(ati*e to the conte7t1-= CONCEPT IMAGE AND CONCEPT DEFINITION In Ta(( L Vinne 213D161 the 'i&tinction i& "a'e .et0een the in'i*i'%a(A& 0a) o! thin+ing o! a concept an' it& !o "a( 'e!inition1 th%& 'i&ting%i&hing .et0een "athe"atic& a& a "enta( acti*it) an' "athe"atic& a& a !o "a( &)&te"- Thi& theo ) app(ie& to e7pe t "athe"atician& a& 0e(( a& 'e*e(oping &t%'ent&,

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

The h%"an . ain i& not a p% e() (ogica( entit)- The co"p(e7 "anne in 0hich it !%nction& i& o!ten at *a iance 0ith the (ogic o! "athe"atic&- It i& not a(0a)& p% e (ogic that gi*e& %& in&ight1 no i& it chance that "a+e& %& "a+e "i&ta+e&--- 9e &ha(( %&e the te " concept image to 'e&c i.e the tota( cogniti*e &t %ct% e that i& a&&ociate' 0ith the concept1 0hich inc(%'e& a(( the "enta( pict% e& an' a&&ociate' p ope tie& an' p oce&&e&- It i& .%i(t %p o*e the )ea & th o%gh e7pe ience& o! a(( +in'&1 changing a& the in'i*i'%a( "eet& ne0 &ti"%(i an' "at% e&---- A& the concept i"age 'e*e(op& it nee' not .e cohe ent at a(( ti"e&- The . ain 'oe& not 0o + that 0a)- Sen&o ) inp%t e7cite& ce tain ne% ona( path0a)& an' inhi.it& othe &- In thi& 0a) 'i!!e ent &ti"%(i can acti*ate 'i!!e ent pa t& o! the concept i"age1 'e*e(oping the" in a 0a) 0hich nee' not "a+e a cohe ent 0ho(e- 2Ta(( L Vinne 13D16 In thi& 0a) it i& po&&i.(e !o con!(icting *ie0& to .e he(' in the "in' o! a gi*en in'i*i'%a( an' to .e e*o+e' at 'i!!e ent ti"e& 0itho%t the in'i*i'%a( .eing a0a e o! the con!(ict %nti( the) a e e*o+e' &i"%(taneo%&()The "at% e "athe"atician i& not i""%ne ! o" inte na( con!(ict&1 .%t he o &he ha& .een a.(e to (in+ togethe (a ge po tion& o! +no0 (e'ge in to &e$%ence& o! 'e'%cti*e a g%"ent- To &%ch a pe &on it &ee"& &o "%ch ea&ie to catego iFe thi& +no0(e'ge in a (ogica(() &t %ct% e' 0a)- Th%& a "at% e "athe"atician "a) con&i'e it he(p!%( to p e&ent "ate ia( to &t%'ent& in a 0a) 0hich high(ight& the (ogic o! the &%./ect- Ho0e*e 1 a &t%'ent 0itho%t the e7pe ience o! the teache "a) !in' a !o "a( app oach initia(() 'i!!ic%(t1 a pheno"enon 0hich "a) .e *ie0e' .) the teache a& a (ac+ o! e7pe ience o inte((ect on the pa t o! the &t%'ent- Thi& i& a co"!o ting *ie0point to ta+e1 e&pecia(() 0hen the teache i& pa t o! a "athe"atica( co""%nit) 0ho &ha e the "athe"atica( %n'e &tan'ing- C%t it i& not ea(i&tic in the 0i'e conte7t o! the nee'& o! the &t%'ent&- 9hat i& e&&entia( 8 !o the" 8 i& an app oach to "athe"atica( +no0(e'ge that g o0& a& the) g o0, a cogniti*e app oach that ta+e& acco%nt o! the 'e*e(op"ent o! thei +no0(e'ge &t %ct% e an' thin+ing p oce&&e&- To .eco"e "at% e "athe"atician& at an a'*ance' (e*e(1 the) "%&t %(ti"ate() gain in&ight into the 0a)& o! a'*ance' "athe"atician& .%t1 en o%te1 the) "a) !in' a &ton) path that 0i(( e$%i e a !%n'a"enta( t an&ition in thei thin+ing p oce&&e&1-4 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT The e a e "an) co"peting theo ie& in p&)cho(og)- Ceha*io% i&t theo )1 .%i(t on e7te na( o.&e *ation o! &ti"%(%& an' e&pon&e1 e!%&e& to &pec%(ate a.o%t the inte na( 0o +ing& o! the "in'- It p o*i'e& o.&e *a.(e an' epeata.(e e*i'ence o! the .eha*io% o! ani"a(&1 inc(%'ing h%"an&1 %n'e epeate' &ti"%(i1 .%t it ha& (i"ite' app(ication to "athe"atica( thin+ing .e)on' the "echanic& o! o%tine a(go ith"&- Con&t %cti*i&t p&)cho(og)1 on the othe han'1 atte"pt& to 'i&c%&& ho0 "enta( i'ea& a e c eate' in the "in' o! each in'i*i'%a(Thi& "a) po&e a 'ia(ectic p o.(e" !o the "athe"atician 0ith a P(atonic i'ea( o! "athe"atic& e7i&ting in'epen'ent() o! the h%"an "in'1 .%t it p o*e& to gi*e &igni!icant in&ight into the c eati*e p oce&&e& o! e&ea ch "athe"atician& a& 0e(( a& the 'i!!ic%(tie& e7pe ience' .) "athe"atic& &t%'ent&The g eat S0i&& p&)cho(ogi&t Piaget &a0 the in'i*i'%a(A& nee' to .e in ')na"ic e$%i(i. i%" 0ith hi& en*i on"ent a& an %n'e ()ing the"e in hi& 0o +- Thi& e$%i(i. i%" co%(' .e 'i&t% .e' th o%gh the con! ontation 0ith ne0 +no0(e'ge that con!(icte' 0ith the o('1 an' &o a t an&ition pe io' "ight occ% in 0hich the +no0(e'ge &t %ct% e i& e8 con&t %cte' to gi*e a "o e "at% e (e*e( o! e$%i(i. i%"-

8 DAVID TALL Piaget &a0 the chi(' g o0 into the a'%(t th o%gh a &e ie& o! &tage& o! e$%i(i. i%"1 each one iche than the one .e!o e- He i'enti!ie' !o% "ain &tage&- The !i &t i& the sensori motor &tage p io to the 'e*e(op"ent o! "eaning!%( &peech1 !o((o0e' .) a pre operational &tage 0hen the )o%ng chi(' ea(iFe& the pe "anence o! o./ect&1 0hich contin%e to e7i&t e*en i! the) a e te"po a i() o%t o! &ight- The chi(' then goe& th o%gh a t an&ition into the pe io' o! concrete operations 0he e he o &he can &ta.() con&i'e concept& 0hich a e (in+e' to ph)&ica( o./ect&1 thence pa&&ing into a pe io' o! formal operations in the ea () teen& 0hen the +in' o! h)pothetica( Bi!8thenB .eco"e& po&&i.(ePiagetian &tage theo ) ha& .een e7ten'e' to highe (e*e(& to enco"pa&& a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing- Fo in&tance1 E((e ton 213D56 &%gge&te' that PiagetA& c)c(e o! &en&o i8"oto 1 p e8ope ationa( an' conc ete i& the !i &t (e*e( o! a &pi a( cogniti*e 'e*e(op8 "ent in 0hich the !o "a( &tage i& the .eginning o! anothe c)c(e o! the &a"e t)pe at a highe (e*e( o! a.&t action- Cigg& L Co((i& 213D>6 &%gge&te' a epetition o! !o "a( ope ation& at &%cce&&i*e() highe (e*e(&1 each epeating the (ea ning c)c(e, %ni&t %ct% a(1 "%(ti&t %ct% a(1 e(ationa(A 'i!!ic%(t) o! app()ing &%ch theo ) to co((ege "athe"atic& teaching i& that "an) 8p o.a.() "o&t 8 co((ege &t%'ent& a e not a.(e to pe !o " at the a.&t act (e*e( o! !o "a( ope ation&1 0hich Piaget epo te' occ% ing in chi(' en '% ing thei ea () teen&- A%&%.e( c iticiFe' the &tage theo ),
--- .eca%&e &%ch a high pe centage o! A"e ican high &choo( an' co((ege &t%'ent& !ai( to each thi& a.&t act (e*e( o! cogniti*e (ogica( ope ation&2A%&%.e( et al 13ED1 p- >=?6 Rep e&entati*e &t%'ie& ha*e in'icate' that on() 15M o! /%nio high &choo( &t%'ent& --- 1=->M o! high &choo( &t%'ent& --- an' >>M o! co((ege &t%'ent& 0e e at thi& (e*e((ibid, p- >=D6

THE PSYCHOLOGYOF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

anothe 0hen the !i &t .eco"e& %ntena.(e- Depen'ing on the hi&to ) o! the *a )ing pa a"ete &1 the t an&ition "a) .e &"ooth1 o it "a) .e 'i&contin%o%&- Thi& ana(og) &%gge&t& that &tage theo ) "a) /%&t .e a (inea t i*ia(iFation o! a !a "o e co"p(e7 &)&te" o! change1 at (ea&t thi& "a) .e &o 0hen the po&&i.(e o%te& th o%gh a net0o + o! i'ea& .eco"e "o e n%"e o%&1 a& happen& in a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing1-5 TRANSITION AND MENTAL RECONSTROCTION A !a "o e *a(%a.(e a&pect o! PiagetA& theo ) i& the p oce&& o! transition ! o" one "enta( &tate to anothe - D% ing &%ch a t an&ition1 %n&ta.(e .eha*io% i& po&&i.(e1 0ith the e7pe ience o! p e*io%& i'ea& con!(icting 0ith ne0 e(e"ent&- Piaget %&e& the te "& assimilation to 'e&c i.e the p oce&& .) 0hich the in'i*i'%a( ta+e& in ne0 'ata an' accommodation the p oce&& .) 0hich the in'i*i'%a(A& cogniti*e &t %ct% e "%&t .e "o'i!ie'- He &ee& a&&i"i(ation an' acco""o'ation a& co"p(e"enta )- D% ing a t an&ition "%ch acco""o'ation i& e$%i e'- S+e"p 213:36 p%t& &i"i(a i'ea& in a 'i!!e ent 0a) .) 'i&ting%i&hing .et0een the ca&e 0he e the (ea ning p oce&& ca%&e& a &i"p(e expansion o! the in'i*i'%a(A& cogniti*e &t %ct% e an' the ca&e 0he e the e i& cogniti*e con!(ict1 e$%i ing a "enta( reconstruction. It i& thi& p oce&& o! econ&t %ction 0hich p o*o+e& the 'i!!ic%(tie& that occ% '% ing a t an&ition pha&eS%ch t an&ition& occ% o!ten in a'*ance' "athe"atic& a& the in'i*i'%a( &t %gg(e& 0ith ne0 +no0(e'ge &t %ct% e- Con!(ict i& a pheno"enon 0e((8+no0n to the "athe"atica( "in'1-E?CSTACLES The "o&t &e io%& p o.(e" occ% & 0hen the ne0 i'ea& a e not &ati&!acto i() acco""o'ate'In thi& ca&e it "a) .e po&&i.(e !o con!(icting i'ea& to .e p e&ent in an in'i*i'%a( at one an' the &a"e ti"e,
Ne0 +no0(e'ge o!ten cont a'ict& the o('1 an' e!!ecti*e (ea ning e$%i e& &t ategie& to 'ea( 0ith &%ch con!(ict- So"eti"e& the con!(icting piece& o! +no0(e'ge can .e econci(e'1 &o"eti"e& one o the othe "%&t .e a.an'one'1 an' &o"eti"e& the t0o can .oth .e B+ept a o%n'B i! &a!e() "aintaine' in &epa ate co"pa t"ent&2Papc t1 13D?1 p- 1>16

The conc eteN!o "a( 'i&tinction ha& p o*e' to .e a %&e!%( &ta ting point in 'e*e(oping (oca( hie a chie& o! 'i!!ic%(t) in e7ten&i*e &t%'ie& &%ch a& Ha t 213D16 in the 11 to 1E age ange1 an' the 'e*e(op"ent o! ea () ca(c%(%& concept& .) O ion 213D?6- C%t a &igni!icant !ai(% e o! PiagetA& &tage theo ) !o the 'e&ign o! ne0 teaching &t ategie& i& hi& o0n a&&e tion that the "o*e"ent ! o" one &tage to anothe cannot .e g eat() acce(e ate' .) the a!!ect& o! teaching- Di!!e ence& o! cogniti*e 'e"an' ha*e o!ten .een %&e' in a negative &en&e to 'e&c i.e &t%'ent&A 'i!!ic%(tie&1 .%t a e() to p o*i'e positive c ite ia !o 'e&igning ne0 app oache& to the &%./ect- Papen 213D?6 a&&e te', The Piaget o! &tage theo ) i& e&&entia(() con&e *ati*e1 a("o&t eactiona )1 in e"pha&iFing 0hat chi(' en cannot 'o- I &t i*e to %nco*e a "o e e*o(%tiona ) Piaget1 one 0ho&e epi&te"o(ogica( i'ea& "ight e7pan' the +no0n .o%n'& o! the h%"an "in'A'*ance' "athe"atic& p o*i'e& %& 0ith a %&e!%( "etapho 0hich e7pan'& the *i&ion o! &tage theo ) to a theo ) "o e *a(%a.(e in the 'e*e(op"ent o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing- Piaget %&e' an ana(og) 0ith g o%p theo ) to %n'e pin hi& &en&e o! the ')na"ic e$%i(i. i%" o! cogniti*e g o0th- He &a0 the i'entit) e(e"ent a& ep e&enting the &ta.(e &tate1 an' note' that &ta.i(it) co%(' .e "aintaine' i! an) t an&!o "ation ! o" thi& &tate co%(' .e e*e &e'1 th%& &%gge&ting a g o%p &t %ct% e in 0hich e*e ) e(e"ent ha& an in*e &e- C%t the "aintenance o! a ')na"ic &tate o! e$%i(i. i%" ha& a "o e o.*io%& "athe"atica( "etapho in ')na"ica( &)&te"& an' cata&t ophe theo )- He e a &)&te" cont o((e' .)

The the&i& o! Co"% 213D=6 &t%'ie& the concept%a( 'e*e(op"ent o! the (i"it p oce&& ! o" &choo( to %ni*e &it) an' %n'e (ine& ho0 the co((o$%ia( %&e o! the te " B(i"itB e!!ect& the "athe"atica( %&age- He 'i&c%&&e& the notion o! an Bo.&tac(eB1 int o'%ce' .) Ga&ton Cache(a ' 213=D6,
An o.&tac(e i& a piece o! +no0(e'ge< it i& pa t o! the +no0(e'ge o! the &t%'ent- Thi& +no0(e'ge 0a& at one ti"e gene a(() &ati&!acto ) in &o(*ing ce tain p o.(e"&- It i& p eci&e() thi& &ati&!acto ) a&pect 0hich ha& ancho e' the concept in the "in' an' "a'e it an o.&tac(e- The +no0(e'ge (ate p o*e& to .e ina'e$%ate 0hen !ace' 0ith ne0 p o.(e"& an' thi& ina'e$%ac) "a) not .e o.*io%&2Co"% 13D=1 2o igina( in F ench66

The o.&tac(e& !o%n' .) Co"% inc(%'e the p o.(e"& &t%'ent !ace 0hen the) "%&t ca(c%(ate (i"it& %&ing techni$%e& "o e &%.t(e than &i"p(e n%"e ica( an' a(ge. aic ope ation&- He 'i&c%&&e& ho0 the concept o! in!init) i& int o'%ce' an' i& B&% o%n'e' in ")&te )B1 )et the

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DAVID TALL

THE PSYCHOLOGYOF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

11

ne0 techni$%e& B0o +B 0itho%t the &t%'ent& %n'e &tan'ing 0h)- He 'e"on&t ate& ho0 &t%'ent&A e7pe ience& can (ea' to .e(ie! in the in!inite() (a ge an' the in!inite() &"a((1 0ith Bno%ght point nine ec% ingB .eing a n%".e B/%&t (e&& than oneB an' the &)".o( e ep e&enting to "an) &t%'ent& a $%antit) that i& &"a((e than an) po&iti*e ea( n%".e 1 .%t not Fe o- The e a e i"p(icit a&&%"ption& that the (i"iting p oce&& Bgoe& on !o e*e B1 that the (i"it Bcan ne*e .e attaine'B- 2See chapte 1?-6 Ta(( 213DEa6 &%gge&t& an e7p(anation i& gi*en !o the&e pheno"ena a& the generic extension principle!
I! an in'i*i'%a( 0o +& in a e&t icte' conte7t in 0hich a(( the e7a"p(e& con&i'e e' ha*e a ce tain p ope t)1 then1 in the a.&ence o! co%nte 8e7a"p(e&1 the "in' a&&%"e& the +no0n p ope tie& to .e i"p(icit in othe conte7t&-

in the nineteenth cent% ) %nti( Ha"i(ton in*ente' 2'i&co*e e'R6 the $%ate nion&1 an e7ten&ion o! the co"p(e7 n%".e & 0ho&e "%(tip(ication !ai(& to .e co""%tati*eO.&tac(e& a i&ing ! o" 'eep() he(' con*iction& a.o%t "athe"atic& a e a e() ea&) So e a&e ! o" the "in'- 9e a(( ca ) 0ith %& a "enta( ag8.ag o! &%ch .e(ie!&1 "an) o! 0hich 0e &%pp e&&1 .%t 'o not e(i"inate1 0hen !ace' 0ith the (ogic o! "athe"atic&- O!ten the on() t ace o! &%ch an o.&tac(e i& th o%gh a &en&e o! %nea&e 0hen the e i& a (ogica( 'e'%ction that 'oe& not B!ee( ightB- 9e *ie 0 thi& a& an in&tance o! cogniti*e con!(ict .et0een incon&i&tent po tion& o! the in'i*i'%a(A& concept i"age1-: GENTRALE ATION AND ACSTRACTION A co""on 'i!!ic%(t) o.&e *e' in &t%'ent& (ea ning a'*ance' "athe"atic& i& thei co"p(aint that the &%./ect i& Btoo a.&t actB- 9hat i& the cogniti*e ea&on !o thei 'i!!ic%(t)R The te "& Bgene a(iFationB an' Ba.&t actionB a e %&e' in "athe"atic& .oth to 'enote processes in 0hich concept& a e &een in a . oa'e conte7t an' a(&o the products o! tho&e p oce&&e&- Fo in&tance1 0e generali%e the &o(%tion o! (inea e$%ation& in t0o an' th ee 'i"en&ion& to n 'i"en&ion& an' 0e abstract ! o" thi& conte7t the notion o! a *ecto &paceIn 'oing &o t0o *e ) 'i!!e ent "enta( o./ect& a e p o'%ce', the generali%ation RB an' the abstraction, a *ecto &pace V o*e a !ie(' F. P acti&ing "athe"atician& o!ten ega ' a *ecto &pace a& .oth an a.&t action and a gene a(iFation o! a&pect& o! t0o 'i"en&iona( &pace an' it i& the e!o e i"po tant to %&e the te "& in a 0a) 0hich i& con&onant 0ith thei %&e in "athe"atic&- C%t the "athe"atic& e'%cato "%&t (oo+ at the cogniti*e p oce&&e& 0hich a e in*o(*e'1 an' he e 0e &ee &%.t(e 'i!!e ence& .et0een the t0o e7a"p(e& /%&t gi*en- The gene a(iFation RU &i"p() e7ten'& the chain o! i'ea& ! o" RA to R> to R=1 an' &o on1 0hich i& described .) app()ing the %&%a( a ith"etic p oce&&e& to each coo 'inate- The a.&t action Vi& a *e ) 'i!!e ent "enta( o./ect1 0hich i& defined .) a (i&t o! a7io"&- 9hi(&t the !o "e &i"p() in*o(*e& an extension o! !a"i(ia p oce&&e&1 the (atte e$%i e& a "a&&i*e "enta( reorgani%ation. A& D e)!%& 0i(( 'i&c%&& in g eate 'etai( in chapte >1 the p oce&& o! 'e!ining the a.&t act *ecto &pace "%&t .e !o((o0e' .) a &e$%ence o! theo e"& 'e'%cing the p ope tie& o! a *ecto &pace 0hich !o((o0 ! o" the a7io"&- Cogniti*e() thi& i& not /%&t a deduction p oce&& .%t a construction p oce&& in 0hich the (ea ne i& .%i('ing p ope tie& o! the a.&t act o./ect1 !o e7a"p(e1 that the a7io"& g%a antee the B%&%a(B p ope tie& o! a''ition o! *ecto & an' "%(tip(ication .) &ca(a &1 that a (inea () in'epen'ent &et o! *ecto & 0i(( contain at "o&t the &a"e n%".e o! *ecto & a& a &panning &et1 that a &pace 0ith a !inite &panning &et ha& a p eci&e B'i"en&ionB gi*en in te "& o! an in'epen'ent &panning &et1 o B.a&i&B1 an' &o on- In thi& p oce&& o! con&t %ction1 e7i&ting e7a"p(e& o! *ecto &pace& 2!o e7a"p(e1 R >1 R=1 etc-6 act .oth a& &%ppo t& an' potentia( con!(ict !acto &- The) &%ppo t .eca%&e the) &%gge&t p ope tie& 0hich a e (i+e() to ho('1 .%t the) a e potentia( &o% ce& o! 'i!!ic%(t) on the one han' .eca%&e the (ea ne i& con&t aine' to p o*e &o"ething that "a) &ee" B&e(!8e*i'entB ! o" the e7a"p(e& an' on the othe .eca%&e &%.t(e p ope tie& co""on to a(( the e7a"p(e& "a) .e .e(ie*e' to .e Bgene ica(() t %eB !o the a.&t act concept D% ing thi& pe io' the e i& a con!(ict .et0een the p ope tie& o! the e7a"p(e& 0hich the (ea ne kno&s, an' the p ope tie& o! the ne0 a.&t act concept 0hich "%&t .e deduced ! o" the 'e!inition- A pe io' o! e8con&t %ction an' con&e$%ent con!%&ion i& ine*ita.(e-

