Lecture Note on Solid State Physics Free electron Fermi gas model: specific heat and Pauli paramagnetism

Masatsugu Suzuki and Itsuko S. Suzuki Department of Physics, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902-6000 (June 15, 2006) Abstract As an example we consider a Na atom, which has an electron configuration of (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)1. The 3s electrons in the outermost shell becomes conduction electrons and moves freely through the whole system. The simplest model for the conduction electrons is a free electron Fermi gas model. In real metals, there are interactions between electrons. The motion of electrons is also influenced by a periodic potential caused by ions located on the lattice. Nevertheless, this model is appropriate for simple metals such as alkali metals and noble metals. When the Schrdinger equation is solved for one electron in a box, a set of energy levels are obtained which are quantized. When we have a large number of electrons, we fill in the energy levels starting at the bottom. Electrons are fermions, obeying the Fermi-Dirac statistics. So we have to take into account the Paulis exclusion principle. This law prohibits the occupation of the same state by more than two electrons. Sommerfelds involvement with the quantum electron theory of metals began in the spring of 1927. Pauli showed Sommerfeld the proofs of his paper on paramagnetism. Sommerfeld was very impressed by it. He realized that the specific heat dilemma of the Drude-Lorentz theory could be overcome by using the Fermi-Dirac statistics (Hoddeeson et al.).1 Here we discuss the specific heat and Pauli paramagnetism of free electron Fermi gas model. The Sommerfelds formula are derived using Mathematica. The temperature dependence of the chemical potential will be discussed for the 3D and 1D cases. We also show how to calculate numerically the physical quantities related to the specific heat and Pauli paramagnetism by using Mathematica, based on the physic constants given by NIST Web site (Plancks constant , Bohr magneton B, Boltzmann constant kB, and so on).2 This lecture note is based on many textbooks of the solid state physics including Refs. 3 10. Content: 1. Schrdinger equation A. Energy level in 1D system B. Energy level in 3D system 2. Fermi-Dirac distribution function 3. Density of states A. 3D system B. 2D system C. 1D system 4. Sommerfelds formula 5. Temperature dependence of the chemical potential

6. 7. 8. 9. 1. A.

Total energy and specific heat Pauli paramagnetism Physical quantities related to specific heat and Pauli paramagnetism Conclusion

Schrdinger equation3-10 Energy level in 1D system We consider a free electron gas in 1D system. The Schrdinger equation is given by p2 h 2 d 2 k ( x) H k ( x) = k ( x) = = k k ( x) , (1) 2m 2m dx 2 where h d , p= i dx and k is the energy of the electron in the orbital. The orbital is defined as a solution of the wave equation for a system of only one electron: one-electron problem. Using a periodic boundary condition: k ( x + L) = k ( x) , we have

k ( x) ~ eikx ,
with
h 2 2 h 2 2 k = k = n , 2m 2m L 2 eikL = 1 or k = n, L where n = 0, 1, 2,, and L is the size of the system.
2

(2)

B.

Energy level in 3D system We consider the Schrdinger equation of an electron confined to a cube of edge L. p2 h2 2 k = k = k k . (3) H k = 2m 2m It is convenient to introduce wavefunctions that satisfy periodic boundary conditions. Boundary condition (Born-von Karman boundary conditions). k ( x + L, y , z ) = k ( x, y , z ) , k ( x , y + L, z ) = k ( x , y , z ) , k ( x, y , z + L ) = k ( x , y , z ) . The wavefunctions are of the form of a traveling plane wave. k (r ) = eik r , (4) with kx = (2/L) nx, (nx = 0, 1, 2, 3,..), ky = (2/L) ny, (ny = 0, 1, 2, 3,..), kz = (2/L) nz, (nz = 0, 1, 2, 3,..). The components of the wavevector k are the quantum numbers, along with the quantum number ms of the spin direction. The energy eigenvalue is

 (k ) =
Here

h2 h2 2 2 2 2 k . (k x + k y + k z ) = 2m 2m

(5)

h p k (r ) = k k (r ) = hk k (r ) . (6) i So that the plane wave function k (r ) is an eigenfunction of p with the eigenvalue h k . The ground state of a system of N electrons, the occupied orbitals are represented as a point inside a sphere in k-space. Because we assume that the electrons are noninteracting, we can build up the Nelectron ground state by placing electrons into the allowed one-electron levels we have just found.

