Gramatica Limbii Romane

A Reference Grammar of Romanian
Volume I The Noun Phrase

Edited by
Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin
LLF/CNRS Paris
Ion Giur!ea
The "Ior!u Ior#an - Al$ Rose%%i& Ins%i%u%e of Lin!uis%ics 'uchares%
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION. NOMINAL FEATURES AND NOMINAL PROJECTIONS (Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin ) Ion Giur!ea **+-, Don-a Far-as *./ +$ Nominal Fea%ures
+$+ General observa%ions an# %erminolo!0 +$1$ Gen#er +$2$ Number3 coun% an# mass nouns +$4$ Case
1$ Pronouns an# %he Person Fea%ure 2$ De%erminers an# o%her nominal func%ional ca%e!ories 4$ A#nominal cons%i%uen%s
4$+$ Com5lemen%s an# mo#ifiers 4$1$ A#nominal mo#ifiers vs$ DP-a#6unc%s$ A55osi%ions$ 4$2$ Focal Par%icles
,$ Dis%ribu%ion an# S0n%ac%ic Func%ions of Nominal Pro6ec%ions .$ The Seman%ics of De%erminers an# De%erminer Phrases .$+$ T05es of DPs
.$+$+$ 7n%i%0-#eno%in! DPs .$+$1$ 8uan%ifica%ional DPs .$1 Theore%ical 5ers5ec%ives .$1$+$ Pre#ica%e Calculus 9i%hou% an# 9i%h res%ric%e# variables .$1$1$ The rela%ional anal0sis of De%erminers .$1$2$ :on%a!ovian a55roaches .$1$4$ D0namic a55roaches
2. BARE NOUNS (Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin/ +$ In%ro#uc%ion

+$+ The Dis%ribu%ion of 'are Nouns +$1 The s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure of 'are Nouns +$2 The Seman%ics of 'are Nouns3 Lac- of Ar%icle an# Domain of Reference
1$ 'are Plurals an# 'are :ass Nouns in Ar!umen% Posi%ions 1$+ :or5holo!ical Case is incom5a%ible 9i%h 'are Nouns
1$1 The 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion
2$ Seman%ic Cons%rain%s on 'are Nouns in Ar!umen% Posi%ions

2$+ 'are Nouns an# T05es of Pre#ica%es 2$1 VP-level 7;is%en%ial Closure 2$2 7;is%en%ial vs$ Presu55osi%ional Pre#ica%es 2$4 Sco5e 2$, Ana5horic 5eculiari%ies 2$. As5ec%ual 5eculiari%ies
4$ Coun% 'are Sin!ulars in Ar!umen% Posi%ions

4$+ Classes of verbs 4$1 Fur%her le;ical cons%rain%s 4$2 'are Sin!ulars in sub6ec% 5osi%ions 4$4 'are Sin!ulars af%er 5re5osi%ions 4$, The Seman%ic Anal0sis of 'are Sin!ulars 4$,$+ 'are Sin!ulars as Pro5er%0-Deno%in! 7;5ressions 4$,$1 Incor5ora%in! Pre#ica%es 4$,$2 Narro9 sco5e 9i%h res5ec% %o Ne!a%ion
,$ 'are Nouns in a#nominal 5osi%ions .$ 'are Abs%rac% Nouns in Ar!umen% Posi%ions
<$ 'are Nouns in Pre#ica%e Posi%ions$ A com5arison 9i%h Sin!ular In#efini%es

<$+$ Classes of nouns <$1 The in%ernal ma-e-u5 of 'are Sin!ulars an# Sin!ular In#efini%es <$1$+ Ar!umen%s of DP-in%ernal Nouns an# ar!umen%s of bare Ns <$1$1 Pre5osi%ional an# a#verbial a#6unc%s <$1$2 :o#ifiers an# Ar!umen%s of 'are Sin!ulars <$2 T9o %05es of co5ular sen%ences <$2$+ Pre#ica%ional sen%ences <$2$1 I#en%ifica%ional an# s5ecifica%ional sen%ences <$2$2 :e%a5horic uses of sin!ular in#efini%es <$2$4 Conclusions <$4 'are nouns in im5ersonal cons%ruc%ions
3. T E S!NTA" OF DETERMINERS AND OT ER FUNCTIONAL CATE#ORIES (Ion Giur!ea/ =$ In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal func%ional ca%e!ories +$ Func%ional ca%e!ories as hea#s of ma;imal nominal 5ro6ec%ions$ The DP %heor0 1$ Dis%ribu%ional classes 2$ Noun elli5sis 5ro-N an# 5ro-DP
2$+$ Nominal func%ional elemen%s %ha% never allo9in! N-elli5sis 2$1$ Nominal func%ional elemen%s %ha% allo9 N-elli5sis 2$2$ Pro-DPs (5ronouns/ 2$2$+$ In#efini%e 5ronouns 2$2$1$ Personal 5ronouns 2$2$2$ The >!eni%ival an# or#inal ar%icle? al 2$2$4$ No%e on nominal elli5sis in bare nouns
4$ :o#ifiers an# com5lemen%s license# b0 nominal func%ional ca%e!ories 5hrasal NFCs an# %he issue of 5ar%i%ive PPs
4$+$ A55ro;ima%ion mo#ifiers an# o%her mo#ifiers license# b0 @uan%ifiers 4$1$ Phrasal car#inals 4$2$ Scalar @uan%i%a%ives 4$4$ Par%i%ive PPs
,$ 8uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions
,$+$ A#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ives ,$1$ Car#inals ,$2$ NominaliAe# car#inals @uan%i%0 nouns an# o%her func%ional nouns ,$4$ 8uan%i%0 e;5ressions %ha% al9a0s occu50 %he D la0er ,$,$ 8uan%i%0 e;5ressions in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion ,$.$ No%e on %he 9or# un >a one?
.$ Common 5ro5er%ies of @uan%i%a%ives an# some in#efini%e #e%erminers <$ The al%erna%ive an# %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer
<$+$ Al%erna%ive #e%erminers <$1$ The i#en%i%0 #e%erminer <$2$ Com5lemen%s of e@uali%0 an# #ifference
B$ Defini%e #e%erminers
B$+$ The #efini%e ar%icle B$1$ Demons%ra%ives B$2$ Defini%e 5hrases in S5ecDP
C$ Pre-#e%erminers +=$ The s0s%em of com5oun# #e%erminers 5ro-DPs an# 5ro-loca%ive-a#verbials $. T E SEMANTICS OF DETERMINERS (Don-a Far-as/ +$ In%ro#uc%ion
1$ Defini%e De%erminers
1$+$ Defini%e vs$ in#efini%e DPs 1$1$ The #efini%e #e%erminer -ul 1$2$ The #emons%ra%ive #e%erminer 1$4$ Conclusion
2$ In#efini%e #e%erminers
2$+$ Dnmar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminers 2$+$+$ Sco5al free#om 2$+$1$ S5ecific an# non-s5ecific in#efini%es DPs an# 9a0s of mar-in! %hem 2$+$2$ Generic in#efini%es 2$1$ :ar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminers 2$1$+$ Par%i%ive DPs an# 5ar%i%ive #e%erminers 2$1$1$ De5en#en% in#efini%es3 %he co-var0in! #e%erminer cte un 2$1$2$ The ne!a%ive in#efini%e #e%erminer niciun 2$1$4$ Free choice3 vreun an# ori- determiners 2$1$, I#en%ifiable in#efini%es3 un anume 2$2$ Conclusion
4$ Conclusion %. PRONOUNS (San#a Reinheimer - RE5eanu Liliane Tasmo9s-i ) An#ra Vasilescu **+$++$< Ion Giur!ea **+$B$+-+$B$, *4 An#ra Vasilescu *+$B$. Ro#ica Fafiu **1-2/ +$ Personal an# refle;ive 5ronouns
+$+$ In%ro#uc%ion +$1$ Gramma%ical Fea%ures an# Para#i!m +$1$+$ The fea%ure com5osi%ion of 5ersonal 5ronouns +$1$1$ The forms +$2$ S0n%ac%ic #ifferences be%9een s%ron! an# cli%ic forms +$4$ S%ron! Pronouns +$,$ The Gramma%ical Func%ions of Cli%ic Pronouns +$,$+ Common Gramma%ical Func%ions of Cli%ic an# S%ron! Pronouns +$,$1$ Gramma%ical func%ions res%ric%e# %o cli%ics +$,$2$ The Cli%ic Doublin! of S%ron! Pronouns +$,$4$ Pronominal cli%ics vs$ Inflec%ion +$,$,$ Gver% an# null sub6ec% 5ronouns +$.$ The S%ruc%ure of Cli%ic Clus%ers +$.$+$ Linear or#ers insi#e %he verbal clus%er +$.$1$ Cons%rain%s on %he verbal hos% +$.$2$ Pronominal Cli%ic Clus%ers +$.$2$+$ The Gr#er of Co-occurrin! Da%ive an# Accusa%ive Cli%ics +$.$2$1$ 7%hical Da%ives Co-occurrin! 9i%h G%her Pronominal Cli%ics +$<$ Cli%ic Allomor5hs +$<$+$ The Forms +$<$1$ The Selec%ion of Allomor5hs +$<$2$ The Cli%ic o +$<$4$ Verb allomor5hs +$B$ The Seman%ics of Personal Pronouns +$B$+$ Co-reference +$B$1$The boun# variable in%er5re%a%ion +$B$2$ The in%er5re%a%ion of Gen#er +$B$4$ Pronouns of laAiness +$B$,$ Gen#erless 5ronouns +$B$.$ Pra!ma%ic uses
1$ Poli%eness 5ronouns
1$+$ In%ro#uc%ion
1$1$ :or5holo!0 1$2$ S0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies3 #oublin! cli%ics an# a!reemen% 1$4$ The use of 5oli%eness forms
2$ The 5ronominal in%ensifier nsui

2$+$ :or5holo!0 2$1$ S0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies 2$2$ The in%ensifier use 2$4$ The refle;ive use
4$ Reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions
4$+$ In%ro#uc%ion 4$1$ Reci5rocal mar-in! 4$1$+$ Cli%ics 4$1$1$ S%ron! reci5rocal ana5hors 4$2$ Locali%0 cons%rain%s an# 5osi%ions of %he an%ece#en% 4$4$ Reci5rocal mar-in! an# s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es 4$,$ The seman%ics of reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions 4$,$+$ S%ron! vs$ 9ea- reci5roci%0 4$,$1$ In#ivi#ual vs$ !rou5 rea#in!s 4$,$2$ S5ecial rea#in! 9i%h or#erin! 5re#ica%es
&. #ENITI'E DPs AND PRONOMINAL POSSESSORS (Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin **=-2 Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin ) Isabela Ne#elcu *4 Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin ) Ion Giur!ea *,/ =$ In%ro#uc%ion +$ The S0n%a; of Geni%ives
+$+$ S0n%he%ic !eni%ives an# al-!eni%ives +$1$ S0n%he%ic !eni%ives follo9in! #efini%e nouns are #is!uise# al-!eni%ives +$2$ In#e5en#en% !eni%ive DPs +$4$ Prenominal Geni%ives +$,$ The s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion of 5os%nominal !eni%ives +$.$ The s%a%us of %he !eni%ive "ar%icle& al occurrin! in 5os%nominal !eni%ives +$<$ Co-occurrin! !eni%ives
1$ The In%er5re%a%ion of Geni%ives

1$+$ The seman%ic com5osi%ion 1$1$ (In/#efini%eness S5rea# 1$2$ In%er5re%ive Variabili%0 1$4$ The Seman%ic Com5osi%ion of !eni%ives in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions
2$ Geni%ive Case al%erna%in! 9i%h Pre5osi%ional :ar-in!

2$+$ Geni%ive Case al%erna%in! 9i%h de-:ar-in! 2$1$ Geni%ive Case al%erna%in! 9i%h a-:ar-in!
4$ De-al !eni%ives
4$+$ The s%ruc%ure of de-al !eni%ives 4$1$ The in%er5re%a%ion of de-al !eni%ives 4$2$ G%her #is%ribu%ional 5ro5er%ies of de-al !eni%ives 4$4$ Par%i%ive de-al 4$4$+$ Unul H de H 5lural al- 5hrase 4$4$1$ 7lli5%ical cons%ruc%ions
,$ Pronominal 5ossessors
,$+$ A non-uniform 5ara#i!m 3 !eni%ive-mar-e# 5ronouns an# a!reein! 5ossessors ,$1$ The 5osi%ion of 5ronominal 5ossessors ,$2$ Gn %he ca%e!orial s%a%us of a!reein! 5ossessors ,$4$ Suffi;al a!reein! 5ossessors 9i%h -inshi5 %erms
(. T E ADJECTI'E (Ale;an#ra Cornilescu ) Ion Giur!ea **+-4 Ion Giur!ea *,/ +$ In%ro#uc%ion$ The a#6ec%ive com5are# %o %he o%her le;ical ca%e!ories
+$+$ A#6ec%ives an# nouns$ The nominaliAa%ion of a#6ec%ives$ +$1$ A#6ec%ives an# verbs$ +$1$+$ The e;%ernal ar!umen% of a#6ec%ives$ +$1$1$ Seman%ic correla%es of %he a#6ec%ive/verb #is%inc%ion$ The as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of a#6ec%ives$ +$1$2$ Verbal forms 9i%h a#6ec%ival #is%ribu%ion$ Par%ici5les vs$ a#6ec%ives$ +$2$ A#6ec%ives as a ne!a%ivel0 #efine# ca%e!or0 +$4$ A#6ec%ives an# a#verbs
1$ Classes of a#6ec%ives$ Seman%ic %05es of a#6ec%ives an# %heir #is%ribu%ion

1$+$ Dis%ribu%ional classes 1$1$ Firs%-or#er vs$ secon#-or#er or in%ersec%ive vs$ non-in%ersec%ive$ 1$2$ 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives 1$2$+$ Gra#abili%0$ 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree 1$2$1$ 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9i%h a qua-N rea#in! 1$2$2$ The 5osi%ion of @uali%0 a#6ec%ives insi#e %he DP 1$4$ Non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives 1$4$+$ T9o %05es of non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives3 rela%ional an# in%ensional a#6ec%ives 1$4$1$ Rela%ional a#6ec%ives 1$4$2$ Non-rela%ional #enominal a#6ec%ives 1$4$4$ In%ensional a#6ec%ives
2$ A#6ec%ive 5lacemen% insi#e %he DP

2$+ Prenominal vs$ 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives 2$+$+$ Classes of 5renominal a#6ec%ives 2$+$1$ Non-res%ric%ive (a55osi%ive/ vs$ res%ric%ive 2$+$2$ Conclusion$ Prenominal a#6ec%ives com5are# 9i%h 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives 2$1$ Rela%ive or#er of s%ac-e# a#6ec%ives 2$2$ The #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion
4$ Gra#a%ion$ De!ree e;5ressions #e!rees of com5arison

4$+$ Gra#abili%0$ The #e!ree ar!umen% an# scales 4$1$ An%on0mic 5airs 5osi%ive an# ne!a%ive %erms 4$2$ T05es of !ra#able a#6ec%ives #e5en#in! on %he s%ruc%ure of %he scales 4$2$+$ Rela%ive vs$ absolu%e a#6ec%ives 4$2$1$ Absolu%e a#6ec%ives3 %o%al vs$ 5ar%ial a#6ec%ives 4$2$2$ Derive# close# scales 9i%h #is%ribu%ive 5ro5er%ies 4$2$4$ Scalar 5ro5er%ies of #everbal a#6ec%ives 4$2$ T05es of !ra#able a#6ec%ives #e5en#in! on %he s%ruc%ure of %he scales 4$2$+$ Rela%ive vs$ absolu%e a#6ec%ives 4$2$1$ Absolu%e a#6ec%ives3 %o%al vs$ 5ar%ial a#6ec%ives 4$2$2$ Derive# close# scales 9i%h #is%ribu%ive 5ro5er%ies 4$2$4$ Scalar 5ro5er%ies of #everbal a#6ec%ives 4$4$ The s0n%a; of %he De!ree Phrase 4$4$+$ De!ree hea#s 4$4$1$ The cons%ruc%ion 9i%h de 4$4$2$ Cons%ruc%ions 9i%h puin an# mult 4$4$4$ G%her cons%i%uen%s license# b0 #e!ree 9or#s 4$4$,$ De!ree hea#s in non-a#6ec%ival environmen%s 4$,$ The com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 4$,$+$ The com5ara%ive com5lemen%$ 4$,$1$ The #ifferen%ial 4$,$2$ G%her elemen%s %ha% can mo#if0 mai
4$,$4$ Pro!ressive com5ara%ive correla%ives 4$.$ The com5ara%ive of inferiori%0 4$<$ The com5ara%ive of e@uali%0 (%he e@ua%ive/ an# o%her cons%ruc%ions 9i%h att an# aa$ 4$<$+$ La fel$ 4$<$1$ Att an# aa in e@ua%ives 4$<$2$ G%her #e!ree cons%ruc%ions 9i%h att an# aa 4$<$4$ Gn %he seman%ics of e@ua%ives$ The in%ernal rea#in! of e@ua%ives 4$B$ Com5arin! #ifferen% 5ro5er%ies 4$B$+ The com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 4$B$1 %he com5ara%ive of e@uali%0 4$C$ The su5erla%ive 4$C$+$ The mor5ho-s0n%a; of %he su5erla%ive 4$C$1$ The seman%ics of %he su5erla%ive 4$+=$ Gn %he seman%ics of o%her #e!ree 9or#s 4$++$ :easure 5hrases com5ara%ive clauses an# com5ara%ive PPs
,$ The com5lemen%a%ion of a#6ec%ives

,$+$ Da%ive com5lemen%s ,$1$ Pre5osi%ional com5lemen%s ,$1$+$ The 5re5osi%ion cu ,$1$+$+$ The 5re5osi%ion cu 9i%h s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es ,$1$+$1$ The 5re5osi%ion cu 9i%h in%er5ersonal behavior 5re#ica%es an# as a comi%a%ive a#6unc% ,$1$+$2$ G%her uses ,$1$1$ The 5re5osi%ion de ,$1$2$ The 5re5osi%ion la ,$1$4$ The 5re5osi%ion n ,$1$,$ The 5re5osi%ion pe ,$1$.$ The 5re5osi%ion pentru ,$1$<$ The com5le; 5re5osi%ion fa de ,$1$B$ G%her 5re5osi%ions ,$2$ Inheren% accusa%ive 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive dator ,$4$ Clausal ar!umen%s ,$4$+$ In%ro#uc%ion ,$4$1$ Fini%e clauses ,$4$1$+$ Gb6ec% clauses ,$4$1$1$ Sub6ec% clauses ,$4$2$ Infini%ive clauses ,$4$2$+$ Infini%ival vs$ fini%e clauses ,$4$2$1$ In%ro#uc%or0 elemen%s ,$4$2$2$ The sub6ec% of %he infini%ive ,$4$4$ Su5ine clauses ,$4$4$+$ Gb6ec% clauses ,$4$4$1$ Sub6ec% clauses ,$4$4$2$ The tou !-cons%ruc%ion
). ADNOMINAL PREPOSITIONAL P RASES (Ale;an#ru :ar#ale **=+$+-+$1 *1$1$1 *2 Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin Ion Giur!ea ) Ale;an#ru :ar#ale *+$2 Ion Giur!ea ) Ale;an#ru :ar#ale *1$+ *1$1$+/ +$ General 5ro5er%ies of Romanian 5re5osi%ions
+$+$ Le;ical 5re5osi%ions an# func%ional 5re5osi%ions +$1$ Pre5osi%ions an# case +$1$+$ Le;ical 5re5osi%ions selec%in! %he accusa%ive +$1$1$ Le;ical 5re5osi%ions selec%in! %he !eni%ive or %he #a%ive
+$1$2$ Func%ional 5re5osi%ions as case mar-ers +$2$ Pre5osi%ions an# %he #efini%e ar%icle
1$ A#nominal 5re5osi%ional 5hrases hea#e# b0 le;ical 5re5osi%ions

1$+$ Subca%e!orise# le;ical 5re5osi%ions 1$+$+$ Le;ical 5re5osi%ions selec%e# b0 even%-referrin! nouns 1$+$1$ Le;ical 5re5osi%ions selec%e# b0 rela%ional nouns 1$1$ Non-subca%e!orise# le;ical 5re5osi%ions 1$1$+$ Local an# %em5oral a#6unc%s 1$1$1$ G%her PP a#6unc%s
2$ A#nominal 5re5osi%ional 5hrases hea#e# b0 func%ional 5re5osi%ions

2$+$ T05es of func%ional 5re5osi%ions 2$1$ A#nominal bare NPs 9i%h %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de 2$1$+$ T05es of a#nominal bare NPs 2$1$1$ I#ioma%ic N-de-NP se@uences
*. ADNOMINAL NON+FINITE CONSTITUENTS AND COMPLEMENT CLAUSES (7lena Soare **+-1 2$+-2$4 Ro#ica Fafiu ) 7lena Soare *2$,/ +$ In%ro#uc%ion 1$ Fini%e an# Non-fini%e Com5lemen%s
1$+$ Infini%ive com5lemen%s an# %heir inflec%e# coun%er5ar%s 1$+$+$ T05es of Ns selec%in! sen%en%ial com5lemen%s 1$+$1$ Com5lemen% Deno%a%ion an# :oo# selec%ion 1$+$2$ In%er5re%in! null sub6ec%s of infini%ives 1$1$ Su5ines in subca%e!oriAe# PPs
2$ Non-fini%e :o#ifiers
2$+$ Dis%in!uishin! su5ine re#uce# rela%ives an# 5re5osi%ional mo#ifiers 2$1$ :ore abou% su5ine 5re5osi%ional mo#ifiers 2$2$ The s%ruc%ure of su5ine re#uce# rela%ives 2$4$ Infini%ival mo#ifiers 2$,$ Gerun# :o#ifiers3 sub6ec%-!a5 non-fini%e rela%ives 2$,$+$I#en%if0in! a#nominal !erun#s 2$,$1$ Non-fini%e res%ric%ive vs$ a55osi%ive rela%ives 2$,$2$ Seman%ic-as5ec%ual cons%rain%s
1,. RELATI'E CLAUSE CONSTRUCTIONS AND UNBOUNDED DEPENDENCIES (Ale;an#er Grosu/ +$ Terminolo!ical 5reliminaries 1$ T05es of rela%ive clause cons%ruc%ions
1$+$ Seman%ic %05es 1$+$+$ Res%ric%ives an# a55osi%ives 1$+$1$ Sin!le%on rela%ives 1$+$1$+$ In%ersec%ive sin!le%on rela%ives 1$+$1$+$+$ Rela%iviAa%ion from an e;is%en%ial con%e;% 1$+$1$+$1$ Rela%iviAa%ion from a #e!ree con%e;% 1$+$1$+$2$ Rela%iviAa%ion 9i%h non-!ramma%icall0 im5ose# res%ric%ions on #e%erminers 1$+$1$1$ Non-in%ersec%ive sin!le%on rela%ives 1$1$ S0n%ac%ic %05es 1$2$ :or5holo!ical %05es 1$4$ Summar0 of correla%ions amon! seman%ic s0n%ac%ic an# mor5holo!ical %05es
2$ Dis%inc%ive 5ro5er%ies of sub-%05es of RCCs 2$+$ Dis%inc%ions amon! seman%ic %05es

2$1$ Ca%e!orial #is%inc%ions
2$2$ Dis%inc%ions in %he na%ure an# siAe of >rela%ive 5hrases? 2$2$+$ Sim5le; rela%ive 5hrases (rela%ive 5ronouns/ 2$2$1$ Com5le; rela%ive 5hrases (Pie# Pi5in!/ 2$2$1$+$ Pie# Pi5in! in e;%ernall0-hea#e# RCCs 2$2$1$1$ Pie# Pi5in! an# Case/P >ma%chin!? in Free RCCs
4$ Possible !a5 loca%ions ,$ Non-in#ica%ive RCCs

,$+$ Core RCCs ,$1$ Non-core e;is%en%ial RCCs
11. DE'ERBAL NOUNS (Ale;an#ra Cornilescu **1$1-1$, Ale;an#ra Cornilescu Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin ) Ion Giur!ea **+ 1$+ 2 Ale;an#ra Cornilescu 7lena Soare Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin ) Ion Giur!ea *4 Camelia S%an ) Ion Giur!ea *,/ +$ In%ro#uc%ion3 Deverbal Nouns an# %heir Ar!umen% S%ruc%ure
+$+ The mor5holo!0 of #everbal nouns +$1 The ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of #everbal nouns +$2$ Ar!umen% realiAa%ion in com5le; even% nounsI %he Noun H Gb6ec% an# %he Noun H Sub6ec% confi!ura%ions
1$ NominaliAa%ion of %ransi%ive an# unaccusa%ive verbs3 %he NG s%ruc%ure