Fo e7a"p(e1 "o&t con*e gent &e$%ence& 'e&c i.e' to .eginning &t%'ent& a e o! a &i"p(e +in' gi*en .) a !o "%(a &%ch a& 1Nn1 0hich ten'& to the (i"it 2in thi& ca&e Fe o61 .%t the te "& ne*e e"ual the (i"it- In the a.&ence o! an) co%nte 8e7a"p(e& &t%'ent& .egin to .e(ie*e that thi& i& a(0a)& &o- The ich e7pe ience o! co((o$%ia( (ang%age &%ppo t& thi& .e(ie! 2Sch0a Fen.e ge L Ta((1 13:D61 0ith ph a&e& (i+e Pget& c(o&e toB &%gge&ting that the te "& o! a &e$%ence can ne*e .e coinci'ent 0ith the (i"it- Th%& the i"p(icit .e(ie! i& &(o0() !o "e' that a &e$%ence o! te "& con*e ging to a (i"it get& c(o&e an' c(o&e 1 but never actually gets there. F% the "o e1 i! a(( the te "& o! a &e$%ence ha*e a ce tain p ope t)1 it i& nat% a( to .e(ie*e that the (i"it ha& the &a"e p ope t)- Th%& the &e$%ence ?-31?-331--- ha& te "& a(( (e&& than 11 &o the (i"it Bno%ght point nine ec% ingB "%&t a(&o .e (e&& than one--- Thi& (ea'& to the "enta( i"ageo!a(i"iQngo./ectte "e'ageN0ncNi"/VinTaO213DEa6-Agene ic(i"itnee' not .e a (i"it in the "athe"atica( &en&e1 .%t it i& the concept o! the (i"it that the in'i*i'%a( ho('& in hi& o he "in' a& a e&%(t o! e7t apo(ating the co""on p ope tie& o! the te "& o! the &e$%enceThi& pheno"enon happen& not /%&t 0ith &e$%ence& o! n%".e &1 .%t &e$%ence& o! !%nction& an' othe "athe"atica( o./ect& that &ha e a co""on p ope t)- Hi&to ica(() thi& i& en&h ine' in the Bp incip(e o! contin%it)B o! Lei.niF,
In an) &%ppo&e' t an&ition1 en'ing in an) te "in%&1 it i& pe "i&&i.(e to in&tit%te a gene a( ea&oning1 in 0hich the !ina( te "in%& "a) a(&o .e inc(%'e'- 2Lei.niF in a (ette to Ca)(e1 #an%a ) 1ED:-6

It a i&e& e*en ea (ie in the 0o + o! Nicho(a& o! C%&a 214?1814E46 0ho ega 'e' the ci c(e a& a po()gon 0ith an in!inite n%".e o! &i'e&1 an' in&pi e' Kep(e 215:181E=?6 to !o "%(ate a "etaph)&ica( B. i'ge o! contin%it)B in 0hich no "a( an' (i"iting !o "& o! a !ig% e a e cha acte iFe' %n'e a &ing(e 'e!inition- Th%& Kep(e #$pera $mnia NN1 page 5356 &a0 no e&&entia( 'i!!e ence .et0een a po()gon an' a ci c(e1 .et0een an e((ip&e an' a ci c(e1 .et0een the !inite an' the in!inite1 an' .et0een an in!inite&i"a( a ea an' a (ineThe gene ic e7ten&ion p incip(e a i&e& ti"e an' again in hi&to )- Fo e7a"p(e1 Ca%ch)A& a&&e tion that the (i"it o! contin%o%& !%nction& i& contin%o%& an' Peacoc+A& BP incip(e o! A(ge. aic Pe "anenceB1 in 0hich the p ope tie& o! e7ten'e' n%".e &)&te"&1 &%ch a& the ea( an' co"p(e7 n%".e &1 0e e .a&e' on the p incip(e that the an) a(ge. aic (a0 0hich he(' in the &"a((e &)&te" a(&o he(' in the e7ten&ion- The (atte he(' &0a) !o &o"e ti"e

1>

DAVID TALL

THE PSYCHOLOGYOF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

1=

In Ha e( L Ta(( 2to appea 61 0e p opo&e that a cogniti*e 'i&tinction .e "a'e .et0een 'i!!e ent t)pe& o! gene a(iFation in acco 'ance 0ith the cogniti*e acti*itie& in*o(*e'- 9e te " an expansive generali%ation one 0hich e7ten'& the &t%'entA& e7i&ting cogniti*e &t %ct% e 0itho%t e$%i ing change& in the c% ent i'ea&- On the othe han'1 a gene a(iFation 0hich e$%i e& econ&t %ction o! the e7i&ting cogniti*e &t %ct% e 0e ca(( a reconstructive generali%ation. In thi& te "ino(og) 0e &ee that the gene a( *ecto &pace RB i&1 !o "o&t &t%'ent&1 an e7pan&i*e gene a(iFation1 0hi(&t the a.&t act *ecto &pace i& .oth an a.&t action an' a reconstructive generali%ation. 9e a(&o note that it i& po&&i.(e !o &t%'ent& in 'i!!ic%(tie& to ope ate in a thi '1 &%.&e$%ent() 'i&a&t o%&1 0a) 0hich &i"p() in*o(*e& e"e".e ing the ne0 i'ea& a& an a''itiona( co((ection o! in!o "ation to .e (ea ne' .) ote an' a''e' to c% ent +no0(e'ge 0itho%t an) atte"pt at integ ation 0ith the o(' i'ea&- Thi& 0e ca(( a dis'unctive gene a(i8 Fation- It i& a gene a(iFation in the &en&e that the &t%'ent "a) no0 .e a.(e to ope ate on a . oa'e ange o! e7a"p(e&1 .%t it i& (i+e() to .e o! (itt(e (a&ting *a(%e to the &t%'ent a& it &i"p() a''& to the n%".e o! 'i&connecte' piece& o! in!o "ation in the &t%'entA& "in' 0itho%t i"p o*ing the &t%'entA& g a&p o! the . oa'e a.&t act i"p(ication&The e7pan&i*e gene a(iFation i& a goo' teaching techni$%e to a'opt 0hen it i& nece&&a ) to .e a.(e to 'ea( 0ith a 0i'e c(a&& o! app(ication& 0itho%t ha*ing to go th o%gh too "%ch &t e&&!%( cogniti*e change- Fo in&tance1 &t%'ent& 0ho can ca ) o%t the p oce&& o! &o(*ing &i"%(taneo%& (inea e$%ation& in t0o *a ia.(e& a e %&%a(() a.(e to gene a(iFe 2e7pan&i*e()6 to th ee1 !o% 1 o "o e *a ia.(e& 0itho%t 'i!!ic%(t) 2tho%gh the ca(c%(ation& "a) &oon .eco"e te'io%&6- In'ee'1 it i& e(ati*e() &t aight!o 0a ' to 'e&c i.e the p oce&& in gene a( te "& 0hi(&t e!e ing to a &peci!ic &et o! e$%ation& in1 &a)1 th ee *a ia.(e&1 x, )1 F2BS%.t act &%ita.(e "%(tip(e& o! the !i &t e$%ation ! o" the &econ' an' thi ' to e(i"inate x, then e(i"inate y ! o" the e&%(ting e$%ation&1 &o(*e !o F an' &%.&tit%te .ac+ to !in' )1 then x.() The p oce&& i& ea&ie &een .) enacting the &o(%tion than .) 'e&c i.ing it- O! co% &e the e "a) .e e7ception& 2!o in&tance B0hat to 'o 0hen the !i &t e$%ation 'oe& not contain x(), .%t the&e "a) a(&o .e 'ea(t 0ith at the &peci!ic (e*e(- At i&+ o! o*e %&ing an a'/ecti*e 0e ha*e a( ea') %&e' .e!o e1 0e 0i(( ega ' thi& t)pe o! e7pan&i*e app oach a& generic, in the &en&e that it 'e&c i.e& the t)pica( 2gene a(6 p oce'% e .) e!e ing to a specific ca&eS%ch a gene ic app oach i& &een .oth an ea&) "etho' o! gene a(iFation .eca%&e it app(ie& a 0e((8+no0n p oce&& in a . oa'e conte7t an' a(&o a& a !i &t &tep to0a '& !o "a( a.&t action a& it 'oe& not in*o(*e a "a/o cogniti*e econ&t %ction- In'ee'1 once the &t%'ent& ha*e e!(ecte' on the gene a( p oce&& an' &een it a& a con&cio%& act o! 0i'ening the app(ica.i(it) o! a &peci!ic "etho'1 it "a) .e *ie0e' a& a 2 e(ati*e() pain(e&&6 !o " o! a.&t action 0hich 0e te " a generic abstraction 2Ha e( L Ta((1 to appea 6- Thi& !% ni&he& an app oach 0hich i& o! pa tic%(a *a(%e !o &t%'ent& 0ho&e "ain inte e&t i& in app(ication& athe than !o "a( "athe"atic&- It "a) a(&o p o*i'e a &%ita.(e t an&ition pha&e !o &t%'ent& pa&&ing on to the !o "a( a.&t action1 ho0e*e 1 the (atte 0i(( &ti(( e$%i e a cogniti*e e8 o ganiFation1 a(.eit one 0hich i& .ette p epa e'D%.in&+) enco% age& &t%'ent& to 0 ite p og a"& in a co"p%te (ang%age 0he e "an) o! the con&t %ct& pa a((e( the con&t %ct& o! "athe"atica( thin+ing, &et&1 &e$%ence&1 o 'e e' pai &1 e(ation&1 !%nction&1 an' &o on- C) 0 iting co"p%te co'e 0hich &peci!ie& the p oce'% e to ca ) o%t a !%nction p oce&&1 inc(%'ing an initia( te&t to &ee i! the inp%t &ati&!ie& con'ition& 0hich 'e!ine the 'o"ain o! the !%nction1 the &t%'ent i& e$%i e' to thin+ th o%gh the enact"ent o! the !%nction p oce&&- The act o! p og a""ing i& a gene ic p oce&&, it

ca ie& o%t 0hat "a) .e &een a& a "o e gene a( con&t %ct in pa tic%(a ca&e& an' gi*e& i&e to a gene ic a.&t action o! the !%nction concept- Gi*en the theo ) /%&t 'e&c i.e'1 thi& &%gge&t& a !% the &tage i& nece&&a ) to pa&& ! o" the gene ic e7a"p(e o! p og a""ing1 0he e the gene a( i& &een in the pa tic%(a in&tance& o! !%nction& p og a""e' .) the &t%'ent1 to the !o "a( a.&t action 0hich e$%i e& a ne0 (e*e( o! a.&t act con&t %ction ! o" the 'e!inition- D%.in&+) !o "%(ate& thi& t an&ition 0ithin a Piagetian ! a"e0o + o! reflective abstraction, in 0hich p oce&&e& a e encapsulated a& o./ect&1 &o that the !%nction process (ea'& to the !%nction as a mental ob'ect. Thi& theo ) i& !% the e(a.o ate' in chapte & : an' 151-D INTOITION AND RIGOOR Mathe"atician& o!ten ega ' the te "& Bint%itionB an' B igo% B a& .eing "%t%a(() e7c(%&i*e .) &%gge&ting that an Bint%iti*eB e7p(anation i& one that nece&&a i() (ac+& igo% - The e i& a g ain o! t %th in thi&1 !o %&%a(() an int%ition a i*e& 0ho(e in the "in' an' it "a) .e 'i!!ic%(t to &epa ate it& co"ponent& into a (ogica( 'e'%cti*e o 'e - C%t the oppo&ition .et0een the t0o concept& i& a !a(&e 'ichoto") a& 0e &ha(( &oon &eeIn a &en&e 0e ha*e not one1 .%t t0o . ain&- In atte"pting to a&&i&t patient& 0ho ha' &e io%& epi(eptic !it&1 Spe ) an' hi& co((eag%e& too+ the ' a&tic action o! pa tia( o tota( &e*e ance o! the co p%& ca((o&%" that (in+& the t0o he"i&phe e& o! the . ain an' !o%n' that each co%(' e&&entia(() ope ate in'epen'ent()1 tho%gh ca )ing o%t tota(() 'i!!e ent !%nction&,
Tho%gh p e'o"inant() "%te an' gene a(() in!e io in a(( pe !o "ance& in*o(*ing (ang%age o (ing%i&tic o "athe"atica( ea&oning1 the "ino he"i&phe e i& ne*e the(e&& c(ea () the &%pe io ce e. a( "e".e !o ce tain t)pe& o! ta&+&- I! 0e e"e".e that in the g eat "a/o it) o! te&t& it i& the 'i&connecte' (e!t he"i&phe e that i& &%pe io an' 'o"inant1 0e can e*ie0 $%ic+() no0 &o"e o! the +in'& o! e7ceptiona( acti*itie& in 0hich it i& the "ino he"i&phe e that e7ce(&- Fi &t1 o! co% &e1 a& one 0o%(' p e'ict1 the&e a e a(( non8(ing%i&tic non8"athe"atica( !%nction&1 (a ge() a& the) in*o(*e the app ehen&ion an' p oce&&ing o! &patia( patte n&1 e(ation& an' t an&!o "ation&- The) &ee" to .e ho(i&tic an' %nita ) athe than ana()tic an' ! ag"enta )1 an' o ientationa( "o e than !oca(1 an' to in*o(*e conc ete pe cept%a( in&ight athe than a.&t act1 &)".o(ic &e$%entia( ea&oning2Spe )1 13:46

Thi& e*i'ence e&onate& &t ong() 0ith the o.&e *ation o! the t0o 'i!!e ent +in'& o! "athe"atica( "in' &%gge&t at the t% n o! the cent% ) .) Poinca ;- Ho0e*e 1 &%.&e$%ent e&ea ch &%gge&t& that the . ain& o! 'i!!e ent in'i*i'%a(& nee' not !o((o0 &%ch a &i"p(i&tic 'i*i&ion o! !%nction&- GaFFigna 213D56 &ee& . ain acti*it) a& a co((ection o! 'i!!e ent "o'%(e& !%nctioning in'epen'ent() in pa a((e(1 0ith a cont o( %nit 2%&%a(() in the (e!t . ain6 "a+ing 'eci&ion& .a&e' on the in!o "ation p o*i'e' .) the *a io%& "o'%(e&- Th%& it 0o%(' .e inco ect to 'i*i'e h%"an acti*it) &i"p(i&tica(() into t0o 'i!!e ent "o'e&1 /%&t a& it i& inapp op iate to con&i'e /%&t t0o cont a&ting t)pe& o! "athe"atica( "in'- In pa tic%(a 0e "a) en*i&age that the h%"an "in' i""e &e' in (ogica( tho%ght "a) e*ent%a(() 'e*e(op int%ition& that a e the"&e(*e& (ogica(() .a&e'- Poinca ;1 &pea+ing o! He "ite1 &ai', Hi& e)e& &ee" to &h%n contact 0ith the 0o ('< it i& not 0itho%t1 it i& 0ithin he &ee+& the *i&ion o! t %th--- 9hen one ta(+e' to M- He "ite1 he ne*e e*o+e' a &en&%o%& i"age1 an' )et )o% &oon pe cei*e' that the "o&t a.&t act entitie& 0e e !o hi" (i+e (i*ing .eing&- He 'i' not &ee the"1 .%t

%-

14 DAVID TALL he pe cei*e' that the) a e not an a ti!icia( a&&e".(age an' that the) ha*e &o"e p incip(e o! inte na( %nit)2Poinca ;1 131=1 pp- >1>1>>?6 The conc(%&ion i& ine&capa.(e- Int%ition i& the p o'%ct o! the concept i"age& o! the in'i*i'%a(- The "o e e'%cate' the in'i*i'%a( in (ogica( thin+ing1 the "o e (i+e() the in'i*i'%a(A& concept i"age ) 0i(( e&onate 0ith a (ogica( e&pon&e- Thi& i& e*i'ent in the g o0th o! thin+ing o! &t%'ent&1 0ho pa&& ! o" initia( int%ition& .a&e' on thei p e8!o "a( "athe"atic&1 to "o e e!ine' !o "a( int%ition& a& thei e7pe ience g o0&, 9e then ha*e "an) +in'& o! int%ition< !i &t1 the appea( to the &en&e& an' the i"agination< ne7t1 gene a(iFation .) in'%ction1 copie'1 &o to &pea+1 ! o" the p oce'% e& o! the e7pe i"enta( &cience&< !ina(() 0e ha*e the int%ition o! p% e n%".e --2Poinca ;1 131=1 p1 >15-6 F o" a p&)cho(ogica( *ie0 point1 Fi&ch.ein 213:D6 co"e& to &i"i(a conc(%&ion&1 citing t0o 'i!!e ent t)pe& o! int%ition, Primary intuitions e!e to tho&e cogniti*e .e(ie!& 0hich 'e*e(op the"&e(*e& in h%"an .eing&1 in a nat% a( 0a)1 .e!o e an' in'epen'ent() o! &)&te"atic in&t %ction)econdary intuitions a e tho&e 0hich a e 'e*e(ope' a& a e&%(t o! &)&te"atic inte((ect%a( t aining --- In the &a"e "eaning1 F;(i7 K(ein 21D3D6 %&e' the te " B e!ine' int%itionB, an' F- Se*e i 0 ote a.o%t B&econ' 'eg ee int%itionB 2135162Fi&ch.ein1 13:D1 p- 1E16 Th%& a&pect& o! (ogic too can .e hone' to .eco"e "o e Bint%iti*eB to the "athe"atica( "in'- The 'e*e(op"ent o! thi& e!ine' (ogica( int%ition &ho%(' .e one o! the "a/o ai"& o! "o e a'*ance' "athe"atica( e'%cation>- THE GRO9TH OF MATHEMATICAL KNO9LEDGE A& 0e ha*e &een1 the nat% e o! "athe"atica( thin+ing i& ine7t ica.() inte connecte' 0ith the cogniti*e p oce&&e& that gi*e i&e to "athe"atica( +no0(e'ge- 9e no0 !oc%& on the !%(( c)c(e o! "athe"atica( thin+ing to &ee "athe"atica( p oo! a& the !ina( &tage o! thi& 'e*e(op"enta( p oce&& athe than /%&t the !o "a( ! a"e0o + o! the co"p(ete' +no0(e'ge &t %ct% e>-1 THE FOLL RANGE OF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING Mathe"atica( p oo!1 acco 'ing to Ha'a"a ' 2134561 i& .%t the (a&t1 Bp eci&ingB pha&e o! "athe"atica( thin+ing- Ce!o e a theo e" can .e con/ect% e'1 (et a(one p o*e'1 the e i& "%ch 0o + to .e 'one in concei*ing o! 0hat i'ea& 0i(( .e ! %it!%( an' 0hat e(ation&hip& 0i(( .e %&e!%(- Ha'a"a ' con&i'e & Poinca ;A& 'e&c iption o! hi& o0n pe &ona( e&ea ch acti*itie& an' note&, -- the *e ) o.&e *ation& o! Poinca ; &ho0 %& th ee +in'& o! in*enti*e 0o + e&&entia(() 'i!!e ent i! con&i'e e' ! o" o% &tan'point1 vi%..