((The Paulis exclusion principle)) The one-electron levels are specified by the wavevectors k and by the projection of the electrons spin along an arbitrary axis, which can take either of the two values /2. Therefore associated with each allowed wave vector k are two levels: k, , k, .

k F = (3 2 n ) . (9) The Fermi energy is given by 2/3 h2 F = ( 3 2 n ) . (10) 2m The Fermi velocity is 1/ 3 hk h (11) vF = F = 3 2 n . m m ((Note)) The Fermi energy F can be estimated using the number of electrons per unit volume as F = 3.64645x10-15 n2/3 [eV] = 1.69253 n02/3 [eV], where n and n0 is in the units of (cm-3) and n = n01022. The Fermi wave number kF is calculated as kF = 6.66511107 n01/3 [cm-1]. The Fermi velocity vF is calculated as vF = 7.71603107 n01/3 [cm/s].
1/ 3

In building up the N-electron ground state, we begin by placing two electrons in the oneelectron level k = 0, which has the lowest possible one-electron energy = 0. We have L3 4 3 V 3 N =2 kF = 2 kF , (7) 3 (2 ) 3 3 where the sphere of radius kF containing the occupied one-electron levels is called the Fermi sphere, and the factor 2 is from spin degeneracy. The electron density n is defined by N 1 3 n = = 2 kF . (8) V 3 The Fermi wavenumber kF is given by

((Mathematica)) Fermi energy vs the number of electrons (n = n01022 [cm-3]).

(*Fermi energy vs number density in metals*) EF = 1.69253 n023; PlotAEF, 8n0, 0, 25<, PlotStyle Hue@0.7D,

Background GrayLevel@0.7D, Prolog AbsoluteThickness@2D, AxesLabel 9"n0 H1cm3L", "EFHeVL"=, PlotPoints 100E
EF HeV L 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 5 10 15 20 25 n0 H1cm 3 L

Fig.1 Fermi energy vs number density n (= n01022 [cm-3]).

Fermi-Dirac distribution function3-10 The Fermi-Dirac distribution gives the probability that an orbital at energy will be occupied in an ideal gas in thermal equilibrium 1 f ( ) = ( ) , (12) e +1 where is the chemical potential and = 1/(kBT). (i) lim = F . 2.
T 0

(ii) (iii) (iv)

f() = 1/2 at = . For - kBT, f() is approximated by f ( ) = e ( ) . This limit is called the Boltzman or Maxwell distribution. For kBTF, the derivative -df()/d corresponds to a Dirac delta function having a sharp positive peak at = .

((Mathematica))
(*Fermi-Dirac function*) 1 f@x_D := ; h = D@f@xD, TD; rule1 = 8kB 1, 1<; x ExpA kB E+1 T
f1 = f@xD . rule1; p1 = Plot@Evaluate@Table@f1, 8T, 0.002, 0.02, 0.002<DD, 8x, 0.9, 1.10<, PlotRange 880.9, 1.10<, 80, 1<<, PlotStyle Table@ Hue@0.1 iD, 8i, 1, 10<D, Prolog AbsoluteThickness@2D, AxesLabel 8"E", "FHEL"<, Background GrayLevel@0.7DD

FHEL 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 E 0.9 0.95 1.05 1.1

Fig.2 Fermi-Dirac distribution function f() at various T (= 0.002 0.02). kB = 1. (T = 0) = F = 1.

g1=D[f1,x];p2=Plot[Evaluate[Table[g1,{T,0.002,0.02,0.002}]],{x,0.9,1.10},PlotRange{{0.9,1.10},{0,130}},P lotStyleTable[Hue[0.1 i],{i,1,10}],PrologAbsoluteThickness[2],BackgroundGrayLevel[0.7]]
120 100 80 60 40 20 0.9 0.95 1.05 1.1

Fig.3 Derivative of Fermi-Dirac distribution function -df()/d at various T (= 0.002 0.02). kB = 1. (T = 0) = F = 1.