1$+ Dis%in!uishin! be%9een Com5le; 7ven% Nouns an# Sim5le Deverbal Nouns 1$+$+$ The in%ernal ar!umen% 1$+$1$ The e;%ernal ar!umen% 1$+$2$ Thema%ic a#6ec%ives 1$+$4$ As5ec%ual mo#ifiers 1$+$,$ LocaliAers 1$+$.$ Con%rol b0 an im5lici% A!en% 1$1 Double ob6ec% verbs 1$2 Are NG s%ruc%ures J5assiveJK 1$4$ Verbs 9i%h a clausal com5lemen% 1$,$ Dnaccusa%ive verbs
2$ NominaliAa%ion of uner!a%ive verbs3 %he NS s%ruc%ure 4$ As5ec% an# nominaliAa%ion

4$+ Verbal As5ec%ual Classes an# 7ven%uali%0 As5ec% 4$1$ 7ven%uali%0 as5ec% in C7Ns 4$1$+$ The as5ec%ual class of %he base 4$1$1$ Telici%0 4$2$ The as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of %he su5ine 4$4$ PluraliAa%ion an# #e%erminer selec%ion in C7Ns
,$ Sim5le #everbal nouns an# o%her nominals 9i%h even%-rela%e# rea#in!s

,$+$ The rea#in!s of sim5le #everbal nouns ,$1$ Sim5le even% nouns (S7Ns/ ,$2$ A!en%-nominaliAa%ions ,$4$ G%her nouns 9i%h even%-rela%e# rea#in!s
12. PROPER NAMES (:ihaela :iron-Fulea Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin ) Ion Giur!ea/ =$ In%ro#uc%ion3 #efini%ion an# main s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies +$ Pro5er names an# %he #efini%e ar%icle
+$+$ The forms "a an# "u in an%hro5on0ms3 en#in!s or #efini%e ar%iclesK +$1$ Defini%e common nouns use# as 5ro5er names +$2$ To5on0ms
1$ The in%ernal s%ruc%ure of DPs hea#e# b0 5ro5er names

1$+$ Res%ric%ive 5os%nominal mo#ifiers 1$1$ Prenominal mo#ifiers
1$2$ Ten%a%ive anal0sis 1$4$ Pro5er names follo9e# b0 #efini%e DPs an# mo#ifiers in%ro#uce# b0 cel 1$,$ Pro5er names 5rece#e# b0 common nouns
2$ Pro5er names use# as common nouns

2$+$ Derive# common noun in%er5re%a%ions 2$1$ S5ecial uses in 9hich %he referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion is 5reserve#
4$ Pro5er names in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion 13. CLASSIFIER AND -UALITATI'E BINOMINAL CONSTRUCTIONS (:ihaela TLnase-Do!aru ) Ion Giur!ea **=-+ :ihaela TLnase-Do!aru Ion Giur!ea ) Ru;an#ra ViMan *1/ =$ In%ro#uc%ion +$ The classifier cons%ruc%ion
+$+$ T05es of classifier cons%ruc%ions +$+$+$ Dni% Nouns +$+$1$ 8uan%i%a%ive Nouns +$1$ S0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic 5ro5er%ies +$1$+$ De%erminers +$1$1$ S-selec%ion$ N1 as >seman%ic hea#?$ +$1$2$ A!reemen% +$1$4$ :o#ifica%ion +$1$,$ Disloca%ion of N1 +$1$.$ S0n%ac%ic anal0sis +$2$ Le;ical ambi!ui%0 +$4$ No%e on %he 5re5osi%ion de +$,$ Classifier cons%ruc%ions 9i%h abs%rac% nouns
1$ The @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ion

1$+$ Gvervie9 1$1$ Sin!le-DP 8uali%a%ives 1$1$+$ T05es of N+ 1$1$1 A!reemen% fac%s 1$1$2$ The in%erac%ion 9i%h #e%erminers 1$1$4$ The hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion 1$2$ Double-DP 8uali%a%ives
1$. APPOSITIONS AND JU"TAPOSED NOUNS (Raluca Ionescu 'rLescu ) Ion Giur!ea/ +$ In%ro#uc%ion 1$ A55osi%ions
1$+$ Dis%in!uishin! a55osi%ions from o%her 5aren%he%ical cons%ruc%ions 1$1$ The e@ua%ive a55osi%ion 1$1$+ Dis%ribu%ional 5ro5er%ies 1$1$1$ Seman%ic 5ro5er%ies 1$1$2$ Case 5ro5er%ies an# %he #is%inc%ion be%9een a55osi%ions an# reformula%ions 1$2$ The a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion 1$4$ A%%ribu%ive A55osi%ions versus Circums%an%ial Small Clauses 1$,$ I%era%e# a55osi%ions 1$.$ A common s0n%ac%ic charac%eriAa%ion of a%%ribu%ive an# e@ua%ive a55osi%ions
2$ Nu;%a5ose# nouns
2$+$ Common Noun H Pro5er Name 2$1$ Pro5er Name H Defini%e DP 2$2$ Common Noun H Common Noun
1%. 'OCATI'ES ('lanca Croi%or ) Vir!inia Oill/ +$ Defini%ion 1$ Pra!ma%ic 5ro5er%ies 2$ Phonolo!0 4$ Le;icon ,$ :or5holo!0
,$+$ Case en#in!s ,$1$ The al%erna%ion -e versus -ule for masculine sin!ular ,$2$ The al%erna%ion of Case mar-e# an# unmar-e# voca%ives
.$ S0n%a;3 5hrase s%ruc%ure

.$+$ :o#ifiers of voca%ive nouns .$+$+$ A#6ec%ives .$+$1$ Pronominal 5ossessors an# !eni%ives .$+$2$ 8uan%ifiers .$+$4$ 'inominal DPs .$+$,$ Pre5osi%ional 5hrases .$+$.$ N+ de N1 .$+$<$ Rela%ive clauses .$1$ NominaliAe# a#6ec%ives .$2$ Le;icall0 null nouns .$4$ Coor#ina%e# voca%ives
<$ S0n%a;3 %he voca%ive in %he sen%ence

<$+$ Voca%ives P sub6ec%s of im5era%ivesK <$1$ Ana5horic rela%ions
B$ Reverse role voca%ives C$ Voca%ives in e;clama%ions +=$ Theore%ical @ues%ions 1&. NOMINAL INFLECTION (Ion Giur!ea/ +$ The inflec%ion of #e%erminers a#6ec%ives an# o%her func%ional i%ems
+$+$ Gen#erHNumberHGbli@ue mor5hemes +$1$ Gen#erHNumber mor5hemes +$1$+$ T05e I3 Four-en#in! 5ara#i!m +$1$1$ General rules concernin! %he Q/-u an# -i en#in!s +$1$2$ T05e II3 Three-en#in! 5ara#i!m 9i%h one en#in! for %he feminine +$1$4$ T05e III3 %hree-en#in! 5ara#i!ms 9i%h one en#in! for %he 5lural +$1$,$ T05e IV3 T9o-en#in! 5ara#i!m <=2 +$1$.$ T05e V3 Gne-en#in! 5ara#i!ms
1$ The inflec%ion of nouns 2$ S%em al%erna%ions 4$ Irre!ular 5ara#i!ms ,$ The #efini%e #eclension .$ Voca%ive en#in!s <$ The 5ossessive inflec%ion B$ The au!men%e# forms of #e%erminers an# o%her func%ional ca%e!ories C$ Para#i!m sam5les BIBLIO#RAP !
L.st of /ont0.b1to0s
Ale;an#ra Cornilescu Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% 'lanca Croi%or The "Ior!u Ior#an - Al$ Rose%%i& Ins%i%u%e of Lin!uis%ics 'uchares% Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin LLF/CNRS Paris Don-a Far-as Dniversi%0 of California San%a CruA Ion Giur!ea The "Ior!u Ior#an - Al$ Rose%%i& Ins%i%u%e of Lin!uis%ics 'uchares% Ale;an#ru Grosu Tel-Aviv Dniversi%0 Vir!inia Oill Dniversi%0 of Ne9 'runs9icRaluca Ionescu 'rLescu The "Ior!u Ior#an - Al$ Rose%%i& Ins%i%u%e of Lin!uis%ics 'uchares% ) Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% Ale;an#ru :ar#ale INALCG Paris :ihaela :iron-Fulea "Gvi#ius& Dniversi%0 Cons%anRa Isabela Ne#elcu Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% ) The "Ior!u Ior#an - Al$ Rose%%i& Ins%i%u%e of Lin!uis%ics 'uchares% San#a Reinheimer-RE5eanu Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% Camelia S%an Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% 7lena Soare Dniversi%0 of Paris B Liliane Tasmo9s-i Dniversi%0 of An%9er5en :ihaela TLnase-Do!aru Dniversi%0 of 'uchares%
An#ra Vasilescu Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% Ru;an#ra ViMan Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% Ro#ica Fafiu Dniversi%0 of 'uchares%
Abb0e2.at.ons 1se3 .n 4losses

+12
ACC ADN AGR ADG: CL DAT DISTR DG: F F7: G7N G7R I:PF I:PV INF : :ASC N7G N7DT NG: G'L P PL PLPF PGSS PRF PTCL PTCP R7FL S SG SD'N SDP VGC
+s% 1n# 2r# 5erson accusa%ive a#6ec%ival suffi; 5re5ose# a!reemen% mar-er (in Albanian/ au!men%3 s5ecial inflec%ion use# on #e%erminers before a null N cli%ic (for #oublin! cli%ics usuall0 onl0 case is in#ica%e#/ #a%ive #is%ribu%ive3 mar-er of #is%ribu%e# (co-var0in!/ in#efini%es #ifferen%ial ob6ec% mar-er feminine !eni%iveI %he !eni%ival >ar%icle? al (5re5ose# !eni%ive mar-er a!reein! 9i%h %he 5ossessee/ !erun# im5erfec% im5era%ive infini%ive (inflec%ion suffi;/ masculine ne!a%ive mor5heme or hea# neu%er nomina%ive %he 5re5ose# !eni%ive-#a%ive mar-er lui use# 9i%h sin!ular 5ro5er names 5lural 5lu5erfec% 5ossessive (use# for %he 2r# sin!ular a!reein! 5ossessive su >his her i%s?/ %he 5erfec% mar-er fi of non-in#ica%ive moo#s 5ar%icle (use# for voca%ive 5ar%icles/ 5ar%ici5le refle;iveI use# for refle;ive cli%ics also in %heir use as voice mar-ers (inchoa%ive mi##le 5assive/ sin!ular sub6unc%iveI %he sub6unc%ive mar-er s su5ine (inflec%ion suffi;I 5re5ose# moo# mar-er/ voca%ive
#loss.n4 50.n/.5les
In or#er %o facili%a%e %he rea#in! some !ramma%ical ca%e!ories have been omi%%e# 9hen irrelevan% for %he #iscussion (e$!$ !en#er an# number on a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminers/$ The 5erson an# number on verbs are no% in#ica%e# 9hen %he0 are inferable from %he imme#ia%e !ramma%ical con%e;% i$e$ 9hen %here is an over% 5reverbal sub6ec%$ The 5erson an# number of refle;ive cli%ics are usuall0 no% in#ica%e# as %he0 are inferable from %he verb form$
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions
1. Int0o31/t.on. No6.nal Feat10es an3 No6.nal P0o7e/t.ons

CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN ) IGN GIDRG7A (**+-,/ DGNSA FARSAS (*./ 1. No6.nal Feat10es
+$+ General observa%ions an# %erminolo!0 +$1$ Gen#er +$2$ Number3 coun% an# mass nouns +$4$ Case
2. P0ono1ns an3 t8e Pe0son Feat10e 3. Dete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 no6.nal f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es $. A3no6.nal /onst.t1ents
4$+$ Com5lemen%s an# mo#ifiers 4$1$ A#nominal mo#ifiers vs$ DP-a#6unc%s$ A55osi%ions$ 4$2$ Focal Par%icles
%. D.st0.b1t.on an3 S9nta/t./ F1n/t.ons of No6.nal P0o7e/t.ons &. T8e Se6ant./s of Dete06.ne0s an3 Dete06.ne0 P80ases .$+$ T05es of DPs
.$1 Theore%ical 5ers5ec%ives
This volume is concerne# 9i%h %he s%u#0 of nominal 5ro6ec%ions in Romanian$ For reasons %ha% 9ill be e;5laine# belo9 ma;imal nominal cons%i%uen%s are anal0Ae# as D(e%erminer/ P(hrase/s i$e$ as s0n%ac%ic ca%e!ories hea#e# b0 a De%erminer (a s0n%ac%ic ca%e!or0 %ha% inclu#es ar%icles/ %ha% %a-es a N(oun/P(hrase/ ma#e u5 of %he hea# noun i%s com5lemen%s an# i%s mo#ifiers as a com5lemen%$ The in%ernal s%ruc%ure of a canonical ma;imal nominal 5ro6ec%ion %hus con%ains %hree hierarchical levels3 NT is %he le;ical level corres5on#in! %o %he hea# N NP is %he 5hrasal 5ro6ec%ion hea#e# b0 NT an# DP is %he 5ro6ec%ion hea#e# b0 %he func%ional ca%e!or0 De%erminer$ The %erm >nominal? 9ill be use# belo9 as an umbrella %erm for nominal 5ro6ec%ions$ No% all DPs are >canonical?3 some of %hem e$!$ 5ronouns lac- nouns o%hers e$!$ 5ro5er names as 9ell as 5lural an# mass in#efini%es lac- #e%erminers$ These classes of DPs 9ill %herefore be %rea%e# se5ara%el0$ Nouns can be #efine# formall0 if 9e %a-e in%o accoun% %heir s0n%ac%ic con%e;%3 a le;ical ca%e!or0 ; is a N if i% ma0 a55ear in %he con%e;% of an ar%icle (e$!$ un biat >a bo0? biatul >bo0-%he?/$ Oo9ever %his #efini%ion canno% be a55lie# ever09here since some 5ro5er names al9a0s a55ear 9i%hou% ar%icles (9hen %he0 %a-e an ar%icle 9e ma0 s5ea- of conversion %o common nouns/$ Al%erna%ivel0 nouns can be #efine# as bein! %hose le;ical elemen%s %ha% %ri!!er !en#er a!reemen% on a#6ec%ives an# on De%erminers$ This is a con%e;%ual #efini%ion bu% i% 5resu55oses a subs%an%ive non-con%e;%ual #efini%ion3 Ns are %hose elemen%s %ha% carr0 inheren% Gen#er fea%ures$ No%e %ha% %he o%her nominal fea%ure Number #oes no% seem %o be inheren% %o N i%self3 one an# %he same coun%able N e$!$ biat >bo0? can be mar-e# as ei%her sin!ular or 5lural (9hereas a !iven N is P in %he !eneral case a% leas% P ei%her masculine feminine or >neu%er? a label %ha% 9ill be #iscusse# belo9/$ Since %he Number fea%ure !ives in#ica%ions re!ar#in! %he referen% of %he DP as a 9hole i% ma0 be assume# %o a%%ach %o some elemen% %ha% is hi!her %han N i%self 5ossibl0 D i%self$ The %hir# >nominal? fea%ure Person is no% relevan% for nouns bu% onl0 for 5ersonal 5ronouns$ 'ecause %he onl0 formal non-con%e;%ual #efini%ions of Ns an# 5ronouns are in %erms of fea%ures %he firs% 5ar% of %he In%ro#uc%ion belo9 9ill be #evo%e# %o %hem$ Ue 9ill 5ursue b0 a 5resen%a%ion of De%erminers 9hich are crucial for %he anal0sis of nominal 5ro6ec%ions$ Pronouns 9hich lac- De%erminers bu% carr0 %he Person fea%ure 9ill follo9 ne;%$ The o%her sec%ions of %he In%ro#uc%ion 9ill !ive an overvie9 of %he 5hrasal a#nominal cons%i%uen%s$
1. No6.nal Feat10es
Nominal cons%i%uen%s are %ra#i%ionall0 #escribe# as carr0in! %he inflec%ional fea%ures of Gen#er Number an# Case$ The Person fea%ure 9hich concerns onl0 5ersonal 5ronouns 9ill be #iscusse# in %he sec%ion #e#ica%e# %o %hese elemen%s$ Gen#er Number an# Case fea%ures are realiAe# as boun# mor5hemes (a mor5heme ma0 corres5on# %o one or several fea%ures/ on several elemen%s insi#e %he same nominal 5ro6ec%ion (sub6ec%-verb a!reemen% 9hich 5er%ains %o %he secon# volume of our Grammar 9ill be lef% asi#e here/$ The 5resence of %hese inflec%ional mor5hemes some%imes correla%es 9i%h vocalic an# consonan%ic al%erna%ions on %he nominal roo%3
(+/ a$ aces% bLia% bun %his$:SG bo0( :/ !oo#$:SG b$ aceM%. bLieRi bun. %his$:PL bo0s(:/ !oo#$:PL c$ aceas%: fa%L bun: %his$FSG !irl(F/ !oo#$FSG #$ aces%e fe%e bune %his$FPL !irls(F/ !oo#$FPL
The e;am5les in (+/ sho9 %ha% number mor5hemes on #e%erminers an# a#6ec%ives are mar-e# as ei%her masculine or feminine an observa%ion %ha% is curren%l0 formula%e# b0 sa0in! %ha% Number is bun#le# 9i%h Gen#er or Number an# Gen#er are bun#le# %o!e%her$ 1.1 #ene0al obse02at.ons an3 te06.nolo49 ; Infle/t.onal 2s le<./al feat10es In 9ha% follo9s 9e 9ill use %he label >inflec%ional fea%ure? %o refer %o %hose fea%ures %ha% are realiAe# as boun# mor5hemes se5arable from %he roo% i%self$ Ue 9ill assume a Q mor5heme %o be 5resen% on %hose roo%s %ha% en%er a Number or Gen#er o55osi%ion 9i%h ano%her elemen% %ha% is #ecom5osable in%o a roo% an# an over% inflec%ional mor5heme3
(1/ vesel-Q / vesel-L cheerful-:SG cheerful-FSG
Ue ma0 %hen summariAe %he observa%ions ma#e so far b0 sa0in! %ha% %he Number an# Gen#er fea%ures on #e%erminers an# a#6ec%ives are inflec%ional fea%ures$ The fea%ural ma-e-u5 of nouns #iffers from %ha% of #e%erminers an# a#6ec%ives insofar as %he !en#er fea%ure on nouns is no% inflec%ional bu% ra%her >le;ical?3 in %he !eneral case nouns are no% #ecom5osable in%o a roo% follo9e# b0 an inflec%ional fea%ureI %he !en#er fea%ures of nouns belon! %o %he roo% i%self %he0 sub-classif0 nouns (9e 9ill see in sec%ion +$1 %ha% even 9hen !en#er seems %o be realiAe# b0 an inflec%ional mor5heme a##e# %o a nominal roo% %his mor5heme mus% be consi#ere# a #eriva%ional ra%her %han an inflec%ional mor5heme/$ The #is%inc%ion be%9een inflec%ional fea%ures an# le;ical fea%ures is crucial for an0 anal0sis of nominal !en#er an issue %o 9hich 9e 9ill come bac- belo9$ Li-e #e%erminers an# a#6ec%ives Romanian nouns have %he inflec%ional fea%ures of Number an# Case (see Cha5 Infl/$ The above #iscussion sho9s %ha% %he #is%inc%ion be%9een inflec%ional an# le;ical fea%ures #oes no% 5er%ain %o a !iven fea%ure (e$!$ Number vs$ Gen#er/ bu% ins%ea# #e5en#s on bo%h %he fea%ure an# %he ca%e!or0 %o 9hich i% a%%aches$ I% shoul# also be observe# %ha% al%hou!h in %he ma6ori%0 of cases Number on nouns is inflec%ional %here are also e;ce5%ions such as pluralia tantum for 9hich %he 5lural fea%ure mus% be vie9e# as le;ical$ The main !eneraliAa%ion concernin! %he o55osi%ion be%9een inflec%ional an# le;ical fea%ures seems %o be %ha% onl0 nouns (an# 5ronouns/ ma0 have le;ical fea%ures of Gen#er an# Number$ De%erminers an# a#6ec%ives al9a0s carr0 inflec%ional fea%ures (of Gen#er Number an# Case/$ Case fea%ures are al9a0s inflec%ional$ ; A40ee6ent The sharin! of fea%ures sho9n in %he e;am5les in (+/ is #ue %o a reement an as0mme%ric rela%ion 9hich in informal %erms can be #escribe# as a mechanism %ha% co5ies a !iven fea%ure from one elemen% P %he source or %he controller of a!reemen% - on%o one or more elemen%s P %he tar ets of a!reemen% P belon!in! %o a s5ecifie# s0n%ac%ic #omain$ A @uic- loo- a% %he e;am5les in (+/ is sufficien% %o see %ha% (i/ a#6ec%ives are %ar!e%s ra%her %han con%rollers of a!reemen% for bo%h Number an# Gen#er an# (ii/ nouns are %he con%rollers of Gen#er3 %he value of %he Gen#er fea%ure of a#6ec%ives (an# #e%erminers/ #e5en#s on %he !en#er class of %he noun an# %he value of %he Number of a#6ec%ives #e5en#s on %he referen%ial 5ro5er%ies of %he en%i%0 referre# %o b0 %he overall DP$ I% is much less clear 9he%her i% is %he noun or %he #e%erminer %ha% con%rols Number a!reemen% an issue %ha% 9ill be e;amine# belo9$ The fea%ures 5resen% on %he %ar!e% of a!reemen% are %ra#i%ionall0 vie9e# as copied or 2
in!erited from %he source$ No%e ho9ever %ha% i% is %he value of %he fea%ure P ra%her %han %he fea%ure %05e i%self P %ha% is >co5ie#? or ra%her con%e;%uall0 fi;e# as i#en%ical %o %ha% of %he con%roller$ Ue ma0 %hus sa0 %ha% in %heir le;ical re5resen%a%ion a!reein! a#6ec%ives have unvalued features of Gen#er an# Number 9hich are assi!ne# a 5ar%icular value con%e;%uall0 #e5en#in! on %he fea%ures of %he noun (or of %he #e%erminer/$ This charac%eriAa%ion of %he a!reemen% fea%ures of a#6ec%ives allo9s us %o #is%in!uish be%9een lan!ua!es li-e Romanian 9hich have a!reein! a#6ec%ives an# lan!ua!es li-e 7n!lish in 9hich a#6ec%ives #o no% a!ree3 7n!lish a#6ec%ives ma0 be charac%eriAe# as lac-in! a!reemen% fea%ures$ In sum %he %ar!e%s of a!reemen% have unvalue# fea%ures in %he Le;icon an# con%e;%uall0 value# fea%ures in a 5ar%icular con%e;%$ In o%her 9or#s %he visible inflec%ions are realiAa%ions of %he con%e;%uall0 value# fea%ures$ Turnin! no9 %o %he fea%ures of %he con%rollers of a!reemen% %heir value is fi;e# in#e5en#en%l0 of %he a!reemen% rela%ion3 a noun is masculine or feminine even if %here is no a!reein! %ar!e% in i%s con%e;%$ The e;am5les in (+/ above clearl0 sho9 %ha% %he (value of %he/ Gen#er fea%ure is an inheren% 5ro5er%0 of le;ical en%ries of nouns3 biat an# fat are in%rinsicall0/inheren%l0 mar-e# as masculine an# feminine res5ec%ivel0$ Com5are %he a#6ec%ive bun 9hich has no inheren% value for i%s Gen#er fea%ure bu% ins%ea# is assi!ne# %he values masculine or feminine #e5en#in! on %he Gen#er fea%ure of %he noun i% mo#ifies e$!$ biat bun >bo0 !oo#$:SG? vs$ fat bun >!irl !oo#$FSG?$ No%e no9 %ha% %he values of cer%ain o%her fea%ures e$!$ Number an# Case canno% be vie9e# as inheren% %o an0 le;ical en%r03 a !iven noun e$!$ mas >%able? or cine >#o!? is no% mar-e# in %he le;icon as ei%her sin!ular or 5lural nor is i% mar-e# as ei%her Nomina%ive Geni%ive e%c$ Ins%ea# Number is an in%er5re%able fea%ure (9hich !ives in#ica%ions re!ar#in! %he referen% of nominal cons%i%uen%s if 9e leave asi#e pluralia tantum e$!$ pantaloni >%rousers?/ %ha% combines 9i%h i%s hos% (%he De%erminer an#/or %he Noun/ in %he s0n%a;$ Number is realiAe# as a boun# mor5heme on %he #e%erminer noun an# a#6ec%ive an# 9e ma0 9on#er 9hich one of %hese i%ems is %he con%roller of Number a!reemen%$ Since none of %he elemen%s on 9hich Number inflec%ions a55ear is inheren%l0 mar-e# for a cer%ain value of Number i% is #ifficul% %o #eci#e 9hich one of %he elemen%s %ha% a!ree in Number is %he con%roller an# in fac% %he no%ion of >con%roller of Number (a!reemen%/? is @ui%e #ifferen% from %ha% of >con%roller of Gen#er?3 %he con%roller of Number 9oul# be %he elemen% %o 9hich Number a%%aches firs% or more 5recisel0 %he elemen% on%o 9hich %he value of Number is freel0 selec%e# as ei%her sin!ular or 5luralI Number 9oul# %hen be co5ie# via a!reemen% on%o %he o%her elemen%s$ Gran%in! %ha% a#6ec%ives have onl0 unvalue# fea%ures %he con%roller of Number an# Case coul# be ei%her D or N (for more on %his see sec%ion +$2 belo9/$ Assumin! %ha% seman%ics is com5osi%ional in %he sense %ha% s0n%ac%ic cons%i%uen%s are assi!ne# seman%ic in%er5re%a%ions #e5en#in! on %heir s0n%a; %he #ecision as %o 9he%her Number mer!es firs% 9i%h De% or 9i%h N #e5en#s on %he seman%ic anal0sis$ Case on %he o%her han# is nei%her inheren% nor in%er5re%ableI i% is assi!ne# con%e;%uall0 in #esi!na%e# s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions un#er !overnmen% b0 5ar%icular s0n%ac%ic ca%e!ories$ The values of Case fea%ures can %hus be sai# %o be con%e;%uall0 assi!ne# %o %he overall DP hence a S(ase/ ca%e!or0 %ha% has been some%imes been assume# above %he DPlevel of re5resen%a%ion$ Insi#e %he DP i%self Case fea%ures a55ear on several elemen%s (#e%erminers nouns a#6ec%ives/ #ue %o a!reemen%$ Ue shoul# %herefore #is%in!uish be%9een Case assi!nmen% (i$e$ %he o5era%ion %ha% a%%ribu%es a Case fea%ure %o %he DP as a 9hole/ an# Case co50in! 9hich co5ies %he Case fea%ure %o several VT ca%e!ories insi#e %he DP$ In sum %he values of %he fea%ures on %he con%roller of a!reemen% ma0 be of %hree #is%inc% %05es3 inheren% le;ical fea%ures (see %he Gen#er of Ns/ freel0 assi!ne# inflec%ional fea%ures (see Number/ or con%e;%uall0 assi!ne# inflec%ional fea%ures (see Case/$ The fea%ures
on %he %ar!e% of a!reemen% on %he o%her han# are al9a0s inflec%ional fea%ures$ ; P0.2at.2e o55os.t.ons= 6a0>e3 an3 1n6a0>e3 feat10e 2al1es Number an# Gen#er fea%ure values are or!aniAe# in as0mme%ric 5airs havin! a mar#ed an# an unmar#ed value$ Ue can #eci#e 9hich values are unmar-e# b0 e;aminin! %ar!e%s of a!reemen%3 in a con%e;% 9here %he 5o%en%ial con%roller is no% mar-e# for a !iven fea%ure %he %ar!e% %a-es %he form corres5on#in! %o %he unmar-e# value$ For e;am5le a#6ec%ives func%ionin! as 5re#ica%es of clausal cons%i%uen%s 9hich #o no% have !en#er an# number sho9 %he masculine sin!ular form$ Therefore masculine can be consi#ere# as %he unmar-e# value for !en#er an# sin!ular as %he unmar-e# value for number3
(2/ A-i mulRumi 5e %oRi e im5osibil %o-%hem$ACC sa%isf0 DG: all is im5ossible$:SG >I%?s im5ossible %o 5lease ever0bo#0$?
Im5ersonal verbs sho9 sin!ular forms confirmin! %ha% sin!ular is %he unmar-e# value for Number$ Canonical mass nouns #o no% mer!e 9i%h Number (%he0 #o no% sho9 a number o55osi%ion/ bu% %he elemen%s %ha% a!ree 9i%h %hem mus% choose be%9een sin!ular an# 5lural$ The fac% %ha% %he %ar!e%s sho9 sin!ular in#ica%es %ha% sin!ular is %he unmar-e# value of Number$ No%ice also %ha% %he inflec%ional mor5heme a55earin! on %hese nouns is a sin!ular mor5heme3
(4/ a$ aur smWn%WnL !ol#$SG cream$SG b$ aurul ne!ru !ol#-%he$:SG blac-$:SG
:ass nouns 9hich are mar-e# as 5lural an# %ri!!er 5lural a!reemen% are e;%remel0 rare (e$!$ cli >%o9? cuioare >cloves? tre >bran?/$ In %his case 9e assume %ha% Number is 5resen% on N an# has a value fi;e# in %he le;icon$ The unmar-e# value for a fea%ure can also be #eci#e# base# on a!reemen% resolu%ion rules 9i%h coor#ina%e# con%rollers P %he value chosen 9hen con%rollers have #ifferen% values can be consi#ere# %o be %he unmar-e# one$ :asculine is %he form chosen for coor#ina%ion of anima%es an# feminine for coor#ina%ion of inanima%es$ 'u% since !en#er in %he case of anima%es is in%er5re%able an# masculine is %he unmar-e# value for in%er5re%able !en#er 9e ma0 conclu#e %ha% feminine re5resen%s %he unmar-e# value for !en#er as a formal fea%ure in %he 5lural (a >mor5holo!ical #efaul%?/$ Gn %he seman%ic si#e 9e ma0 s5ea- of an unmar-e# value of a fea%ure if %he 5ro5er%0 (#eno%a%ion #omain/ %his fea%ure e;5resses 5ro5erl0 inclu#es %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 %he mar-e# value$ For ins%ance !rou5s forme# of bo%h male an# females are referre# %o b0 masculine 5ronouns in Romanian 9hile %he feminine is res%ric%e# in %he 5lural %o !rou5s onl0 forme# of females (see (,//$ Li-e9ise in %he sin!ular in#e%ermina%e 5ronouns such as cineva >somebo#0? %a-e masculine a!reemen% an# nouns 9hich have masculine / feminine 5airs normall0 %a-e masculine forms 9hen reference is ma#e %o %he 9hole class in#e5en#en%l0 of se;3
(,/ a$ Au mai veni% o fa%L Mi un bLia%$ Nu-i /Xle cunoM%eam have$2PL also come a !irl an# a bo0 no%-%hem$ ACC$:PL / %hem$FPL$ACC -ne9$+SG >A !irl an# a bo0 came$ I #i#n?% -no9 %hem$?
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions b$ Au mai veni% o fa%L Mi o bL%rWnL$ Nu le cunoM%eam have$2PL also come a !irl an# an ol#-9oman no% %hem$FPL$ACC -ne9$+SG >A !irl an# an ol# 9oman came$ I #i#n?% -no9 %hem$? VorbeM%e cu cineva 5rice5u% / X5rice5u%L %al-$I:PV$1SG %o somebo#0 s-illful$:SG / s-illful$FSG >Tal- %o someone s-illful$? a$ Res5ec% 5rofesorii res5ec%$+SG %eachers(:/-%he$:PL >I res5ec% %eachers (male an# females/? b$ Res5ec% 5rofesoarele res5ec%$+SG %eachers(F/-%he$FPL >I res5ec% female %eachers?
(./ (</
Therefore %he masculine can be consi#ere# %he unmar-e# value for !en#er insofar as in%er5re%a%ion is concerne#$ In such cases one ma0 sa0 ei%her %ha% %he unmar-e# value is va!ue havin! bo%h a 5ar%icular an# a more !eneral meanin! P for ins%ance %he masculine 9oul# mean ei%her >Hhuman? or >Hmale? P or %ha% %he 5ar%icular in%er5re%a%ion arises b0 an im5lica%ure P e$!$ 9hen %he s5ea-er is su55ose# %o -no9 %he se; of %he referen% from %he fac% %ha% i% #i#n?% use %he feminine i% can be inferre# %ha% %he referen% is a male$ S%an#ar# seman%ics a#o5%e# %he secon# al%erna%ive$ I% is im5or%an% %o no%ice %ha% unmar-e# values #o no% al9a0s corres5on# %o Aero mor5holo!03 al%hou!h %here is a 9i#es5rea# Q en#in! for masculine sin!ular %here are 5ara#i!ms 9hich have an -u en#in! or an -e en#in!$ In nouns %here are various 5ara#i!ms in 9hich bo%h %he sin!ular an# %he 5lural are mar-e# b0 a #is%inc% mor5heme (- e$-i% -$-e% -$-i% -u$-i/$ In verbal 5ara#i!ms %he Q en#in! is some%imes correla%e# %o a mar-e# value (Q is %he +s% sin!ular an# in some con6u!a%ions also %he 2 r# 5lural 5resen% en#in!/$ Therefore Romanian is #escribe# as a lan!ua!e 9i%hou% bare roo%s meanin! %ha% absence of en#in! insi#e a 5ara#i!m is anal0Ae# as a Q en#in! ra%her %han no en#in! a% all$ This 5ro5er%0 of Romanian is corrobora%e# b0 #a%a from lan!ua!e ac@uisi%ion (%he chil#ren #o no% !o %hrou!h a s%a!e 9here %he0 onl0 use bare roo%s/$ 1.2. #en3e0 Romanian has %hree #is%inc% !en#er classes of nouns %ra#i%ionall0 calle# >feminine? mam >mo%her?% femeie >9oman?% rdin >!ar#en?% carte >cour%0ar#?% baie >ba%hroom?% basma >hea#scarf?% muncitoare >9or-er(F/? >masculine? e$!$ student >s%u#en%?% frate >bro%her?% cuscru >in-la9?% cumnat >bro%her-in-la9?% cine >#o!?% rac >crab?% pui >chic-en?% pom >a55le?% enunc!i >-nee? an# >neu%er? e$!$ scaun >chair?% lucru >9or-?% tablou >5ain%in!?% consiliu >council?% nume >name?$ The e;is%ence of #is%inc% !en#er classes of nouns in#ica%es %ha% !en#er is an inheren% 5ro5er%0 of le;ical en%ries of nouns 9hich im5lies %ha% a !iven noun has one an# onl0 one !en#er$ This s%a%emen% seems %o be #isconfirme# b0 %he e;is%ence of man0 nominal roo%s 9hich have masculine/feminine 5airs such as prieten$prieten >frien#?$ Pairs of %his -in# are ho9ever no% 5roblema%ic since %he0 can be sho9n %o be rela%e# b0 derivational morp!olo y ra%her %han inflec%ion P in o%her 9or#s %he0 come in pairs of t&o le'ical entries ra%her %han in a sin!le le;ical en%r0 9i%h a !en#er fea%ure 9hose value is freel0 assi!ne#$ If masculine an# feminine 9ere values freel0 assi!ne# for %he uns5ecifie# !en#er fea%ure of %he same le;ical basis 9e 9oul# e;5ec% %ha% in noun elli5sis %he !en#er of %he eli#e# noun mi!h% be #ifferen% from %he !en#er of %he an%ece#en% as is in#ee# %he case for number (see (B/a/$ Oo9ever as %he s%ron! con%ras% in (B/ belo9 sho9s %his is no% %he case$ Uhile number can var0 in noun elli5sis !en#er canno%3
(B/
a$ Au veni% #oi 50.eten. ai :onicLi Mi 1n1l YNeZ al Ro#icLi have$2PL come %9o frien#s(:/ G7N :onica$G7N an# one-%he$: G7N Ro#ica$G7N >T9o frin#s of :onica?s an# one of Ro#ica?s have come$? b$ XAu$2PL veni% #oi 50.eten. ai :onicLi Mi 1na YNeZ a Ro#icLi have come %9o frien#s(:/ G7N :onica$G7N an# one-%he$F G7N Ro#ica$G7N (9i%h YNeZ[prieten/
The 5ro5osal %ha% !en#er 5airs are forme# of #is%inc% le;ical en%ries #eriva%ionall0 rela%e# is su55or%e# b0 %he e;is%ence of a lar!e number of irre!ulari%ies in %he mor5holo!ical rela%ion be%9een masculines an# feminines shar5l0 con%ras%in! %o 9ha% 9e fin# in a#6ec%ival 5ara#i!ms (9here !en#er is in#ee# an inflec%ional fea%ure/3 %here are a lo% of 9or#s in 9hich %he feminine is mar-e# b0 elemen%s 9hich are clearl0 #eriva%ional suffi;es (%he0 never a55ear insi#e a mor5holo!ical 5ara#i!m/3 -c in romn $ romnc >Romanian? ardelean $ ardeleanc >Trans0lvanian? (%his is a re!ular 5a%%ern for ori!in 9or#s in -an-/ -oaic in boier $ boieroaic >noble? france( $ franu(oaic >Frenchmen/-9oman? (no%ice %he chan!e in %he base in a##i%ion %o %he suffi;/ -eas in preot $ preoteas >5ries% / 5ries% 9ife? buctar $ buctreas >coo-? -i in doctor $ doctori >5h0sician? actor $ actri >ac%or / ac%ress? e%c$ In a minori%0 of cases %he masculine is #erive# from %he feminine P %hese are usuall0 nouns of animals in 9hich %he feminine is %he unmar-e# form un#ers5ecifie# for !en#er3 vulpe >fo;? (feminine/ / vulpoi ra >#uc-?/ roi curc >%ur-e0 hen? / curcan >%ur-e0?$ There are also conce5%s for 9hich %he male an# female s5ecifica%ions are associa%e# %o #ifferen% roo%s (biat >bo0? / fat >!irl?I frate >bro%her?/sor >sis%er? brbat >man?/femeie >9oman? e%c$/$ :oreover for some conce5%s no !en#er o55osi%ion reflec%in! se; is foun#$ :os% of %hese nouns refer %o animals (vie(ure (masculine/ >ba#!er? crocodil (masculine/ >croco#ile? e%c$/ bu% nouns referrin! %o humans can also be foun# (clu( >!ui#e?% persoan >5erson?% rud >rela%ive?% victim >vic%im? P feminineI su ar >%o##ler? ft >fe%us? decan >#ean? P masculine/$ To sa0 %ha% !en#er is an in%rinsic (le;ical/ fea%ure of nouns #oes no% mean %ha% !en#er is in%er5re%able$ In o%her 9or#s %here is no 5erfec% correla%ion be%9een le;ical !en#er classes an# #is%inc%ions such as anima%e vs$ inanima%e or male vs$ female$ Some !eneraliAa%ions never%heless e;is%3 (a/ >neu%er? nouns canno% refer %o anima%es (%here are ho9ever a fe9 e;ce5%ions3 nouns of animal classes inclu#in! animal >animal? nouns 9hich also have meanin!s 9hich are no% a55lie# %o 5ersons P )foto*model >mo#el? persona+ >charac%er? P %he recen% borro9in!s star >s%ar? vip >VIP?/I (b/ leavin! asi#e a ver0 small number of e;ce5%ions (e$!$ ordonan >or#erl0? santinel >!uar#ian? clu( >!ui#e?% persoan >5erson?% rud >rela%ive?% victim >vic%im?/ %he masculine is use# for males or leaves se; uns5ecifie# %he feminine is use# for females$ Gen#er is some%imes in%er5re%able on 5ronouns$ As 9ill be sho9n in Cha5%er , (see *+$B/ 9hen 5ronouns have an an%ece#en% con%ainin! a noun %he0 normall0 %a-e %he !en#er of %his noun$ 'u% 5ronouns can also be use# 9i%hou% an an%ece#en% con%ainin! a noun$ In %his case %heir !en#er fea%ure is #irec%l0 in%er5re%able enco#in! a fea%ure of %he referen% P masculine 5ronouns are use# for anima%es in !eneral an# males (see %he #iscussion in +$+ above/ feminine 5ronouns are use# for females$ Uhile %he e;is%ence of a %hir# class of nouns is uncon%roversial %he label >neu%er? is @ues%ionable insofar as %he elemen%s (e$!$ #e%erminers or a#6ec%ives/ %ha% a!ree 9i%h neu%ral nouns are no% mar-e# 9i%h s5ecial neu%er inflec%ions bu% sho9 onl0 a binar0 o55osi%ion be%9een masculine an# feminine mar-in!s$ The nouns belon!in! %o %he so-calle# >neu%er? class %ri!!er masculine a!reemen% in %he con%e;% /Hsin!ular/ (i$e$ 9hen %he %ar!e% of a!reemen% bears sin!ular/ an# feminine a!reemen% in %he con%e;% /H5lural/ a behavior %ha% su!!es%s %ha% %he label >ambi!eneric? is more a#e@ua%e3 <
(C/
a$ aces% caie% / aces%e caie%e %his$: no%eboo- / %hese$FPL no%eboo-s b$ Caie%ul Mi #osarul sun% u#e no%eboo-(N/-%he$: an# file(N/-%he$: are 9e%$FPL
Pronouns 9i%h an%ece#en%s con%ainin! neu%er nouns also sho9 masculine in %he sin!ular an# feminine in %he 5lural$ No%e %ha% as sho9n in (C/b %9o coor#ina%e# sin!ular neu%ers %ri!!er feminine 5lural a!reemen%$ The feminine can be consi#ere# as a mor5holo!ical #efaul% for %he 5lural (i% is %he normal form use# for coor#ina%ion of inanima%es 9i%h #ifferen% !en#ers/I moreover as sho9n in (2/ above %he masculine can be consi#ere# as a mor5holo!ical #efaul% form for %he sin!ular (i% is %he form use# 9hen %he elemen% 9hich shoul# con%rol a!reemen% #oes no% have !en#er see %he case of clausal sub6ec%s/$ 'ase# on %hese observa%ions i% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% neu%er nouns shoul# be anal0Ae# as nouns no% s5ecifie# for !en#er an# i%ems a!reein! 9i%h %hem sho9 %he #efaul% !en#er forms P masculine for %he sin!ular feminine for %he 5lural$ Ano%her 5ossible anal0sis of %he Romanian !en#er s0s%em #is%in!uishes controller ender or nominal classes an# tar et ender an# claims %ha% Romanian has %hree values for con%roller !en#er an# %9o values for %ar!e% !en#er rela%e# in %he follo9in! 9a03
(i/ Nominal class I II III Associa%e# %ar!e% !en#er H s! H 5l : : F F : F
This anal0sis relies on %he h05o%hesis %ha% %he rela%ion be%9een %he fea%ure of %he con%roller an# %he fea%ure of %he %ar!e% is no% one of i#en%i%0 of value (a mere co50in!/ bu% is more com5le; P i% can be seen as an ins%ruc%ion 9hich for class III 9oul# be >value !en#er as masculine in %he con%e;% Hsin!ular an# as feminine in %he con%e;% H5lural?$ In sum no ma%%er 9hich anal0sis is a#o5%e# 9e shoul# #is%in!uish be%9een nominal a reement classes or ender le'ical classes an# t!e inflectional features of ender $ Romanian has %hree !en#er a!reemen% classes of nouns (ei%her masculine feminine an# unmar-e# or I II an# III/ bu% onl0 %9o values for %he ca%e!or0 !en#er as i% is realiAe# on %ar!e%s of a!reemen% (a#6ec%ives #e%erminers a!reein! 5ossessors/ an# on 5ronouns$ No !en#er inflec%ion a55ears on N i%selfI %he !en#er classes can be i#en%ifie# as bein! #is%inc% because %he0 %ri!!er %hree #is%inc% a!reemen% 5a%%erns on D?s an# A#6?s$ In sum 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% %here are no neu%er inflec%ions 9ha%soever$ The onl0 5roblem 9i%h %his !eneraliAa%ion is %he e;is%ence of %he 5lural en#in! -uri 9hich is 5ro#uc%ivel0 use# 9i%h 5lural neu%er nouns (e$!$ cadou $ cadouri >5resen%? tren $ trenuri >%rain? +ob $ +oburi >6ob? radio $ radiouri >ra#io (se%/?/$ I% is %rue %ha% %his en#in! also a55ears 9i%h feminine nouns bu% onl0 for a han#ful of le;emes P leaf $ lefuri >salar0? treab $ treburi >9orbusiness? lips $ lipsuri >lac- shor%comin!? vreme $ vremuri >%ime 9ea%her a!e (5l$ %imes a!e/? marf $ mrfuri >merchan#ise?$ The e;is%ence of a s5ecialiAe# en#in! of %his %05e seems %o con%ra#ic% %he vie9 assume# above accor#in! %o 9hich neu%er is no% a value of %he ca%e!or0 Gen#er$ No%e ho9ever %ha% Romanian en#in!s are no% onl0 #is%in!uishe# accor#in! %o %he fea%ures %he0 e;5ress P number !en#er case P bu% also accor#in! %o some !eneral 5a%%erns 9hich charac%eriAe %he le;ical en%r0 %he0 are a%%ache# %o calle# declensions (or declension types/ P e$!$ %here is a feminine #eclension 9i%h sin!ular - e an# 5lural -i one 9i%h sin!ular - an# 5lural -e e%c$ Since #eclension is a le;ical 5ro5er%0 9e can consi#er %ha% %here is a B
correla%ion be%9een i% an# %he !en#er a!reemen% class 9hich is also a le;ical 5ro5er%0$ Thus %he !eneraliAa%ion is %ha% %he #eclensional %05e sin!ular Q/ u/5lural -uri is correla%e# 9i%h nouns unmar-e# for !en#er (or 9i%h class III nouns in %he al%erna%ive anal0sis/$ 1.3. N16be0? /o1nt an3 6ass no1ns In %he 5revious sec%ions 9e sai# %ha% unli-e Gen#er Number is no% an inheren% 5ro5er%0 of %he le;ical en%ries of Ns$ The firs% proviso %o %his !eneraliAa%ion is %he e;is%ence of cer%ain nouns 9hich are i#ios0ncra%icall0 limi%e# %o one number 3 %his mainl0 concerns pluralia tantum nouns 9hich al9a0s a55ear in %he 5lural e$!$ cli >%o9? aplau(e >a55lau#s?% icre >roe s5a9n?% (ori >#a0brea-?$ For %hese nouns 9e seem %o be en%i%le# %o sa0 %ha% Number value# as 5lural is an inheren% le;ical fea%ure$ '0 con%ras% all o%her nouns 9oul# be unmar-e# for le;ical Number$ The more im5or%an% 5roblem is %he e;is%ence of uncountable nouns (see mass nouns in 5ar%icular/ for 9hich %he absence of a number con%ras% mus% be s5ecifie# in %he Le;icon$ Ue mus% %herefore assume a fea%ure \Number (or ma0be \Coun% %he label is no% crucial here/ for 9hich each le;ical en%r0 of nouns is s5ecifie# (no%e ho9ever %ha% %his #is%inc%ion is no% absolu%e in %he sense %ha% #e5en#in! on %he s0n%ac%ic con%e;%s in 9hich %he0 are inser%e# mass nouns can be coerce# in%o coun% nouns an# conversel0/$ I% is %he fur%her choice be%9een sin!ular an# 5lural %ha% is no% 5ar% of %he le;ical s5ecifica%ion of %he noun i%self bu% is ins%ea# an in%er5re%able fea%ure %ha% !ives in#ica%ions re!ar#in! %he #eno%a%ion of %he overall DP$ In o%her 9or#s %he fea%ure \ Number #is%in!uishes be%9een le;ical classes of nouns 9hereas %he fea%ure \ Plural is no% relevan% for %he noun i%self bu% onl0 for i%s s0n%ac%ic 5ro6ec%ions$ ,ount nouns #eno%e classes of ob6ec%s 9hich can be in#ivi#ualiAe# 9hereas mass nouns have non-in#ivi#ua%e# referen%s 5or%ions of ma%%er %ha% share a !iven 5ro5er%0 (e$!$ for >9a%er? 5or%ions of ma%%er 9hich are 9a%er/$ The #eno%a%ion of mass nouns has some similari%ies %o %ha% of 5lurals$ Thus bo%h reference %o mass nouns an# reference %o 5lurals sa%isf0 %he so-calle# >cumula%ive? 5ro5er%03 if a cer%ain amoun% of ma%%er A is coffee an# a cer%ain amoun% of ma%%er ' is coffee %hen A an# ' are coffeeI in %he same 9a0 if an amoun% of animals A are ca%s an# ano%her amoun% of animals ' are ca%s %hen A an# ' are ca%s$ A%omic en%i%ies #o no% sa%isf0 cumula%ivi%03 if Nohn is a man an# 'ill is a man i% is no% %rue %ha% Nohn an# 'ill is a man$ The resemblance be%9een %he #eno%a%ion of mass nouns an# %he #eno%a%ion of 5lurals has some manifes%a%ions in s0n%a;3 bo%h ma0 a55ear bare i$e$ 9i%hou% a #e%erminer in cer%ain ar!umen% 5osi%ions in 9hich coun% sin!ulars mus% have a #e%erminer (see cha5%er 1 on %hose P much more limi%e# - con%e;%s in 9hich sin!ular coun% nouns are %hemselves allo9e# %o lac- a #e%erminer/3
(+=/ a$ Taie brWnAL / morcovi cu%s cheese carro%s b$ Taie X(un/ co5ac cu%s a %ree
This #is%ribu%ional observa%ion can be formula%e# as an observa%ion re!ar#in! %he in%ernal s%ruc%ure of DPs an# more s5ecificall0 %he %05e of De%3 cumula%ive e;5ressions (5lurals an# mass nouns/ allo9 null D?s 9hich P in unmar-e# cases P are #isallo9e# b0 sin!ular coun% nounsI if 9e #o no% 9an% %o assume (null/ Ds 9e coul# sa0 %ha% cumula%ive nominals occurrin! in ar!umen% 5osi%ions allo9 D %o be absen%$ No%e also %he e;is%ence of @uan%i%0 e;5ressions such as ceva an# nite (bo%h %ransla%e as >some? in 7n!lishI ceva su!!es%s %ha% %he @uan%i%0 is small/ 9hich can be use# 9i%h bo%h mass an# 5lural nouns3 ceva$nite brn( >some cheese? ceva$nite probleme >some C
5roblems? e%c$/$ G%her in#efini%e @uan%i%0 e;5ressions %ha% can be use# 9i%h mass nouns %a-e a number inflec%ion 9hen use# 9i%h 5lurals ( mult aur >much !ol#? multe frun(e >man0 leaves?I ct lapte >ho9 much mil-? cte (ile >ho9 man0 #a0s?/$ There is ho9ever an im5or%an% #ifference be%9een mass an# 5lural #eno%a%ions3 mass #eno%a%ions #o no% have a%omic 5ar%s (5ar%s 9hich canno% be fur%her #ivi#e#/ or more 5recisel0 #o no% com5rise a%oms (i% is %rue %ha% science has sho9n %ha% subs%ances ul%ima%el0 consis%s of molecules an# o%her 5ar%iclesI bu% %hese 5ar%s 9oul# never be referre# %o b0 %he mass noun bu% b0 a coun% noun such as molecul de ap >9a%er molecule?/$ Tha% is 9h0 mass nouns canno% be 5luraliAe# (are sai# %o be >uncoun%able?/ or combine# 9i%h car#inals %he sin!ular in#efini%e ar%icle an# #is%ribu%ive #e%erminers (e$!$ -un lapte >a mil-?% -doi auri >%9o !ol#s?% -fiecare aur >ever0 !ol#?/ e;ce5% if %he mass noun is conver%e# %o a coun% noun (e$!$ un vin bun >a !oo# 9ine? o cafea >a coffee?/$ Le% us no9 briefl0 commen% on %he various 5ossible choices re!ar#in! %he >con%roller of Number a!reemen%? i$e$ %he 5osi%ion in 9hich %he Number fea%ure is (freel0/ assi!ne# a value 9hich is %hereaf%er co5ie# on%o %he o%her elemen%s %ha% carr0 Number fea%ures$ The firs% issue is %o #eci#e is 9he%her %he Number fea%ure is a%%ache# %o ano%her V = ca%e!or0 e$! N or D or is inser%e# in%o a #e#ica%e# func%ional hea# Num(ber/ %ha% %a-es %he NP as a com5lemen% an# hea#s a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion NumP$ Curren% 9or- in !enera%ive !rammar assumes %he secon# h05o%hesis3 Num %a-es NP as a com5lemen% an# 5ro6ec%s NumP 9hich is %a-en as a com5lemen% b0 D$ Gn %his h05o%hesis %here are %9o 5ossibili%ies %o re5resen% %he realiAa%ion of %he con%en% of Number3 ei%her Num has no 5honolo!ical realiAa%ion an# i%s con%en% is e;5resse# onl0 b0 a!reemen% N an# D co50in! %he number fea%ure from Num or Num is a hea# 9hich a%%rac%s %he N formin! a com5le; YNHNumZ in 9hich Num is realiAe# as a suffi;$ If 9e a#o5% %he more %ra#i%ional h05o%hesis accor#in! %o 9hich Num is a fea%ure 9e have %o choose be%9een D an# N as 5ossible inser%ion si%es$ The choice be%9een %hese %9o o5%ions ar!uabl0 #e5en#s on seman%ics3 since Num is in%er5re%able i% shoul# be inser%e# in a 5osi%ion %ha% allo9s us %o 5ro5ose a reasonable seman%ic com5osi%ion$ Thus if %he 5lural fea%ure a%%aches %o N i% can be assume# %o corres5on# %o %he 5luraliAa%ion o5era%ion 9hich %urns a se% of a%omic en%i%ies in%o a se% %ha% con%ains in a##i%ion %o %ha% se% %he se% of 5lural en%i%ies !enera%e# b0 i% (in more %echnical %erms %he closure un#er sum of %he se% of a%oms #eno%e# b0 N/$ De%erminers a55l0 %o such se%s an# 5ic- u5 one elemen% in %he se%$ The o%her o5%ion is %o assume %ha% %he 5lural fea%ure a%%aches %o D in 9hich case 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% Num in#ica%es %ha% %he referen% of DP is a 5lural en%i%0 in o%her 9or#s De%HNum introduce 5lurali%ies$ 1.$. Case Case mar-in! #e5en#s on %he s0n%ac%ic func%ion of full nominal 5ro6ec%ions i$e$ DPs$ There are ho9ever less Case #is%inc%ions %han func%ional #is%inc%ions$ Inflec%ional Case mar-in! (9hich a55ears on De%erminers an# some%imes on nouns %hemselves/ #is%in!uishes be%9een Voca%ive Geni%ive-Da%ive (or Gbli@ue/ an# an unmar-e# form use# bo%h for sub6ec%s ob6ec%s (o%her %han in#irec% ob6ec%s/ an# com5lemen%s of (mos%/ 5re5osi%ions$ Cer%ain #irec% ob6ec%s ma0 or mus% (#e5en#in! on various fac%ors/ be anal0%icall0 mar-e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion pe (com5are a in S5anish/$ An obli@ue case mor5heme onl0 a55ears on %he De%erminer P an# some%imes on func%ional ca%e!ories close %o %he #e%erminer3 5re-De%erminers 5os%-D #emons%ra%ives %he al%erna%ive an# a#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ivesI i% obli!a%oril0 a55ears on func%ional i%ems 9hich 5rece#e an em5%0 N even if %he0 #o no% occu50 %he D 5osi%ion3
+=
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions (++/ a$ %u%uro0 aces%o0 case all$PL$G'L %hese$PL$G'L houses b$ caselo0 aces%ea / aces%o0a houses-%he$PL$G'L %hese / %hese$PL$G'L c$ a%W%o0 al%e / a%W%or al% o0 5robleme so-much$PL$G'L o%her$FPL/ so-much$PL$G'L o%her$PL$G'L 5roblems #$ a%W%or al%o0a / X a%W%or al%ele so-much$PL$G'L o%her$PL$G'L @ so-much$PL$G'L o%her-%he$FPL
The onl0 case mor5heme %ha% ma0 also a55ear on nouns is %he Voca%ive 9hich ei%her a%%aches #irec%l0 %o %he noun or %o %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle (#e5en#in! on %he inflec%ional %05e of %he nounI see cha5%er +, *, an# cha5%er +. *./$
(+1/ a$ bLie%e / bLia%ule bo0$VGC / bo0-%he$VGC b$ fa%o !irl$VGC
7ven if i% a55ears on nouns or a#6ec%ives %he voca%ive en#in! resembles %he o%her case inflec%ions in %ha% i% is onl0 e;5resse# once in %he nominal 5ro6ec%ion on %he lef%mos% cons%i%uen% 9hich bears an inflec%ional mor5heme (for some e;ce5%ions see cha5%er +, an# cha5%er +. *./$ If %he 5osi%ion 9here case is mar-e# is D 9e mi!h% sa0 %ha% %he elemen%s (N or A/ bearin! %he voca%ive en#in! have raise# %o D$
(+2/ a$ 5rinRe 5rince$VGC b$ slLvi%e 5rinR(KKe/ 5raise#$VGC 5rince(VGC/
The i#ea %ha% %he voca%ive is mar-e# on %he D 5osi%ion is su55or%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% i% ma0 a55ear on %he #efini%e ar%icle as 9e have seen$ If %he #e%erminer or func%ional i%em func%ionin! as a #e%erminer #oes no% have an obli@ue inflec%ion or %here is no #e%erminer a% all %he Geni%ive an# Da%ive are mar-e# b0 (func%ional/ 5re5osi%ions P la for %he Da%ive a for %he Geni%ive in%ro#uce# b0 @uan%i%a%ives lac-in! an obli@ue mar-in! de for %he Geni%ive of bare nouns3
(+4/ a$ Vom #a ca#ouri uno0 co5ii 9ill$+PL !ive 5resen%s some$PL$G'L chil#ren >Ue 9ill !ive 5resen%s %o some chil#ren? b$ Vom #a ca#ouri la Aece co5ii / la %o% !ru5ul 9ill$+PL !ive 5resen%s %o %en chil#ren / %o all !rou5-%he >Ue 9ill !ive 5resen%s %o %en chil#ren/%o %he 9hole !rou5$? c$ Vom #a ca#ouri la co5ii buni 9ill$+PL !ive 5resen%s %o chil#ren !oo# >Ue 9ill !ive 5resen%s %o !oo# chil#ren$? a$ acor#area mul%o0 me#alii / me#aliilo0 a9ar#$INF-%he man0$ PL$G'L me#als / me#als-%he$G'L b$ acor#area a %rei me#alii a9ar#$INF-%he G7N %hree me#als c$ acor#area 3e me#alii a9ar#$INF-%he of me#als
(+,/
Uhen %he DP is in%ro#uce# b0 an i%em carr0in! an obli@ue mor5heme a limi%e# 5henomenon ++
of case s5rea#in! a55ears on %he o%her inflec%e# i%ems of %he DP (noun a#6ec%ives lo9er func%ional i%ems/3 %he feminine sin!ular mor5heme is %urne# in%o a form 9hich is (almos% al9a0s/ i#en%ical %o %he feminine 5lural3
(+./ a$ b$ Feminine sin!ular o fa%: bun: a !irl !oo#$FSG o car%e !rea a boo- har#$FSG Feminine 5lural niM%e fe%e bune some !irls !oo#$FPL niM%e cLrR. !rele some boo-s har#$FPL Gbli@ue feminine sin!ular une. fe%e bune a$G'L !irl$FSG$G'L !oo#$FSG$G'L une. cLrR. !rele a$G'L boo-$FSG$G'L har#$FSG$G'L
All o%her en#in!s remain unchan!e# so %he case s5rea#in! 5henomenon is ver0 res%ric%e#$ No%ice moreover %ha% %he obli@ue feminine sin!ular on nouns an# a#6ec%ives is no% a #is%inc% mor5heme bu% i% is i#en%ical %o %ha% of %he feminine 5lural$ This e;5lains 9h0 obli@ue mar-in! re@uires %he 5resence of a #e%erminer or o%her func%ional i%em 9hich ma0 bear %he #is%inc% obli@ue mar-ers$ If %he feminine #oes no% have a 5lural form %he obli@ue sin!ular en#in! in %his con%e;% usuall0 corres5on#s %o %he 5lural form 9hich 9oul# have been e;5ec%e# !iven %he inflec%ional %05e of %he noun P e$!$ amploare >am5li%u#e am5leness? acestei amplori >%his$FSG$G'L am5leness$G'L?$ As 9e sai# some func%ional i%ems (such as %he 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive/ ma0 ei%her bear %he #is%inc% obli@ue mor5heme or behave li-e nouns an# a#6ec%ives onl0 sho9in! %he case s5rea#in! 5henomenon in %he feminine sin!ular3
(+</ a$ bLia%ului aces%a / aces%uia bo0-%he$:SG$G'L %his$:SG / %his$:SG$G'L b$ casei aces%ea / aces%e.a house-%he$FSG$G'L %his-F$PL / %his$FSG$G'L
Sin!ular 5ro5er nouns referrin! %o 5ersons (i$e$ sin!ular an%hro5on0ms/ have #evelo5e# a s5ecial 5re5osi%ional obli@ue mar-in! lui s%emmin! from a 5rocli%ic form of %he #efini%e ar%icle$ This form is obli!a%or0 in %he masculine an# for feminine nouns 9hich #o no% en# in -$-a$ Feminine nouns en#in! in -$-a ma0 also a%%ach %he obli@ue suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle$ This form is recommen#e# b0 %he norm bu% in s5o-en lan!ua!e %he 5refi;al form is commonl0 use# even in %his case an# %he sub-s%an#ar# lan!ua!e onl0 uses %his form3
(+B/ a$ lui Ion (masculine/ G'L Ion b$ lui Carmen (feminine en#in! in consonan%/ G'L Carmen c$ :ariei / lui :aria (feminine en#in! in -a/ :aria-%he$FSG$G'L / G'L :aria
The 5re5ose# obli@ue mar-er lui can also be use# 9i%h common nouns suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle referrin! %o familiar 5ersons 9hich are assimila%e# %o 5ro5er names of sor%s$ This is also %he onl0 9a0 %o buil% %he obli@ue for -inshi5 %erms bearin! %he suffi;al 5ossessive3
(+C/ a$ lui mama G'L mo%her-%he b$ lui fra%e-miu G'L bro%her-m0
The mar-er lui is also use# 9i%h 9or#s 9hich are no% nominal an# are con%e;%uall0 %rea%e# as +1
nouns bein! inclu#e# in%o a DP e$!$ ci%a%ion forms/9or#s in me%alin!uis%ic use3