THE PSYCHOLOGYOF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING a- !%(() con&cio%& 0o + .- i((%"ination p ece'e' .) inc%.ation c- the $%ite pec%(ia p oce&& o! the &(eep(e&& night-

15

2Ha'a"a '1 13451 p- =56

He e Poinca ; epo t& the nece&&it) o! 0o +ing ha ' at a ne0 p o.(e"1 then e(a7ing to a((o0 the i'ea& to inc%.ate in hi& &%.con&cio%&1 '% ing 0hich ti"e he ha' a &(eep(e&& night thin+ing *igo o%&() a.o%t ne0 i'ea& %nti( &%''en()1 &o"e ti"e (ate 1 a &%''en i((%"ination .% &t& into hi& con&cio%&ne&& 0ith a &o(%tion- A!te a !% the ti"e ha' e(ap&e'1 at hi& (ei&% e1 he 0a& a.(e to ana()&e 0hat ha' happene' an' .%i(' %p a !o "a( /%&ti!ication o! hi& theo ) in the !ina( Bp eci&ingB pha&e 0hen the e&%(t& o! the i((%"inati*e . ea+8th o%gh a e &%./ecte' to the co(' ana()&i& o! the (ight o! 'a)1 e!ining the a&&%"ption& &o that the 'e'%ction& 0i(( &tan' ana()tic &c %tin)9hat .eco"e& appa ent i& that the initia( pha&e& o! the c eati*e c)c(e "a) e() in pa t on (ogic an' 'e'%ction1 .%t the) a(&o nee' !(e7i.(e "enta( acti*it) to p o'%ce "enta( e&onance& .et0een p e*io%&() %nconnecte' concept&- Acco 'ing to GaFFignaA& "o'e( o! . ain acti*it)1 the) "a) occ% a& /%7tapo&ition& ! o" 'i!!e ent "o'%(e& in the . ain p oce&&ing &i"%(taneo%&()- Pa t o! the &%cce&& o! thi& pha&e o! "athe"atica( thin+ing &ee"& to .e '%e to 0o +ing &%!!icient() ha ' on the p o.(e" to &ti"%(ate "enta( acti*it)1 an' then e(a7ing to a((o0 the p oce&&ing to ca ) on &%.con&cio%&()>-> COILDING AND TESTTNG THEORTES, SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS Poinca ; 0a& at pain& to &ho0 the co"p(e"enta ) o(e& o! &)nthe&i& an' ana()&i& in "athe"atica( thin+ing- S)nthe&i& .egin& 0ith the con&cio%& act o! the initia( pha&e to .egin to p%t i'ea& togethe 1 !o((o0e' .) a "o e int%iti*e acti*it)1 in 0hich &%.con&cio%& inte p(a) .et0een concept i"age& ta+e& p(ace1 %nti( a po0e !%( e&onance !o ce& the ne0() (in+e' concept& to e %pt once "o e into con&cio%&ne&&- Ana()&i&1 on the othe han'1 i& a "%ch "o e coo( an' (ogica( con&cio%& acti*it) 0hich o ganiFe& the ne0 i'ea& into (ogica( !o " an' e!ine& the" to gi*e p eci&e &tate"ent& an' 'e'%ction&Teaching o! )o%nge chi(' en e"pha&iFe& the synthesis o! +no0(e'ge1 &ta ting ! o" &i"p(e concept&1 .%i('ing %p ! o" e7pe ience an' e7a"p(e& to "o e gene a( concept&- The e"pha&i& at thi& (e*e( i& no0 changing to inc(%'e "o e p o.(e" &o(*ing an' open8en'e' in*e&tigation&- Teaching at %ni*e &it) o!ten e"pha&iFe& the othe &i'e o! the coin, analysis o! +no0(e'ge1 .eginning 0ith gene a( a.&t action& an' !o "ing chain& o! 'e'%ction ! o" the" 0hich "a) .e app(ie' in a 0i'e *a iet) o! &peci!ic conte7t&9o +ing 0ith "%ch )o%nge chi(' en1 Diene& 213E?6 p opo&e' a theo ) !o .%i('ing concept& ! o" conc ete e7a"p(e&1 )et Diene& L #ee*e& 213E56 !o "%(ate& a !a "o e gene a( deep end principle in 0hich Bthe e i& a p e!e ence !o e7t apo(ation .) (eap& an' inte po(ation1 athe than a(0a)& .) &tep8.)8&tepB- The) e&pon' to thei o0n $%e&tion B9hen i& it po&&i.(e to gene a(iFe ! o" a &i"p(e ca&e to a "o e gene a( ca&e an' 0hen i& it .ette !o the" to pa tic%(a iFe ! o" a "o e co"p(e7 ca&e to the &i"p(e ca&eRB 0ith the e"a + that Bthi& i& not (i+e() to .e an&0e e' .) a &i"p(e po&iti*e o negati*e &tate"entBThe) &%gge&t that it i& "o e a $%e&tion o! Bthe opti"%" 'eg ee o! co"p(e7it) e$%i e' to &ta t 0ithB 8 a e&pon&e 0hich i& /%&t a& *a(i' !o teaching an' (ea ning at "o e a'*ance' (e*e(&- It i& (i+e() to e$%i e &)nthe&i& o! +no0(e'ge to .%i(' %p theo ie& cogniti*e() a& 0e(( a& ana()&i& o! +no0(e'ge to gi*e the tota( &t %ct% e a (ogica( cohe ence-

1E DAVID TALL >-= MATHEMATICAL PROOF Vie0e' a& a p o.(e"8&o(*ing acti*it)1 0e &ee that p oo! i& act%a(() the !ina( &tage o! acti*it) in 0hich i'ea& a e "a'e p eci&e- Yet &o "%ch o! the teaching in %ni*e &it) (e*e( "athe"atic& begins 0ith p oo!- In hi& p e!ace to The Psychology of *earning Mathematics, S+e"p &%ccinct() e!e & to thi& a& &ho0ing the &t%'ent& the p o'%ct o! "athe"atica( tho%ght1 in&tea' o! teaching the" the p oce&& o! "athe"atica( thin+ing- The &p(en'i' to"e& o! Co% .a+i a e a "on%"ent to the inte((ect o! the "athe"atica( "in'1 an' "a) .e %&e' to he(p the (ea ne app eciate the !o "a( &t %ct% e o! "athe"atic&- C%t once again1 Poinca ; ha& pe tinent o.&e *ation& to "a+e,
To %n'e &tan' the 'e"on&t ation o! a theo e"1 i& that to e7a"ine &%cce&&i*e() each o! the &)((ogi&"& co"po&ing it an' to a&ce tain it& co ectne&&1 it& con!o "it) to the %(e& o! the ga"eR--- Fo &o"e1 )e&< 0hen the) ha*e 'one thi&1 the) 0i(( &a), I %n'e &tan'- Fo the "a/o it)1 no- A("o&t a(( a e "%ch "o e e7acting1 the) 0i&h to +no0 not "e e() 0hethe a(( the &)((ogi&"& o! a 'e"on&t ation& a e co ect1 .%t 0h) the) (in+ togethe in thi& o 'e athe than anothe - In &o !a a& to the" the) &ee" engen'e e' .) cap ice an' not .) an inte((igence a(0a)& con&cio%& o! the en' to .e attaine'1 the) 'o not .e(ie*e that the) %n'e &tan'2Poinca ;1 131=1 p- 4=16 Pe hap& )o% thin+ I %&e too "an) co"pa i&on&< )et pa 'on &ti(( anothe - Yo% ha*e 'o%.t(e&& &een tho&e 'e(icate a&&e".(age& o! &i(icio%& nee'(e& 0hich !o " the &+e(eton o! ce tain &ponge&9hen the o ganic "atte ha& 'i&appea e'1 the e e"ain& on() a ! ai( an' e(egant (ace80o +- T %e1 nothing i& the e e7cept &i(ica1 .%t 0hat i& inte e&ting i& the !o " thi& &i(ica ha& ta+en1 an' 0e co%(' not %n'e &tan' it i! 0e 'i' not +no0 the (i*ing &ponge 0hich ha& gi*en it p eci&e() thi& !o "- Th%& it i& that the o(' int%iti*e notion& o! o% !athe &1 e*en 0hen 0e ha*e a.an'one' the"1 &ti(( i"p int thei !o " %pon the (ogica( con&t %ction& 0e ha*e p%t in thei p(ace(ibid, p- >136

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

1:

the ci c%"&tance& in 0hich the con/ect% e 0o%(' !ai(< thi '1 to e7t act ! o" the&e con&i'e ation& a !o "a( p oo! o! the e&%(tThe&e e"a +& 'o not app() on() to (ect% e& an' .oo+& !o %n'e g a'%ate&- F;(i7 K(ein pointe' o%t that in pape & !o e&ea ch /o% na(& the &%pp e&&ion o! int%iti*e con&i'e ation& 0a& a co""on an' high() %n'e&i a.(e p actice2Sa0)e 1 13D:6 Man) "athe"atician& ha*e (ea ne' to p e&ent thei .e&t !ace in p%.(ic1 &ho0ing thei i'ea& in po(i&he' !o " an' concea(ing the toi( an' !a(&e t% ning& that (itte e' thei g o0th- It i& the e!o e e&&entia( to po&e the !o((o0ing $%e&tion, Ho0 it i& po&&i.(e to initiate &t%'ent& into the 0i'e *i&ion o! the nat% e o! "athe"atica( thin+ing that inc(%'e& the a '%o%& g o0th o! "athe"atica( thin+ing in a manner appropriate for a learner+ =- CORRICOLOM DESIGN IN ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL LEARNING

=-1 SEVOENCING THE LEARNING EWPERTENCE D% ing the 'i!!ic%(t t an&ition ! o" p e8!o "a( "athe"atic& to a "o e !o "a( %n'e &tan'ing o! "athe"atica( p oce&&e& the e i& a gen%ine nee' to he(p &t%'ent& gain in&ight into 0hat i& going on- A "athe"aticianA& (ogic "a) he e !ai( hi" 2o he 6 in 'e&igning a teaching &che'%(e- A "athe"atician o!ten ta+e& a co"p(e7 "athe"atica( i'ea an' B&i"p(i!ie&B it .) . ea+ing it into &"a((e co"ponent& ea') to teach each co"ponent in a (ogica( &e$%ence- F o" the e7pe tA& *ie0point the co"ponent& "a) .e &een a& pa t& o! a 0ho(e- C%t the &t%'ent "a) &ee the piece& a& the) a e p e&ente'1 in i&o(ation1 (i+e &epa ate piece& o! a /ig&a0 p%FF(e !o 0hich no tota( pict% e i& a*ai(a.(e- In !act the &cena io "a) .e 0o &e- A& the &t%'ent enco%nte & each piece o! the p%FF(e 2&6he !o "& a pe &ona( concept i"age ! o" the pa tic%(a conte7t 0hich "a) .e at *a iance 0ith the !o "a( i'eaTh%&1 not on() i& no pict% e a*ai(a.(e !o the p%FF(e1 the piece& the"&e(*e& "a) no0 ha*e 'i!!e ent &hape& &o that the) no (onge !itFo e7a"p(e1 a "athe"atica( ana()&i& o! the notion o! the 'e i*ati*e ,-(x) e$%i e& the notion o! the (i"it o! (./c0h) .(x))1h a& h ten'& to Fe o1 &o "athe"atica(() the 'e i*ati*e "%&t .e p ece'e' .) the 'i&c%&&ion o! the notion o! a (i"it- To "a+e the p oce&& "athe"atica(() ea&ie the (i"it p oce&& i& initia(() ca ie' o%t 0ith x !i7e'< on() at a (ate &tage i& x a((o0e' to *a ) to gi*e the notion o! a !%nction- Th%& the &e$%ence &%gge&te' .) a !o "a( "athe"atica( ana()&i& i&, 216 notion o! a (i"it1 2>6 !o !i7e' x, con&i'e the (i"it o! (f(x0h) f(x))1h a& h ten'& to Fe o1 2=6 ca(( the (i"it F2761 then a((o0 x to *a ) to gi*e the 'e i*e' !%nctionHo0e*e 1 0hen the (ea ne i& at &tage 2161 the (i"it notion i& ")&te io%& .eca%&e it &ee"& Bp(%c+e' o%t o! the ai B1 0itho%t an) ea( ea&on- The e a e a( ea') cogniti*e o.&tac(e& he e1 a& o.&e *e' .) Co n% 213D=61 an' othe &- At &tage 2>6 the (i"iting p oce&& int o'%ce& !% the o.&tac(e& 2Ta(( L Vinne 1 13D16 0hich 0i(( .e 'i&c%&&e' in "o e 'etai( in chapte 1?- No

Th%& it i& that &o "an) "athe"atician& 'e"an' that a p oo! &ho%(' not on() .e (ogica(1 .%t that the e &ho%(' .e &o"e o*e 8 i'ing p incip(e that e7p(ain& 0h) the p oo! 0o +&- The p oo! o! the !o% co(o% theo e"1 .) e7ha%&tion o! a(( po&&i.(e con!ig% ation& %&ing a co"p%te &ea ch 2Appe( L Ha+en1 13:E6 seems (ogica(1 )et "an) p o!e&&iona( "athe"a8 tician&1 tho%gh +een to &ee the theo e" p o*e' once an' !o a((1 a e ne*e the(e&& &ceptica( that the e "a) .e &o"e &%.t(e !(a0 in the co"p%te Bp oo!1 .eca%&e the e &ee"& to .e no h)"e o ea&on to i((%"inate 0h) it 0o +& a& it 'oe&Yet thi& p incip(e i& not a(0a)& pa&&e' on to &t%'ent&- Sa0)e 213D:6 epo t& ho0 he t ie' to teach theo e"& in !%nctiona( ana()&i& .) e!e ing .ac+ to theo e"& in ea( *a ia.(e& that he e7pecte' hi& &t%'ent& to +no01 on() to !in' that the) ha' no eco((ection o! the"The ea&on !o thi& 0a& that in thei %ni*e &it) (ect% e& the) ha' .een gi*en !o "a( (ect% e& that ha' not con*e)e' an) int%iti*e "eaning< the) ha' pa&&e' thei e7a"ination& .) (a&t8"in%te e*i&ion an' .) ote-

He te((& ho0 he 0a& &hoc+e' to (ea n o! a (ect% e 0ho .eca"e &t%c+ in the "i''(e o! a p oo!1 t% ne' hi& .ac+ on the c(a&& to ' a0 a pict% e to ai' hi"1 then e a&e' it an' ca ie' on 0ith the !o "a( p oo! 0itho%t en(ightening the c(a&& ho0 he ha' %&e' hi& int%ition to e.%i(' itHe o.&e *e&,
--- to teach ca(c%(%& 0e(( i& a *e ) 'e"an'ing ta&+- Th ee thing& ha*e to .e 'one, !i &t to &ho0 .) a ' a0ing that &o"e e&%(t i& e7t e"e() p(a%&i.(e< &econ'1 to gi*e co%nte 8e7a"p(e&1 0hich in'icate

1D

DAVID TALL

THE PSYCHOLOGYOF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

13

i& the pa&&age ! o" 2>6 to 2=6 a& ea&) cogniti*e() a& it &ee"& "athe"atica(()- Man) &t%'ent& &ee 2>6 a& a p% e() &)".o(ic acti*it)1 an' 'o not &ee the 'e i*ati*e ! -(x) a& a !%nction1 0ith a g aph 0hich i& e*e )0he e the g a'ient o! the g aph o! f(x) 2Ta((1 13DE6The p o.(e" o! c% ic%(%" 'e*e(op"ent i& the e!o e to p e&ent the &t%'ent 0ith conte7t& in 0hich cogniti*e g o0th i& po&&i.(e1 (ea'ing %(ti"ate() to "eaning!%( "athe"atica( thin+ing in 0hich the !o "a(i&" p(a)& an app op iate pa t In ana()&i&1 !o in&tance1 one "etho' 0hich ha& p o*e' &%cce&&!%( "ight in*o(*e a "o e !(e7i.(e app oach that co"p(e"ent& n%"e ica( an' a(ge. aic app oache& to the 'e i*ati*e 0ith a g(o.a(1 *i&%a( app eciation o! the g a'ient o! a g aph gene ate' on a co"p%te In gene a( it "a) .e po&&i.(e to %&e the co"p(e"enta ) po0e o! *i&%a(iFation to gi*e a g(o.a( ge&ta(t !o a "athe"atica( concept1 to &ho0 it& &t ength& an' 0ea+ne&&e&1 it& p ope tie& an' non8p ope tie&1 in a 0a) that "a+e& it a (ogica( nece&&it) to !o "%(ate the theo ) c(ea ()- Vi&%a( i'ea& 0itho%t (in+& to the &e$%entia( p oce&&e& o! co"p%tation an' p oo! a e in&ight& 0hich (ac+ "athe"atica( !%(!i(("ent- On the othe han'1 (ogica( &e$%entia( p oce&&e& 0itho%t a *i&ion o! the tota( pict% e1 a e .(in+e e' an' (i"iting- It i& the e!o e a 0o th) goa( to &ee+ the ! %it!%( inte action o! the&e *e ) 'i!!e ent "o'e& o! tho%ght=-> PROCLEM8SOLVING Fo "an) %n'e g a'%ate&1 p o.(e"8&o(*ing "ean& (ea ning the content& o! a &et o! (ect% e note& an' app()ing thi& +no0(e'ge to &peci!ic p o.(e"& c(ea () e(ate' to the "ate ia( ta%ght- Fo e&ea ch "athe"atician&1 p o.(e"8&o(*ing i& a "o e c eati*e acti*it)1 0hich inc(%'e& the !o "%(ation o! a (i+e() con/ect% e1 a &e$%ence o! acti*itie& te&ting1 "o'i!)ing an' e!ining %nti( it i& po&&i.(e to p o'%ce a !o "a( p oo! o! a 0e((8&peci!ie' theo e"Po()a 213456 &%gge&te' !o% pha&e& a& a ! a"e0o + !o p o.(e"8&o(*ing, X %n'e &tan' the p o.(e"1 X 'e*i&e a p(an1 X ca ) o%t the p(an1 X (oo+ .ac+ at the 0o +Thi& ! a"e0o + ha& !o "e' the .ac+.one o! "an) &%.&e$%ent atte"pt& at !o "%(ating p o.(e"8&o(*ing &t ategie&1 tho%gh Ma&Yn et al 213D>6 an' Schoen!e(' 213D56 ha*e &een the nee' to "a+e the act%a( he% i&tic& "%ch "o e e7p(icit an' "o e app op iate !o the (ea ne - The i'ea o! B'e*i&ing a p(anB i& e7t e"e() 'a%nting !o the no*ice- Mo e e"pathetic i& the *e &ion &%gge&te' .) Ma&Yn1 0ho p opo&e& th ee pha&e&, X ent )1 X attac+1 X e*ie0-