3. A. Density of states3-10 3D system There is one state per volume of k-space (2/L)3. We consider the number of oneelectron levels in the energy range from to +d; D()d L3 D( )d = 2 4k 2 dk , (13) 3 (2 )

where D() is called a density of states. Since k = (2m / h 2 )1 / 2 , we have

dk = (2m / h 2 )1 / 2 d /(2 ) . Then we get the density of states V 2m . (14) 2 2 h 2 Here we define D A ( F ) [1/(eV atom)] which is the density of states per unit energy per unit atom. D( F ) , (15) DA ( F ) = N D( ) =
3/ 2

where V 2m F 2 V 2m d = F3/ 2 . (16) N = D( )d = 2 2 2 2 2 h 0 3 2 h 0 Then we have 3 . (17) DA ( F ) = 2 F This is the case when each atom has one conduction electron. When there are nv electrons per atom, DA(F) is described as9 3n DA ( F ) = v . (18) 2 F For Al, we have F = 11.6 eV and nv = 3. Then DA(F) = 0.39/(eV atom).
F
3/ 2 3/ 2

Here we make a plot of f()D () as a function of using Mathematica.

((Mathematica))
(*Density of states*) !!!! x ; rule1 = 8kB 1, 1<; g1 = g@xD . rule1; g@x_D := x ExpA kB T E + 1

p1 = Plot@Evaluate@Table@g1, 8T, 0.001, 0.05, 0.01<DD, 8x, 0, 1.30<, PlotRange 880, 1.5<, 80, 1<<, PlotStyle Table@ Hue@0.2 iD, 8i, 1, 10<D, Prolog AbsoluteThickness@2D, AxesLabel 8"E", "DHELfH EL"<, Background GrayLevel@0.7DD
DHELfHEL 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 E 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Fig.4 D()f() at various T (= 0.001 0.05). kB = 1. (T = 0) = F = 1. The constant a of D() (= a ) is assumed to be equal to 1.
B. 2D system For the 2D system, we have L2 D( )d = 2 2kdk . (2 )2

(19)

Since d = (h 2 / 2m)2kdk , we have the density of states for the 2D system as

mL2 , h 2 which is independent of . D( ) =

C. 1D system For the 1D system we have
1/ 2

(20)

L 2 L 2m 1 1 / 2 D ( )d = 2 d 2dk = h2 2 2 Thus the density of states for the 1D system is

D( ) =
4.

(21)

L 2m 1 / 2 . 2 h

1/ 2

(22)

Sommerfelds formula When we use a formula L3 F ( k ) dkF (k ) . (23) (2 )3 k the the total particle number N and total energy E can be described by 2 L3 N = 2 f ( k ) = dkf ( k ) = dD( ) f ( ) , (24) (2 )3 k and 2 L3 E = 2 k f ( k ) = dk f ( ) = dD( )f ( ) . (25) (2 )3 k k k First we prove that f ( ) 1 2 7 4 g ( )[ ]d = g ( ) + k B T 2 2 g ( 2 ) ( ) + k B T 4 4 g ( 4 ) ( ) 6 360 127 31 6 8 + k B T 6 6 g ( 6 ) ( ) + k B T 8 8 g (8) ( ) 604800 15120 1414477 73 10 12 + k B T 10 10 g (10 ) ( ) + k B T 12 12 g (12) ( ) + ... (26) 653837184000 3421440 using Mathematica. ((Mathematica))
(*Sommerfeld's formula*)

f@x_D :=

g1 = Series@g@xD, 8x, , 7<D Normal; g2 = Series@g@xD, 8x, , 10<D Normal; g3 = g2 g1; G1 = Hg1 h@xDL . 8x + kB T y< Simplify; G2 = H g3 h@xDL . 8x + kB T y< Simplify;

ExpA x E+1 kBT

; h@xD = D@f@xD, xD;