(1=/ AbsenRa lui >Mi? #in con%e;% absence-%he G'L an# from con%e;% >The absence of i from %he con%e;%?
This mar-er can be anal0Ae# as a s5ecial #e%erminer selec%in! 5ro5er names P a proprial article$ 'esi#es i%s ori!in an# form (i#en%ical %o %ha% of %he masculine sin!ular obli@ue suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle/ a #e%erminer anal0sis is su55or%e# b0 %he res%ric%ion %o %he sin!ular$ In %he sub-s%an#ar# lan!ua!e an# various re!ional varie%ies 5re5osi%ional obli@ue mar-in! has been e;%en#e# ou%si#e %he con%e;%s 5resen%e# here$ The mar-er la can be use# 9i%h all -in#s of nominals no% onl0 for %he #a%ive bu% also for %he !eni%iveI %he mar-er lui (usuall0 5ronounce# lu./ is 9i#es5rea# 9i%h sin!ular DPs referrin! %o humans3
(1+/ a$ #in cauAa l1 Lla (!eni%ive lu/ from cause-%he lu %ha%-one$: >because of %ha% one? b$ L1? cine i-ai #a% car%eaK (#a%ive lu/ lu 9ho him$DAT-have$1SG !iven boo--%he >Uhom #i# 0ou !ive %he boo- %oK? c$ 5e numele la al%cineva (!eni%ive la/ (hear# on a %elevision channel GTV/ on name-%he %o somebo#0-else >on somebo#0 else?s name?
2. P0ono1ns an3 t8e Pe0son Feat10e

The label >5ronoun? is a misnomer insofar as %he elemen%s so calle# #o no% s%an# for Nouns (onl0 ver0 fe9 5ronouns e$!$ 7n!lish one are in#ee# 5ro-N cons%i%uen%s/$ Ins%ea# 5ro%o%05ical 5ronouns share %he #is%ribu%ion of com5le%e nominal 5ro6ec%ions an# as such can be vie9e# as 5ro-NPs or ra%her as 5ro-DPs$ In %ra#i%ional !rammars %he ca%e!or0 >5ronoun? subsumes %9o %05es of elemen%s %o 9hich 9e assi!n #ifferen% ca%e!orial s%a%us an# s0n%ac%ic anal0sis3 (i/ De% H null N3 %hese are forms buil% 9i%h an over% De% %ha% is use# 9i%hou% an over% NP$ A con%en% for %he missin! NP is of%en con%e;%uall0 recovere# (see above/$ To %his %05e belon! some of %he #emons%ra%ive in#efini%e ne!a%ive in%erro!a%ive an# rela%ive >5ronouns? all of 9hich are buil% from corres5on#in! >#e%erminers? (see Cha5%er 2 on De%erminers/I (ii/ 5ro-DP forms %ha% sho9 no (or almos% no/ resemblance 9i%h a#nominal De%erminers$ In %his case 9e consi#er %ha% no em5%0 N is 5resen%$ Personal 5ronouns refle;ives 5oli%eness 5ronouns em5hasiAers neu%er #emons%ra%ives an# some of %he 9or#s %ra#i%ionall0 labele# ]in#efini%e 5ronouns] (e$!$ cineva >somebo#0? nimeni >nobo#0? nimic >no%hin!? e%c$/ belon! %o %his %05e$ Ue res%ric% %he %erm pronouns %o %hese forms$ 7lemen%s such as ce ceva an# orice 9ill also be classifie# as 5ronouns3 al%hou!h %he0 #o sho9 a resemblance 9i%h a#nominal De%erminers (e$!$ ce carte >9ha% boo-?/ %he0 #isallo9 %he con%e;%ual recover0 of an NP-con%en%$ Uha% 9e have #efine# here as >5ronouns? ma0 be anal0Ae# ei%her as in%ransi%ive De%erminers or as fuse# DHN hea#s$ Ue consi#er %ha% %he secon# al%erna%ive is 5referable for 2r# 5erson 5ronouns because an N elemen% in 5ronouns accoun%s for some as5ec%s of %he seman%ics of 5ronouns3 above all %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he !en#er fea%ure$ As 9e have seen in Romanian !en#er for inanima%es is no% in%er5re%able bu% i% is an i#ios0ncra%ic 5ro5er%0 of in#ivi#ual nouns$ Pronouns referrin! %o inanima%es %a-e %he !en#er of %he nominal an%ece#en% of %he 5ronoun if %he0 are use# ana5horicall0 or if %he0 are use# #eic%icall0 %he0 %a-e %he !en#er of %he nominal conce5% un#er 9hich %he referen% falls3
+2
(11/
a$ P Dn#e e car%eaK P Am ui%a%- o acasL$ 9here is boo-(F/-%he have$+ for!o%-CL$2FSG$ACC home >Uhere is %he boo-K I have for!o%%en i% a% home$? b$ Ce faci cu el / :laK (5oin%in! %o a -nife Rom$ cuit P neu%er/ 9ha% #o$1SG 9i%h 2:SG %ha%$:SG >Uha% are 0ou #oin! 9i%h i%/%ha%K?
Since here !en#er #oes no% #irec%l0 enco#e a 5ro5er%0 of %he referen% bu% onl0 a formal fea%ure of an im5lici% noun 9e ma0 conclu#e %ha% %he !en#er fea%ure reflec%s %he 5resence of a 5ro-N$ For o%her cases in 9hich %he recover0 of a noun is nee#e# for %he in%er5re%a%ion of 5ronouns see cha5%er , *+$B an# cha5%er 2 *2$2$ A fur%her #is%inc%ion can be #ra9n amon! 5ronouns3 in#efini%e 5ronouns allo9 a#nominal mo#ifiers 9hereas 5ersonal 5ronouns refle;ives 5oli%eness 5ronouns em5hasiAers an# neu%er #emons%ra%ives #o no%$ This ma0 in#ica%e %ha% in#efini%e 5ronouns con%ain an incor5ora%e# N 9hich ma0 5ro6ec% an NP before incor5ora%in! in%o %he #e%erminer 9hile %he o%her 5ronouns are imme#ia%el0 #omina%e# b0 %he DP$ In %his !rammar 9e 9ill %rea% %hose 5ronouns 9hich are formall0 rela%e# %o a#nominal De%erminers as 9ell as in#efini%e 5ronouns in %he cha5%er #e#ica%e# %o De%erminers an# o%her func%ional ca%e!ories (cha5%er 2/ an# 9e 9ill #e#ica%e a s5ecial cha5%er %o 5ersonal 5ronouns refle;ives 5oli%eness 5ronouns an# em5hasiAers$ A fur%her reason for %rea%in! %hese 5ronouns se5ara%el0 is %ha% %he0 are charac%eriAe# b0 %he 5resence of %he fea%ure Person 9hich is irrelevan% %o %he o%her %05es of DPs (inclu#in! DPs 9i%hou% over% NPs/ 9hich never e;5ress 5erson o55osi%ions (%he0 are almos% al9a0s 2 r# 5ersonI for %heir a55aren% associa%ion 9i%h ano%her 5erson fea%ure see cha5%er 2 *2$2/ The lar!es% 5ar% of %he cha5%er on Pronouns is #e#ica%e# %o 5ersonal 5ronouns$ The #is%inc%ion be%9een s%ron! an# cli%ic forms an# %heir various allomor5hs is cen%ral %o %his cha5%er$ Al%hou!h 5ersonal 5ronouns are no% buil% on elemen%s %ha% are mor5holo!icall0 i#en%ifiable %o #e%erminers a seman%ic rela%ion can never%heless be es%ablishe# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle an# cer%ain cli%ic 5ronominal forms in %he Accusa%ive are i#en%ical %o #efini%e ar%icles$ Refle;ives 9hich have s5ecial forms onl0 for 2 r# 5erson an# sho9 %he same s%ron!/9ea- o55osi%ions as 5ersonal 5ronouns 9ill be %rea%e# %o!e%her 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns$ Poli%eness 5ronouns an# em5hasiAers are e;amine# in se5ara%e sec%ions$ 'ecause 5ronouns an# o%her DPs have b0 an# lar!e %he same #is%ribu%ion 9e e;5ec% %hem %o have %he same or a% leas% similar Case-mar-in!s an# %his is in#ee# 9ha% 9e fin# in !eneral$ Pronominal 5ossessors are ho9ever 5uAAlin! in %ha% %he0 sho9 a non-uniform 5ara#i!m3 5ronominal 5ossessors of 2r# Person s!$ an# 5l$ behave as e;5ec%e# in %ha% %he0 are mar-e# 9i%h Geni%ive Case bu% 5ronominal 5ossessors o%her %han 2 r# Person are no% mar-e# 9i%h !eni%ive Case bu% ins%ea# %he0 a!ree (in Gen#er an# Number/ 9i%h %he N-hea# an# as such %he0 are %rea%e# as >5ossessive a#6ec%ives?$ Des5i%e %his #ifference %he #is%ribu%ion of %he %9o %05es of 5ronominal 5ossessors is e;ac%l0 %he same an# is almos% i#en%ical %o %he #is%ribu%ion of !eni%ive DPs (%he onl0 ver0 mar!inal #ifferences are #ue %o %he 9ea5honolo!ical s%a%us of 5ossessive 5ronouns/$ 'ecause %he0 5a%%ern 9i%h !eni%ive DPs 5ronominal 5ossessors form a sec%ion of %he cha5%er #evo%e# %o !eni%ive DPs$ As 9e have alrea#0 sho9n Person fea%ures are relevan% for 5ersonal 5ronouns$ For reasons e;5laine# in %he relevan% cha5%er 9e #ra9 a se5ara%ion line be%9een Thir# Person (Person 2/ an# %he o%her 5ersons$ Thir# 5erson 5ronominal 5ronouns have inflec%ional Number (i$e enco#e# in a mor5heme se5arable from %he roo%/ 9hereas %he Number fea%ure of %he o%her 5ronominal 5ronouns is ar!uabl0 le;ical in %he sense %ha% i% #oes no% corres5on# %o an inflec%ional mor5heme bu% ins%ea# belon!s %o %he 5ronominal roo% i%self3 %hus ei an# ele +4
are ar!uabl0 ob%aine# b0 a%%achin! %he PluralHGen#er fea%ures Pi an# -e %o %he invariable roo% e)l*- 9hereas noi an# voi have roo%s %ha% are com5le%el0 #is%inc% from %hose of %he sin!ular corres5on#in! 5ronouns eu an# tu$ This anal0sis 9ill 5rove crucial in un#ers%an#in! a remar-able al%erna%ion be%9een !eni%ive-mar-e# 5ronouns (for sin!ular or 5lural Person 2 5ronouns/ an# a!reein! forms of 5ronouns (!enerall0 labelle# >5ossessive a#6ec%ives? in %he !ramma%ical %ra#i%ion/ for %he o%her Persons3
(12/ a$ bLieRii mei /%Li /noM%ri /voM%ri bo0s-%he m0$ :PL / 0our(SG/$:PL /our$:PL/ 0our(PL/$:PL b$ fe%ele mele /%ale /noas%re /voas%re !irls-%he m0$ FPL /0our(SG/$FPL /our$FPL /0our(PL/$FPL a$ bLieRii ei /lui /lor bo0s-%he she$G7N/he$G7N/%he0$G7N b$ fe%ele ei /lui /lor !irls-%he she$G7N/he$G7N /%he0$G7N
(14/
The i#ea is %ha% %here is onl0 one inflec%ional slo% 5er roo%$ For +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns 9here %ha% slo% is no% fille# 9i%h inheren% fea%ures (since %hese 5ronouns have le;ical Number/ %he number fea%ures can be co5ie# from %he hea# N$ For 2 r# 5erson 5ronouns 9here %ha% inflec%ional slo% is fille# 9i%h inheren% fea%ures !en#er an# number fea%ures canno% be co5ie# from %he hea# N$
3. Dete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 no6.nal f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es