ac$%ainte' 0ith the p o.(e"8&o(*ing conte7t 8 getting a &en&e o! the p o.(e" .) p(a)ing 0ith the i'ea&1 pe hap& th o%gh &i"p(e &pecia(iFation&1 "o*ing to a po&ition 0hich atte"pt& to &peci!) c(ea () 0hat i& +no0n an' 0hat i& 0ante'1 an' con&i'e ing ca e!%(() 0hat can .e int o'%ce' 2notation1 p oce'% e& o! &o(%tion1 etc-6 that "ight ta+e the p o.(e"8&o(*e ! o" 0hat i& +no0n to 0hat i& 0ante'- Then a $%a(itati*e change occ% & 0ith a co""itte' attack on the p o.(e" %&ing the i'ea& that ha*e .een int o'%ce'- Thi& "a) .e &%cce&&!%(1 .%t it can "o e o!ten (ea' to an i"pa&&e1 a &ee"ing 'ea'8en' ! o" 0hich the in'i*i'%a( &ho%(' e*ie0 0hat ha& .een 'one an' et% n to the ent ) pha&e to con&i'e a ne0 attac+- Once &o"e +in' o! &o(%tion i& achie*e' the "oo' change& )et again to one o! &o.e revie& 8 chec+ing the e&%(t& to "a+e &% e no e o ha& .een "a'e1 e*ie0ing 0hat ha& .een 'one to (ea n o! &t ategie& that "a) p o*e %&e!%( on othe occa&ion& an' then .eing p epa e' to extend the p o.(e" to ne0 (e*e(& o! &ophi&tication1 e8&ta ting the ent ) c)c(e at a "o e &ophi&ticate' (e*e(The a%tho ha& ha' &e*e a( )ea & o! e7pe ience teaching p o.(e"8&o(*ing 0ithin thi& ! a"e0o +- It ha& p o*e' po&&i.(e to get %n'e g a'%ate& to 'e*e(op o igina( 0a)& o! &o(*ing p o.(e"& a(tho%gh the p oce&& e$%i e& (onge initia( pe io'& !o the &t%'ent& to each a point o! in&ight than "a) .e appa ent 0hen gi*ing the in!o "ation in a (ect% e- Ho0e*e 1 the pa)8o!! i& in the 0a) it can &ti"%(ate e!(ecti*e thin+ing an' 'e*e(op an inte na( "onito 0ithin the &t%'entA& "in' to &en&e the p og e&& an' app op iate 'i ection o! the &o(%tion p oce&&=-= PROOF St%'ent& &ta ting o%t in a'*ance' "athe"atic& ha*e g eat 'i!!ic%(t) 0ith p oo! .e!o e the) attain !a"i(ia it) 0ith the 0o +ing& o! the "athe"atica( c%(t% e- In a $%e&tionnai e in*e&tigating 0hich p oo! o! the i ationa(it) o! V> 0a& "o e c(ea 1 &t%'ent& p e!e e' a p oo! that &ho0e' that the &$%a e o! an) ationa( "%&t ha*e an e*en n%".e o! p i"e !acto &1 an' the e!o e &%ch a &$%a e co%(' not .e > .eca%&e the p i"e > occ% & an o'' n%".e o! ti"e& 2na"e() once6- The) p e!e e' thi& to the &tan'a ' p oo! .) cont a'iction an' anothe "o e gene a( 'e"on&t ation ta+en o%t o! Ha ')-s Pure Mathematics. Thi& i& 'e&pite the !act that thi& Bp oo! i& not a !o "a( p oo! at a((1 .%t a 'i&c% &i*e e7p(anation 0ith e7a"p(e& 'e"on&t ating 0hat !o " 0a& ta+en .) the &$%a e o! a t)pica( ationa( 2Ta((1 13:36- Once "o e 0e &ee that a generic p oo!, e7p(aining the gene a( concept .) con&i'e ing a t)pica( e7a"p(e1 i& an ea&ie !i &t &tep to %n'e &tan'ing athe than the econ&t %cti*e (eap to the gene a( !o "a(i&"O! co% &e it i& e&&entia( in a'*ance' "athe"atic& to ta+e the &tep ! o" 2gene ic6 e7p(anation to !o "a( p oo!- So"e e'%cato &1 &%ch a& Le on 213D=a.1 13D5a.61 &ee thei o(e a& "a+ing the structure o! p oo! "o e "eaning!%( to &t%'ent&- Hi& "etho' i&1 e&&entia(()1 to p ope () &t %ct% e the p oo!1 &o that it i& c(ea 0hat i& going on at an) gi*en ti"e1 an' to "a+e the p oo! a& 'i ect a& po&&i.(e- Th%& cont a'iction p oo!& a e e80 itten &o that the) a e initia(() 'i ect an' con&t %cti*e1 0ith an) cont a'iction .eing int o'%ce' a& (ate a& i& p actica.(e in the p oo!Othe & &ee thei '%t) a& the 0i'e o(e o! int o'%cing &t%'ent& to the !%(( ange o! "athe"atica( thin+ing1 inc(%'ing con/ect% e1 po&iti*e *e i!ication th o%gh a con*incing a g%"ent o e!%tation th o%gh a co%nte 8e7a"p(e- Th%& the G eno.(e &choo( 2Leg an' et al, 13D41 13DD< A(i.e t1 13DD6 ha*e int o'%ce' B&cienti!ic 'e.ateB into thei co% &e& in

The ent ) pha&e co*e & the !i &t t0o &tage& o! Po()a 0hi(&t attac+ an' e*ie0 co e&pon' to Po()aA& thi ' an' !o% th &tage- In the entry pha&e the potentia( p o.(e"8&o(*e get&

20 DAVID TALL 0hich a !%(( (ect% e a%'ience i& in*ite' to g o%p togethe to thin+ %p (i+e() theo e"& in the "athe"atica( topic %n'e con&i'e ation1 an' then to atte"pt to p o*e o 'i&p o*e the"- It i& i"po tant that the teache 'oe& not co""ent on the t %th o !a(&it) o! the con/ect% e& in the initia( &tage&1 &o that the &t%'ent& a e gen%ine() !ace' 0ith the ta&+ o! con*incing thei pee & o! the t %th o! thei a g%"ent&- 2See chapte 1=-6 =-4 DIFFERENCES CET9EEN ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THTNKING It i& i onic that the Nationa( C% ic%(%" in the OK an' the NCTM &tan'a '& in the OS A !o &choo( "athe"atic& a'*ocate a (e*e( o! open en'e' p o.(e" &o(*ing 0hich i& a e() &peci!ie' in %n'e g a'%ate co% &e& at %ni*e &itie&- The p o.(e"8&o(*ing p oce'% e& o! ent )1 attac+ an' e*ie0 can and are .eing pe !o "e' .) )o%nge chi(' en in &%ch "athe"atica( in*e&tigation&- Th%& "an) o! the p oce&&e& o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing a e a( ea') !o%n' at a "o e e(e"enta ) (e*e(- Ho0e*e 1 Ma&Yn el al 213D>6 'e&c i.e the p oce&& o! *e i!ication in Thinking Mathematically at th ee (e*e(&, X con*ince )o% &e(!1 X con*ince a ! ien'1 X con*ince an ene")Con*incing one&e(! in*o(*e& ha*ing an i'ea o! 0h) &o"e &tate"ent "ight .e t %e1 .%t con*incing a ! ien' e$%i e& that the a g%"ent& .e o ganiFe' in a "o e cohe ent 0a)Con*incing an ene") "ean& that the a g%"ent "%&t no0 .e ana()&e' an' e!ine' &o that it 0i(( &tan' the te&t o! c itici&"- Thi& i& the c(o&e&t that Thinking Mathematically get& to the notion o! p oo!- 9hat i& enti e() a.&ent i& the notion o! !o "a( 'e!inition& an' the (ogic o! !o "a( 'e'%ction& ! o" tho&e 'e!inition&It "a) .e h)pothe&iFe' that "athe"atica( thin+ing at e*e ) (e*e( can inc(%'e the pha&e& ent )1 attac+ an' e*ie01 inc(%'ing a (e*e( o! "athe"atica( /%&ti!ication1 .%t that e(e"enta ) "athe"atica( thin+ing (ac+& the p oce&& o! !o "a( a.&t action an' 'oe& not inc(%'e the !ina( Bp eci&ing pha&eB in it& "o&t !o "a( g%i&eThe "o*e ! o" e(e"enta ) to a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing in*o(*e& a &igni!icant t an&ition, that ! o" describing to defining, ! o" convincing to proving in a (ogica( "anne .a&e' on tho&e 'e!inition&- Thi& t an&ition e$%i e& a cogniti*e econ&t %ction 0hich i& &een '% ing the %ni*e &it) &t%'ent&A initia( &t %gg(e 0ith !o "a( a.&t action a& the) tac+(e the !i &t )ea o! %ni*e &it)- It i& the t an&ition ! o" the coherence o! e(e"enta ) "athe"atic& to the conse"uence o! a'*ance' "athe"atic&1 .a&e' on a.&t act entitie& 0hich the in'i*i'%a( "%&t con&t %ct th o%gh 'e'%ction& ! o" !o "a( 'e!inition&4- LOOKTNG AHEAD It i& a t %i&" that 0e can on() thin+ 0ith the cogniti*e &t %ct% e that 0e ha*e a*ai(a.(e to %&- 9hen 0e (oo+ at the p&)cho(og) o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing1 it i& no 0on'e that 0e each !in' it ea&ie to %&e o% o0n +no0(e'ge &t %ct% e to !o "%(ate o% o0n theo ie&-

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

>1

A& a "athe"atician ente ing "athe"atic& e'%cation it i& no &% p i&e that the a%tho !i &t atte"pte' to %&e cata&t ophe theo ) to 'e&c i.e the 'i&contin%itie& in (ea ning 2Ta((1 13::6Li+e0i&e tho&e 0ho .egin "athe"atic& e'%cation 0ith a .ac+g o%n' o! Piagetian theo ) a e (i+e() to atte"pt to e7p(ain thing& in the&e te "&1 tho&e 0ith e7pe ience in co"p%te &t%'ie& a e "o e (i+e() to %&e co"p%te ana(ogie&1 "athe"atician& a e (i+e() to atte"pt to %&e "athe"atica( con&t %ct&1 an' &o on- In t )ing to !o "%(ate he(p!%( 0a)& o! (oo+ing at a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing1 it i& i"po tant that 0e ta+e a . oa' *ie0 an' t ) to &ee the i((%"ination that *a io%& theo ie& can . ing1 the %&e!%( 'i!!e ence& that a i&e an' the co""on (in+& that ho(' the" togethe In the e"ain'e o! the !i &t pa t o! thi& .oo+ 0e con&i'e the cogniti*e processes in*o(*e' in a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing an' the t0o co"p(e"enta ) att i.%te& o! the 'i&cip(ine, creativity in gene ating ne0 i'ea& an' the "athe"aticianA& notion of proof 2n con*incing hi& pee & o! the t %th o! hi& a&&e tion&In the &econ' pa t o! the .oo+ 0e t%" to cogniti*e theo ie& that a e p o*ing o! *a(%e in ana()&ing the 'i!!ic%(tie& that &t%'ent& !ace an' p o*i'ing in&ight& into the (ea ning p oce&& that can .e %&e' in 'e&igning ne0 0a)& o! he(ping &t%'ent& con&t %ct "athe"atica( i'ea& !o the"&e(*e&- Fi &t the 'i!!e ence& .et0een concept definitions an' &t%'ent&A concept images are con&i'e e'1 then the nat% e o! the "enta( o./ect& 0hich "athe"atician& con&t %ct, the conceptual entities that a e the e&&ence o! a'*ance' "athe"atic&- Thi& (ea'& to the theo ) of reflective abstraction in 0hich p oce&&e& a e encap&%(ate' a& "enta( o./ect& 0hich p o*e to .e ea&ie to "anip%(ate at highe (e*e(& o! a.&t actionIn the thi ' pa t o! the te7t 0e e*ie0 *a io%& a'*ance' "athe"atica( concept& ! o" a cogniti*e *ie0point1 &ho0ing the cognitive obstacles that can occ% '% ing thei 'e*e(op"ent an' epo ting e"pi ica( e*i'ence on the &%cce&& o! in&t %ctiona( &e$%ence& 'e&igne' ! o" cogniti*e *ie0point&- The&e in*o(*e the cent a( i'ea& o! function, limit, "o e a'*ance' concept& o! analysis, infinity an' proof. 9e then "o*e on to (oo+ at the ne0 pa a'ig", the %&e o! the co"p%te an' it& cogniti*e e!!ect& in a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ingFina(()1 in chapte 151 a& e'ito o! the .oo+1 I ta+e the oppo t%nit) o! e!(ecting on the 'e*e(op"ent o! the theo ie& o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing an' it& teaching an' (ea ning o*e the (a&t 'eca'e an' high(ight the i"po tant the"e& 0hich ec% 1 the $%e&tion& that ha*e .een po&e' an' the pa tia( an&0e & that a e .eginning to &ho0 %& the 0a) ahea'-

I,THENATOREOF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING

3hat is it that is so difficult about 4dvanced Mathematical Thinking5 .n Pan . of this book &e have three chapters &hich consider the fundamental nature of advanced mathematical thinking to lay the ground&ork for the cognitive theory and research reports to follo&. First and foremost &e ackno&ledge 4dvanced Mathematical Thinking in terms of creative process rather than 'ust proof and deduction. .n 6hapter T&o, Tommy 7reyfus recogni%es that many of the processes of advanced mathematical thinking are also found in elementary mathematics. 8e considers the standard form of conveying information through lectures and reports conse"uent student difficulties in coping &ith anything &hich differs even marginally from &hat is taught. 8e focuses on the complexity of advanced concepts, the need to represent them and abstract their essential properties to control their complexity, and discusses the cognitive difficulties in carrying out these processes. .n 6hapter Three, 9ontran :rvynck considers the enigmatic nature of the creative process in mathematics, &hich is the focus of the research process yet plays so little part in student development. .n 6hapter Four, 9ila 8anna analyses the nature of mathematical proof from a philosophical and pragmatic vie&point to sho& that it is dependent on context and beliefs rather than an immutable standard shared by all mathematicians. .n these three chapters &e therefore take a critical look at advanced mathemati cal thinking as part of the living process of human thought rather than the immutable final product of logical deduction.

CHAPTER > ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING PROCESSES

TOMMY DREYFOS On'e &tan'ing1 "o e than +no0ing o .eing &+i((e'1 ha& a(0a)& .een con&i'e e' an i"po tant goa( .) "athe"atic& teache &- On'e &tan'ing1 a& it happen&1 i& a p oce&& occ% ing in the &t%'entA& "in'< it "a) .e $%ic+1 an BAha8 E (e.ni&B1 a c(ic+ o! the "in'< "o e o!ten1 it i& .a&e' %pon a (ong &e$%ence o! (ea ning acti*itie& '% ing 0hich a g eat *a iet) o! "enta( p oce&&e& occ% an' inte act- The e!o e1 0hat it "ean& to co"e to %n'e &tan' a "athe"atica( notion o concept i& e7t e"e() 'i!!ic%(t to ana()FeRe&ea che & in p&)cho(og) 2e-g-1 C o0n1 C an&!o '1 Fe a a1 L Ca"pione1 13D=6 ha*e .een a&+ing the"&e(*e& 0hat B%n'e &tan'ingB "ean&1 in pa tic%(a 0hat a e it& co"ponent&1 0hat "enta( p oce&&e& "a) inte *ene an' co".ine togethe to !o " that "eta8p oce&& o! %n'e &tan'ingRe&ea che & in "athe"atic& e'%cation1 in pa tic%(a 1 ha*e .eco"e con&cio%& o! the i"po tance o! the co"ponent p oce&&e& !o %n'e &tan'ing a'*ance' "athe"atic& an' thei inte action&9h) 0o%(' e&ea che & .e inte e&te' in the p oce&&e& in*o(*e' in (ea ning a'*ance' "athe"atic&R One ea&on i& to gain .a&ic theo etica( +no0(e'ge a.o%t 0hat i& going on in the &t%'entA& "in'- The e ce tain() i& &o"e int in&ic inte e&t in thi& !%n'a"enta( $%e&tionC%t the e a e a(&o *e ) i"po tant app(ie' a&pect& to thi& &t an' o! e&ea ch1 an' the&e conce n a(( teache & o! a'*ance' "athe"atic&- The p oce&&e& the teache hope& to p o*o+e in the &t%'ent 'o not happen .) the"&e(*e& no 1 i! the) happen1 a e the) nece&&a i() con&cio%& on the &t%'ent& pa t- It i& not &%!!icient1 !o e7a"p(e1 to 'e!ine an' e7e"p(i!) an a.&t act concept &%ch a& *ecto &pace- St%'ent& "%&t then con&t %ct the p ope tie& o! &%ch a concept th o%gh 'e'%ction& ! o" the 'e!inition- The) "a) in*o(*e .eing th o%gh acti*itie& that p o"ote a.&t action on thei pa t an' it ha& to .e . o%ght to thei attention that thi& i& 0hat i& .eing 'one1 that thi& i& the ai" o! the e7e ci&e- In thi& chapte 1 p oce&&e&1 a"ong the" a.&t acting1 a e ana()Fe' an' 'i&c%&&e' 0ith the ai" o! "a+ing teache & o! a'*ance' "athe"atic& "o e con&cio%& o! 0hat i& going on '% ing the&e p oce&&e&Hope!%(()1 thi& 0i(( he(p teache & int o'%ce &%ch action e7p(icit() in thei c(a&& oo"&Recent() &o"e cont o((e' t ia(& 0ith &i"i(a ai"& ha*e .een "a'e1 an' the) ha*e "et 0ith &o"e &%cce&&- A con&cio%& p oce&& app oach to a.&t acting ha& .een 'e&c i.e' .) Ma&Yn 213D36 an' e7pe ience& 0ith "a+ing &t%'ent teache & e!(ect %pon thei "athe"atica( acti*it) ha*e .een epo te' .) So%th0e(( 213DD6Re!(ection a.o%t oneA& "athe"atica( e7pe ience i& o! pa tic%(a i"po tance in the &o(%tion o! non8t i*ia( p o.(e"& 2a& oppo&e' to &tan'a ' e7e ci&e&6- An' it i& in thi& connection that the i"po tance o! p oce&&e& ha& !i &t .een ea(iFe' .) "athe"atic& e'%cato & 2Schoen!e('1 13D56- Re!(ection a.o%t oneA& "athe"atica( e7pe ience i& an i"po tant a&pect o! "eta8cogniFing1 anothe "eta8p oce&&- S%ch e!(ection i& a cha acte i&tic o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing- 9e 0o%(' not %&%a(() e7pect an e(e"enta ) "ath &t%'ent to &top1 a!te ha*ing &o(*e' a p o.(e"1 an' thin+ o eco%nt ho0 he 0ent a.o%t &o(*ing thi& p o.(e"- 9e 0o%('1 ho0e*e 1 'e!inite() (i+e to &ee "%ch "o e o! thi& in o% a'*ance' &t%'ent& an'1 in pa tic%(a 1 in o% high &choo( teache &-

26

TOMMY DREYFOS

ADVANCED MATHEMATZCAL THINKING PROCESSES

>:

The e i& no &ha p 'i&tinction .et0een "an) o! the p oce&&e& o! e(e"enta ) an' a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing1 e*en tho%gh a'*ance' "athe"atic& i& "o e !oc%&&e' on the a.&t action& o! 'e!inition an' 'e'%ction- Man) o! the p oce&&e& to .e con&i'e e' in thi& chapte a e p e&ent a( ea') in chi(' en thin+ing a.o%t e(e"enta ) "athe"atic& concept&1 &a) n%".e o p(ace *a(%e- The) a e not exclusively %&e' in a'*ance' "athe"atic&1 no 1 in'ee'1 a e the) e7c(%&i*e() %&e' in "athe"atic&- A.&t action& a e "a'e in ph)&ic&1 ep e&entation& a e %&e' in p&)cho(og)1 ana()&i& i& %&e' in econo"ic& an' *i&%a(iFation in a t- He e1 ho0e*e 1 0e 0i(( 'e&c i.e the p oce&&e& a& the) a e e(e*ant !o a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing1 in pa tic%(a !oc%&&ing on tho&e p oce&&e& 0ho&e cha acte i&tic& "a+e the "athe"atica( thin+ing a'*ance'It i& po&&i.(e to thin+ a.o%t a'*ance' "athe"atica( topic& in an e(e"enta ) 0a) 2e-g-1 "an) &tan'a ' e7e ci&e& on ing& o g o%p& can .e an&0e e' .) /%&t p(%gging in the ight n%".e &61 an' the e i& athe a'*ance' thin+ing a.o%t e(e"enta ) topic& 2(oo+ at &o"e o! the p o.(e"& in "athe"atic& o()"pia'&6- One 'i&tincti*e !eat% e .et0een a'*ance' an' e(e"enta ) thin+ing i& co"p(e7it) an' ho0 it i& 'ea(t 0ith- A'*ance' concept&1 &%ch a& ing& o Lie g o%p&1 a e (i+e() to .e *e ) co"p(e7- The 'i&tinction i& in ho0 thi& co"p(e7it) i& "anage'- The po0e !%( p oce&&e& a e tho&e that a((o0 one to 'o thi&1 in pa tic%(a a.&t acting an' ep e&enting- C) "ean& o! a.&t acting an' ep e&enting1 one can "o*e ! o" one (e*e( o! 'etai( to anothe an' th%& "anage the co"p(e7it)The p oce&&e& to .e 'i&c%&&e' in thi& chapte a e "athe"atica( an' p&)cho(ogica( one&1 an' in "an) ca&e& the) a e .oth< in !act1 the "athe"atica( an' the p&)cho(ogica( a&pect& o! a p oce&& can a e() .e &epa ate'- Fo e7a"p(e1 0hen )o% .%i(' a g aph o! a !%nction1 )o% a e e7ec%ting a "athe"atica( p oce&&1 !o((o0ing ce tain %(e& 0hich can .e &tate' in "athe"atica( (ang%age< at the &a"e ti"e1 ho0e*e 1 )o% a e *e ) (i+e() gene ating a *i&%a( "enta( i"age o! that g aph< in othe 0o '&1 )o% a e *i&%a(iFing the !%nction in a 0a) that can (ate he(p )o% ea&on a.o%t the !%nction- The "enta( an' the "athe"atica( i"age& a e c(o&e() (in+e' he e- Neithe can a i&e 0itho%t the othe 1 an' the) a e in !act gene ate' .) the *e ) &a"e p oce&&< the) a e1 e&pecti*e() the "athe"atica( an' the p&)cho(ogica( a&pect& o! thi& p oce&&- A &i"i(a (in+age .et0een "athe"atic& an' p&)cho(og) e7i&t& 0ith e&pect to the othe p oce&&e& o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing- In !act1 it i& p eci&e() thi& (in+age 0hich "a+e& the p oce&&e& inte e&ting an' e(e*ant !o %n'e &tan'ing (ea ning an' thin+ing in a'*ance' "athe"atic&-

o! the &peci!ic 'o"ain o! "athe"atic& conce ne'- In &o 'oing1 a *e ) i"po tant a&pect o! the "athe"atic& 0hich i& .eing ta%ght i& p e&ente' to the &t%'ent&1 na"e() the !ini&he' an' po(i&he' p o'%ct into 0hich that 0e(( +no0n1 %na&&ai(a.(e1 !%(() accepte' &eg"ent o! "athe"atic& ha& g o0nO% in&t %cto p e&%"a.() +no0& *e ) 0e(( that "athe"atic& i& not .eing c eate' in !ina( an' po(i&he' !o "1 .%t th o%gh t ia( an' e o 1 th o%gh pa tia(() co ect 2an' pa tia(() 0 ong6 &tate"ent&1 th o%gh int%iti*e !o "%(ation& in 0hich (oo&e te "& an' i"p eci&ion& na*e intentiona(() .een int o'%ce'1 th o%gh ' a0ing& that t ) to *i&%a(() p e&ent pa t& o! the "athe"atica( &t %ct% e& .eing tho%ght a.o%t1 th o%gh ')na"ic change& .eing "a'e to the&e ' a0ing&1 etc-1 etc-- C%t the !act that o% in&t %cto +no0& a.o%t the&e othe a&pect& o! "athe"atic&1 in'ee'1 i& *e ) (i+e() to e7pe ience the" 'ai() in hi& o he e&ea ch 0o +1 'oe& not %&%a(() p e*ent hi" o he ! o" a("o&t e7c(%&i*e() teaching the one *e ) con*enient an' i"po tant a&pect o! "athe"atic& 0hich ha& .een 'e&c i.e' a.o*e1 na"e() the po(i&he' !o "a(i&"1 0hich &o o!ten !o((o0& the &e$%ence theo e"8p oo!8app(icationThi& "anne o! teaching ha& &e*e a( a'*antage&, !o e7a"p(e1 it a((o0& !o a 0e((8p(anne' &t %ct% e o! the co% &e1 a& 0e(( a& !o p e'ica.(e p og e&& th o%gh the "ate ia(1 an' th%& !o a !ai () ce tain g%a antee that "o&t o! the "ate ia( in the &)((a.%& can .e co*e e'On!o t%nate()1 it a(&o ha& at (ea&t one *e ) &e io%& 'i&a'*antage, it i& in!(e7i.(e in te "& o! a'apta.i(it) to the &t%'ent&- It "a) 0o + athe 0e(( !o &t%'ent& 0ho "a/o in "athe"atic& an' 0ho1 ! o" &o"e e7ceptiona( teache o on the .a&i& o! thei o0n ta(ent an' in*e&tigati*e nat% e1 ha*e a( ea') ha' the oppo t%nit) to ac$%i e a "athe"atica( attit%'e- C%t a& i& &ho0n1 !o in&tance1 .) the p e&ent ca(c%(%& c i&i&1 it 'oe& not 0o + !o the *a&t "a/o it) o! &t%'ent&1 tho&e "a/o ing in &cience1 enginee ing1 "e'icine o the (i.e a( a t& an' ta+ing "athe"atic& a& a e$%i e' &e *ice &%./ect9hat the&e &t%'ent& (ea n1 an' 0hat the) 'onA t (ea n1 i& i((%&t ate' *e ) 0e(( .) the e&%(t& o! a ecent &t%') o! &t%'ent& 0ho ha' pa&&e' a t a'itiona( !i &t $%a te ca(c%(%& co% &e at Tenne&&ee Techno(ogica( Oni*e &it) 2Se('en1 Ma&on L Se('en1 13D36- The&e 0e e 0e(( p epa e' &t%'ent& 0ho ha' .een ta%ght in &"a(( g o%p& .) e7pe ience' teache & an' teaching a&&i&tant&1 o.taining at (ea&t a C g a'e- The &t%'ent& 0e e p e&ente' 0ith !i*e "o'e ate() 'i!!ic%(t p o.(e"& that co%(' ea&i() .e &o(*e' 0ith the techni$%e& at the &t%'ent&A 'i&po&a(- The&e p o.(e"& 0e e !o "%(ate' in a "anne that 0a& &o"e0hat non8 &tan'a '1 !o e7a"p(e, Fin' at (ea&t one &o(%tion to the e$%ation 47=874I=? o e7p(ain 0h) no &%ch &o(%tion e7i&t&The !%nction !!c6[\=8\4 ha& a "a7i"%" *a(%e o! >: an' th%& no &o(%tion to the gi*en e$%ation e7i&t&- A(tho%gh the &t%'ent& in the &t%') 0e e pe !ect() capa.(e to ca ) o%t the e$%i e' !%nction 'i&c%&&ion1 the) co%(' not an&0e the $%e&tion a& gi*en- The &it%ation 0a& &i"i(a 0ith e&pect to the othe !o% p o.(e"&- In !act1 the a%tho & &tate that not one student got an entire problem correct. Most couldn-t do anything. Thi& i& not an e7ceptiona( !in'ing1 no i& it (i"ite' to a*e age %ni*e &it) ! e&h"an- Da*i& 213DD61 in 'i&c%&&ing a c(a&& o! un"uestionably excellent high &choo( &enio &1 ca ne to the conc(%&ion that &hen one looks carefully at ho& these (apparently successful( students deal &ith mathematical problems, one finds that they hold many grotes"ue misconceptions about mathematics an' that the !o((o0ing ea&on& cont i.%te to thei &%cce&& in pa&&ing

1- ADVANCED MATHEMATZCAL THINKING AS PROCESS The t)pica( "athe"atic& co% &e at1 &a)1 !i &t )ea %ni*e &it) (e*e( ha& a neat() 'e!ine' &)((a.%&1 0hich te((& the in&t %cto 0hat "ate ia( he i& &%ppo&e' to co*e .) the en' o! the te "- 9hethe thi& i& a co% &e in ca(c%(%&1 a(ge. a1 !inite "athe"atic&1 n%"e ica( "etho'& o othe 1 !o the in&t %cto the content to .e ta%ght i& a 0e(( +no0n1 %na&&ai(a.(e1 accepte' &eg"ent o! "athe"atica( +no0(e'ge< a(tho%gh 2&6he 0i(( p o.a.() thin+ o! &e*e a( po&&i.i(itie& to o ganiFe thi& "ate ia( into a (ogica(() c(ean &t %ct% e1 each o! the&e &t %ct% e& 0i(( .a&ica(() con&i&t o! a n%".e o! theo e"&1 to .e p o*e'1 an' a n%".e o! app(ication& o! the&e theo e"& to topic& in "athe"atic& an' .e)on'- The in&t %cto 0i(( p o.a.() 'i&t i.%te the&e into a& "an) c(a&& pe io'& a& a e a*ai(a.(e an' (ect% e '% ing a con&i'e a.(e pa t o! the&e c(a&& pe io'&1 "a+ing e7ten&i*e %&e o! the &t i+ing() con*enient !o "a(i&"&

>D

TOMMY DREYFOS

ADVANCED MATHEN1ATICAL THINKING PROCESSES

>3

te&t&, Most mathematics instruction, from elementary school through college courses, teaches &hat might be called rituals! (do this, then do this, then do this...( an' Teachers ... &ill typically accept the correctly performed ritual as enough success for the time being. In othe 0o '&1 0hat "o&t &t%'ent& (ea n in thei "athe"atic& co% &e& i&1 to ca ) o%t a (a ge n%".e o! &tan'a 'iFe' p oce'% e&1 ca&t in p eci&e() 'e!ine' !o "a(i&"&1 !o o.taining an&0e & to c(ea () 'e(i"ite' c(a&&e& o! e7e ci&e $%e&tion&- The) th%& ac$%i e the capa.i(it) to pe !o "1 a(.eit "%ch &(o0e 1 the +in' o! ope ation 0hich a co"p%te can pe !o " .) "ean& o! a &%ita.(e p og a" &%ch a& Mathematica. The) en' %p 0ith a con&i'e a.(e a"o%nt o! "athe"atica( +no0(e'ge .%t 0itho%t the 0o +ing "etho'o(og) o! the "athe"atician1 that i& the) (ac+ the +no08ho0 that a((o0& the" to %&e thei +no0(e'ge in a !(e7i.(e "anne to &o(*e p o.(e"& o! a t)pe %n+no0n to the"- The) a e e7a"p(e& o! the pheno"enon 'e&c i.e' in the p e*io%& chapte the) ha*e .een ta%ght the p o'%ct& o! the acti*it) o! &co e& o! "athe"atician& in thei !ina( !o "1 .%t the) ha*e not gaine' in&ight into the p oce&&e& that ha*e (e' "athe"atician& to c eate the&e p o'%ct&9hi(e the e i& no nee' to !o " e*e ) &t%'ent o! &cience o enginee ing into a !%((8!(e'ge' "athe"atician1 "o&t teache & o! ca(c%(%& 0o%(' (i+e thei g a'%ate& to .e a.(e to an&0e $%e&tion& &%ch a& 9hat con'ition& a e &%!!icient to en&% e that the !%nction ,(x);ax<0bx=0cx0d i& inc ea&ing at x;>? an' to i""e'iate() &ta t &ea ching !o a "i&ta+e 0hen the) &ee a e&%(t that o.*io%&() ha& the 0 ong &ign &%ch a& in

!Eg276'7I 2MB#x k)CxD @a @a0k

he e one nee'& to 'ea( 0ith the !%nction g a& an o./ect that i& ope ate' on in t0o 0a)&1 na"e() integ ate' ! o" a to b to gi*e a n%".e a& 0e(( a& t an&(ate' to the ight an' then integ ate' o*e a t an&(ate' inte *a(< one po&&i.i(it) i& to *i&%a(iFe the t an&(ation& o! the !%nction an' the inte *a( an' to co"pa e the"- A(tho%gh a(( o! thi& "a) ha '() ta+e "o e than a !e0 &econ'& !o the e7pe t1 hi& "enta( p oce&&ing ha& p o.a.() inc(%'e' co"ponent& o! ep e&enting 2the !%nction1 "a).e g aphica(()61 t an&!o "ing 2.) t an&(ation61 *i&%a(iFing 2the !%nction1 the t an&(ation1 the a ea %n'e the g aph61 chec+ing 2that the t0o t an&(ation& go in the &a"e 'i ection61 an' 'e'%cing 2that the e&%(ting n%".e & a e e$%a(6- Po&&i.() p oce&&e& o! &pecia(iFing 2e-g-1 to po&iti*e !%nction& on()6 an' then gene a(iFing again ha*e a(&o .een in*o(*e'- Mo eo*e 1 a(( o! thi& 0a& "o&t ce tain() .a&e' on e7ten&i*e p io p oce&&ing o! !%nction& an' integ a(& 0hich inc(%'e' epeate' pha&e& o! gene a(iFing1 a.&t acting an' !o "a(iFing1 that a((o0 the e7pe t to *ie0 !%nction& an' integ a(& a& o./ect& .%t "a) not .e a*ai(a.(e to the &t%'ent- The "e&&age that I a" t )ing to con *e) he e i& that a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing1 a& in the e7pe tA& t eat"ent o! the e$%a(it) o! the&e t0o integ a(&1 i& an e7t e"e() co"p(e7 p oce&&1 in 0hich a (a ge n%".e o! co"ponent p oce&&e& inte act in int icate 0a)&One p(ace to (oo+ !o i'ea& on ho0 to !in' 0a)& to i"p o*e &t%'ent&A %n'e &tan'ing& i& the "in' o! the 0o +ing "athe"atician- Not "%ch ha& .een 0 itten on ho0 "athe"a 8 tician& act%a(() 0o +< ce tain() the 'eepe&t an' "o&t e(a.o ate 'oc%"ent on thi& topic i& Ha'a"a 'A& .oo+ 2134561 0hich e!e & .ac+ e7ten&i*e() to Poinca ;A& i'ea& an' 0a& the &o% ce o! in&pi ation !o "%ch o! the 'i&c%&&ion in the p e*io%& chapte - Ha'a"a ' e7p(icit() &t e&&e& the i"po tance o! in!o "a( ea&oning1 o! thin+ing in the a.&ence o! 0o '&1 o! *i&%a( i"age )1 o! "enta( i"age& 20hich cannot nece&&a i() .e e7p e&&e' in 0o '&1 at (ea&t not 0hen the) !i &t occ% 61 an' o! p(a)ing a o%n' 0ith i'ea&1 !o in&tance .) epeate'() t )ing to !it 'i!!e ent e(e"ent& togethe "%ch (i+e in a p%FF(e- Thi& e7pe i"enta( a&pect o! "athe"atic&1 a& 0e(( a& the *i&%a( "ean& .eing %&e'1 ha*e ecei*e' a''e' i"po tance in ecent )ea & '%e to the techno(ogica( p og e&& that ha& .een "a'e in co"p%te g aphic&- In*e&tigation& ha*e .eco"e po&&i.(e 0hich a e in p incip(e $%a(itati*e an' *i&%a(- The p i"e e7a"p(e !o thi& i& e&ea ch on non8(inea &)&te"&1 chao& an' ! acta(&- Acco 'ing to Peitgen L #Q gen& 213D361 the !%n'a"enta( "athe"atica( 'e*e(op"ent& in thi& a ea 0e e "a'e po&&i.(e on() th o%gh co"p%te 8g aphica( e7pe i"ent&Ho!!"an 213D36 ha& p opo&e' a phi(o&oph) o! "athe"atic& e'%cation .a&e' on the &i"p(e ecognition that "athe"atic& i& a h%"an acti*it)1 %&e!%( in the ea( 0o ('< on thi& .a&i& he e$%i e& that 0e &ho%(' t an&"it to o% &t%'ent& a pict% e o! "athe"atic& a& a &cience 0hich inco po ate& o.&e *ation1 e7pe i"ent an' 'i&co*e )Se*e a( p o/ect& ha*e .een ca ie' o%t in ecent )ea & !o((o0ing .a&ica(() thi& phi(o&o 8 ph)- Fo e7a"p(e1 C e%e 1 Ga(8EFe L ]0a& 2133?6 p opo&e' to teach n%"e ica( "etho'& at ca(c%(%& (e*e( in a co"p%tationa( (a.o ato ) an' R%th*en 213D36 ha& epo te' ho0 the %&e o! g aphic ca(c%(ato & ha& (e' &t%'ent& to %&e a g aphic8t ia( app oach an' a n%"e ic8 t ia( app oach in pa a((e( to an ana()tic8con&t %ction app oach to p e8ca(c%(%& p o.(e"&Man) 2tho%gh not a((6 &i"i(a p o/ect& "a+e e7ten&i*e %&e o! co"p%te & a& e7pe i"enta(

mi J-l x2

+1

, =-2.

Mo eo*e 1 one 0o%(' e7pect that the) ea(iFe athe $%ic+() that Cb Cb+k

g276'7 I @a @a0k

g(x k),dx

!o an) contin%o%& !%nction g an' that the) ha*e (itt(e 'i!!ic%(t) in 'ete "ining 0hich o! the &tate"ent& 2i6 !A2a6I[!A2a61 2Q6 !28a6I!2a61 2iQ6 !A28a6I8!A2a61 2i*6 ,2 a);Ai2 a) a e t %e !o an) o'' 'i!!e entia.(e !%nction !- E7pe ience &ho0&1 ho0e*e 1 that &%ch ta&+& a e 'i!!ic%(t !o ca(c%(%& &t%'ent&1 an' that a &i"i(a &it%ation pe tain& to &t%'ent& o! othe co% &e& &%ch a& p e8ca(c%(%& "athe"atic&1 (inea a(ge. a an' 'i!!e entia( e$%ation&The 'i&c epanc) .et0een teache e7pectation& an' &t%'ent pe !o "ance on &%ch ta&+& occ% & .eca%&e 0e1 a& teache &1 o!ten 'o not ea(iFe ho0 "%ch o! o% e7pe ience 0ith "athe"atica( p oce&&e& an' concept& 0e %&e- Ta+e1 !o e7a"p(e1 the e$%a(it)

30

TOMMY DREYFOS

ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING PROCESSES =1

too(&- Co"p%te & can &e *e a& he% i&tic too(& !o the "athe"atician an' the "athe"atic& &t%'ent in "%ch the &a"e 0a) a& a "ic o&cope &e *e& the .io(ogi&t i! the too( i& 'i ecte' onto inte e&ting pheno"ena an' co ect() !oc%&&e'1 it "a) &ho0 an %ne7pecte' pict% e1 o!ten a *i&%a( one1 o! the pheno"enon %n'e &t%')1 an' th%& (ea' to ne0 i'ea&1 to the ecognition o! he eto!o e %n+no0n e(ation&hip&- In the ca&e o! the e&ea che 1 the&e i'ea& an' e(ation&hip& "a) .e e7pecte' to .e o igina(< in the ca&e o! the &t%'ent1 the) 0e e *e ) (i+e() +no0n to "an) othe peop(e .e!o e .%t the) a e ne0 to thi& pa tic%(a in'i*i'%a(C) %&ing co"p%te (ea ning en*i on"ent& "an) %&%a(() i"p(icit e(ation&hip&1 !o in&tance .et0een 'i!!e ent ep e&entation& !o the &a"e concept1 "a) .e "a'e e7p(icit- Thi& e7p(icitne&& cont i.%te& to &t%'ent&A ecognition o! &%ch e(ation&hip& an' to the e"e gence o! e(ate' i'ea&1 in . ie! to thei !o "ation o! concept&- Thi& p oce&& th%& c(o&e() pa a((e(& the ecognition o! e(ation&hip& an' the e"e gence o! i'ea& in the e&ea ch p oce&&A'"itte'()1 the e a e c(ea 'i!!e ence& .et0een the e&ea ch p oce&& an' the (ea ning p oce&&< !o in&tance1 in the (ea ning p oce&& the "ate ia( to .e (ea ne' i& p e&ente' in a "anne /%'ge' .) e7pe t& to .e 'ige&ti.(e< an' the a*e age (ea ne &ho%(' .e e7pecte' to .e con&i'e a.() (e&& ta(ente' !o "athe"atic& than the a*e age e&ea che < .%t the point he e i& to &t e&& the *e ) i"po tant &i"i(a itie& .et0een the (ea ning p oce&& an' the e&ea ch p oce&&< na"e() that in .oth ca&e& the in'i*i'%a( ha& to "enta(() "anip%(ate1 in*e&tigate an' !in' o%t a.o%t o./ect& a.o%t 0hich hi& +no0(e'ge i& *e ) pa tia( an' ! ag"ente'Th%&1 /%&t a& the e&ea ch p oce&& i& e7t ao 'ina i() co"p(e71 &o i& the co e&pon'ing (ea ning p oce&&- It contain& the gi&t o! 0hat a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing i& a(( a.o%t It i& (i+e() to co"p i&e1 at an) &tage an' in tight inte action1 &e*e a( o! the p oce&&e& "entione' in the 'i&c%&&ion o! the t an&(ate' integ a(1 e-g- ep e&enting1 *i&%a(iFing1 gene a(iFing1 a& 0e(( a& othe & &%ch a& c(a&&i!)ing1 con/ect% ing1 in'%cing1 ana()Fing1 &)nthe&iFing1 a.&t acting o !o "a(iFing- In othe 0o '&1 a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing con&i&t& o! a (a ge a a) o! inte acting co"ponent p oce&&e&- It i& i"po tant !o the teache o! "athe"atic& to .e con&cio%& o! the&e p oce&&e& in o 'e to co"p ehen' &o"e o! the 'i!!ic%(tie& 0hich thei &t%'ent& !ace-