G22 = kB T G2 y Simplify; G222 = Simplify@G22, 8kB > 0, T > 0<D;

g@D + 1 2 2 2 7 kB T g @D + kB4 4 T4 gH4L@D + 6 360 31 kB6 6 T6 gH6L@D kB8 8 T8 H25146 gH8L@D + 2555 kB2 2 T2 gH10L @DL + 15120 119750400 HSo we get a final result
g H EL I df M E = dE

G11 = kB T G1 y Simplify; G111 = Simplify@G11, 8kB > 0, T > 0<D; F1 = G111 + G222 PowerExpand

7 kB4 T4 4 gH4L@D+ 31 g@D+ 1 kB2 T2 2 g @D+ 360 6 127 kB8 T8 8 gH8L@D 604800 10 10 10 H10L + 73 kB T g @D + 3421440

kB6 T6 6 gH6L @D + 15120 12 12 H 12 L 12 1414477 kB T g @D L 653837184000

________________________________________________________________ Here we note that f ( ) g ( )[ ]d = f ( ) g ( ) |0 + g ' ( ) f ( )]d = g ' ( ) f ( )]d . 0 0 0 We define

(27)

( ) = g ' ( ) or

g ( ) = ( ' )d ' .
0

(28)

Then we have a final form (Sommerfelds formula). 1 2 7 4 f ( ) ( )d = ( ' )d ' + k B T 2 2 ' ( ) + k B T 4 4 ( 3) ( ) 6 360 0 0 + 31 127 6 8 k B T 6 6 ( 5) ( ) + k B T 8 8 ( 7 ) ( ) 15120 604800 73 1414477 10 12 + k B T 10 10 (9 ) ( ) + k B T 12 12 (11) ( ) + ... 653837184000 3421440

(29)

5.

T dependence of the chemical potential We start with N = dD( ) f ( )

where

D( ) =
and

V 2m 2 2 h 2
3/ 2

3/ 2

=a

V 2m a= 2 2 h 2

1 2 2a 3 / 2 1 2 2 2 a N = f ( ) D( )d D( ' )d ' + k B T 2 2 D' ( ) = + kB T 6 3 6 2 0 0

But we also have F = (T = 0) . Then we have 2a 3 / 2 F . 3 0 Thus the chemical potential is given by 2a 3 / 2 2 a 3 / 2 1 2 2 2 a , F = + kB T 3 3 6 2 or 2 k T = F [1 ( B ) 2 ] (3D case). 12 F For the 1D case, similarly we have 2 k T = F [1 + ( B ) 2 ] (1D case). 12 F We now discuss the T dependence of by using the Mathematica.

N = D( )d =

(30)

(31)

((Mathematica)) Chemical potential in the one dimensional case

(*The 1D case, T dependence of Fermi energy We use the Sommerfeld's formula*) <<Graphics`ImplicitPlot` 0 1 7 N1 = @xD x == @xD x + HkB TL2 2 @D + HkB TL4 4 H3L@D + 6 360 0 0
31 HkB TL6 6 H5L@D 127 HkB TL8 8 H7L@D 73 HkB TL10 10 H9L@D + + + 15120 3421440 604800
i 1 y 1414477 HkB TL12 12 H11L@D j z ; replace1 = 9 j &z j z j z=; !!! ! 653837184000 # k {

N2 = N1 . replace1; M1 = N2 . 8kB 1, 0 1<; ImplicitPlot@M1, 8T, 0, 0.3<, 8, 0.95, 1.40<, PlotStyle 8 Hue@0.7D, Thickness@0.015D<, Background GrayLevel@0.7D, PlotPoints 200, AxesLabel 8"T", ""<D

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

1 T 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Fig.5 T dependence of chemical potential for the 1D system. kB = 1. F = (T = 0) = 1.