Nominal 5ro6ec%ions con%ain various func%ional ca%e!ories e$!$ ar%icles @uan%ifiers or numerals$ Some of %hese forms are in com5lemen%ar0 #is%ribu%ion 9hereas o%hers can cooccur 9i%h each o%her 9hich lea#s us %o assume #is%inc% func%ional 5osi%ions insi#e nominal 5ro6ec%ions$ Amon! %hese 5osi%ions %he one occu5ie# b0 ar%icles is %a-en %o be crucial viA$ obli!a%or0 in or#er for a nominal 5ro6ec%ion %o be able %o occu50 an ar!umen% 5osi%ion an# %herefore %he com5le%e (or >ma;imal?/ nominal 5ro6ec%ion is vie9e# as a DP (De%erminer Phrase/ i$e$ a 5ro6ec%ion of %he func%ional ca%e!or0 of De%erminer (con%ainin! ar%icles as 9ell as o%her func%ional elemen%s %ha% can occu50 %he 5osi%ion of ar%icles i%self labelle# D)eterminer// 9hich %a-es as a com5lemen% %he NP i$e$ %he 5ro6ec%ion of %he N 9hich con%ains in a##i%ion %o %he noun i%self i%s com5lemen%s an# mo#ifiers3
(1,/ YDP^D ^ YNP ^N^ZZ
No%e moreover %ha% cer%ain >5ronouns? #o no% con%ain an0 le;ical N bu% onl0 De%erminers$ Therefore %he DP-h05o%hesis accor#in! %o 9hich ma;imal nominal 5ro6ec%ions are DPs ra%her %han NPs is crucial in or#er %o e;5lain 9h0 5ronouns have %he same #is%ribu%ion as ma;imal nominal 5ro6ec%ions3 bo%h %05es of cons%i%uen%s are DPs$ The s5ecial s%a%us of #e%erminers is also sho9n b0 %he behaviour of %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle$ Al%hou!h %his ar%icle #oes no% occu50 %he canonical 5osi%ion of De%erminers bu% ins%ea# is suffi;e# on DP-ini%ial nouns or a#6ec%ives i%s 5resence bloc-s an0 o%her #e%erminer$ Such a com5lemen%ar0 #is%ribu%ion in#ica%es %ha% %he ar%icle i%self is a D an# %he suffi;a%ion is %he resul% of a #is5lacemen% %ha% %a-es 5lace a% a la%er level of %he #eriva%ion$ The no%ion of #e%erminer !rou5s %o!e%her %hose func%ional ca%e!ories %ha% are in com5lemen%ar0 #is%ribu%ion 9i%h ar%icles3 shor% #emons%ra%ives %he in#efini%es un >a(n/ one? nite >some s?m? unii >(5ar%i%ive/ some? vreun >a an0 some?% %he ne!a%ive niciun >no no one? %he in%erro!a%ive ce >9ha% 9hich? an# i%s com5oun# orice >an0? %he in%erro!a%iverela%ive care >9hich? an# i%s com5oun#s fiecare >ever0 each?% oricare >an0? %he @uan%i%a%ives +,
ct% ci >ho9 much ho9 man0? % ceva >some?% orict% orici >ho9ever much/man0? att% ati >as/so/%ha% much/man0? % niel >a li%%le a bi%? (collo@uial/ 5robabl0 also %he @uo%a%ive cutare >so an# so?$
(1./ a$ Am vLAu% un film /aces% film /fiecare film /filmul /niM%e filme /a%W%ea have$+ seen a movie/%his movie/ever0 movie/movie-%he/some movies/so-man0 filme movies >IUe sa9 a movie/%his movie/ever0 movie/%he movie/some movies/so man0 movies? b$ N-am vLAu% vreun/ niciun film no%-have$+ seen an0 / no movie >I/Ue haven?% seen an0 movie?
'ecause %he universals toi >all? tot >all %he 9hole? amndoi >bo%h? are necessaril0 follo9e# b0 a nominal 5ro6ec%ion mar-e# as #efini%e %hese elemen%s 9ill be calle# >5re-#e%erminers?3
(1</ a$ Am vLAu% %oa%e filmele / aces%e filme have$+ seen all movies-%he / %hese movies >I/Ue sa9 all %he movies/%hese movies? b$ XAm vLAu% %oa%e filme have$+ seen all films
G%her func%ional ca%e!ories namel0 car#inals an# o%her @uan%i%0 e;5ressions as 9ell as alt >o%her? ma0 co-occur 9i%h De%erminers (in 9hich case %he0 a55ear in %he 5os%-De% 5osi%ion/ bu% %he0 ma0 also a55ear 9i%hou% a De% in 9hich case %he0 func%ion as De%erminers (an# correla%ivel0 %he0 ma0 be assume# %o occu50 %he De% 5osi%ion/3
(1B/ a$ %rei /mulRi co5ii %hree /man0 chil#ren b$ acei %rei /mulRi co5ii %hose %hree/man0 chil#ren
Uhen %he0 follo9 a De%erminer %hese e;5ressions mi!h% be consi#ere# mo#ifiers of %he noun$ Oo9ever %he0 are #is%in!uishe# from normal mo#ifiers b0 several 5ro5er%ies3 %he0 onl0 a55ear 5renominall0 (9i%h a fe9 e;ce5%ions for 9hich see cha5%er 2 *,/ %he0 5rece#e o%her 5renominal mo#ifiers an# have a fi;e# or#er 9i%h res5ec% %o one ano%her$ Therefore 9e consi#er %ha% %hese e;5ressions are hea#s or s5ecifiers of optional (or minor/ functional pro+ections 9hich (ma0/ in%ervene be%9een D an# NP$ :ore 5recisel0 @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions are s5li% in%o %9o classes labele# 8uan%+ an# 8uan%1 #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he0 a55ear before (mult% muli >much man0? puin% puini >fe9? destul% destui >enou!h?/ or af%er alt >o%her? (car#inals as 9ell as ctva% civa >some a fe9 several?/$ These !eneraliAa%ions 5oin% %o %he follo9in! hierarch0 of func%ional ca%e!ories (%he ma6or or obli!a%or0 ca%e!ories are bol#-face#/3
(1C/ YDniv Y D Y 8uan%+ YAl% >o%her? Y8uan%1 Y NPZZZZZZ
Cer%ain DPs are buil% 9i%h an over% De% bu% 9i%hou% an over% N$ (No%e ho9ever %ha% no% all De%erminers can a55ear 9i%hou% a noun P see cha5%er 2 *2/$ The e;am5les belo9 are classifie# #e5en#in! on 9he%her De% is formall0 i#en%ical or onl0 similar %o %he De% %ha% a55ears 9i%h over% Ns #ifferin! from i% b0 %he a##i%ion of ano%her mor5heme 9hich 9e call >au!men%? (9e inclu#e here un#er De% o%her func%ional ca%e!ories 9hich ma0 func%ion as De% see above/3 +.
(2=/
(2+/
Sim5le De%3 a$ Am vorbi% cu YfiecareZ have$+ s5o-en 9i%h ever0 >I %al-e# %o ever0one / each of %hem? b$ Dn ar%icol bun valoreaAL mai mul% #ecW% YAece 5roas%eZ an ar%icle !oo# is-9or%h more much %han %en ba# >A !oo# ar%icle is 9or%h0 more %han %en ba# ones? Au!men%e# De%3 a$ YDn a5ara%Z s-a s%rica% a #evice R7FL-has bro-en >A #evice has bro-en? a_$ YDnul s-a s%rica%Z one-ADG: R7FL-has bro-en >Gne has bro-en? b$ Nu mai s5une Yal%ui omZ no% more %ell o%her$DAT 5erson >Don?% %ell i% %o ano%her 5erson? b_$ YNu mai s5une al%uiaZ no% more %ell o%her-ADG:$DAT >Don?% %ell i% %o somebo#0 else?
Gne ma0 9on#er 9he%her %he #ifference be%9een sim5le an# au!men%e# De%-forms correla%es 9i%h some s%ruc%ural #ifference e$!$ be%9een De% follo9e# b0 an em5%0/null N vs$ 5ro-form in 9hich %he De% %o!e%her 9i%h %he em5%0 N form a >fuse# hea#?$ Oere 9e 9ill assume %ha% %he #ifference be%9een sim5le an# au!men%e# De%?s is no% s%ruc%ural (all of %hem si% un#er De% an# %a-e a null N as a sis%er/ bu% merel0 #ue %o 5honolo!ical cons%rain%s$ For ar!umen%s in favor of %his anal0sis see cha5%er 2 *2$ Noun 5hrases ma0 also a55ear 9i%hou% a #e%erminer in some ar!umen% 5osi%ions e$!$ in %he #irec% ob6ec% an# 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ions$ For %hese 5osi%ions %he absence of #e%erminer #e5en#s on %he Number fea%ure bein! res%ric%e# %o 5lural an# non-coun% nouns3
(21/ a$ XVine om comes man b$ Vin oameni come 5eo5le >Peo5le are comin!? c$ XAm vLrsa% s%iclL have$+ s5il% bo%%le #$ Am vLrsa% la5%e have$+ s5il% mil>I?ve s5il% mil-$? e$ X(NiM%e/CWRiva/ cole!i s-au su5Lra% some collea!ues R7FL-have !o%-u5se%
NPs 9i%hou% an over% #e%erminer labele# bare nouns )or bare nominals* in %he curren% li%era%ure ma0 never%heless be anal0Ae# as con%ainin! a null D 9hich ma0 e;5lain 9h0 %he0 are allo9e# %o occur in ar!umen% 5osi%ions$ 'are nouns ma0 also a55ear in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions (see (22// an# as nominal mo#ifiers (see (24//$ In %hese environmen%s nominal 5ro6ec%ions #eno%e 5ro5er%ies li-e NPs an# unli-e DPs$ Therefore %here is no reason %o su55ose %ha% a null D is 5resen%$ No%e %ha% in %hese 5osi%ions no% onl0 bare 5lurals bu% also coun% bare sin!ulars are allo9e#3
+<
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions (22/ (24/ :arius e avoca%$ :arius is la90er >:arius is a la90er$? 5rie%enii mei avocaRi frien#s-%he m0 la90ers >m0 la90er frien#s / m0 frien#s 9ho are la90ers?
/roper nouns ma0 also a55ear 9i%hou% a #e%erminer3 in %heir s%an#ar# use %hese nouns #irec%l0 refer %o in#ivi#uals an# %herefore #o no% nee# a #e%erminer in or#er %o a55ear in s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions %ha% re@uire en%i%0 #eno%a%ion$ In Romanian onl0 an%hro5on0ms have %his #ifferen% s0n%a;I o%her 5ro5er nouns e$!$ !eo!ra5hical names nee# a #efini%e ar%icle (see cha5%er +1 *+/$ Uhen embe##e# un#er a #e%erminer 5ro5er nouns loose %heir #irec% reference ca5aci%0 bein! in%er5re%e# as 5re#ica%es of %he form ;$; is calle# N$ Com5are3
(2,/ a$ :aria a veni% :aria has come b$ `n clasa noas%rL sun% #ouL :arii in class-%he our are %9o :aria$ PL >There are %9o :arias in our class?
$. A3no6.nal /onst.t1ents
A#nominal cons%i%uen%s can be of almos% an0 ca%e!orial %05e3 a#6ec%ival 5hrases 5re5osi%ional 5hrases bare NPs !eni%ive DPs an# 5ronominal 5ossessors (9hich in Romanian have a similar s0n%a; as 9e sai#/ non-fini%e verbal 5ro6ec%ions fini%e clauses in%ro#uce# b0 a com5lemen%iAer rela%ive clauses$ In %his !rammar each of %his %05e of cons%i%uen%s 9ill be %rea%e# accor#in! %o i%s ca%e!or0$ From a func%ional 5oin% of vie9 a#nominal cons%i%uen%s are #ivi#e# in%o %9o !rou5s complements an# modifiers$ $.1. Co65le6ents an3 6o3.f.e0s No% all nouns ma0 %a-e com5lemen%s$ Thus ob6ec%-referrin! nouns (e$!$ mas >%able? cas >house? scaun >chair? sc >!oose? e%c$/ are one-5lace 5re#ica%es i$e$ 5re#ica%es %ha% canno% %a-e com5lemen%s a% all$ Rela%ional nouns (e$!$ prietena vecinei mele >m0 nei!hbor]s frien# (fem$/?/ are 5re#ica%es 9i%h %9o or more %han %9o ar!umen% slo%s 9hich as such re@uire a com5lemen%$ Af%er one of %he ar!umen% slo%s of a binar0 rela%ion is sa%ura%e# 9e ob%ain a one-5lace 5re#ica%e 9hich as such can be use# as an0 common noun$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %he sa%ura%ion of %he secon# ar!umen% of rela%ional nouns nee# no% be accom5lishe# b0 combinin! %he noun 9i%h an e;5resse# com5lemen%$ In#ee# %he referen% of %he secon# ar!umen% can be re%rieve# from %he con%e;%$ Thus in an e;am5le li-e A venit prietena >The frien#(fem$/ has come? 9e have in min# a cer%ain in#ivi#ual of 9hich %he referen% of %he nominal 5hrase is %he frien#$ In !eneric con%e;%s prinii >%he 5aren%s? refers %o %he 5ersons 9ho are somebo#0?s 5aren%s in o%her 9or#s for 9hich %here is an en%i%0 of 9hich %he0 are %he 5aren%s$ Finall0 9hen 5luraliAe# rela%ional nouns #eno%e 5airs of in#ivi#uals 9hich en%er%ain %he rela%ion #eno%e# b0 %he noun an# %herefore no DP can a55ear in %he com5lemen% 5osi%ion of %he noun$ Thus !iven a si%ua%ion in 9hich :aria is SuAana?s frien# a DP of %he form cele dou prietene >%he %9o frien#s? refers %o %he 5air forme# b0 :aria an# SuAana$ The onl0 case of nouns 9hich %a-e obli!a%or0 com5lemen%s are a s5ecial -in# of #everbal nouns calle# comple' event nominals0 Deverbal nouns are #ivi#e# in%o %9o ca%e!ories accor#in! %o a number of verbal charac%eris%ics %he0 ma0 inheri% from %he base +B
verb$ Some of %hem al9a0s referrin! %o even%s have a more verbal behaviour as 9ill be sho9n in %he cha5%er on Deverbal Nouns (cha5%er ++/ P for ins%ance %he0 ma0 %a-e #a%ive ar!umen%s loca%ive mo#ifiers no% 5rece#e# b0 de (in Romanian #e normall0 5rece#es a#nominal loca%ive mo#ifiers/ allo9 as5ec%ual a#6ec%ives such as frecvent >fre@uen%? (in %he sin!ular/$ This %05e of nominals re@uires %he e;5ression of %he in%ernal ar!umen%s of %he verbal base$ G%her #everbal nouns (9hich ma0 also refer %o %he even% P in 9hich case %he0 are calle# simple event nominals P or %o o%her en%i%ies im5lie# in %he even% P resul% a!en% e%c$/ behave from a s0n%ac%ic 5oin% of vie9 as re!ular nominals$ The con%ras% be%9een %he %9o %05es can be illus%ra%e# b0 %he follo9in! e;am5le3
(2./ a$ a%acarea X(S5aniei/ a%%ac-$INF-%he S5ain-%he$G7N b$ a%acul (asu5ra S5aniei/ a%%ac--%he a!ains% S5ain-%he$G7N >%he a%%ac-in! of S5ain/%he a%%ac- a!ains% S5ain?
Turnin! no9 %o mo#ifiers of %he noun %he0 normall0 #eno%e 5ro5er%ies 9hich combine 9i%h %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he noun b0 predicate intersection3 i$e$ %he e;5ression YN :o#ifierZ #eno%es %he se% of ob6ec%s 9hich are N an# 9hich also sa%isf0 %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 :o#ifier in formal %erms P no%in! %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 N 9i%h N an# %he one e;5resse# b0 %he mo#ifier b0 : P '0 'D1e20 3)'* 4 5)'*$ :o#ifiers are al9a0s o5%ional$ The s0n%ac%ic %erm for an o5%ional cons%i%uen% is ad+unct as o55ose# %o complements$ Thus nominal mo#ifiers are adnominal ad+uncts$ Oere for %he nominal #omain 9e 9ill use %he %erms mo#ifiers an# a#6unc%s in#iscrimina%el0$ Al%hou!h com5lemen%s of N canno% be #efine# 5urel0 s0n%ac%icall0 because %he0 are no% obli!a%or0 %he #is%inc%ion be%9een com5lemen%s an# mo#ifiers is no% onl0 base# on %he seman%ic in%ui%ion$ There is a formal cri%erion 9hich #is%in!uishes be%9een %he %9o 9hich follo9s from %he seman%ic charac%eriAa%ion 9e have 6us% !iven3 com5lemen%s canno% a55ear in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions 9hile mo#ifiers (9i%h some e;ce5%ions 9hich 9ill be briefl0 #iscusse# belo9/ can$ Correla%ivel0 mo#ifiers can be 5ara5hrase# b0 rela%ive clauses in%ro#uce# b0 >9hich is? com5lemen%s canno%$ The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 ho9 %his cri%erion hel5s %o #is%in!uish !eni%ives func%ionin! as com5lemen%s from !eni%ives func%ionin! as mo#ifiers (e;5ressin! a 5ossession rela%ion/3
(2</ a$ 5rima e;aminare Ya 5acien%uluiZ firs%-%he e;amina%ion G7N 5a%ien%-%he$G7N >%he firs% e;amina%ion of %he 5a%ien%? a_$ X7;aminarea es%e Ya 5acien%uluiZ e;amina%ion-%he is G7N 5a%ien%-%he$G7N a__$ Xe;aminarea care a fos% a 5acien%ului e;amina%ion-%he 9hich has been G7N 5a%ien%-%he$G7N b$ o car%e Ya 5acien%uluiZ a boo- G7N 5a%ien%-%he$G7N >a boo- of %he 5a%ien%?s? b_$ Car%ea es%e Ya 5acien%uluiZ boo--%he is G7N 5a%ien%-%he$G7N >%he boo- of %he 5a%ien%?s? b__$ o car%e care es%e Ya 5acien%uluiZ a boo- 9hich is G7N 5a%ien%-%he$G7N >a boo- 9hich is %he 5a%ien%?s? a$ un 5rie%en Yal :arieiZ a frien# G7N :aria$G7N
(2B/
+C
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions >a frien# of :aria?s? b$ XPrie%enul es%e Yal :arieiZ frien#-%he is G7N :aria$G7N c$ XDn 5rie%en care es%e Yal :arieiZ a frien# 9hich is G7N :aria$G7N
There are ho9ever some a#nominal cons%i%uen%s 9hich canno% a55ear in 5os%co5ular 5osi%ions an# #o no% allo9 rela%ive clause 5ara5hrases #es5i%e %he fac% %ha% %he0 are no% com5lemen%s of N$ This is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he0 #o no% combine 9i%h N b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion$ Ue ma0 %hus #is%in!uish %9o %05es of mo#ifiers3 intersective modifiers an# non-intersective modifiers$ 'ecause %he lar!e ma6ori%0 of non-in%ersec%ive mo#ifiers are a#6ec%ives %he seman%ics of nonin%ersec%ive mo#ifiers 9ill be %rea%e# in %he cha5%er #e#ica%e# %o a#6ec%ives (cha5%er </$ Cer%ain in%eres%in! correla%ions can be es%ablishe# be%9een %he ca%e!orial %05e of a#nominal cons%i%uen%s an# %heir func%ion (%he #is%inc%ion be%9een com5lemen% an# mo#ifier/$ Thus a#6ec%ives bare NPs an# rela%ive clauses are al9a0s mo#ifiers (a#6unc%s/I !eni%ives an# 5ronominal 5ossessives 5re5osi%ional 5hrases an# non-fini%e verbal cons%i%uen%s ma0 have bo%h func%ions$ Fini%e verbal 5ro6ec%ions in%ro#uce# b0 a com5lemen%iAer are com5lemen%s$ 7;am5les (for !eni%ives an# 5ossessives see (2</ above/3 A#6ec%ives3
(2C/ a$ o masL roMie a %able re# >a re# %able? b$ un #rum lun! a roa# lon! >a lon! roa#/9a0?
Non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives3 - classif0in! an# %hema%ic

(4=/ a$ reli!ia ca%olicL reli!ion-%he ca%holic >%he ca%holic reli!ion? b$ s%u#iile li%erare s%u#ies-%he li%erar0 >li%erar0 s%u#ies?
- in%ensional3
(4+/ o fos%L bisericL a former church > a former church?
'are NPs3
(41/ a$ o femeie in!iner a 9oman en!ineer >a 9oman en!ineer? b$ oraMe YreMe#inRL #e 6u#eRZ ci%ies ca5i%al of coun%0 >coun%0 ca5i%al ci%ies?
Rela%ive clauses3
(42/ Fa%a care a veni% !irl-%he 9hich has come >The !irl 9ho came?
1=
Pre5osi%ional 5hrases3 - Com5lemen%s3

(44/ ra5or%area la ceilalRi reference-%he %o o%hers >%he reference %o %he o%hers?
- :o#ifiers3
(4,/ cur%e cu flori 0ar# 9i%h flo9ers >cour%0ar# 9i%h flo9ers?
Non-fini%e verbal cons%i%uen%s - Com5lemen%s3

(4./ Encercarea Y#e a 5lecaZ %rial-%he of %o leave$INF
- :o#ifiers3
(4</ lucru Y#e #a%Z %hin!s of !ive$SDP >%hin- %o !ive?
Fini%e clauses in%ro#uce# b0 a com5lemen%iAer (com5lemen%s onl0/3