>- PROCESSES 1NVOLVED IN REPRESENTATION

'i&c%&&e' in g eate 'etai( in chapte E .) Ha e( an' Kap%tAnothe "eaning o! ep e&entation& i& e*en "o e cent a( !o (ea ning an' thin+ing in "athe"atic&- 9hen 0e ta(+ o thin+ a.o%t a g o%p1 an integ a(1 an app o7i"ation1 a.o%t an) "athe"atica( o./ect o p oce&& at a((1 each one o! %& e(ate& to &o"ething 0e ha*e in "in' 8 a "enta( ep e&entation o! the o./ect o p oce&& %n'e con&i'e ation- A(tho%gh "o&t "athe"atician& can .e e7pecte' to co"e %p 0ith o%gh() e$%i*a(ent 'e!inition& o!1 &a)1 a !%nction1 thei e&pecti*e "enta( ep e&entation& o! the notion "a) .e *a&t() 'i!!e ent- Ha*e )o% e*e a&+e' "athe"atician& 0o +ing in 'i!!e ent a ea& 0hat co"e& to thei "in' 0hen the) thin+ a.o%t !%nction&R 9hen )o% a(&o a&+ "athe"atic& teache & an' &t%'ent&1 the&e 'i!!e ence& .eco"e not on() "o e p ono%nce' .%t a(&o "%ch "o e i"po tant Fo e7a"p(e1 a &t%'entA& notion o! a !%nction "a) .e (i"ite' to p oce&&e& 2o! co"p%tation o "apping61 0he ea& the teache teaching in'e!inite integ a(& "a) thin+ o! the !%nction in the integ a( a& an o./ect to .e t an&!o "e'- S%ch 'i&c epancie& ea&i() (ea' to &it%ation& 0he e &t%'ent& a e %na.(e to %n'e &tan' thei teache &To ep e&ent a concept1 then1 "ean& to gene ate an in&tance1 &peci"en1 e7a"p(e1 i"age o! it- C%t thi& &ho t 'e&c iption i& in&%!!icient !o %&1 .eca%&e it 'oe& not &peci!) 0hethe the gene ate' in&tance i& &)".o(ic o "enta(1 no 'oe& it in'icate 0hat Bgene ateB "ean& in te "& o! the p oce&&e& .) 0hich "enta( ep e&entation& co"e into e7i&tence an' ho0 the) 'e*e(op- A &)".o(ic ep e&entation i& e7te na(() 0 itten o &po+en1 %&%a(() 0ith the ai" o! "a+ing co""%nication a.o%t the concept ea&ie - A "enta( ep e&entation1 on the othe han'1 e!e & to inte na( &che"ata o ! a"e& o! e!e ence 0hich a pe &on %&e& to inte act 0ith the e7te na( 0o ('- It i& 0hat occ% & in the "in' 0hen thin+ing o! that pa tic%(a pa t o! the e7te na( 0o (' an' "a) 'i!!e ! o" pe &on to pe &on- In ca&e o! the &)""et ic g o%p1 one pe &onA& "enta( ep e&entation "a) con&i&t o! nothing .%t the &)".o( )n, anothe "a) thin+ o! a &et o! co(o e' c%.e& 0hich a e .eing pe "%te'1 a thi ' "a) &ee Bin the "in'A& e)eB &)".o(& (i+e 21= 562> 4 E:6 0hich "a) o "a) not ha*e an a&&ociate' "eaning1 an' &ti(( anothe pe &on "a) concei*e o! the g o%p .) 0a) o! it& i e'%ci.(e ep e&entation&Anothe e7a"p(e i& that o! *ecto &pace- 9hen I thin+ o! a *ecto &pace1 I "a) B&eeB a o0& 2.e!o e ") "in'A& e)e61 an' I "a) .e a.(e to thin+ in te "& o! the&e a o0& 0hen 'ea(ing 0ith .a&e&1 t an&!o "ation& etc- Othe & "a) e*o+e n8t%p(e& o! n%".e & o a.&t act &)".o(& 0hich &ati&!) the a7io"&Vi&%a(iFation p(a)& an e&&entia( o(e in the 0o + o! "an) e"inent "athe"atician&- Fo in&tance1 Ein&tein 0 ote to Ha'a"a ',
9o '& an' (ang%age1 0 itten o o a(1 &ee" not to p(a) an) o(e in ") thin+ing- The p&)cho(ogica( con&t %ct& 0hich a e the e(e"ent& o! tho%ght a e ce tain &ign& o pict% e&1 "o e o (e&& c(ea 1 0hich can .e ep o'%ce' an' co".ine' at (i.e t)2Ha'a"a '1 13451 p- D>6

>-1 THE PROCESS OF REPRESENTING Rep e&entation& ha*e a *e ) i"po tant !%nction in "athe"atic&, I! 0e 0ant to ta(+ a.o%t the g o%p o! pe "%tation& o! n o./ect&1 !o in&tance1 it 0i(( o!ten .e con*enient to ca(( it the &)""et ic g o%p o! 'eg ee n an' 'enote it .) )n. The notation )n i& a &ign that e!e & to1 an' th%& ep e&ent&1 o &)".o(iFe&1 the g o%p in $%e&tion< it i& a &)".o(ic ep e&entation o! the g o%p- S%ch &)".o(& a e a.&o(%te() in'i&pen&a.(e in "o'e" "athe"atic&1 .%t the e i& a(&o &o"e 'ange a&&ociate' 0ith the"- A& ha& .een &t e&&e' .) ?1&onL Ca"p.e(( 2in p e&&61 &)".o(& in*o(*e e(ation& .et0een &ign& an' "eaning&< the) &e *e to "a+e a pe &onA& i"p(icit +no0(e'ge 8 the "eaning 8 e7p(icit in te "& o! &)".o(&- The e "%&t .e &o"e "eaning a&&ociate' 0ith a notion .e!o e a &)".o( !o that notion can po&&i.() .e o! an) %&e< in the e'%cationa( 'i&co% &e o! teaching "athe"atic&1 thi& i& too o!ten o*e (oo+e' (ea'ing to the 0e(( +no0n pheno"enon o! B&)".o( p%&hingB- The o(e o! &)".o(& i&

Vi&%a(iFing i& one p oce&& .) 0hich "enta( ep e&entation& can co"e into .eing- A "o e gene a( 'e&c iption o! ho0 "enta( ep e&entation& o! "athe"atica( concept& "a) .e gene ate' ha& .een p opo&e' .) Kap%t 213D:.6< acco 'ing to hi& theo )1 the act o! gene ating a "enta( ep e&entation1 e(ie& on ep e&entation &)&te"&1 i-e- conc ete1 e7te na( a te!act&1 0hich can .e "ate ia(() ea(iFe'- In the ca&e o! !%nction&1 g aph& a e one &%ch a te!act1 a(ge. aic !o "%(a& a e anothe 1 a o0 'iag a"& an' *a(%e ta.(e& &ti(( othe one&Menta( ep e&entation& a e c eate' in the "in' on the .a&i& o! the&e conc ete ep e&entation &)&te"&- A pe &on "a) th%& c eate a &ing(e o &e*e a( co"peting "enta( ep e&entation& !o

=>

TOMMY DREYFOS

ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING PROCESSES

==

the &a"e "athe"atica( concept- The topic o! &t%'ent&A "enta( i"age& o! *a io%& "athe"atica( concept& ha& a( ea') .een "entione' in the opening chapte o! thi& *o(%"e an' 0i(( .e 'i&c%&&e' !% the .) Vinne in chapte 5To .e &%cce&&!%( in "athe"atic&1 it i& 'e&i a.(e to ha*e ich "enta( ep e&entation& o! concept&- A ep e&entation i& ich i! it contain& "an) (in+e' a&pect& o! that concept- A ep e&entation i& poo i! it ha& too !e0 e(e"ent& to a((o0 !o !(e7i.i(it) in p o.(e" &o(*ingS%ch in!(e7i.i(it) 0e o!ten o.&e *e in o% &t%'ent&, The &(ighte&t change in the &t %ct% e o! a p o.(e"1 o e*en in it& !o "%(ation1 "a) co"p(ete() .(oc+ the" 2&ee1 e-g-1 the &t%') .) Se('en1 Ma&on L Se('en 'e&c i.e' in the p e*io%& &ection6- Poo "enta( i"age& o! the !%nction concept1 !o in&tance1 a e t)pica( a"ong .eginning co((ege &t%'ent&1 0ho thin+ on() in te "& o! !o "%(a& 0hen 'ea(ing 0ith !%nction&1 e*en i! the) a e a.(e to ecite a "o e gene a( &et8theo etic 'e!inition 2&ee Ei&en.e g1 chapte 36Se*e a( co"peting "enta( ep e&entation& o! a concept "a) coe7i&t in &o"e.o')A& "in'1 an' .e ta+en a'*antage o!, 'i!!e ent one& "a) .e ca((e' %p !o con&i'e ing 'i!!e ent "athe"atica( &it%ation&- Ho0e*e 1 'i!!e ent "enta( ep e&entation& "a) a(&o ente into con!(ict &%ch a&1 !o e7a"p(e1 in a ca(c%(%& &t%'ent 'e&c i.e' .) Schoen!e('1 S"ith L A ca*i 2in p e&&61 0ho &i"%(taneo%&() he(' !o% co"peting an' con!(icting inte p etation& o! the *8inte cept o! a &t aight (ine- In "o e !a*o a.(e ca&e&1 &e*e a( "enta( ep e&entation& !o the &a"e concept "a) co"p(e"ent each othe an' e*ent%a(() "a) .e integ ate' into a &ing(e ep e&entation o! that concept- Thi& p oce&& o! integ ation i& e(ate' to a.&t action an' i& !% the 'i&c%&&e' .e(o0- A& a e&%(t o! thi& p oce&&1 one ha& a*ai(a.(e 0hat i& .e&t 'e&c i.e' a& "%(tip(e8(in+e' ep e&entation&1 a &tate that a((o0& one to %&e &e*e a( o! the" &i"%(taneo%&()1 an' e!!icient() &0itch .et0een the" at app op iate "o"ent& a& e$%i e' .) the p o.(e" o &it%ation one thin+& a.o%t-

>-> S9ITCHTNG REPRESENTATIONS AND TRANSLATTNG A(tho%gh it i& i"po tant to ha*e "an) ep e&entation& o! a concept1 thei e7i&tence .) it&e(! i& not &%!!icient to a((o0 !(e7i.(e %&e o! the concept in p o.(e" &o(*ing- One 'oe& not get the &%ppo t that i& nee'e' to &%cce&&!%(() "anage the in!o "ation %&e' in &o(*ing a p o.(e"1 %n(e&& the *a io%& ep e&entation& a e co ect() an' &t ong() (in+e'- One nee'& the po&&i.i(it) to &0itch ! o" one ep e&entation to anothe one1 0hene*e the othe one i& "o e e!!icient !o the ne7t &tep one 0ant& to ta+e- The p oce&& o! &0itching ep e&entation& i& th%& c(o&e() a&&ociate' 0ith that o! ep e&enting- S0itching "%&t a(0a)& .e ca ie' o%t .et0een e7i&ting ep e&entation&- In o% conte7t1 it "ean& going o*e ! o" one ep e&entation o! a "athe"atica( concept to anothe one- An' again1 !%nction& a e p o.a.() the c(ea e&t e7a"p(e- A !%nction i& an a.&t act concept 0ith 0hich 0e %&%a(() 0o + in one o! &e*e a( ep e&entation&1 o p e!e a.() in &e*e a( ep e&entation& at once< o!ten the&e inc(%'e the g aphica( an' the a(ge. aic ep e&entation- Teaching an' (ea ning thi& p oce&& o! &0itching i& not ea&) .eca%&e the &t %ct% e i& a *e ) co"p(e7 one< thin+1 !o e7a"p(e1 o! a t igono"et ic !%nction1 0hich a( ea') ha& the p ope tie& o! ! e$%enc)1 a"p(it%'e an' pha&e< no0 con&i'e the a(ge. aic !o "%(a !o thi& !%nction1 it& g aph1 an' a ta.(e containing the *a(%e& o! the !%nction at &pecia( point& &%ch a& e7t e"a an' Fe o&< "o eo*e e&ta.(i&h the (in+& .et0een the&e th ee ep e&entation&1 e-g- c(a i!) to )o% &e(! 0he e &o"e o! the point& in the ta.(e o! *a(%e& appea on the g aph o ho0 the *a(%e o! the pha&e 'ete "ine&

the po&ition o! the g aph< thi& i& a( ea') a (ot o! in!o "ation to .e 'ea(t 0ith1 e&pecia(() !o &t%'ent& 0ho (ac+ e7ten&i*e e7pe ience< .%t a(( o! thi& in!o "ation "a) on() .e the &ta ting point !o a p o.(e" &%ch a& the .eha*io o! the t igono"et ic !%nction %n'e a &hi!t o &t etch t an&!o "ation1 i-e- a change o! ! e$%enc) o pha&e- A& a con&e$%ence1 &t%'ent& *e ) o!ten (i"it the"&e(*e& to 0o +ing in a &ing(e ep e&entation< !o e7a"p(e1 e*en 0hen the) a e e$%i e' to ' a0 a &+etch1 &a) .e!o e integ ating an a.&o(%te *a(%e !%nction1 the) o!ten igno e thei o0n &+etch an' th%& !ai( to &o(*e the p o.(e" co ect() 2M%n')1 13D46One po&&i.(e app oach i& to &)&te"atica(() %&e &e*e a( ep e&entation& in teaching an' to &t e&& the p oce&& o! &0itching ep e&entation& ! o" the .eginning- Co"p%te en *i on"ent& ha*e .een &%cce&&!%(() %&e' to achie*e thi& in c% ic%(a !o !%nction& 2Sch0a F1 D e)!%& L C %c+hei"e 1 133?61 ca(c%(%& 2Ta((1 13DEa1 13DE.61 an' 'i!!e entia( e$%ation& 2A tig%e1 13D:6- The&e 0i(( .e !% the 'i&c%&&e' in chapte 11 .) A tig%e an' chapte 14 .) Ta(( L D%.in&+)- The 0a) in 0hich "%(tip(e8(in+e' ep e&entation& "a) .e t eate' i& 0e(( i((%&t ate' .) the !%nction& c% ic%(%"- Thi& int o'%cto ) c% ic%(%" i& .a&e' on a co"p%te "ic o80o ('1 0hich ha& .een &peci!ica(() 'e&igne' to enco% age &0itching ep e&entation&- St%'ent& a e a&+e' to &o(*e open en'e' p o.(e"& &%ch a& "a7i"iFing1 to a gi*en acc% ac)1 the *o(%"e o! an open .o7 con&t %cte' ! o" a gi*en &heet o! ca '.oa ' 2.e!o e the) (ea n an) ca(c%(%&^6- To &%cce&&!%(() &o(*e thi& p o.(e" the) ha*e to %&e at (ea&t t0o ep e&entation&1 an' the) nee' to t an&!e in!o "ation o.taine' in one ep e&entation in o 'e to %&e it in anothe one- A (a ge "a/o it) o! &t%'ent& in the &t%') ha*e .een !o%n' to t an&!e in!o "ation .et0een ep e&entation& an' to &%cce&&!%(() %&e the t an&!e e' in!o "ation !o &o(*ing p o.(e"&- It ha& .een conc(%'e' that1 !o the&e &t%'ent&1 !%nctiona( ep e&entation& a e &)".o(& in the &en&e 'e&c i.e' a.o*e1 na"e() &ign& 0ith a&&ociate' "eaning< "o eo*e 1 that "eaning 0a& co""on to &e*e a( ep e&entation& o! the !%nction< in othe 0o '&1 the&e &t%'ent& 'e*e(ope' a &ati&!acto ) !%nction concept inco po ating th ee ep e&entation&1 .et0een 0hich the) 0e e a.(e to &0itch '% ing p o.(e"& &o(*ing p oce&&e&- 2Sch0a F L D e)!%&1 13316A p oce&& 0hich i& c(o&e() connecte' to &0itching ep e&entation& i& t an&(ating- One "eaning o! t an&(ating 0hich i& e(e*ant !o a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing i& going o*e ! o" one !o "%(ation o! a "athe"atica( &tate"ent o p o.(e" to anothe one- App(ie' p o.(e"& a e a ca&e in point- A &econ' o 'e (inea 'i!!e entia( e$%ation 0ith con&tant coe!!icient& "a) .e p e&ente' a& an o&ci((ation p o.(e"1 po&&i.() 0ith ! iction< it& &o(%tion "a) then .e 'i&c%&&e' in te "& o! pe "anent an' t an&ient &tate&- F o" the p e&ent point o! *ie01 thi& con&tit%te& an a''itiona( ep e&entation1 an' one that int o'%ce& con&i'e a.(e a''itiona( 'i!!ic%(tie& !o the .eginning &t%'ent< at (ea&t ") &t%'ent& a e *e ) app ehen&i*e a.o%t Bapp(ie' p o.(e"&B in e7a"ination&- Thi& can .e ea&i() e7p(aine' in the (ight o! the a.o*e 'i&c%&&ion- Not on() 'oe& the &t%'ent nee' to %n'e &tan' the conte7t o! the app(ie' p o.(e"&1 e-g- an e(ect ic ci c%it1 .%t "o e i"po tant()1 he nee'& to e&ta.(i&h a c(o&e an' c(ea co e&pon'ence .et0een $%antitie& e!e e' to in te "& o! e(ect ic ci c%it& an' $%antitie& e!e e' to in te "& o! 'i!!e entia( e$%ation&- Thi& co e&pon'ence "a) .e o.*io%& to the teache 1 .%t !o the &t%'ent the con&t %ction o! the app op iate "enta( &che"ata i& a 'i!!ic%(t ta&+ 0hich nee'& to .e &%ppo te' .) e7p(icit teache actionIn thi& &%.&ection1 the 'i&tinction1 "a'e a.o*e1 .et0een "enta( an' conc ete an' &)".o(ic ep e&entation& ha& .een .(% e'- To &o"e e7tent1 thi& i& nece&&a ) 0hen (ea ning p oce&&e& a e con&i'e e'1 .eca%&e "enta( ep e&entation& a i&e ! o" conc ete one&- The &ection on ep e&enting 0i(( no0 .e conc(%'e' 0ith a p oce&& o! conc ete ep e&enting that