((Mathematica)) Chemical potential in the 3D case
(*The 3D case, T dependence of Fermi energy We use the Sommerfeld's formula*) <<Graphics`ImplicitPlot` 0 1 7 N1 = @xD x == @xD x + HkB TL2 2 @D + HkB TL4 4 H3L@D + 6 360 0 0
31 HkB TL6 6 H5L@D 127 HkB TL8 8 H7L@D 73 HkB TL10 10 H9L@D + + + 15120 3421440 604800

1414477 HkB TL12 12 H11L@D !!!! ; replace1 = 9 I # &M=; 653837184000 N2 = N1 . replace1; M1 = N2 . 8kB 1, 0 1<; ImplicitPlot@M1, 8T, 0, 0.3<, 8, 0.5, 1.10<, PlotStyle 8 Hue@0.7D, Thickness@0.015D<, Background GrayLevel@0.7D, PlotPoints 200, AxesLabel 8"T", ""<D

10

1.1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Fig.6 T dependence of chemical potential for the 3D system. kB = 1. F = (T = 0) = 1.

6. Total energy and specific heat Using the Sommerfelds formula, the total energy U of the electrons is approximated

by

U = f ( )D( )d =
0

(T )

D( )d + 6
0

(kBT )2{D[ (T )] + (T ) D'[ (T )]} .

The total number of electrons is also approximated by (T ) 1 N = f ( ) D( )d = D( )d + 2 (k BT ) 2 D'[ (T )] . 6 0 0 Since N / T = 0 , we have 1 ' (T ) D[ (T )] + 2 k B 2TD'[ (T )] = 0 , 3 or D'[ (T )] 1 ' (T ) = 2 k B 2T . 3 D[ (T )] The specific heat Cel is defined by dU 1 2 2 1 2 Cel = = k B TD[ (T )] + { 2 k B TD '[ (T )]} + ' (T ) D( (T ))} (T ) . 3 dT 3 The second term is equal to zero. So we have the final form of the specific heat 1 2 Cel = 2 k B TD[ (T )] . 3 When (T ) F ,

11

1 2 Cel = 2 k B D( F )T . (32) 3 In the above expression of Cel, we assume that there are N electrons inside volume V (= L3), The specific heat per mol is given by 1 D( F ) 1 Cel 2 2 NA = 2 N A k B T = 2 D A ( F ) N A k B T . 3 3 N N where NA is the Avogadro number and D A ( F ) [1/(eV at)] is the density of states per unit energy per unit atom. Note that 1 2 N Ak B 2 =2.35715 mJ eV/K2. 3 Then is related to D A ( F ) as 1 = 2 N A k B 2 D A ( F ) , 3 or (mJ/mol K2) = 2.35715 D A ( F ) . (33) We now give the physical interpretation for Eq.(32). When we heat the system from 0 K, not every electron gains an energy kBT, but only those electrons in orbitals within a energy range kBT of the Fermi level are excited thermally. These electrons gain an energy of kBT. Only a fraction of the order of kBT D(F) can be excited thermally. The total electronic thermal kinetic energy E is of the order of (kBT)2 D(F). The specific heat Cel is on the order of kB2TD(F). ((Note)) For Pb, For Al For Cu

= 2.98, = 1.35, = 0.695,

D A ( F ) =1.26/(eV at) D A ( F ) =0.57/(eV at) D A ( F ) =0.29/(eV at)

__________________________________________________________________ ((Mathematica))
(*Heat capacity for the 3D case, We use the Sommerfeld's formula for the calculation of the total energy and the total number*) <<Graphics`ImplicitPlot`
@TD

1 7 HkB TL2 2 @@TDD + HkB TL4 4 H3L@@TDD; 6 360 0 replace1 = 8 H# De@#D &L<; U1 = U . replace1; Ce = D@ U1, TD U=
1 kB2 2 T HDe@@TDD + @TD De @@TDDL + De@@TDD @TD @TD + 3 1 kB2 2 T2 H2 De @@TDD @TD + @TD @TD De @@TDDL + 6 7 kB4 4 T3 H3 De @@TDD + @TD DeH3L @@TDDL + 90 7 kB4 4 T4 H4 @TD DeH3L@@TDD + @TD @TD DeH4L @@TDDL 360