(4B/ a$ afirmaRia YcL nimeni nu M%ie mai mul%Z claim-%he %ha% nobo#0 no% -no9s more much >The claim %ha% nobo#0 -no9s more? b$ #orinRa YsL fii cel mai bunZ #esire-%he SD'N be$1SG %he more !oo# >The #esire %o be %he bes%?
Dn#er %he %heor0 -no9n as >V-bar %heor0? %he #ifference be%9een com5lemen%s an# a#6unc%s is s%an#ar#l0 associa%e# %o a s%ruc%ural #ifference3 com5lemen%s a%%ach imme#ia%el0 %o %he le;ical hea# bein! selec%e# b0 i%$ The cons%i%uen% YNHCom5lemen%Z is no%a%e# N_ (rea# Nbar/$ To %his cons%i%uen% ma0 be a##e# non-selec%e# 5hrases an# %he ma;imal cons%i%uen% %ha% -ee5s %he label N is no%a%e# NP or N__ (%he noun 5hrase/$ :o#ifiers 9ere su55ose# %o be a%%achable %o NP also (b0 an o5era%ion calle# Choms-0-a#6unc%ion/$ In a more recen% version of %he !enera%ive frame9or- (-no9n as 'are Phrase S%ruc%ure/ bar-levels have been elimina%e# so %ha% %here isn?% an0 #is%inc%ion be%9een mo#ifiers a%%ache# %o N_ an# mo#ifiers a%%ache# %o NP$ Oo9ever %he assum5%ion %ha% com5lemen%s a%%ach imme#ia%el0 %o %he le;ical hea# (in %he 5resen% case N/ has been main%aine#$ The %9o re5resen%a%ions are sho9n belo93
(4C/ (,=/ YNP YNP (:o#ifier/ YN_ N Com5lemen%Z (:o#ifier/Z (:o#ifier/Z YNP (:o#ifier/ YNP N Com5lemen%Z (:o#ifier/Z (V-bar %heor0/ ('are-Phrase s%ruc%ure/
I% shoul# be observe# %ha% %he assum5%ion %ha% %he com5lemen% is a%%ache# a% %he lo9es% level (i$e$ %o %he le;ical hea#/ is no% su55or%e# b0 DP-in%ernal 9or# or#er in Romanian since a#6ec%ives 9hich are normall0 5os%nominal ma0 se5ara%e a noun from i%s com5lemen%3
(,+/ o Y%ra#ucere nouL a Ilia#eiZ a %ransla%ion ne9 G7N Ilia#$G7N >a ne9 %ransla%ion of %he Ilia#?
1+
If 9e 9an% %o main%ain %he s%an#ar# assum5%ion abou% com5lemen% 5lacemen% %here are %9o 5ossible anal0ses3 (i/ %he N has raise# %o a func%ional hea# an# %he a#6ec%ive is lef%-a#6oine# %o %he base 5osi%ion of NI (ii/ %he com5lemen% has been ri!h%-e;%ra5ose#$
(,1/ (i/ De% YF NHF YAP Y%N Com5lemen%ZZZ (ii/ De% Y YYN %Com5lemen%Z APZ Com5lemen%Z
The %9o anal0ses ma-e #ifferen% 5re#ic%ions for %hose confi!ura%ions in 9hich more %han one 5os%nominal a#6ec%ive is 5resen%$ (i/ 5re#ic%s %ha% in a se@uence N A+ A1 (Com5lemen%/ A+ is hi!her %han A1 (ii/ 5re#ic%s %he o55osi%e$ As 9ill be sho9n in cha5%er < (see es5eciall0 sec%ion 2$1/ all %he em5irical #a%a su55or% %he 5re#ic%ion ma#e b0 anal0sis (ii/3 in %he or#er N A + A1 A1 is hi!her %han A+$ The or#er of Romanian 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives is %hus %he reverse (or >mirror?/ or#er 9i%h res5ec% %o %he or#er of 7n!lish 5renominal a#6ec%ives P re!ar#less of 9he%her a com5lemen% is 5resen% or no% as sho9n in %he follo9in! e;am5les3
(,2/ a$ a Yremar-able Y%echnical %alen%ZZ b$ un YY%alen% %ehnicZ #eosebi%Z a %alen% %echnical remar-able c$ Xun %alen% #eosebi% %ehnic a %alen% remar-able %echnical a$ o YYre#are 5ic%uralLZ amLnunRi%LZ a a%mosferei e5ocii a re5resen%a%ion 5ic%orial #e%aile# of a%mos5here-%he$ G7N %ime-%he$G7N b$ a #e%aile# 5ic%orial re5resen%a%ion of %he a%mos5here of %he %ime
(,4/
Ue conclu#e %ha% 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives in Romanian are no% lef%-a#6oine# bu% ri!h%a#6oine#$ The 5lacemen% of com5lemen%s af%er a#6ec%ives is 5robabl0 #ue %o %he #is5lacemen% of %he com5lemen% (ri!h% e;%ra5osi%ion/$ A 5ossible reason for %his e;%ra5osi%ion is %he #ifference in &ei !t be%9een com5lemen%s an# a#6ec%ives3 a#6ec%ives are %05icall0 li !t 5hrases (%he0 rarel0 con%ain ma%erial o%her %han %he le;ical hea#/ 9hile com5lemen%s are al9a0s com5le; 5hrases (DPs i$e$ DHNP see belo9 PPs i$e$ PHDPs e%c$/$ The relevance of 9ei!h% is sho9n b0 %he fac% %ha% if an a#6ec%ive has a com5lemen% or a (lon!/ #e!ree mo#ifier %he AP ma0 follo9 a com5lemen% of %he noun3
(,,/ a$ 5ar%ea 5arcului Y5linL #e floriZ 5ar%-%he 5ar--%he$G7N full$FSG of flo9ers >%he area of %he 5ar- (%ha% is/ full of flo9ers? b$ o re#are a a%mosferei e5ocii Y#eosebi% #e amLnunRi%LZ a re5ro#uc%ion G7N a%mos5here-%he$G7N %ime-%he$G7N 5ar%icularl0 of #e%aile# >a 5ar%icularl0 #e%aile# re5ro#uc%ion of %he a%mos5here of %he %ime?
A res%ric%e# class of a#6ec%ives can a55ear onl0 in %he 5renominal 5osi%ion (see cha5%er < sec%ion 2$+I %hese are for %he mos% 5ar% non-in%ersec%ive3 fost >former? aa-(is >alle!e#?/I %hose a#6ec%ives %ha% allo9 bo%h 5osi%ions e;hibi% #ifferen% in%er5re%a%ions #e5en#in! on %heir 5osi%ion$ The o%her a#nominal cons%i%uen%s are onl0 5os%nominal 9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of 5ossessives an# &!- !eni%ives 9hich can some%imes a55ear before %he N (see cha5%er ./$ Ue conclu#e %ha% %he Romanian nominal #omain is hea#-ini%ial$ The 5renominal fiel# com5rises func%ional ca%e!ories for %he mos% 5ar% (see +$2 belo9/$ Since func%ional ca%e!ories ma0 be anal0Ae# as hea#in! %heir o9n 5ro6ec%ions 9hich %a-e %he NP as %heir com5lemen% %he hea#ini%iali%0 of %he nominal #omain 5roves %o be more consis%en%$ The 5renominal 5lacemen% of some a#6ec%ives 9hich is !enerall0 lin-e# %o 5ar%icular meanin!s ma0 also be anal0Ae# b0 resor%in! %o func%ional 5ro6ec%ions (see cha5%er < *2 9here i% is 5ro5ose# %ha% %hese a#6ec%ives occu50 %he s5ecifier 5osi%ion of func%ional 5ro6ec%ionsI s5ecifiers are a%%ache# %o %he lef% in 11
Romanian/$ $.2. A3no6.nal 6o3.f.e0s 2s. DP+a371n/ts. A55os.t.ons. In sec%ion 4$+ 9e have seen %ha% %he NP ma0 com5rise various a#nominal cons%i%uen%s3 a#6ec%ives 5re5osi%i%ional 5hrases (PPs/ bare nouns !eni%ive DPs rela%ive clauses non-fini%e verbal cons%i%uen%s an# fini%e clauses in%ro#uce# b0 a com5lemen%iAer$ All %hese e;5ressions %o!e%her 9i%h %he N form %he #eno%a%ion of %he NP as a 9hole 9hich is a property #eno%a%ion P a class of ob6ec%s sharin! a 5ro5er%0 ou% of 9hich %he De%erminer selec%s an in#ivi#ual or over 9hich %he De%erminer @uan%ifies (in case %he #e%erminer is @uan%ifica%ional e$!$ fiecare >ever0? orice >an0? niciun >no?/$ Given %ha% all %hese e;5ressions narro9 #o9n %he #eno%a%ion of %he 5hrase %he0 a55l0 %o (for ins%ance scaun rou >re# chair? #eno%es a sub-se% of %he class >chair? namel0 %he se% of ob6ec%s 9hich are chairs an# are re# P %he in%ersec%ion of %he 5re#ica%es c!air an# red/ %he0 are sai# %o be restrictive (%he %erm 5ro5erl0 onl0 a55lies %o mo#ifiersI com5lemen%s ac%uall0 chan!e %he #eno%a%ion %05e re#ucin! %he number of o5en 5osi%ions of %he 5re#ica%e/$ Cer%ain mo#ifiers are non-res%ric%iveI %he0 in%ro#uce an in#e5en#en% 5re#ica%ion abou% %he en%i%0 %he DP #eno%es$ Non-res%ric%ive mo#ifiers can be realiAe# b0 rela%ive clauses a#6ec%ives PPs or DPs3
(,./ a$ Fiul meu care s-a En%ors #e la mun%e mi-a %elefona% son-%he m0 9hich R7FL-has re%urne# from moun%ain me$ DAT-has 5hone# >:0 son 9ho !o% bac- from %he moun%ains has calle# me$? b$ 'Lia%ul bucuros cL a cWM%i!a% s-a #us sL #anseAe$ bo0-%he ha550 %ha% has 9on R7FL-has !one SD'N #ance >The bo0 ha550 %ha% he 9on 9en% #ancin!? c$ Ion cu Ma5ca 5e ca5 Mi %eniMi En 5icioare s-a #us la 5rimLrie$ Ion 9i%h ca5-%he on hea# an# %ennis-shoes in fee% R7FL-has !one %o ci%0-hall >Ion 9earin! a ca5 on his hea# an# %ennis shoes 9en% %o %he ci%0 hall$? #$ Vecinul meu un bun 5rie%en al :ariei ne aM%ea5%L acolo nei!hbor-%he m0 a !oo# frien# G7N :aria$G7N us$ACC 9ai%s %here >:0 nei!hbor a !oo# frien# of :aria is 9ai%in! for us %here$?
These cons%i%uen%s 9hich are usuall0 se5ara%e# b0 a comma from %he DP %he0 a%%ach %o are of%en referre# %o b0 %he %erm apposition$ This %erm is some%imes res%ric%e# %o DPsI for rela%ive clauses %he %erm appositive relative is use# as o55ose# %o %he %erm restrictive relative$ Ue 9ill use %he %erm appositive modifiers as a cover %erm for %hese various non-res%ric%ive mo#ifiers an# 9e 9ill assume %ha% %he0 a%%ach %o %he DP in con%ras% 9i%h res%ric%ive mo#ifiers 9hich a%%ach %o %he NP cons%i%uen%$ Some%imes a DP %ha% a%%aches %o ano%her DP #oes no% func%ion as a non-res%ric%ive mo#ifier bu% is essen%ial in es%ablishin! %he reference3 %he secon# DP a55ears %o choose a value from several 5ossible #eno%a%ions of %he firs% DP$ This cons%ruc%ion is use# %o mo#if0 5ro5er nouns in %he referen%ial use an# 5ersonal 5ronouns because %hese cons%i%uen%s are imme#ia%el0 #omina%e# b0 %he DP no#e an# %herefore #o no% a#mi% NP-mo#ifiers3
(,</ a$ Geor!escu #iri6orul Geor!escu con#uc%or-%he >Geor!escu %he con#uc%or? b$ Noi romWnii 9e Romanians-%he >Ue Romanians?
12
:ore rarel0 %he firs% DP is base# on a common noun3

(,B/ Prie%enii mei ma%ema%icienii frien#s-%he m0 ma%hema%icians-%he >:0 frien#s %he ma%hema%icians?
Re!ar#in! %he seman%ic com5osi%ion of (,</b an# (,B/ %he reference of noi romnii an# prietenii mei matematicienii is no% ob%aine# b0 in%ersec%in! %he se% of Romanians or of ma%hema%icians 9i%h %he se% #eno%e# b0 us an# my friends res5ec%ivel0 bu% is coe;%ensive 9i%h %he #eno%a%ion of %he secon# DP3 Romanians an# ma%hema%icians res5ec%ivel0$ The firs% member 5rovi#es fur%her informa%ion abou% %he en%i%0 or !rou5 #eno%e# b0 %he secon# DP (%ha% %he s5ea-er belon!s %o %he Romanian 5eo5le or %ha% ma%hema%icians are frien#s of %he s5ea-er res5ec%ivel0/$ The #efini%e #e%erminer of %he firs% member ac%s %hus as a #e%erminer of %he 9hole 5hrase an# %he rela%ion be%9een %he #eno%a%ion of %he 9hole 5hrase an# %he #eno%a%ion of %he secon# member is one of i#en%i%0$ The in%er5re%a%ion of %he firs% member is ob%aine# b0 removin! %he #efini%e #e%erminer 9hich is re5resen%e# as Descr (DP+/ (%he #escri5%ive 5ar% of DP+/3
(,C/ YY DP+ DP1ZZ [ ; $ Descr(DP+/(;/ ;[YYDP1ZZ
For an anal0sis of %he cons%ruc%ion in (,</a see cha5%er +4 *2$1$ Conversel0 some mo#ifiers 9hich a%%ach lo9er %han #e%erminers ma0 have a nonres%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion$ Some%imes %he s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure si!nals %his in%er5re%a%ion3 5renominal a#6ec%ives are normall0 non-res%ric%ive (see cha5%er ./I 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives are res%ric%ive3
(.=/ a$ frumoasele case beau%iful-%he houses b$ casele frumoase houses-%he beau%iful >%he beau%iful houses?
$.3. Fo/al Pa0t./les 'esi#es a55osi%ive mo#ifiers 9hich are al9a0s 5os%5ose# DPs also allo9 5re5ose# o5%ional elemen%s P %he so-calle# )focal* particles c!iar >even? i >also? doar% numai >onl0? tot >also s%ill?$ These are func%ional in %he sense %ha% %he0 belon! %o a close# class an# have an o5era%or meanin! bu% %he0 #iffer from o%her func%ional i%ems in %ha% %he0 are no% s5ecific %o DPs bu% ma0 a%%ach %o a varie%0 of (ma;imal/ cons%i%uen%s P APs clauses PPs (see (.1//$
(.+/ a$ chiar el even/reall0 he b$ numai Yaceas%L 5roblemLZ onl0 %his 5roblem c$ Mi Yun co5ilZ even a chil# a$ 7ra chiar Yalbas%rLZ 9as$2SG reall0 blue >I% 9as reall0 blue? b$ Vreau numai YsL %aciZ 9an%$+SG onl0 SD'N shu%-u5$1SG >I 6us% 9an% 0ou %o shu% u5$?
(.1/
14
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions c$ Doar aici se !Lsesc fruc%e onl0 here R7FL fin#$2PL frui%s >Gne can fin# frui%s onl0 here?
Since %hese elemen%s are no% s5ecific %o nominal 5ro6ec%ions %he0 9ill be no% %rea%e# in #e%ail in %his volume$
%. D.st0.b1t.on an3 S9nta/t./ F1n/t.ons of No6.nal P0o7e/t.ons

%.1. F1n/t.ons an3 3.st0.b1t.on of DPs The !rou5in! %o!e%her of 5hrases hea#e# b0 #e%erminers (in%ro#ucin! an over% or null/elli5%ical noun/ 5ro5er nouns an# 5ronouns un#er %he hea#in! >DP? is base# on %he common #is%ribu%ion of %hese cons%i%uen%s$ DPs %05icall0 func%ion as ar uments sa%ura%in! o5en 5osi%ions of 5re#ica%ive ca%e!ories P verbs a#6ec%ives 5re5osi%ions or nouns$ As ar!umen%s of verbs or of 5re#ica%es occurrin! in small clauses DPs ma0 bear s%ruc%ural case (nomina%ive accusa%ive/3
(.2/ a$ Un /o5.l @ Ion @ El cWn%L Sub6ec% Fini%e T ar!$ of V a chil# Ion he sin!s >A chil#/In/he sin!s? b$ A a5Lru% Enain%e a 5leca Mon./a @ ea @ b:.eA.. Sub6ec% Non-fini%e T ar!$ of V has a55eare# before %o leave :onica / she / bo0s-%he >Oe a55eare# before :onica/she/%he bo0s lef%? c$ El @ O0./e /o5.l @ T13o0 e im5resionabil Sub6ec% Fini%e T e;%ernal ar!$ of A he / an0 chil# / Tu#or is sensi%ive (raise# Sub6$ of small-clause/ >Oe/An0 chil#/Tu#or is sensi%ive? #$ C:0A.le @ Ele au fos% 5ier#u%e Sub6ec% Fini%e T in%ernal ar!$ of V boo-s-%he / %he0 have been los% (5assive3 Gb6ec% %o Sub6ec% raisin!/ >The boo-s/The0 have been los%? a$ Am ci%i% /a0tea @ /e2a Gb6ec% in%ernal ar!$ of V have$+ rea# boo--%he / some%hin! >I have rea# %he boo-/some%hin!? b$ Am invi%a%-o 5e Mon./a @ 5e ea have$+ invi%e#-her$ACC DG: :onica / DG: her >I/Ue have invi%e# :onica/her? c$ Pe Ion @ 5e el @ 5e a/est /o5.l El consi#er 5rea im5resionabil DG: Ion/ DG: him/ DG: %his chil# him$ACC consi#er$+SG %oo sensi%ive >Ion/Oim/This chil# I fin# him %oo sensi%ive$? Gb6ec% e;%ernal ar!$ of A (Sub6$ of small-clause raise# %o Gb6/
(.4/
In G'- accoun%s i% use# %o be assume# %ha% s%ruc%ural cases are license#/assi!ne# in #esi!na%e# 5osi%ions P accusa%ive in %he com5lemen% of (%ransi%ive/ V nomina%ive in %he s5ecifier of InflP (9here Infl is fini%e/$ :ore recen%l0 in minimalis% accoun%s i% is assume# %ha% s%ruc%ural cases are assi!ne# b0 func%ional hea#s P nomina%ive b0 T(ense/ accusa%ive b0 %he func%ional ca%e!or0 labele# li%%le v (9hich %a-es VP as a com5lemen%/$ Some lan!ua!es allo9 %his assi!nmen% %o %a-e 5lace 9i%hou% movemen% of %he DP in%o a s5ecifier 5osi%ion (%hus Romanian allo9s nomina%ive sub6ec%s in a 5os%verbal 5osi%ion 9hich is anal0Ae# as %he base 5osi%ion of %he sub6ec%/$
Ar!umen%s can also carr0 inheren% cases$ The inheren% cases of Romanian are %he #a%ive assi!ne# b0 (normall0 bi-%ransi%ive/ verbs an# some%imes b0 a#6ec%ives an# %he accusa%ive of secon#ar0 ob6ec%s assi!ne# b0 verbs3
1,
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions (.,/ a$ I-am scris 1n1. 50.eten @ l1. Robe0t @ l1. him$DAT-have$+ 9ri%%en a$DAT frien# / G'L Rober% / he$DAT >I 9ro%e %o a frien#/%o Rober%/%o him? b$ un co5il #ra! 6.e @ t1t10o0 50ofeso0.lo0 @ San3e. a chil# #ear me$ DAT / all$DAT %eachers-%he$DAT / San#a$DAT >A chil# #ear %o me/%o all %eachers/%o San#a$? c$ `l EnvLRLm o 5oeB.e @ /e2a him$ACC %each$+PL a 5oem / some%hin! >Ue %each him a 5oem/some%hin!$? Da%ive ar!$ of V Da%ive ar!$ of A Secon#ar0 ob6ec%
In e;am5les such as (../ #a%ive-mar-e# DPs al%hou!h %he0 a55ear insi#e %he VP are in%er5re%e# as 5ossessors of an ar!umen% of %he verb (%05icall0 %he ob6ec% or %he sub6ec% of unaccusa%ives/3
(../ a$ I-au fo%o!rafia% casa Elene. her$DAT-have %oo--5ho%o$2PL house-%he 7lena$DAT >The0 %oo- 5ic%ures of 7lena?s house? b$ I-au veni% musafirii Ma0.e. her$DAT-have come !ues%s-%he :aria$DAT >:aria?s !ues%s have come?
DPs ma0 a55ear as com5lemen%s of 5re5osi%ions$ In %his case %he0 func%ion ei%her as ar!umen%s of %he 5re5osi%ion i%self (see (.</a/ or as ar!umen%s of ano%her ca%e!or0 9hich subca%e!oriAes %he 5re5osi%ion ((.</b/$ Pre5osi%ions can also func%ion as s%ruc%ural case mar-ers (see %he accusa%ive ob6ec% mar-er peI see also *+$4 above an# cha5%er . on %he use of de in %he nominal #omain/$
(.</ aflL 5e o 6as: @ ea Com5lemen% of P ar!umen% of P fin#s on a %able / her >I%?s on a %able/her? b$ De5in#e #e el @ 3.0e/to01l 1B.ne. @ Pet01 Com5lemen% of (subca%e!oriAe#/ P #e5en#s on him / #irec%or-%he fac%or0-%he$ G7N / Pe%ru ar!umen% of V >I%?s u5 %o him/%he #irec%or of %he fac%or0/Pe%ru?
R7FL
a$ Se
Insi#e NPs 9hich #o no% %a-e com5lemen%s DPs mar-e# 9i%h !eni%ive can func%ion as a#6unc%s %he !eni%ive e;5ressin! various rela%ions of%en 5ossession (see cha5%er ./3
(.B/ casa 6.n.st01l1. house-%he minis%er-%he$G7N >%he minis%er?s house?
DPs ma0 also a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion e$!$ af%er %he co5ula of i#en%i%0 9hich is e;5ec%e# since %his 5osi%ion re@uires an en%i%0-%05e #eno%a%ion (see (.C//3
(.C/ as%a e #eo04e @ el @ 0e4ele %his$:SG is Geor!e / he / -in!-%he >This is Geor!e/him/%he -in!?
Some DPs ma0 also a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion 9i%h a shif%e# 5ro5er%0 #eno%a%ion3
(<=/ `l consi#er 50.eten1l 6e1 @ /el 6a. b1n 0e4.Bo0 him consi#er$+SG frien#-%he m0 / %he more !oo# (film/#irec%or >I consi#er him m0 frien#/%he bes% #irec%or?
1.
DPs can also func%ion as a55osi%ions (see *4$1 above an# cha5%er +4/ 9hich are a#6unc%s of o%her DPs$ %.2. F1n/t.ons an3 3.st0.b1t.on of NPs Nominal 5hrases 9i%hou% #e%erminers (9hich are calle# >bare nouns?/ a55earin! in ar!umen% 5osi%ions an# in%er5re%e# as 9ea- in#efini%es can be ar!ue# %o be DPs 9i%h a null De% ra%her %han NPs as 9ill be sho9n in cha5%er 1$ In %his sub-sec%ion 9e 9ill briefl0 5resen% %he #is%ribu%ion of %hose nominal 5hrases 9i%hou% #e%erminers 9hich #o no% con%ain a null D$ 'are nouns 9i%hou% a null De% can a55ear in %he follo9in! environmen%s3 (a/ As 5re#ica%es (af%er %he co5ula in small-clause com5lemen%s in small-clause a#6unc%s 9i%h %he 5re#ica%ive hea# ca/3
(<+/ a$ :arin e 50ofeso0 :arin is 5rofessor b$ L-au numi% 3.0e/to0 him$ACC-have a55oin%e# mana!er >The0 a55oin%e# him mana!er? c$ Liviu vorbeM%e acum ca 50.eten Liviu s5ea-s no9 as frien# >Liviu is no9 s5ea-in! as a frien#?
As a55osi%ions (a%%ache# %o DPs/ %he0 can also be anal0Ae# as 5re#ica%es of small clauses3
(<1/ :ihai 5e a%unci 50ofeso0 3e 6ate6at./: ne viAi%a #es :ihai %hen %eacher of ma%hs us$ ACC visi%e# of%en >:ihai a ma%h %eacher a% %he %ime use# %o visi% us of%en?
b/ As com5lemen%s of some 5re5osi%ions P de >of? in%ro#ucin! a#nominal mo#ifiers cu >9i%h? in%ro#ucin! 5ossessees3
(<2/ a$ 5erioa#L #e 0:Bbo. 5erio# of 9ar b$ bluAL cu 41le0 blouse 9i%h collar
c/ As a#nominal a#6unc%s as sho9n in 4$+ above in%er5re%e# as in%ersec%ive mo#ifiers (5re#ica%e# of %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he DP in con6unc%ion 9i%h %he 5re#ica%e #eno%e# b0 %he hea# noun/3
(<4/ a$ o femeie 50eot a 9oman 5ries% b$ oraM 0eCe3.nA: 3e 713eA %o9n ca5i%al of coun%0
&. T8e Se6ant./s of Dete06.ne0s an3 Dete06.ne0 P80ases