34 ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING PROCESSES ha& pa tic%(a i"po tance in app(ie' "athe"atic& an' ta+e& on e*e g eate 0eight in %ni*e &it)1 an' "o e ecent() a(&o in &choo( c% ic%(a1 na"e() "o'e((ing=-1 GENERALI]ING To gene a(iFe i& to 'e i*e o in'%ce ! o" pa tic%(a &1 to i'enti!) co""ona(itie&1 to e7pan' 'o"ain& o! *a(i'it)- A &t%'ent "a) +no0 ! o" e7pe ience that a (inea e$%ation in one *a ia.(e ha& one &o(%tion1 an' that B"o&tB &)&te"& o! t0o 2th ee6 (inea e$%ation& in t0o 2th ee6 *a ia.(e& ha*e a %ni$%e &o(%tion- 2S6he "a) then gene a(iFe thi& to &)&te"& o! n (inea e$%ation& in n *a ia.(e&- Mo e i"po tant()1 0ith app op iate g%i'ance1 2&6he "a) .e (e' to e7a"ine the "eaning o! B"o&tB !o nI> an' nI= in the a.o*e &tate"ent1 !o "%(ate it a& an app op iate con'ition1 an' gene a(iFe a(&o that con'ition to n_=- In thi& p oce&&1 one nee'& to "a+e the t an&ition ! o" the pa tic%(a ca&e& o! n; 11>1= to gene a( n, one nee'& to i'enti!) 0hat the con'ition& !o nI> an' nI= ha*e in co""on1 an' to con/ect% e an' then e&ta.(i&h that the 'o"ain o! *a(i'it) o! the conc(%&ion Bthe e i& a %ni$%e &o(%tionB can .e e7ten'e' to gene a( n. The gene a(iFation in the p e*io%& e7a"p(e i& i"po tant in that it e&ta.(i&he& a e&%(t !o a (a ge c(a&& o! ca&e& 8 a(( &)&te"& o! n in'epen'ent (inea e$%ation& in n *a ia.(e&- It i&1 ho0e*e 1 (i"ite' to e&ta.(i&hing ana(ogie& .et0een the conc ete ca&e& o! nI> an' nI=1 an' e7ten'ing the" to the ca&e o! n e$%ation& in n *a ia.(e&1 0hich "a) .e (e&& conc ete .%t p e&ent& no e&&entia(() ne0 !eat% e&- In pa tic%(a 1 the gene a( ca&e 'oe& not e$%i e the !o "ation o! an) "athe"atica( concept& that 0e e not p e&ent !o nI=- Othe gene a(iFation& 'o inc(%'e the nee' !o &%ch concept !o "ation- An e7a"p(e i& the t an&ition ! o" con*e gence o! a &e$%ence o! n%".e & to con*e gence o! a &e$%ence o! !%nction&1 0hich gi*e& i&e to the nee' !o a topo(og) on the &pace o! !%nction&- The cogniti*e e$%i e"ent& in the p oce&& o! gene a(iFation a e th%& inc ea&e' con&i'e a.()1 an' !o the &peci!ic ca&e o! con*e gence o! !%nction& the 'eg ee o! 'i!!ic%(t) o! the&e e$%i e"ent& i& 0e(( 'oc%"ente' .) &e*e a( 'eca'e& o! 'i&c%&&ion& .et0een Ca%ch)1 Fo% ie an' A.e( at the .eginning o! the 13th cent% ) 2La+ato&1 13:D6- St%'ent& "%&t th%& .e e7pecte' to ha*e a ha ' ti"e 0ith &%ch gene a(iFation&1 an' e7pe ience con!i "& thi&- It "%&t .e pointe' o%t1 ho0e*e 1 that e*en in thi& ca&e1 the gene a(iFation ta+e& p(ace 0ith e&pect to gi*en 2"athe"atica(6 o./ect&1 e$%ation& in the !i &t ca&e1 n%".e & an' !%nction& in the &econ'- The p e&ence o! the&e o./ect& i& he(p!%( to the &t%'ent .eca%&e it (ea*e& hi" on 2hope!%(()6 0e(( +no0n1 &o(i' g o%n' 0hi(e t )ing to g app(e 0ith the a''e' gene a(it) o! the &it%ation=5

>-= MODELLING T)pica(()1 the te " "o'e((ing e!e & to !in'ing a "athe"atica( ep e&entation !o a non8 "athe"atica( o./ect o p oce&&- In thi& ca&e1 it "ean& con&t %cting a "athe"atica( &t %ct% e o theo ) 0hich inco po ate& e&&entia( !eat% e& o! the o./ect1 &)&te" o p oce&& to .e 'e&c i.e'- Thi& &t %ct% e o theo )1 the "o'e(1 can then .e %&e' in o 'e to &t%') the .eha*io o! the o./ect o p oce&& .eing "o'e((e'- Fo e7a"p(e1 the Sch Y'inge e$%ation "o'e(& the .eha*io o! ce tain ph)&ica( &)&te"& 0hich o.e) the %(e& o! $%ant%" "echanic&< o a c )&ta((og aphic g o%p "o'e(& the &)""et ) p ope tie& o! a che"ica( co"po%n'- A "athe"atica( "o'e( th%& ha& the &tat%& o! a ep e&entation o! a 2ph)&ica(6 &it%ation< .%t !o the pe &on thin+ing a.o%t1 &a) the &)""et ) p ope tie& o! a &i(icate c )&ta(1 thi& i& not eno%gh< that pe &on a(&o nee'& a "enta( ep e&entation o! the &i(icateA& &)""et ) g o%p- Thi& (ea'& to an inte e&ting connection .et0een a "o'e( an' a "enta( ep e&entationThe p oce&& o! ep e&enting i&1 to &o"e e7tent1 ana(ogo%& to the "o'e((ing p oce&&1 .%t on anothe (e*e(- In "o'e((ing the &it%ation o &)&te" i& ph)&ica( an' the "o'e( i& "athe"ati8 ca(< in ep e&enting the o./ect to .e ep e&ente' i& the "athe"atica( &t %ct% e1 an' the "o'e( i& a "enta( &t %ct% e- Th%& the "enta( ep e&entation i& e(ate' to the "athe"atica( "o'e( a& the "athe"atica( "o'e( i& e(ate' to the ph)&ica( &)&te"- Each i& a pa tia( en'e ing o! the othe - Each e!(ect& &o"e 2.%t not a((6 p ope tie& o! the othe - An' each enhance& oneA& capacit) to "enta(() "anip%(ate the &)&te" %n'e con&i'e ation=- PROCESSES INVOLVED IN ACSTRACTION Man) o! the p oce&&e& "entione' in thi& .oo+ occ% at an) (e*e( o! "athe"atica( thin+ing, Ce tain()1 e*en &"a(( chi(' en c eate "enta( ep e&entation& o! an)thing the) thin+ a.o%t1 an' pa tic%(a () o! "athe"atica( o./ect& o! tho%ght1 &%ch a& n%".e & o t iang(e&- Sta ting no (ate than in e(e"enta ) &choo(1 chi(' en a(&o 0o + 0ith the&e o./ect&1 e&pecia(() n%".e &1 in 'i!!e ent ep e&entation&- Othe p oce&&e&1 ho0e*e 1 ta+e on a''e' i"po tance a& &t%'ent&A "athe"atica( e7pe ience an' a.i(itie& 'e*e(op an' a& the "athe"atica( content& the) 'ea( 0ith .eco"e "o e a'*ance'< the "o&t i"po tant a"ong the&e a'*ance' p oce&&e& i& a.&t acting- I! a &t%'ent 'e*e(op& the a.i(it) to con&cio%&() "a+e a.&t action& ! o" "athe"atica( &it%ation&1 he ha& achie*e' an a'*ance' (e*e( o! "athe"atica( thin+ingAchie*ing thi& capa.i(it) to a.&t act "a) 0e(( .e the &ing(e "o&t i"po tant goa( o! a'*ance' "athe"atica( e'%cationT0o p oce&&e&1 in a''ition to ep e&enting1 !o " a p e e$%i&ite .a&i& to a.&t acting, generali%ing an' synthesi%ingD 0e . ie!() 'i&c%&& the&e !i &t-

=-> SYNTHESI]ING To &)nthe&iFe "ean& to co".ine o co"po&e pa t& in &%ch a 0a) that the) !o " a 0ho(e1 an entit)- Thi& 0ho(e then o!ten a"o%nt& to "o e than the &%" o! it& pa t&- Fo e7a"p(e1 in (inea a(ge. a1 &t%'ent& %&%a(() (ea n $%ite a n%".e o! i&o(ate' !act& a.o%t o thogona(iFation o! *ecto &1 'iagona(iFation o! "at ice&1 t an&!o "ation o! .a&e&1 &o(%tion o! &)&te"& o! (inea e$%ation&1 etc- Late in the (ea ning p oce&&1 a(( the&e p e*io%&() %n e(ate' !act& hope!%(() "e ge into a &ing(e pict% e1 0ithin 0hich the) a e a(( co"p i&e' an' inte e(ate'- Thi& p oce&& o! "e ging into a &ing(e pict% e i& a &)nthe&i&- Th% &ton 2133?6 ha& ecogniFe' that1 '%e in pa t to thi& po&&i.i(it) o! &)nthe&i&1 "athe"atic& i& t e"en'o%&() co"p e&&i.(e- He ha& a(&o note'1 that 0hi(e the in&ight that goe& 0ith thi& co"p e&&ion i& one o! the ea( /o)& o! "athe"atic&1 thi& p oce&& i& i e*e &i.(e< the e!o e1 it i& *e ) ha ' !o the "athe"atician to p%t hi"&e(! in the ! a"e o! "in' o! the &t%'ent 0ho ha& not )et achie*e'

=E

TOMMY DREYFOS thi& &)nthe&i&1 an' to &ee not on() ho0 "%ch 'etai( i& in*o(*e' in (ea ning e*en &i"p(e concept& an' ope ation& .%t ho0 "%ch 'etai(e' 0o + 0ith the&e concept& an' ope ation& i& nee'e' to .e a.(e to &ta t &)nthe&iFingC(a&& oo" p actice o!ten 'oe& not p%t eno%gh &t e&& on thi& p oce&& o! &)nthe&i&- 9hi(e the 'etai(& a e e7p(aine' at (ength .) the teache an' e7e ci&e' .) the &t%'ent1 !e0 i! an) acti*itie& a e 'e&igne' to (ea' the &t%'ent to &)nthe&iFe 'i!!e ent a&pect& o! a concept1 an' e*en (e&& 'i!!e ent concept& 0ithin a 'o"ain o e*en 'i!!e ent 'o"ain&- O.*io%&()1 the goo' teache 'oe& hi& pa t o! &%""a iFing an' thi& o!ten inc(%'e& &o"e &)nthe&i&- He 'oe& &tate1 !o the &t%'ent&A .ene!it1 0hat the connection&1 e(ation&hip&1 etc- a e- C%t the !act that it i& 'one .) the teache athe than in a &t%'ent acti*it) con*e)& to the &t%'ent& that thi& i& 0hat the "athe"atician& &ee1 an' i& o! no 'i ect e(e*ance to the p o.(e"& the &t%'ent ha& to &o(*e- The&e p o.(e"& a e &tan'a ' e7e ci&e&1 0hich 'o not e$%i e &)nthe&i&Con&e$%ence, I 'o not nee' it !o the e7a"1 0h) &ho%(' I .othe R A& 0e &a0 ea (ie in the chapte 1 non8&tan'a ' $%e&tion&1 e*en i! a("o&t t i*ia(1 .%t e$%i ing &o"e a"o%nt o! !(e7i.i(it) o! thin+ing an' &)nthe&i&1 a e %&%a(() o%t o! each1 at (ea&t !o the a*e age &t%'ent 2Se('en1 Ma&on L Se('en1 13D36- St%'ent&1 &peci!ica(() high &choo( &t%'ent& 0ho 'o 0e(( in "athe"atic&1 .e(ie*e that &o(*ing a "athe"atic& p o.(e" &ho%(' t)pica(() ta+e one "in%te1 an' ne*e "o e than ten< the) a(&o thin+ that "e"o iFing i& e7t e"e() i"po tant !o &%cce&& in "athe"atic& an' that the e i& (itt(e e(ation&hip .et0een the 'i!!e ent "athe"atic& co% &e& 2a(ge. a1 geo"et )1 t igono"et )6 0hich the) ha*e ta+en 2Schoen!e('1 13D36- Again1 e*en i! &)nthe&i& "a) .e in the teache A& "in'1 it i& &o e() (ac+ing ! o" the &t%'entA&-

ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING PROCESSES

=:

=-= ACSTRACTTNG In the t an&ition ! o" the conc ete *ecto &pace IR = to the notion o! an a.&t act *ecto &pace1 the e(ation&hip& .et0een the *ecto & .eco"e the !oc%& o! attention1 0he ea& thei &peci!ic ea(iFation a& t ip(e& o! n%".e & i& ' oppe'- In o 'e to "a+e thi& t an&ition1 one nee'& to .e a.(e to concei*e o! the o./ect B*ecto B p% e() in te "& o! it& e(ation&hip& to othe &i"i(a o 'i!!e ent o./ect& 2*ecto & o &ca(a &61 an' accept that the o./ect it&e(! i& not !% the &peci!ie' .) an) int in&ic p ope tie&- Con&i'e ing on() the&e e(ation&hip&1 ena.(e& one to ' a0 conc(%&ion& ! o" the" 0hich 0i(( .e gene a(() *a(i'1 in'epen'ent() o! the &peci!ic int in&ic p ope tie& o! the *ecto &- In thi& "anne 1 "%ch o! the po0e o! "athe"atic& 'e i*e& ! o" a.&t actionThe p oce&& o! a.&t action i& th%& inti"ate() (in+e' to gene a(iFation- One o! the "ain incenti*e& !o a.&t action i& the gene a( nat% e o! the e&%(t& that can .e o.taine'- Anothe incenti*e i& the achie*e"ent o! &)nthe&i&- G o%p& &ho0 to the &t%'ent that it i& po&&i.(e to 'e&c i.e in a %ni!)ing "anne a *a&t n%".e o! &it%ation& that ha*e he eto!o e .een con&i'e e' &epa ate() an' in'epen'ent() o! each othe - C%t neithe gene a(iFing no &)nthe&iFing "a+e the &a"e hea*) cogniti*e 'e"an'& on &t%'ent& a& a.&t action- A& 0e &a0 in chapte 11 gene a(iFation %&%a(() in*o(*e& an e7pan&ion o! the in'i*i'%a(A& +no0(e'ge &t %ct% e 0hi(&t a.&t action i& (i+e() to in*o(*e a "enta( e8con&t %ction- In the t an&ition1 &a)1 ! o" ea( to co"p(e7 n%".e &1 0e achie*e gene a(iFation .) not in&i&ting an) "o e on o 'e .%t 0e contin%e 0o +ing 0ith o./ect& that a e ep e&ente' e7p(icit() %&ing n%".e & that 0e can a'' an' "%(tip() in a !a"i(ia 0a)- Si"i(a ()1 a &t%'ent "a) 0e(( (ea n a.o%t the connection& .et0een "at i7 ca(c%(%& an' p(ana o &patia( &)""et )

t an&!o "ation& &%ch a& p incipa( a7i& t an&!o "ation& o c )&ta((og aphic point g o%p& 0itho%t !o going thei e7p(icit conc ete ea(iFation- A.&t action1 ho0e*e 1 e$%i e& gi*ing %p e7act() thi& e7p(icitne&&, the &t%'ent i& e$%i e' to !oc%& on the e(ation&hip& that e7i&tA .et0een n%".e & in o 'e to .e a.(e to g a&p 0hat a !ie(' i&1 athe than on the n%".e & the"&e(*e&1 an' &i"i(a () !o othe notion& &%ch a& !%nction1 g o%p an' *ecto &paceA.&t action th%& contain& the potentia( !o .oth gene a(iFation an' &)nthe&i&< *ice *e &a1 it get& it& p% po&e "ain() ! o" thi& potentia( o! gene a(iFation an' &)nthe&i&- The nat% e o! the "enta( p oce&& o! a.&t acting i&1 ho0e*e 1 *e ) "%ch 'i!!e ent ! o" that o! gene a(iFing an' ! o" that o! &)nthe&iFing- A.&t acting i& !i &t an' !o e"o&t a constructive p oce&& 8 the .%i('ing o! "enta( &t %ct% e& ! o" "athe"atica( &t %ct% e&1 i-e- ! o" p ope tie& o! an' e(ation&hip& .et0een "athe"atica( o./ect&- Thi& p oce&& i& 'epen'ent on the i&o(ation o! app op iate p ope tie& an' e(ation&hip&- It e$%i e& the a.i(it) to &hi!t attention ! o" the o./ect& the"&e(*e& to the &t %ct% e o! thei p ope tie& an' e(ation&hip&- S%ch con&t %cti*e "enta( acti*it) on the pa t o! a &t%'ent i& hea*i() 'epen'ent on the &t%'entA& attention .eing !oc%&&e' on tho&e &t %ct% e& 0hich a e to !o " pa t o! the a.&t act concept1 an' ' a0n a0a) ! o" tho&e 0hich a e i e(e*ant in the inten'e' conte7t< the &t %ct% e .eco"e& i"po tant1 0hi(e i e(e*ant 'etai(& a e .eing o"itte' th%& e'%cing the co"p(e7it) o! the &it%ation- The o(e o! "athe"atica( an' "enta( &t %ct% e in a.&t action ha& .een e7a"ine' .) Tho"p&on 213D5a6 an' Ha e( L Ta(( 2in p e&&6- The cogniti*e a&pect& o! !oc%&&ing an' &hi!ting attention '% ing the p oce&& o! a.&t action ha*e .een in*e&tigate' .) DG !(e 213DD6 an' Ma&on 213D36- A.&t action 0i(( .e !% the 'i&c%&&e' .) D%.in&+) in chapte : ! o" a Piagetian *ie0point- 9e he e on() ai&e a !e0 point& 0hich "a) &e *e a& .ac+g o%n' !o the co"ing chapte &It i& an open 'i'actica( p o.(e"1 0hethe one &ho%(' (ea' &t%'ent& to a.&t act ! o" "an ) ca&e& o ! o" a &ing(e one- Schoen!e('1 S"ith L A ca*i gi*e a *e ) 'etai(e' 'e&c iption o! ho0 one a.o*e a*e age &t%'ent con&t %cte' he %n'e &tan'ing o! )8inte cept 2o! a &t aight (ine6- The) o.&e *e' he gi*e !o% 'i!!e ent1 incon&i&tent inte p etation& o! )8inte cept 'epen'ing on the conte7t &he ha' to 'ea( 0ith< e-g-1 &he inte p ete' )8inte cept 'i!!e ent() acco 'ing to 0hethe the (ine 0a& gi*en .) t0o point& on the &a"e o on 'i!!e ent &i'e& o! the )8a7i&- It too+ &e*en ho% & o! 0o + o*e &e*e a( 0ee+& !o the &t%'ent to 'econte7t%a(iFe the notion an' achie*e an a.&t act %ni!ie' concept o! )8inte cept- Gi*en the in&ta.i(it) in the &t%'entA& inte p etation&1 it "%&t .e con&i'e e' %n(i+e() that a &ing(e e7a"p(e an' an e7p(icit !o "a( 'e!inition 0o%(' ha*e he(pe' he a*oi' (ate "i&inte p etation&- Mo e gene a(()1 ha*ing &e*e a( e7a"p(e&1 e-g- o! conc ete g o%p&1 0i(( ena.(e &t%'ent& to i'enti!) co""ona(itie&< thi& i& one 0a) !o the teache to !oc%& &t%'ent&A attention on tho&e p ope tie& an' e(ation&hip& 0hich a e i"po tant !o the inten'e' a.&t action- An' thi& 0a) o! !oc%&&ing attention "a) 0o + 0e((1 i! the a"o%nt o! in!o "ation in the 'etai(e' 'e&c iption o! the inte na( &t %ct% e o! the e7a"p(e& i& (i"ite'- I!1 ho0e*e 1 the e7a"p(e& a e too co"p(e71 i-e- i! the) ha*e "an) p ope tie& that a e (o .e igno e' in the p oce&& o! a.&t acting1 it "a) .e 'i!!ic%(t to achie*e &%ch !oc%&&ing- The e!o e1 it i& &o"eti"e& .ette to a.&t act ! o" a &ing(e ca&e1 co".ine' 0ith a 'e!inition o! the a.&t act concept- Thi& &ing(e ca&e then nee'& to .e cho&en &o that the inten'e' p ope tie& an' e(ation&hip& ta+e &o"e e*i'ence1 e-g- .) .eing %&e!%( in an acti*it) the &t%'ent& engage in- St%'ent&A e7pe ience 0ith "a+ing a.&t action& i& a(&o (i+e() to .e a !acto he e, G a'e &choo(e & 0ho &ho%(' (ea n a.o%t p(ace *a(%e 2a *e ) a.&t act an' 'i!!ic%(t concept6 a e %n(i+e() to ha*e "%ch %&e !o a 'e!inition< "athe"atic& &t%'ent& 0ho a( ea') ha*e a goo' g a&p o! 0hat *ecto &pace&