@xD x +

12

(*The chemical potential [T] can be estimated from the expression of N*) N1=U/.{( De[#]&)};D[N1,T] 1 1 kB2 2 T De @@TDD + De@@TDD @TD + kB2 2 T2 @TD De @@TDD + 3 6 7 7 4 4 3 H3L 4 4 4 kB T De @@TDD + kB T @TD DeH4L@@TDD 90 360 HFor simplicity we use the approximation to the order of 0 HT2L for the total energy and number. Note that D@ N1,TD= 0 since N is independent of TL

eq1 =

1 2 2 kB T HDe@@TDD +@TD De @@TDDL + De@@TDD @TD @TD; 3 Ce2 = Ce1 . eq2 Simplify Ce1 =
1 kB2 2 T De@@TDD 3

: @TD

1 2 2 kB T De @@TDD + De@@TDD @TD 3 eq2 = Solve@eq1, @TDD Flatten

kB2 2 T De @@TDD > 3 De@@TDD

0;

7.

Pauli paramagnetism

2 S z = B z = B z (quantum The magnetic moment of spin is given by h mechanical operator). Then the spin Hamiltonian (Zeeman energy) is described by 2 S = z B = ( B z )B = B z B, H (34) h eh in the presence of a magnetic field, where the Bohr magneton B is given by B = 2 mc (e>0). (i) The magnetic moment antiparallel to H: Note that the spin state is z = + .

The energy of electron is given by = k + B H with k = (h 2 / 2m)k 2 . The density of state for the down-state
L3 V 2m 3 / 2 D ( )d = 4k 2 dk = ( ) B H d , 3 (2 ) 4 2 h 2

or D ( ) = Then we have N = 1 D( B H ) . 2 (35)

1 D( B H ) f ( )d . 2 BH

(36)

13

(ii) The magnetic moment parallel to H. Note that the spin state is z = . The energy of electron is given by = k B H ,
L3 V 2m 3 / 2 D+ ( )d = 4k 2 dk = ( ) + B H d , 3 (2 ) 4 2 h 2

or D+ ( ) = Then we have N+ =

1 D( + B H ) . 2

(37)

1 D( + B H ) f ( )d . 2 BH

(38)

The magnetic moment M is expressed by M = B (N+ N ) = or

M =

B
2

B H

D( +
B

H ) f ( )d

B H

D(

H ) f ( )d ,

(39)

B
2
2

D( )[ f (
0 0

H ) f ( + B H )]d (40)

= B H D( )( Here we use the relation; (

f ( ) 2 )d = B HD( F )

f ( ) ) = ( F ) (see Fig.3). The susceptibility (M/H) thus obtained is called the Pauli paramagnetism. p = B 2 D( F ) .

(41)

Experimentally we measure the susceptibility per mol, p (emu/mol) D( F ) 2 (42) P = B2 N A = B N A D A ( F ) , N where B2NA = 3.2327810-5 (emu eV/mol) and DA(F) [1/(eV atom)] is the density of states per unit energy per atom. Since 1 = 2 N A k B 2 D A ( F ) , (43) 3 we have the following relation between P (emu/mol) and (mJ/mol K2), P = 1.37148 105 . (44) ((Exampl-1)) Rb atom has one conduction electron. = 2.41 mJ/mol K2, P = (1.37x10-5)2.41 (emu/mol) 1 mol = 85.468 g P =0.38610-6 emu/g (calculation) ((Exampl-2)) K atom has one conduction electron. = 2.08 mJ/mol K2, P = (1.37x10-5)2.08 (emu/mol)

14

1 mol = 39.098 g P =0.72x10-6 emu/g (calculation) ((Exampl-3)) Na atom has one conduction electron. = 1.38 mJ/mol K2, P = (1.37x10-5)1.38 (emu/mol) 1 mol = 29.98977 g P =0.8224x10-6 emu/g (calculation) The susceptibility of the conduction electron is given by = P + L = P P / 3 = 2 P / 3 , (45) where L is the Landau diamagnetic susceptibility due to the orbital motion of conduction electrons. Using the calculated Pauli susceptibility we can calculate the total susceptibility: Rb: = 0.386(2/3)10-6 = 0.2610-6 emu/g K: = 0.72(2/3)x10-6 = 0.4810-6 emu/g Na: = 0.822(2/3)10-6 = 0.5510-6 emu/g These values of are in good agreement with the experimental results.6

8.