&.1. T95es of DPs The seman%ics of nominals is concerne# 9i%h %heir reference or >#eno%a%ion?$ Then #e5en#in!
1<
on %he %05e of nominal o%her @ues%ions arise such as ana5horic an# #eic%ic rela%ions @uan%ifica%ion !enerici%0 e%c$ The no%ion of >seman%ic com5osi%ion? 5oin%s %o %he fac% %ha% %he #eno%a%ion of an e;5ression is com5ose# ou% of %he #eno%a%ions of i%s s0n%ac%ic 5ar%s$ I% is %herefore e;5ec%e# %ha% %he seman%ic anal0sis of nominals #e5en#s on %heir in%ernal s%ruc%ure$ Since canonical DPs 5ro5er names an# 5ronouns #iffer in %heir in%ernal s%ruc%ure 9e 9ill briefl0 5resen% %he main seman%ic 5ro5er%ies of each of %hese %hree %05es of nominals$ Dnless o%her9ise s5ecifie# 9e 9ill be concerne# 9i%h %heir occurrence in ar!umen% 5osi%ionsI %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion 9hich is no% relevan% for 5ronouns an# 5ro5er names 9ill be briefl0 #iscusse# in rela%ion 9i%h canonical DPs$ Canonical DPs are hea#e# b0 a D (recall %ha% %his label covers inter alia ar%icles li-e o >In#ef$S!$Fem? or -a >Def$S!$Fem? an# @uan%ifiers li-e fiecare >ever0?/ %ha% %a-es as a com5lemen% an NP hea#e# b0 a C(ommon/ N(oun/$ The NP 5rovi#es a 5re#ica%e (#escri5%ive con%en%/ %ha% res%ric%s %he referen% of %he DP %o en%i%ies %ha% are charac%eriAe# b0 %ha% 5re#ica%e$ :os% nouns are one-ar!umen% 5re#ica%es an# as such %he0 are assume# %o #eno%e 5ro5er%ies or P in e;%ensional %erms P se%s of en%i%ies$ In a sim5le DP %ha% consis%s of a De%erminer an# a Noun e$!$ o femeie >a 9oman? %he De%erminer is vie9e# as a func%ion %ha% a55lies %o %he se% of en%i%ies #eno%e# b0 N$ The resul% of %his a55lica%ion corres5on#s %o %he #eno%a%ion of %he overall DP$ Uhen N is mo#ifie# e$!$ o femeie deteapt >a 9oman smar%? >a smar% 9oman? i% is assume# %ha% %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he mo#ifier in%ersec%s 9i%h %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 N an# %he #e%erminer a55lies %o %he resul%in! 5ro5er%0 corres5on#in! %o %he #eno%a%ion of %he NP cons%i%uen%$ There are ho9ever man0 o%her s0n%ac%ic confi!ura%ions %ha% canno% be subsume# un#er such a sim5le anal0sis3 man0 a#6ec%ives are no% in%ersec%ive rela%ional nouns have com5lemen%s rela%ive clauses even %he res%ric%ive ones canno% be %rea%e# on a 5ar 9i%h res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives e%c$ S5ecific 5ro5osals re!ar#in! %he seman%ic anal0ses of %hese various s0n%ac%ic confi!ura%ions 9ill be ma#e in %he cha5%ers #e#ica%e# %o %hem$ In %he follo9in! in%ro#uc%or0 no%es 9e 9ill be concerne# onl0 9i%h %he basic seman%ic no%ions an# %ools %ha% 9ill be ma#e use of in %he !rammar$ Ue also aim a% es%ablishin! some correla%ions re!ar#in! %he seman%ics of %he various %05es of DPs$ De5en#in! on %he seman%ic 5ro5er%ies of %heir D full DPs can #eno%e ei%her en%i%ies (in %05e-%heore%ic %erms %he0 are e(n%i%0/-%05e e;5ressions/ or !eneraliAe# @uan%ifiers a no%ion %o 9hich 9e 9ill come bac- belo9$ &.1.1. Ent.t9+Denot.n4 DPs 7n%i%0-%05e #eno%a%ion is common %o all DPs re!ar#less of 9he%her %he0 are canonical DPs 5ronouns of 5ro5er names$ Oo9ever %he 9a0 in 9hich en%i%0-#eno%a%ion is com5ose# #iffers from one %05e of DP %o ano%her$ The en%i%0-#eno%a%ion of full DPs can be vie9e# as %he resul% of a55l0in! D %o %he se% of en%i%ies #eno%e# b0 %he NP$ Such an o5era%ion is ar!uabl0 no% a% 9or- in %he case of 5ronouns an# 5ro5er names$ The label >5ronoun? #oes no% concern %he DPs 9i%hou% an over% N invo-e# in sec%ion 2 above3 once %he con%en% of %he null N is recovere# %heir seman%ic com5osi%ion 5rocee#s in %he same 9a0 as %ha% of a full-fle#!e# DP$ Com5are 5ersonal 5ronouns 9hich sho9 no se5ara%ion be%9een D an# NP an# %herefore %heir seman%ic com5osi%ion #oes no% involve an0 o5era%ion on a se% of en%i%ies (for some e;ce5%ions in 9hich a #escri5%ive 5ar% is im5lie# in %he in%er5re%a%ion of 5ronouns such as %he so-calle# >5ronouns of laAiness? see Cha5%er , *+$B/$ Ins%ea# %he0 #irec%l0 in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% (or a free variable/ #ue %o %he seman%ic fea%ures %ha% %he0 carr0 mos% 5rominen%l0 %he Person fea%ure$ The i#en%ifica%ion of a 5ar%icular referen% is achieve# b0 means of %he ana5horic an# #eic%ic rela%ions %ha% 5ronouns en%er%ain 9i%h some o%her elemen% in %heir lin!uis%ic or non-lin!uis%ic environmen% (see %he Cha5%er on Pronouns P cha5%er ,/$ Pro5er names are li-e 5ronouns insofar as no se% of en%i%ies in%ervenes in %heir seman%ic com5osi%ion$ 'u% %he0 cruciall0 #iffer from 5ronouns insofar as %he0 #o no% behave
1B
as variables bu% ra%her as cons%an%s$ Common %o all PNs across lan!ua!es is %he fac% %ha% %he0 are connec%e# b0 5ar%icularl0 s%ron! %ies %o a 5ar%icular en%i%0 %ha% serves as %heir seman%ic value$ Ano%her s0n%ac%ic %05e of nominal is cons%i%u%e# b0 >bare nominals? i$e$ ma;imal nominal 5ro6ec%ions %ha% are buil% on common nouns (9hich ma0 %a-e an0 mo#ifiers or com5lemen%s/ an# lac- an0 (over%/ #e%erminers as e;em5lifie# in (<,/3
(<,/ a$ Ileana 5oar%L mereu fus%L$ Ileana 9ears al9a0s s-ir% >Ileana al9a0s 9ears a s-ir%$ b$ :aria EnvaRL limbi s%rLine$ :aria learns lan!ua!es forei!n >:aria is learnin! forei!n lan!ua!es$?
Romanian allo9s no% onl0 bare 5lurals e;em5lifie# in ((<,/b/ an# mass nouns (no% illus%ra%e# here/ bu% also bare sin!ulars e;em5lifie# in ((<,/a/$ Com5are French 9hich #isallo9s an0 -in# of bare nominal (if 9e leave asi#e cer%ain ver0 res%ric%e# con%e;%s/ an# 7n!lish 9hich allo9s bare 5lurals an# bare mass nouns bu% no% bare sin!ulars$ A curren% con%rovers0 concernin! %hese %05es of nominals is 9he%her %he0 are in fac% full-fle#!e# DPs 9i%h a D %ha% is 5honolo!icall0 null bu% s0n%ac%icall0 an# seman%icall0 5resen% or 9he%her %he0 are 9ha% %he0 a55ear %o be NPs 9i%h no D 5ro6ec%ions$ In Cha5%er 1 evi#ence is a##uce# in favor of %he DP-anal0sis$ Gran%in! such a vie9 %he seman%ic com5osi%ion of bare nominals is %ha% of a com5le%e DP 9i%h %he null D func%ionin! as a 5lural in#efini%e #e%erminer %he 5lural coun%er5ar% of %he sin!ular in#efini%e ar%icle$ In lan!ua!es such as 7n!lish (bu% no% in Romanian/ bare 5lurals ma0 have no% onl0 e;is%en%ial in#efini%e bu% also !eneric rea#in!s (e$!$ Do s are intelli ent$&idespread 9hich nee# %o be %ransla%e# 9i%h a #efini%e 5lural in Romanian/ in 9hich case %he null De% has a #ifferen% seman%ic anal0sis$ &.1.2. -1ant.f./at.onal DPs Le% us no9 briefl0 consi#er DPs such as fiecare copil% toi copiii% cei mai muli copii% 678 din copii 9hich canno% be anal0Ae# as #eno%in! en%i%ies$ The reason 9h0 %he0 canno% #o so is %ha% %heir #e%erminers im5ose no% onl0 con#i%ions on %he (car#inali%0 of %he/ se% #eno%e# b0 %he NP bu% %he0 also s5ecif0 %he 5ro5or%ion be%9een %he car#inali%0 of %he nominal 5re#ica%e an# %he car#inali%0 of %he in%ersec%ion be%9een %he nominal 5re#ica%e an# %he sen%en%ial 5re#ica%e3
(<./ a$ Fiecare co5il are o 6ucLrie ever0 chil# has a %o0 >7ver0 chil# has a %o0$? b$ Cei mai mulRi co5ii au o 6ucLrie %he more man0 chil#ren have a %o0 >:os% chil#ren have a %o0?
Com5are %he e;am5les in (<</ buil% 9i%h #efini%es in#efini%es or in#efini%e DPs hea#e# b0 car#inals 3
(<</ a$ Co5ilul are o 6ucLrie chil#-%he has a %o0 >The chil# has a %o0? b$ Dn co5il are o 6ucLrie a chil# has a %o0 >A chil# has a %o0?
1C
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions c$ Trei co5ii au o 6ucLrie %hree chil#ren have a %o0 >Three chil#ren have a %o0?
In %he e;am5les in (<</ %he #e%erminers im5ose various con#i%ions on %he #iscourse referen% %he0 in%ro#uce3 i% mus% be a%omic have car#inali%0 %hree e%c$ The sen%ences in (<</ are %rue if %he #iscourse referen%s %ha% sa%isf0 %hese con#i%ions are such %ha% %he0 also sa%isf0 %he con#i%ions im5ose# b0 %he sen%en%ial 5re#ica%es$ In e;am5les (<./ on %he o%her han# %he relevan% DPs #o no% #eno%e en%i%ies 3 %heir #e%erminers #o no% #efine con#i%ions on some #iscourse referen% bu% ins%ea# %he0 s5ecif0 a cer%ain 5ro5or%ion of %he se% of en%i%ies %ha% sa%isf0 %he nominal 5re#ica%e$ The sen%ence is %rue if %ha% 5ro5or%ion of %he en%i%ies %ha% sa%isf0 %he nominal 5re#ica%e also sa%isfies %he sen%en%ial 5re#ica%e$ DPs of %his %05e are sai# %o be necessaril0 @uan%ifica%ional an# %he0 can be re5resen%e# b0 usin! 5re#ica%e calculus lo!ic 9i%h res%ric%e# variables (see * <$1$+ belo9/$ An al%erna%ive anal0sis of @uan%ifica%ional DPs is in %erms of !eneraliAe# @uan%ifiers (see * <$1$2/$ This %05es of re5resen%a%ion can P bu% nee# no% P be use# for all DPs inclu#in! 5ro5er names$ The brief remar-s ma#e above are mean% %o !ive a !eneral overvie9 of %he common an# #ifferen%ia%in! seman%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he various s0n%ac%ic %05es of DPs$ De%aile# observa%ions re!ar#in! %he seman%ics of each %05e can be foun# in %he various cha5%ers of %his volume e$!$ %hose #e#ica%e# %o De%erminers 'are Nominals Pronouns or Pro5er names$ In %he remainin! 5ar% of %his In%ro#uc%ion 9e 9ill briefl0 5resen% %he mos% 9i#es5rea# %heore%ical a55roaches for %he seman%ics of DPs$ &.2. T8eo0et./al 5e0s5e/t.2es &.2.1 P0e3./ate Cal/1l1s D.t8o1t an3 D.t8 0est0./te3 2a0.ables :a%%ers concernin! %he seman%ics of DPs in !eneral an# %he seman%ics of #e%erminers in 5ar%icular have been crucial in sha5in! formal a55roaches %o na%ural lan!ua!e seman%ics$ Follo9in! earl0 %9en%ie%h cen%ur0 5ro5osals in %he 5hiloso5h0 of lan!ua!e formal a55roaches %o na%ural lan!ua!e seman%ics relie# ini%iall0 on associa%in! na%ural lan!ua!e sen%ences 9i%h formulas of a Pre#ica%e Calculus lan!ua!e for 9hich %ru%h con#i%ions are 9ell #efine#$ In %his in#irec% manner %hen %ru%h con#i%ions are associa%e# %o na%ural lan!ua!e sen%ences as 9ell$ In %he lo!ical %ra#i%ion s%emmin! from Russell (+C=,/ %he sen%ences in (<B/ are associa%e# 9i%h %he formulas in (<C/ i!norin! ma%%ers 5er%ainin! %o %ense an# as5ec%$
(<B/ a$ A 5leca% 1n s%u#en%$ has lef% a s%u#en% >A s%u#en% lef%$? b$ 9tudentul a plecat0 s%u#en%-%he has lef% >The s%u#en% lef%$? c$ Fiecare student a plecat$ ever0 s%u#en% has lef% >7ver0 s%u#en% lef%$? #$ Niciun student nu a plecat0 no s%u#en% no% has lef% >No s%u#en% lef%$? a$ ;bc (STDD7NT(;/ L7AV7(;// b$ d;bc (STDD7NT(;/ L7AV7(;// c$ ; (STDD7NT(;/ L7AV7(;//
(<C/
2=
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions #$ ; (bcSTDD7NT(;/ L7AV7(;//
In (<C/ %he e;5ressions in small ca5s s%an# for %he Pre#ica%e Calculus 5re#ica%es corres5on#in! %o na%ural lan!ua!e nouns verbs an# a#6ec%ives$ The >d? mar- is shor% for %he uni@ueness re@uiremen% associa%e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle$ Formulas in a Pre#ica%e Calculus lan!ua!e (PC/ are in%er5re%e# rela%ive %o a mo#el : consis%in! minimall0 of a se% of en%i%ies D an# a valua%ion func%ion V %ha% assi!ns #eno%a%ions %o 5re#ica%es an# o%her cons%an%s of %he lan!ua!e$ Pre#ica%es are %05e# for %he number of ar!umen%s %he0 %a-e$ The %ru%h con#i%ions of %he formulas in (<C/ ensure %ha% ((<C/a/ is %rue in a mo#el : if an# onl0 if %here is an en%i%0 d in D such %ha% d is a s%u#en% in : an# d lef% in :$ The formula in ((<C/b/ a##s an e;%ra re@uiremen% of uni@ueness3 %here shoul# be no d. d such %ha% d. is a s%u#en% in : an# d. lef% in :$ The %ru%h con#i%ions for %he universal formula in ((<C/c/ re@uire i% %o be %he case %ha% for ever0 en%i%0 d in D if d is a s%u#en% d lef%$ The ne!a%ive formula in ((<C/#/ is %rue 6us% in case %he e;5ression 9i%hin %he sco5e of %he ne!a%ive o5era%or is false an# %herefore i% 9ill be %rue 6us% in case %here is no en%i%0 d in D %ha% is a s%u#en% an# %ha% lef%$ In %his s0s%em %he #omain from 9hich variables boun# b0 @uan%ifiers !e% %heir values is D %he se% of en%i%ies in %he mo#el :$ There are %9o un9elcome conse@uences of %his assum5%ion3 (i/ The corres5on#ence be%9een %he cons%i%uen%s of %he PC formulas an# %he s0n%ac%ic ma-e-u5 of %he sen%ences %he0 %ransla%e is 5roblema%ic$ In 5ar%icular %here is no s0s%ema%ic correla%ion be%9een %he DPs of in%eres% here un#erline# in (<B/ an# %heir con%ribu%ion %o %he formulas %ha% %ransla%es %hese sen%ences un#erline# in (<C/$ (ii/ The a55roach 6us% ou%line# canno% !eneraliAe %o o%her @uan%ifier-li-e e;5ressions such as most% more t!an !alf% or car#inals$ In or#er %o reme#0 %his si%ua%ion 9e ma0 use 5re#ica%e calculus lo!ic 9i%h res%ric%e# variables$ In such PC lan!ua!es variables boun# b0 @uan%ifiers are res%ric%e# i$e$ %heir values are %a-en from subse%s of D subse%s #e%ermine# b0 Res%ric%or e;5ressions$ The formulas %ransla%in! %he sen%ences in (<B/ in a Pre#ica%e Calculus lan!ua!e 9i%h res%ric%e# variables are !iven in (B=/3
(B=/ a$ ;3b9:UDE3:)'* L7AV7(;/ b$ d;3b9:UDE3:)'* L7AV7(;/ c$ ;3 9:UDE3:)'* L7AV7(;/ #$ ;3b9:UDE3:)'* L7AV7(;/
The i%aliciAe# e;5ressions in (B=/ are referre# %o as %he Res%ric%or 5ar% of %he @uan%ifica%ional formula 9hile %he 5ar% lef% unun#erline# an# uni%aliciAe# is %he N(uclear/ S(co5e/$ The %ru%h con#i%ions for (B=/a re@uire %here %o be some en%i%0 amon! %hose en%i%ies in D of 9hich %he Res%ric%or is %rue such %ha% %he Nuclear Sco5e is %rue of i% as 9ellI %he e;%ra re@uiremen% im5ose# b0 (B=/b is %ha% %here be a sin!le en%i%0 of 9hich %he Res%ric%or is %rue$ For (B=/c %o be %rue i% mus% be %he case %ha% ever0 en%i%0 of 9hich %he Res%ric%or is %rue is such %ha% %he NS is %rue of i% as 9ell an# for (B=/# %o be %rue (B=/a mus% no% be %rue$ These %ru%h con#i%ions %urn ou% %o be e@uivalen% %o %hose !iven for (<C/ e;ce5% %ha% i% is no9 5ossible %o assume %ha% 5ar%icular #e%erminers 5lace 5ar%icular res%ric%ions on %he se% #eno%e# b0 %heir Res%ric%or res%ric%ions %ha% are >5resu55ose#? in %he sense %ha% %he0 have %o be me% in or#er for %he sen%ence %o have a %ru%h value a% all$ Thus for fiecare >ever0? one can assume %ha% %his se% is 5resu55ose# %o be non-em5%0 an# %herefore !e% no %ru%h-value for (B=/c in a mo#el 9i%hou% s%u#en%s 9hile (<C/c 9oul# be %rue in such a mo#el$ A ma6or a#van%a!e of %his a55roach is %ha% fur%her @uan%ifiers such as most or more t!an !alf can be a##e# 9i%hou% an0 #ifficul%0$ Ue can no9 !eneraliAe over DPs %ha% serve as ar!umen%s of 5re#ica%es$ Their D 2+
con%ribu%es a @uan%ifier an# a variable 9hile %heir NP con%ribu%es %he Res%ric%or$ 7;5ressions %ha% form %he Res%ric%or as 9ell as %hose %ha% form %he NS ma0 be com5le; an# ma0 con%ain @uan%ifica%ional formulas in %heir %urn lea#in! %o more com5le; %ru%h con#i%ions$ In %his cha5%er 9e a#o5% %he res%ric%e# variable version of Pre#ica%e Calculus as %he lin!ua franca of formal seman%ics$ Turnin! no9 bac- %o ar%icles no%e %ha% so far %he #ifference be%9een #efini%e an# in#efini%e #e%erminers (un vs$ -)u*l/ a55ears %o be a ma%%er of %he la%%er brin!in! an e;%ra re@uiremen% rela%ive %o %he former$ Dn#ers%an#in! %his re@uiremen% an# i%s s%a%us is crucial %o an0one in%eres%e# in %he seman%ics of #e%erminers since i% involves un#ers%an#in! %he #efini%e/in#efini%e #icho%om0$ There are %9o issues %ha% have been raise# in connec%ion 9i%h Russell?s uni@ueness 5ro5osal from %he s%ar%3 (i/ In or#er %o a55l0 %he uni@ueness %rea%men% of %he #efini%e ar%icle %o or#inar0 e;am5les in or#inar0 lan!ua!e one has %o be able %o rela%iviAe i% since (B=/b is 6u#!e# as %rue in man0 con%e;%s in %he absence of an assum5%ion %ha% 9oul# re@uire %he se% of s%u#en%s in %he mo#el %o be sin!le%on$ The uni@ueness re@uiremen% %herefore mus% be con%e;%uall0 res%ric%able$ (ii/ An in#e5en#en% 5roblem raise# b0 S%ra9son (+C,=/ is 9he%her or no% %he uni@ueness con#i%ion %o!e%her 9i%h %he e;is%ence re@uiremen%s 5ac-e# in%o %he #efini%e ar%icle have %he same s%a%us as %he NS re@uiremen%s$ In a Russellian a55roach 9hich ma-es no #is%inc%ions be%9een %hese con#i%ions an e;5ression such as (B=/b is ren#ere# false un#er an0 of %he follo9in! circums%ances3 (a/ %he mo#el/con%e;% con%ains no s%u#en%sI (b/ %he se% of s%u#en%s in %he mo#el/con%e;% is no% a sin!le%onI (c/ %here is a sin!le%on se% of s%u#en%s in %he mo#el/con%e;% bu% %he s%u#en% in %his se% #i# no% in fac% leave$ S%ra9son ar!ue# %ha% %he con#i%ions un#er (a/ an# (b/ shoul# be seen as havin! a #ifferen% s%a%us from %he con#i%ion un#er (c/3 (a/ an# (b/ a55ear %o be pre-con#i%ions %ha% have %o be me% in or#er for %he use of %he #efini%e ar%icle %o be felici%ous$ This vie9 le# %o %rea%in! %he e;is%ence an# uni@ueness re@uiremen%s %ha% ma-e u5 %he con%ribu%ion of %he #efini%e ar%icle as presuppositions ra%her %han as bein! 5ar% of 9ha% %he sen%ence con%ainin! %he DP asser%s$ Dn#er a S%ra9sonean (5resu55osi%ional/ a55roach 9e are le# %o %he follo9in! vie9 of %he four Romanian #e%erminers bol#-face# in (<B/3 (a/ %he unmar-e# in#efini%e is a sim5le e;is%en%ialI (b/ %he #efini%e is an e;is%en%ial %ha% 5resu55oses %ha% i%s Res%ric%or #eno%es a sin!le%on se% (rela%ive %o %he con%e;%/I (c/ fiecare is a universal 5ossibl0 5resu55osin! %ha% i%s Res%ric%or is no% em5%0I (#/ niciun is an e;is%en%ial %ha% mus% occur in %he imme#ia%e sco5e of %he ne!a%ive o5era%or $ This la%%er cons%rain% is enco#e# in %he ne!a%ive mor5heme nici$ The ne!a%ive o5era%or is in%ro#uce# b0 %he verbal ne!a%ion nu as 9ell as b0 o%her mor5hemes such as %he com5lemen%iAer fr >9i%hou%?3
(B+/ :aria a 5leca% fLrL sL ia nicio car%e$ :aria has lef% 9i%hou% SD'N %a-e N7G-a boo>:aria lef% 9i%hou% %a-in! an0 boo-$?
The re@uiremen% %ha% nici in#efini%es occur 9i%hin %he immediate sco5e of ne!a%ion means %ha% in or#er for nici in#efini%es %o be !ramma%ical %he smalles% clause in 9hich %he0 occur mus% be ne!a%e#$ 3ici in#efini%es %hen are a s%ric% %05e of 9ha% is -no9 in seman%ics as a N(e!a%ive/ P(olari%0/ I(%em/$ Uha% 9e have seen so far is %ha% #e%erminers #eci#e 9ha% @uan%ifier is involve# in %he in%er5re%a%ion of %heir DP i$e$ %he0 #e%ermine %he @uan%ifica%ional force of %he DP$ In a##i%ion %he0 ma0 im5ose various res%ric%ions on %he 5ro5er%ies of %he Res%ric%or or on %he s0n%ac%ic/seman%ic environmen% of %he DP$ The former is e;em5lifie# b0 %he h05o%hesiAe# uni@ueness 5resu55osi%ion associa%e# 9i%h %he #efini%e #e%erminer %he la%%er 9i%h %he s5ecial re@uiremen% carrie# b0 %he ne!a%ive mor5heme nici0
21
&.2.2. T8e 0elat.onal anal9s.s of Dete06.ne0s Ui%h res5ec% %o %heore%ical a55roaches %o #e%erminers an al%erna%ive an# ver0 influen%ial vie9 of e;is%en%ial universal an# o%her >@uan%ifica%ional? DPs %ha% is a small s%e5 a9a0 from %he one 6us% 5resen%e# 9as #evelo5e# in 'ar9ise an# Coo5er (+CB+/$ The 5ro5osal is %o %rea% #e%erminers as e;5ressin! rela%ions be%9een %9o se%s A an# ' 9here in our %erms %he se% A is !iven b0 %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he e;5ression in %he Res%ric%or an# %he se% ' is !iven b0 %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he e;5ression in %he NS$ For our sim5le e;am5les A is %he se% of s%u#en%s an# ' is %he se% of 5eo5le 9ho lef%$ The rela%ion #eno%e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle a is %ha% 9hich ob%ains be%9een %9o se%s 9hen %heir in%ersec%ion is non-null$ The e;%ra re@uiremen% im5ose# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle t!e is %ha% A be a sin!le%on$ The universal #e%erminer every on %he o%her han# re@uires A %o be a subse% of ' e;5resse# formall0 as A ' [ A$ The ne!a%ive #e%erminer no #eno%es a rela%ion %ha% hol#s be%9een A an# ' 6us% in case %he in%ersec%ion of A an# ' is %he em5%0 se% e;5resse# formall0 as A ' [ $ In%eres%in! formal 5ro5er%ies of #e%erminers have been #efine# un#er %his a55roach an# universal 5ro5er%ies of na%ural lan!ua!e #e%erminers have been formula%e#$ Gne in%ri!uin! such universal 5ro5er%0 is conserva%ivi%0 a 5ro5er%0 %ha% is e@uivalen% %o %he claim %ha% all @uan%ifica%ion in na%ural lan!ua!e is res%ric%e#$ Gf 5ar%icular use in charac%eriAin! %he #is%ribu%ional 5ro5er%ies of NPIs men%ione# above in connec%ion 9i%h nici in#efini%es are %he mono%onici%0 5ro5er%ies of #e%erminers$ Assumin! %ha% a #e%erminer D rela%es %9o se%s 9 an# 9. mono%one increasin! an# mono%one #ecreasin! #e%erminers can be #efine# as in (+1/3