=D

TOMMY DREYFOS

ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING PROCESSES

=3

an' g o%p& a e1 "a) not nee' 'oFen& o! e7a"p(e& o! ing& .e!o e .eing a.(e to 'ige&t a 'e!inition- The $%e&tion i& th%& one o! !in'ing the goo' "ea&% e< that thi& i& not ea&) i& 0e(( +no0n1 !o in&tance1 ! o" a(( tho&e &t%'ent& in 'i!!e entia( e$%ation& co% &e& 0ho (ac+ an a.&t act concept o! a !%nction a& a "athe"atica( o./ect an' the e!o e !ai( to %n'e &tan' that a !%nction athe than a n%".e con&tit%te& the &o(%tion to a 'i!!e entia( e$%ationThe e i& a inhe ent 'i!!ic%(t) in a.&t acting, Ho0 can 0e gene ate "enta( &t %ct% e&1 0hich a e &o o!ten (in+e' to *i&%a( i"age&1 i! the) &ho%(' ep e&ent e(ation&hip& that a e e"o*e' ! o" the conc ete o./ect& 0hich the) 0e e o igina(() (in+e' toR 9hat i& the o(e o! *i&%a(iFation in the p oce&& o! a.&t actionR Again1 the e i& no 'e!inite an&0e to thi& $%e&tion- Vi&%a( i"age& a e %&%a(() g(o.a( an' &t e&& &t %ct% a( a&pect&- The e!o e1 i! app op iate *i&%a( i"age& can .e !o%n'1 the) a e (i+e() to .e o! g eat he(p to &t%'ent& engage' in a.&t acting- The 0e(( +no0n in!inite o0 o! 'o"ino &tone& a& a "o'e( !o "athe"atica( in'%ction i& a ca&e in point It inco po ate& e7act() tho&e !eat% e& that a e co""on to a(( in'%cti*e p oce&&e& an' it 'oe& thi& in a "anne that e7hi.it& the &t %ct% e o! the&e co""on !eat% e&- Fo in&tance1 i! one &tone !a((&1 then &o 'oe& the ne7t one< thi& i& &o at an) p(ace in the 0ho(e o0 o! &tone&< the e!o e1 i! one !a((&1 not on() the ne7t one .%t a(( !o((o0ing one& !ai(1 each one ca%&ing the ne7t one to !ai(- F% the "o e1 an' thi& i& cent a(1 it i& o.*io%& that the i!8then8&tate"ent 'oe& not "a+e the &tone& !ai(1 .%t that in a''ition to the i!8then8&tate"ent .eing co ect1 one1 not nece&&a i() the !i &t1 &tone nee'& to !ai(- The pict% e o! the 'o"ino &tone& contain& the e(e*ant e(e"ent& o! in'%ction 0itho%t "an) e7t aneo%& !eat% e&- It capt% e& the &t %ct% e o! the enti e p oce&&1 g(o.a(()1 into a &ing(e entit)- S%ch a *i&%a( i"age %n'o%.te'() he(p& &t%'ent& in .%i('ing an' &t engthening thei "enta( ep e&entation o! in'%ction- It happen&1 ho0e*e 1 that *i&%a( "o'e(& app op iate !o a.&t act "athe"atica( concept& a e non8e7i&tent1 inco"p(ete o e*en "i&(ea'ing1 an' then ca e "%&t .e e7e ci&e'- A 'etai(e' in*e&tigation o! *i&%a(() &%ppo te' a.&t action ha& .een epo te' .) Ka%t&chit&ch 213DD6< he !o%n' that ')na"ic *i&%a( &e$%ence& 0e e &t ong() &%ppo ting a.&t action .eca%&e o! thei ana(og) to &e$%ence& o! action&-

p oce&& i& not p% e() "athe"atica(- The e i& a pa a((e( cogniti*e nee', The thin+ing o! "an) "athe"atician& an' "athe"atic& &t%'ent& i& enhance' i! the) a e a.(e to p(ace the"&e(*e& "enta(() in a pa tic%(a ep e&entation1 e-g- a *i&%a( one- It i& e*en "o e enhance'1 0hen the) a e a.(e to %&e &e*e a( ep e&entation& in pa a((e(- Again1 the e i& a co"p(e"enta it)1 thi& ti"e .et0een the "athe"atica( an' the cogniti*e a&pect& o! ep e&enting "athe"atica( &t %ct% e&Coth the&e co"p(e"enta itie&1 the one .et0een a.&t acting an' ep e&enting an' the one .et0een "athe"atica( an' "enta( ep e&entation&1 "a) .e an' ha*e .een p%t to 'i'actic %&e in (ea ning p oce&&e&- Lea ning p oce&&e& "a) then .e &een a& con&i&ting o! !o% &tage&, X O&ing a &ing(e ep e&entation1 ` O&ing "o e than one ep e&entation in pa a((e(1 X Ma+ing (in+& .et0een pa a((e( ep e&entation&1 X Integ ating ep e&entation& an' !(e7i.(e &0itching .et0een the"In &tage one1 p oce&&e& &ta t ! o" a conc ete ca&e1 a &ing(e ep e&entation- C%t in (ea ning the !%nction concept !o e7a"p(e1 &t%'ent& %&%a(() "eet &e*e a( ep e&entation& 2g aphica(1 ta.%(a 1 a(ge. aic1 a o0 'iag a"&1---6- In the &econ' &tage1 th%&1 &e*e a( ep e&entation& o! the &a"e "athe"atica( o./ect a e %&e' in pa a((e(- The 'i!!ic%(t p oce&& o! t an&ition to the a.&t act concept 'epen'& in an e&&entia( "anne on the (in+& .et0een the ep e&entation& that a e !o "e'- The e&ta.(i&h"ent o! the&e (in+& con&tit%te& the thi ' &tage- St ong (in+& a((o0 &t%'ent& to &0itch ep e&entation&1 0hich in t%" "a+e& the" a0a e o! the %n'e ()ing concept an' i& th%& (i+e() to po&iti*e() in!(%ence a.&t action- At the !o% th &tage1 a p oce&& o! integ ation .et0een the 'i!!e ent ep e&entation& i& happening1 a &)nthe&i& o! the +in' that ha& .een &ho0n a.o*e to .e pa tia( to the p oce&& o! a.&t action, the (in+&1 the e(ation&hip&1 the co""on p ope tie& e"ain to !o " the a.&t act concept1 0he ea& the ep e&entation &peci!ic a&pect& et act to the .ac+g o%n'- Once thi& p oce&& ha& .een co"p(ete'1 one ha& !o "e' an a.&t act notion o! a gi*en concept1 one &o"eho0 Bo0n&B that concept 9hen one then nee'& to &o(*e a p o.(e" in 0hich thi& concept occ% &1 one 0i(( o!ten nee' to go .ac+ to one 2o &e*e a(6 o! it& conc ete ep e&entation&- The 0on'e !%( thing a.o%t the a.&t act concept i& that one i& a.(e to 'o p eci&e() that an' to 'o it in a cont o((e' "anne , One ha& cont o( o*e the ep e&entation& one 0ant& to %&eThe %&e o! &e*e a( ep e&entation& to he(p &t%'ent& "a+e the t an&ition ! o" a (i"ite' conc ete %n'e &tan'ing o! a ce tain topic to a "o e a.&t act an' !(e7i.(e %n'e &tan'ing1 ha& .een in*e&tigate' .) Kap%t an' hi& co80o +e & 213DD6- 9hi(e 'ea(ing 0ith atio an' p opo tion1 the) %&e' conc ete1 *i&%a(1 co"p%te 8i"p(e"ente' ep e&entation& 0ho&e 'e&ign 0a& .%i(t on a cogniti*e .a&i&- The) ca((e' thei app oach a Bconc ete8to8a.&t act &o!t0a e a"pB- The !%nction& c% ic%(%" 'e&c i.e' in &ection >-> i& anothe e7a"p(e, It 0a& &)&te"atica(() .%i(t to0a '& the e&ta.(i&h"ent o! (in+& .et0een 'i!!e ent !%nction ep e&entation& an'1 a& e&%(t& ! o" cogniti*e e&ea ch ha*e &ho0n1 thi& e*ent%a(() (ea' "o&t o! the &t%'ent& in the e7pe i"ent to an a.&t act %n'e &tan'ing o! the !%nction concept Fo &o"e pa tic%(a () gi!te' &t%'ent&1 &%ch ca e!%(() 'e&igne' con&t %ction& o! concept& appea to .e &%pe !(%o%&< the eight )ea o(' Te ence Tao 2C(e"ent&1 13D=6 i& one &%ch ca&e< in &pite o! hi& age1 he 0a& a.(e to (ea n 'i ect() a.o%t a.&t act a(ge. aic &t %ct% e&1 an'

4- RELATIONSHIPS CET9EEN REPRESENTING AND ACSTRACTING 2IN LEARNING PROCESSES6 F e$%ent()1 the conc ete p ope tie& 0e 0o%(' (i+e to a.&t act ! o" a e (in+e' to pa tic%(a ep e&entation& o! an a.&t act "athe"atica( concept< !%nction& a e a ca&e in point1 .%t &o a e *ecto &1 *ecto &pace&1 g o%p&1 !ie('&1 C\8a(ge. a&1 catego ie& an' !%ncto &- The p ope tie& an' e(ation&hip& o! the a.&t act concept a e the ep e&entation8in'epen'ent one&Rep e&enting an' a.&t acting a e th%& co"p(e"enta ) p oce&&e& in oppo&ite 'i ection&, On the one han'1 a concept i& o!ten a.&t acte' ! o" &e*e a( o! it& ep e&entation&1 on the othe han' ep e&entation& a e a(0a)& ep e&entation& o! &o"e "o e a.&t act concept 9hen a &ing(e ep e&entation o! a concept i& %&e'1 attention "a) .e !oc%&&e' on thi& in&tea' o! the a.&t act o./ect Ho0e*e 1 0hen &e*e a( ep e&entation& a e .eing con&i'e e' in pa a((e(1 the e(ation to the %n'e ()ing a.&t act concept .eco"e& i"po tant O!ten ep e&en8 tation& a e nee'e' to ca ) o%t &o"e &peci!ic 0o + 0ith the concept !o in&tance1 g o%p ep e&entation& athe than a.&t act g o%p& a e %&e' to ca ) o%t g o%p theo etica( ca(c%(ation&- Thi& nee' !o conc ete ep e&entation& in o 'e to ca ) o%t &o"e &peci!ic tho%ght

40 TOMMY DREYFOS conc ete ep e&entation& ten'e' to 'i&t% . hi"1 i! an)thing- 9hen a&+e' 0hethe a gi*en &t %ct% e 0a& a ing1 he i""e'iate() ea(iFe' that he on() nee'e' to p o*e th ee thing& an' p ocee'e' to p o*e the&e 0ith "a7i"a( e(iance on ea (ie p o*e' &t %ct% a( e&%(t&- A &i"i(a &it%ation "a) pe tain to a'*ance' "athe"atic& &t%'ent& 0ho ha*e ha' the oppo t%nit) to ac$%i e con&i'e a.(e e7pe ience 0ith a.&t action< thi& e7pe ience i& (i+e() to "a+e &o"e o! the a.o*e &tage& &%pe !(%o%& an'1 !o co"p(e7 "athe"atica( &t %ct% e&1 e*en a hin' ance to a.&t action< a& ha& .een pointe' o%t a.o*e1 a.&t action ! o" one1 o e*en ! o" Fe o ca&e&1 "a) .e ea&ie !o &%ch &t%'ent&- C%t "o&t &t%'ent& ta+ing co((ege an' high &choo( "athe"atic& co% &e& 'o not .e(ong to thi& catego )1 an' !o the" a.&t acting i& p o.a.() the "o&t 'e"an'ing o! a(( a'*ance' "athe"atica( p oce&&e&-

ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL THINKING PROCESSES

41

5- A 9IDER VISTA OF ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL PROCESSES The p oce&&e& o! ep e&enting an' a.&t acting 0hich ha*e .een 'i&c%&&e' in &o"e 'etai( a e a"ong the "o&t i"po tant one& !o a'*ance' "athe"atica( thin+ing< ne*e the(e&&1 the) a e on() &o"e a"ong "an) p oce&&e& 0hich &ho%(' an' 'o occ% a& inte acting (in+& in chain& that "a) a(&o inc(%'e 'i&co*e ing1 int%iting1 chec+ing1 p o*ing1 'e!ining an' othe &Di&co*e ing o athe e'i&co*e ing e(ation&hip&1 !o in&tance1 i& o!ten con&i'e e' a"ong the "o&t e!!ecti*e 0a)& !o chi(' en to (ea n "athe"atic&- To &o"e e7tent1 thi& e!!ecti*ene&& "a) .e att i.%te' to the p&)cho(ogica( a&pect& o! the p oce&& o! 'i&co*e ), the pe &ona( in*o(*e"ent1 the inten&it) o! the attention1 the !ee(ing o! achie*e"ent an' &%cce&&- Lea ning .) 'i&co*e )1 ho0e*e 1 i& ti"e8con&%"ing1 an' thi& i& one ea&on 0h) teache &1 e&pecia(() teache & o! "o e a'*ance' "athe"atic&1 ten' not to %&e it- C%t the cent a( $%e&tion i& 0hethe (ea ning .) 'i&co*e ) in the ea () an' "i''(e &tage& o! "athe"atica( e'%cation 'e*e(op& ea&oning p oce&&e& 0hich "a+e (ate (ea ning &o "%ch "o e e!!icient that the e i&1 in the (ong %n1 no ti"e (o&&- 2He e1 e!!icienc) "%&t .e "ea&% e' not on() in te "& o! topic& co*e e' .%t a(&o in te "& o! 'epth o! %n'e &tan'ing-6 Mo e gene a(()1 to 0hat e7tent co%(' "o e &t e&& on p oce&&e& an' (e&& on content ena.(e o% &t%'ent& to (ea n a.&t act "athe"atic& in &pee')1 in'epen'ent1 an' %n'e &tan'ing 0a)&R Int%iting1 i-e-1 app ehen'ing .) int%ition1 .) i""e'iate 'i ect cognition 0itho%t e*i'ence o! ationa( tho%ght1 ha& a cent a( o(e in an) &e$%ence o! p oce&&e& that &ta t& ! o" 'i&co*e )< the o(e o! int%ition 0i(( .e 'i&c%&&e' !% the in chapte 1> .) Ti o&h- Let %& he e on() "ention it& c(o&e (in+& to p oce&&e& o! *i&%a(iFing- Fo in&tance1 .eing inte e&te' in the int in&ic 'e&c iption o! c% *e& in te "& o! c% *at% e 2g6 an' a c8(ength 2&61 I 0a& ecent() (oo+ing at e((ip&e&< on the .a&i& o! the pe io'ic inc ea&e an' 'ec ea&e o! the c% *at% e 0hen p ocee'ing a o%n' the e((ip&e1 ") *i&%a( int%ition to(' "e that a goo' t ) co%(' .e a t igono"et ic !%nction o! the !o " g;40Ecos(ks) 0ith &%ita.(e con&tant& 4, E, an' k. C) the 0a)1 thi& int%ition 0a& &oon p o*en 0 ong .) "o e 'etai(e' ana()&i& that inc(%'e' chec+ing pa tic%(a ca&e&Chec+ing "ean& ta+ing action& to con*ince one&e(! that a e&%(t in'ee' 'oe& an&0e the $%e&tion that 0a& a&+e'1 an' 'oe& an&0e it co ect()- One %&e!%( 0a) o! chec+ing i& to %&e an in*e &e p oce'% e1 &%ch a& 'i!!e entiating to chec+ 0hethe one ha& co ect() !o%n' a p i"iti*e !%nction- A(( too o!ten1 chec+ing i& not &een .) &t%'ent& a& an e&&entia( pa t o! "athe"atica( acti*it)- A(tho%gh chec+ing co%(' gi*e the" a (ot o! &ec% it)1 "o&t &t%'ent&

t an&!e ing "o e o! the e&pon&i.i(it) !o (ea ning p oce&&e& ! o" the teache to the &t%'ent1 in (ine 0ith the in'epen'ence "entione' in connection 0ith 'i&co*e ing- Gi*ing &t%'ent& open8en'e' acti*itie& athe than one8"in%te e7e ci&e& to 0o + on1 i& one &tep in thi& 'i ectionDi&co*e ing1 int%iting an' chec+ing1 ho0e*e 1 a e on() the .eginning o! a &e$%ence o! "athe"atica( p oce&&e& 8 the goa( e"ain& %n'e &tan'ing o! a.&t act e(ation&hip&St%'ent&A acti*it) "%&t the e!o e p ocee' ! o" he e to the "o e !o "a( p oce&&e& o! 'e!ining an' p o*ing1 0hich 0i(( .e ana()Fe' e&pecti*e() in chapte 5 .) Vinne an' chapte 1= .) A(i.e t L Tho"a&It 0i(( .e &een in the !o((o0ing chapte & that "an) !eat% e& o! the&e p oce&&e& nee' to .e "a'e *e ) e7p(icit to &t%'ent&1 'o0n into the &"a((e&t 'etai(&- Thi& 'oe& not "ean that &t%'ent& &ho%(' .e to(' a.o%t the&e 'etai(&1 .%t that &t%'ent acti*itie& ha*e to .e 'e&igne' 0ith the&e 'etai(& in "in'1 in &%ch a 0a) that &t%'ent& ea(iFe the"- The&e "a)1 .%t nee' not1 .e 'etai(& o! "athe"atica( !act& o e(ation&hip&< "o e o!ten1 the) a e pa t& o! the p oce&&e&- Fo e7a"p(e1 0ith e&pect to &0itching ep e&entation&1 &t%'ent& "%&t .e "a'e con&cio%& o! thei act o! p%((ing in!o "ation o%t o! one !%nction ep e&entation an' %&ing thi& &a"e in!o "ation in anothe one 2&ee Sch0a F1 D e)!%& L C %c+hei"e 1 133?1 !o 'etai(& on ho0 thi& can .e achie*e'6- Si"i(a ()1 &t%'ent& nee' to .eco"e con&cio%& o! the inte action& .et0een p oce&&e& &%ch a& ep e&enting an' a.&t acting- The 0o +ing "athe"atician i& %&ing "an) p oce&&e& in &ho t &%cce&&ion1 i! not &i"%(taneo%&()1 an' (et& the" inte act in e!!icient 0a)&- O% goa( &ho%(' .e to . ing o% &t%'ent&A "athe"atica( thin+ing a& c(o&e a& po&&i.(e to that o! a 0o +ing "athe"aticianA&- On'e &tan'ing a'*ance' "athe"atica( p oce&&e& an' thei inte p(a) i& a nece&&a ) p e e$%i&ite !o achie*ing thi& goa(ACKNO9LEDGEMENT Thi& chapte ha& p o!ite' ! o" n%"e o%& 'i&c%&&ion& 0ith ! ien'& an' co((eag%e&1 a"ong 0ho" 0e e Miche(e A tig%e1 Ce"a ' Co"%1 E' D%.in&+)1 #anet D%!!in1 #i" Kap%t1 O i Le on1 #ohn Ma&Yn1 Ca %ch Sch0a F1 Pat Tho"p&on1 an' Sh(o"o Vinne - C%t "o e than an) othe &1 Te' Ei&en.e g1 Da*i' Ta((1 an' Dina Ti o&h ha*e he(pe' &hape the chapte 0ith 0e((8ta+en co""ent& an' &%gge&tion& .a&e' on thei ca e!%( ea'ing o! ea (ie *e &ion&-