Physical quantities related to specific heat and Pauli paramagnetism Here we show how to evaluate the numerical calculations by using Mathematica. To this end, we need reliable physics constant. These constants are obtained from the NIST Web site: http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html
Plancks constant, Boltzmann constant Bohr magneton Avogadros number Velocity of light electron mass electron charge

h =1.0545716810-27 erg s kB = 1.380650510-16 erg/K B = 9.2740094910-21 emu NA = 6.02214151023 (1/mol) c = 2.997924581010 cm/s m = 9.109382610-28 g e = 1.6021765310-19 C e = 4.80324210-10 esu (this is from the other source) 1 eV = 1.6021765310-12 erg 1 emu = erg/Gauss 1mJ = 104 erg

Using the following program, one can easily calculate many kinds of physical quantities. Here we show only physical quantities which appears in the previous sections.

((Mathematica)) Physics constants

(*Use the physical constants to calculate the physical quantities*) phycon = 9B 9.27400949 1021, kB 1.3806505 1016, NA 6.0221415 1023,
8B 9.27401 1021, kB 1.38065 1016, NA 6.02214 1023,

c 2.99792458 1010, 1.05457168 1027, m 9.1093826 1028, e 4.803242 1010, eV 1.60217653 1012, mJ 104=

c 2.99792 1010, 1.05457 1027, m 9.10938 1028, e 4.80324 1010, eV 1.60218 1012, mJ 10000< (*Fermi energy*)

15

1.69253 n023 (*Fermi wavenumber*) 13 I3 2 1022 n0M . phycon N 6.66511 107 n013 (*Fermi velocity*)

2m

I3 2 1022 n0M

23

H1 eVL . phycon

7.71603 107 n013 (*heat capacity*)

I3 2 1022 n0M

13

. phycon

1 2 NA kB2 HeV mJL . phycon 3

2.35715 (* Pauli paramagnetism*) B2 NA eV . phycon ScientificForm 3.23278 105 (*Relation between Pauli paramagnetism and heat capacity*) 3 B2 mJ . phycon ScientificForm 2 kB2 1.37148 105

Conclusion The temperature dependence of the specific heat is discussed in terms of the free electron Fermi gas model. The specific heat of electrons is proportional to T. The Sommerfelds constant for Na is 1.38 mJ/(mol K2) and is close to the value [1.094 mJ/(mol K2)] predicted from the free electron Fermi gas model. The linearly T dependence of the electronic specific heat and the Pauli paramagnetism give a direct evidence that the conduction electrons form a free electron Fermi gas obeying the FermiDirac statistics. It is known that the heavy fermion compounds have enormous values, two or three orders of magnitude higher than usual, of the electronic specific heat. Since is proportional to the mass, heavy electrons with the mass of 1000 m (m is the mass of free electron) move over the system. This is due to the interaction between electrons. A moving electron causes an inertial reaction in the surrounding electron gas, thereby increasing the effective mass of the electron. REFERENCES 1. L. Hoddeson, E. Braun, J. Teichmann, and S. Weart, Out of the Crystal Maze (Oxford University Press, New York, 1992). 2. NIST Web site: http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html 3. A.H. Wilson, The Theory of Metals (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1954). 4. A.A. Abrikosov, Introduction to the Theory of Normal Metals (Academic Press, New York, 1972). 5. N.W. Ashcroft and N.D. Mermin, Solid State Physics (Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson, New York, 1976). 6. C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, seventh edition (John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1996).

9.

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7. 8 9. 10.

C. Kittel and H. Kroemer, Thermal Physics, second edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1980). S.L. Altmann, Band Theory of Metals (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1970). H.P. Myers, Introductory Solid State Physics (Taylor & Francis, London, 1990). H. Ibach and H. Lth, Solid-State Physics An Introduction to Principles of Materials Science (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2003).

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