(B1/ a$ A #e%erminer is monotone increasin on 9 iff for ever0 su5erse% 9. of 9 if D hol#s be%9een 9 an# 9. %hen D hol#s be%9een 9. an# 9. as 9ell$ b$ A #e%erminer D is monotone decreasin on 9 iff for ever0 subse% 9. of 9 if D hol#s be%9een 9 an# 9. %hen D hol#s be%9een 9. an# 9. as 9ell$
The rea#er can verif0 %ha% %he #e%erminer every is mono%one #ecreasin! on i%s Res%ric%or an# mono%one increasin! on i%s NSI %he #e%erminer no is mono%one #ecreasin! on bo%h i%s Res%ric%or an# NS$ The mono%one #ecreasin! 5ro5er%0 has %urne# ou% %o be useful in charac%eriAin! %he con%e;%s in 9hich cer%ain NPIs occur 5ar%icularl0 in 7n!lish (see La#usa9 (+C<C/ for %he classic 9or- on %his %o5ic$/ The issue of %he seman%ics of NPIs has #evelo5e# in%o a subfiel# of i%s o9n an# since 9e canno% #o i% 6us%ice in %his cha5%er 9e leave i% ou% of i%s sco5e$ &.2.3. Monta4o2.an a550oa/8es The 5ro5er %rea%men% of DPs has 5la0e# a crucial role in %he seminal :on%a!ovian %ra#i%ion in formal seman%ics 9hose foun#in! s%one is :on%a!ue (+C<2/$ The ma6or force #rivin! %he en%er5rise is %he 9ish %o s%a0 as close as 5ossible %o %he Fre!ean no%ion of com5osi%ionali%0$ For Fre!e %he in%er5re%a%ion of a com5le; e;5ression is a func%ion of %he in%er5re%a%ion of i%s imme#ia%e cons%i%uen%s an# %he 9a0 %he0 are combine#$ The beau%0 an# 5o9er of %he %heor0 lie in ho9 narro9l0 %he s0n%a; of an e;5ression is assume# %o #e%ermine i%s in%er5re%a%ion 9hich in %urn #e5en#s on 9ha% mo#es of com5osi%ions one acce5%s an# ho9 narro9l0 one #efines %he seman%ics of each s0n%ac%ic ca%e!or0$ (Fre!e allo9e# a sin!le mo#e of combina%ion namel0 func%ion ar!umen% a55lica%ion a res%ric%ion %ha% has 5roven %oo s%ric%$/ A% %he same %ime %he a55roach ma#e 5ossible a shif% %o >#irec%? in%er5re%a%ion 9hereb0 e;5ressions of na%ural lan!ua!e are assi!ne# seman%ic values #irec%l0 9i%hou% %he nee# of !oin! %hrou!h a 5rocess of %ransla%ion in%o a formal lan!ua!e$ In %his %ra#i%ion %he s0n%ac%ic ca%e!or0 of an e;5ression is %i!h%l0 connec%e# %o %he na%ure of i%s seman%ic value$ Leavin! mo#al issues asi#e %he in%er5re%a%ion of a sen%ence is a %ru%h-valueI for o%her lin!uis%ic e;5ressions 9e can assume %heir in%er5re%a%ion %o be 5ar%icular
22
en%i%ies in D %he #omain of %he mo#el or func%ions of various #e!rees of com5le;i%0 involvin! en%i%ies an# %ru%h-values (as 9ell as a##i%ional a%omic %05es in more com5le; s0s%ems/$ Na%ural lan!ua!e e;5ressions are assi!ne# seman%ic %05es #e5en#in! on %he na%ure of %he #eno%a%ion %he0 have$ In sim5les% s0s%ems %here are %9o basic #eno%a%ion %05es3 e for e;5ressions referrin! %o en%i%ies an# t for e;5ressions referrin! %o %ru%h-values (+ for %rue = for false/$ Com5le; %05es 9ri%%en as 1 a% b 2 are func%ions from en%i%ies of %05e a %o en%i%ies of %05e b 9here a an# b are sim5le %05es or com5le; ones$ Sen%ences are e;5ressions of %05e tI 5re#ica%es such as leave or see 5ary are e;5ressions of %05e e e% t f i$e$ %he0 #eno%e func%ions from en%i%ies %o %ru%h-values$ 7;5ressions 9hose %05e is e e% t f are calle# properties0 In se% %heore%ic %erms 9e can %hinof %hem as %he se% of en%i%ies for 9hich %he 5re#ica%e re%urns %he value + i$e$ %he se% of elemen%s in D 9ho lef% or sa9 :ar0 res5ec%ivel0$ Ue 9ill refer %o such se%s as %he #eno%a%ion of e;5ressions of %05e e e% t f$ Uhen %9o s0n%ac%ic e;5ressions s; an# s< combine %o form a com5le; e;5ression s= %he in%er5re%a%ion of s= mus% be %he resul% of combinin! %he in%er5re%a%ions of i%s %9o #au!h%ers$ A#herin! %o s%ric% Fre!ean 5rinci5les %he in%er5re%a%ion of one of %hese #au!h%ers mus% be a func%ion an# %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he o%her mus% be such as %o fi% %he ar!umen% of %ha% func%ion$ The in%er5re%a%ion of s= 9ill %hen be %he resul% of a55l0in! %he func%ion #au!h%er %o %he ar!umen% #au!h%er (func%ion ar!umen% a55lica%ion/$ To illus%ra%e 9i%h a sim5le e;am5le assume %ha% %he seman%ic value of Pro5er Names is an en%i%0 in D an# %herefore %ha% %heir seman%ic %05e is e$ Assume also %ha% in%ransi%ive verbs are in%er5re%e# as func%ions from en%i%ies %o %ru%h-values i$e$ %he0 are of %05e e e% t 2 !ivin! %he value + 9henever %he en%i%0 %ha% serves as %heir ar!umen% has %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he verb$ The seman%ic %05es associa%e# %o %he cons%i%uen%s of %he sen%ence in (B2/a are as in (B2/b 9here %he %05e of an e;5ression is 9ri%%en un#er i%3
(B2/ a$ Ion 5leacL$ >Ion is leavin!$? b$ >on pleac t >on ee2 pleac eetf
Oere %he sub6ec% func%ions as %he ar!umen% of %he 5re#ica%e$ Dn#er %he above assum5%ions 9e !e% %he follo9in! in%ui%ivel0 5leasin! resul%3 %he #eno%a%ion of (B2/a is + 6us% in case %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he sub6ec% is in %he #eno%a%ion of %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he in%ransi%ive verb$ In o%her 9or#s (B2/a is 5re#ic%e# %o be %rue in a mo#el : 6us% in case %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 >on is amon! %he leavers in :$ :on%a!ue?s aim 9as %o ca5%ure 9ha% is common %o all DPs$ Oe aime# a% !ivin! %hem a uniform %rea%men% in or#er %o accoun% for %heir rela%ivel0 uniform s0n%ac%ic #is%ribu%ion as 9ell as for %he fac% %ha% one can con6oin DPs across sub%05es in e;am5les such as ?ane and every student in !er class$?ane and no student in !er class (see sec%ion +$./$ Trea%in! Pro5er Names as sim5l0 bein! of %05e e becomes 5roblema%ic !iven %ha% DPs such as every student an# no student canno% be %rea%e# as #eno%in! an en%i%0 an# %herefore canno% be of %05e e$ The s%ra%e!0 :on%a!ue use# 9as %o re#uce all DPs %o %he mos% com5le; case %ha% of DPs such as fiecare student >ever0 s%u#en%? or niciun student >no s%u#en%? e;em5lifie# in Romanian an# 7n!lish in (B4/$
24
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions (B4/ a$ F.e/a0e st13ent a 5leca%$ E2e09 st13ent lef%$ b$ N./.1n st13ent nu a 5leca%$ No st13ent lef%$
In :on%a!ue?s anal0sis %he #eno%a%ion of %he bol#-face# sub6ec%s is %he func%ion an# %he #eno%a%ion of %he VP is i%s ar!umen%$ The DP %hen is an e;5ression of %05e e e e% t f t f 3 i% is a func%ion %ha% %a-es a 5ro5er%0 as i%s ar!umen% an# i% 0iel#s a %ru%h value as i%s value$ The %05e of %he D in each DP is a func%ion from 5ro5er%ies %o %he func%ions #eno%e# b0 %he DP i$e$ a func%ion from e;5ressions of %05e e e% t f %o e;5ressions of %05e e e e% t f t f$ De%erminers %hen are e;5ressions of %05e e e e% t f e e e% t f t f f$ The func%ion #eno%e# b0 every$fiecare %hen %a-es a 5ro5er%0 / as an ar!umen% an# 0iel#s as value a func%ion %ha% %a-es a 5ro5er%0 @ as an ar!umen% an# 0iel#s %he value + 6us% in case / @$ The func%ion #eno%e# b0 no$niciun %a-es a 5ro5er%0 / an# 0iel#s a func%ion %ha% %a-es a 5ro5er%0 @ as an ar!umen% an# 0iel#s %he value + 6us% in case / @ [ $ These %ru%h con#i%ions as 0ou can see are 5arallel %o 'ar9ise an# Coo5er?s rela%ional a55roach (9here / is %he Res%ric%or se% 9e #eno%e# b0 A above an# @ is %he NS se% #eno%e# above b0 '/$ Ue e;em5lif0 in (B,/ ho9 %he %05es of %he cons%i%uen%s of (B4/a combine$ Oere %he #eno%a%ion of student 5la0s %he role of %he 5ro5er%0 / above an# %he #eno%a%ion of leave 5la0s %he role of %he 5ro5er%0 @3
(B,/ 7ver0 s%u#en% lef% t ever0 s%u#en% e e e% t f t f ever0 e e e% t f e e e% t f t f f s%u#en% e e%t f lef% e e%t f
The func%ion #eno%e# b0 every student can be %hou!h% of as %he se% of 5ro5er%ies for 9hich i% !ives %he value + i$e$ %he se% of 5ro5er%ies %ha% ever0 s%u#en% has$ The sen%ence Every student left %hen #eno%es + 6us% in case %he 5ro5er%0 of leavin! is 9i%hin %he se% of 5ro5er%ies %ha% ever0 s%u#en% has i$e$ 6us% in case for ever0 s%u#en% in D %ha% s%u#en% lef% 9hich is as i% shoul# be$ The %05e !iven %o every student above is %he mos% com5le; %05e a DP ma0 have an# i% !oes un#er %he name of enerali(ed quantifier %05e$ No9 if our aim is %o !ive all DPs a uniform %05e all %he o%her DPs 9e loo-e# a% so far inclu#in! Pro5er Names mus% be !eneraliAe# @uan%ifiers i$e$ %he0 mus% be of %05e e e e% t f t f$ For in#efini%e an# #efini%e DPs %he anal0sis 9oul# 9or- 6us% li-e in %he case of universal DPs 9i%h %he #ifference %ha% %he rela%ion im5ose# b0 %he in#efini%e 9oul# re@uire / @ 9hile %he #efini%e 9oul# im5ose an a##i%ional s5ecial 5resu55osi%ion concernin! %he car#inali%0 of /$ The func%ion #eno%e# b0 a student can be %hou!h% of as %he se% of 5ro5er%ies such %ha% some s%u#en% or o%her has %hose 5ro5er%ies$ The sen%ence A student left %hen #eno%es + 6us% in case leavin! is amon! %hese 5ro5er%ies i$e$ 6us% in case 0ou can fin# some s%u#en% in D 9ho lef%$ 7;%en#in! %he anal0sis %o Pro5er Names means %rea%in! %heir #eno%a%ion as a func%ion from 5ro5er%ies %o %ru%h-values as 9ell$ As before 9e can %hinof %his func%ion as %he se% of 5ro5er%ies for 9hich %he value i% !ives us is +$ In %he case of ?o!n %his se% 9ill be %he se% of 5ro5er%ies %ha% a 5ar%icular en%i%0 (%he one 9e call ?o!n/ has$ The sen%ence ?o!n left is %rue 6us% in case %he 5ro5er%0 of leavin! is amon! %he se% of 5ro5er%ies %ha% Nohn has$ Se%s of 5ro5er%ies bein! re5resen%able as lamb#a e;5ressions over 5ro5er%ies %he !eneraliAe#-@uan%ifier anal0sis can be re5resen%e# as follo9s3
2,
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions (B./ a$ a man P$;3:AN(;/ P(;/ b$ %he man P$ d;3:AN(;/ P(;/ c$ ever0 man P$;3:AN(;/ P(;/ #$ Nohn P$P(6/
No%e %ha% in each case 9e arrive a% %ru%h con#i%ions close or e@uivalen% %o %hose 9e ha# for our res%ric%e# PC formulas bu% via a rou%e %ha% com5u%es %he #eno%a%ions of e;5ressions s%e5 b0 s%e5 an# 9i%hou% resor%in! %o an in%erme#ia%e level of re5resen%a%ion$ A s0s%em li-e %he one s-e%che# above %ha% assi!ns s0n%ac%ic ca%e!ories a sin!le uniform %05e an# 9hich allo9s a sin!le mo#e of combina%ion namel0 func%ion ar!umen% a55lica%ion is alas no% rich enou!h %o accoun% for %he com5le;i%ies of na%ural lan!ua!e$ There are %9o 5ossible rou%es %o9ar# enrichin! %he s0s%em3 allo9 a richer inven%or0 of mo#es of combina%ion an# allo9 a sin!le e;5ression %o be associa%e# 9i%h a se% of %05es$ 'o%h rou%es have been %a-en in %he li%era%ure$ The mul%i5le %05e rou%e is mos% #irec%l0 relevan% %o DP seman%ics$ Uhile :on%a!ue?s unif0in! s9ee5 e;5lains %he similari%ies 9e fin# across various DP %05es i% is unable %o !ive us an e;5lana%ion for %he e@uall0 im5or%an% s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic #ifferences 9e encoun%er$ Thus as no%e# in Sam5 (+CB+/ an# Oeim (+CB1/ for ins%ance Pro5er Names as 9ell as #efini%e an# in#efini%e DPs ma0 serve as an%ece#en%s %o #efini%e 5ronouns in #iscourse 9hile DPs 9hose D is a universal or 5ro5or%ional @uan%ifier ma0 no%3
(B</ a$ Jo8n@a st13ent@t8e st13ent lef%$ e 9as %ire#$ b$ E2e09 st13ent@6ost st13ents lef%$ X e 9as %ire#$
Sen%ences such as (B</b are fine 9i%h a 5lural 5ronoun$ 'u% no%e %ha% in%ra-sen%en%iall0 every can bin# sin!ular 5ronouns an# %herefore %he fac% %ha% %his canno% ha55en in%er-sen%en%iall0 remains 5roblema%ic3 (i/ E2e09 5ol.t./.an %hou!h% %ha% 8e 9as safe0 No%e also %ha% un#er s5ecial con#i%ions such in%er-sen%en%ial bin#in! becomes 5ossible3 (ii/ 7ver0 sol#ier a55roache# %he 5la%form$ Oe shoo- han#s 9i%h %he Presi#en% an# !o% his me#al$
No%e also %ha% 9hile in#efini%e DPs are @ui%e na%ural as 5re#ica%ive nominals (e;em5lifie# belo9 for 7n!lish an# Romanian/ DPs 9i%h universal Ds are no%3
(BB/ a$ Nohn is a famous #oc%or$ Ion e un #oc%or ves%i%$ b$ XNohn an# :ar0 are ever0 famous #oc%or in our famil0$ XIon Mi :aria sun% fiecare #oc%or ves%i% #in familia noas%rL$
Finall0 i% has been sho9n %ha% s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ionin! 9i%hin a clause is sensi%ive in some lan!ua!es such as Oun!arian %o 9he%her %he D in a DP is a universal or 5ro5or%ional @uan%ifier or no%$ These con%ras%s lea# %o a #is%inc%ion be%9een 5urel0 @uan%ifica%ional DPs an# non@uan%ifica%ional DPs e;em5lifie# belo93 Fi!ure +3 Seman%ic DP classifica%ion non- @uan%ifica%ional DPs 5ary% !e% somebody% t!e$a$t!is student @uan%ifica%ional DPs every student% most students
A fur%her #is%inc%ion 9i%hin %he non-@uan%ifica%ional DP ca%e!or0 is nee#e# %o se5ara%e %hose
2.
%ha% ma0 func%ion as 5re#ica%ive DPs in or#inar0 sen%ences such as %he one e;em5lifie# in (BB/ from %hose %ha% ma0 no%$ Pro5er Names an# #efini%e 5ronouns belon! %o %he la%%er 9hile DPs 9i%h #efini%e an# in#efini%e ar%icles an# 5ossibl0 in#efini%e 5ronouns belon! %o %he former (Ue #isre!ar# here s5ecifica%ional sen%ences such as :!e student t!at solved t!e problem &as ?o!n$!im/$ Turnin! bac- %o seman%ic %05es i% a55ears %ha% nominal cons%i%uen%s live in %he follo9in! %hree %05es3 (i/ e 9here non-@uan%ifica%ional DPs are a% home bu% @uan%ifica%ional DPs are no%I (ii/ e e t f %he %05e assume# b0 DPs an# o%her nominals 9hen ac%in! as 5re#ica%ive nominals as in (+<a/ 9hich onl0 a subse% of non-@uan%ifica%ional nominals ma0 inhabi%I (iii/ e e e%t f t f %he %05e 9e fin# @uan%ifica%ional DPs in an# 9hich o%her DPs ma0 %a-e on as 9ell 9hen in con6unc%ion 9i%h @uan%ifica%ional DPs$ In Par%ee (+CB./ %he classic on %his sub6ec% %his mess0 si%ua%ion is ele!an%l0 cleane# u5$ The 5ro5osal in essence is %o in#ee# allo9 %he ca%e!or0 of DPs (or more !enerall0 nominals/ %o live in all %hree %05es men%ione# above an# %o #efine %05e shif%in! rules %ha% chan!e %he %05e of a nominal %o a more com5le; %05e (%05e lif%in!/ or %o a sim5ler %05e (%05e lo9erin!/$ The in%eres%e# rea#er is referre# %o Par%ee?s 5a5er an# %he lar!e li%era%ure i% s5a9ne# for #e%ails an# #iscussion$ In%eres%in!l0 Par%ee su!!es%s %ha% %he >unmar-e#? %05e for DPs is e an# e e e%t f t f %he %05es 9e nee# for nominals 9hen no% in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion$ The u5sho% as far as %he anal0sis of #e%erminers !oes is %ha% %he #efini%e ar%icle for ins%ance is !iven %9o rela%e# in%er5re%a%ions bo%h 5resu55osi%ional3 (a/ a func%ion (calle# iota/ %ha% %a-es a 5ro5er%0 / an# re%urns %he uni@ue en%i%0 in %he mo#el %ha% has %ha% 5ro5er%0I (b/ a func%ion (calle# TO7/ %ha% %a-es a 5ro5er%0 / an# re%urns a !eneraliAe# @uan%ifier meanin! (%he se% of 5ro5er%ies charac%eriAin! %he uni@ue in#ivi#ual in //$ The former meanin! is 9ha% 9e !e% in or#inar0 e;am5les of #efini%e DPs such as t!e student in sim5le e;am5les li-e :!e student left 9here %he #eno%a%ion of student is %he 5ro5er%0 /I %he la%%er is 9ha% 9e !e% 9hen a #efini%e DP is con6oine# 9i%h a @uan%ifica%ional one (e$!$ :!e teac!er and every student left/$ Finall0 for cases 9here a #efini%e DP func%ions as a 5re#ica%e nominal (as in 9am is the treasurer/ Par%ee 5ro5oses a func%ion %ha% %a-es %he !eneraliAe# @uan%ifier meanin! of a #efini%e #escri5%ion an# lo9ers i% bac- %o a 5re#ica%e meanin!$ &.2.$. D9na6./ a550oa/8es Par% of %he im5e%us %ha% le# %o #ifferen%ia%in! @uan%ifica%ional DPs from all %he o%hers came as men%ione# above in Sam5 (+CB+/ an# Oeim (+CB1/ 9or-s %ha% 9ere essen%ial %o %he #evelo5men% of #0namic a55roaches %o seman%ics$ The former is %he foun#in! s%one for %he frame9or- -no9n as D(iscourse/ R(e5resen%a%ion/ T(heor0/I %he la%%er is %he source of #0namic a55roaches %o seman%ics -no9n un#er %he name of C(on%e;%/ C(han!e/ S(eman%ics/$ 'o%h vie9s 5a0 5ar%icular a%%en%ion %o ho9 %he in%er5re%a%ion of a lin!uis%ic e;5ression affec%s an# is affec%e# b0 i%s con%e;%$ The #0namic na%ure of %he s0s%em resi#es in %rea%in! lin!uis%ic u%%erances as occurrin! a!ains% %he bac-!roun# of an in5u% DRS (Discourse Re5resen%a%ion S%ruc%ure/ or con%e;% an# causin! a series of chan!es %ha% lea# %o an ou%5u% DRS or con%e;%$ The s0s%em is com5osi%ional in as much as %he chan!es a 5ar%icular e;5ression brin!s abou% are #e%ermine# b0 %he imme#ia%e cons%i%uen%s of %ha% e;5ression an# %he 9a0 %he0 are com5ose#$ The en!ine %ha% #rove earl0 9or- in DRT is %he nee# %o 5rovi#e a uniform accoun% of #efini%e 5ronouns$ Gne issue a% %he roo% of Oeim (+CB1/ is %o accoun% for %he #ifferences be%9een in#efini%e an# #efini%e DPs on %he one han# an# %hose DPs 9hose #e%erminer is a universal or 5ro5or%ional @uan%ifier on %he o%her$ This is 9ha% is behin# %he #is%inc%ion in Fi!ure 2$ The o%her core issue in Oeim (+CB1/ is %he 5ro5er charac%eriAa%ion of %he #ifference be%9een or#inar0 in#efini%es (a DPs/ an# or#inar0 #efini%es (t!e DPs/ in 7n!lish (for a #iscussion of %his #is%inc%ion see cha5%er 4/$
2<
'o%h DRT an# CCS assume an in%erme#ia%e level of re5resen%a%ion %ha% me#ia%es be%9een lin!uis%ic e;5ressions an# seman%ic in%er5re%a%ion calle# D(iscourse/ R(e5resen%a%ion/ S(%ruc%ure/ in DRT $ For our 5ur5oses %he %9o a55roaches can be seen as e@uivalen%$ Ue 9ill use DRT %erminolo!0 belo9$ An in!re#ien% of DRSs %ha% is crucial for our 5ur5oses is %he no%ion of discourse referent (or variable/ an en%i%0 %ha% me#ia%es be%9een a nominal use# as an ar!umen% (of %05e e or e e e% t f t f in %05e-%heore%ical %erms/ an# i%s in%er5re%a%ion$ (The no%ion of discourse referent an# 9i%h i% %he no%ion of con%e;% chan!e 9as firs% in%ro#uce# in Sar%%unen (+C<./ a classic 5a5er on %he role of (in/#efini%e DPs$/ Crucial here is %he i#ea %ha% a% %he level of DRS non-@uan%ifica%ional nominals in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% (or free variable/ accom5anie# b0 a res%ric%ive e;5ression 9hile @uan%ifica%ional DPs besi#es #oin! %his also in%ro#uce a com5le; s%ruc%ure %ha% en#s u5 #e%erminin! %he @uan%ifica%ional force of %he DP$ The #iscourse referen%s in%ro#uce# b0 non@uan%ifica%ional DPs ac@uire e;is%en%ial force b0 #efaul% as i% 9ere via %he %ru%h con#i%ions associa%e# 9i%h %he re5resen%a%ions in 9hich %he0 a55ear$ To e;em5lif0 9i%h a sim5le case assume %he sen%ence in (BC/ is a##e# %o an em5%0 con%e;%$
(BC/ A s%u#en% came in$
The DRS resul%in! af%er %he 5rocessin! of (BC/ a!ains% an em5%0 in5u% con%e;% is of %he form in (C=/ 9here %he con%ribu%ion of %he DP is bol#-face#3
(C=/
< student(;/ came in(;/ Sim5le #iscourse re5resen%a%ions li-e %he one in (C=/ (%hose %ha% #o no% involve s%ruc%ures in%ro#uce# b0 @uan%ifica%ion for ins%ance/ are ma#e u5 of a se% of #iscourse referen%s (in %his case g;h/ an# a se% of con#i%ions 5lace# on %hem (in %his case g student(;/ come in(;/h/$ S5ecific >cons%ruc%ion rules? s5ecif0 %he 9a0 DRSs are cons%ruc%e# base# on 5ar%icular lin!uis%ic e;5ressions$ In%er5re%a%ion rules connec% DRSs %o %heir %ru%h con#i%ions rela%ive %o a mo#el$ '0 !eneral rules a DRS A is %rue in a mo#el : 6us% in case one fin#s a func%ion from %he se% of #iscourse referen%s in A %o %he en%i%ies in D such %ha% %his func%ion mee%s all %he con#i%ions im5ose# b0 A0 A func%ion f %ha% mee%s %he con#i%ions im5ose# b0 a DRS A rela%ive %o a mo#el : is an embeddin function for A in :0 A DRS A is %rue in : iff %here is an embe##in! func%ion for A in :$ The con%en%s of %he DRS are in essence cons%rain%s on %he embe##in! func%ion$ For %he DRS in (C=/ %his amoun%s %o re@uirin! %here %o be an en%i%0 d in D %ha% is a s%u#en% an# %ha% came in$ 7;is%en%ial force is %rea%e# here as a #efaul% conferre# on #iscourse referen%s b0 !eneral %ru%h con#i%ions$ A @uan%ifica%ional #e%erminer such as fiecare$every is res5onsible for %he in%ro#uc%ion of a com5le; s%ruc%ure ma#e of %9o DRSs lin-e# b0 an o5era%or$ The firs% DRS is %he Res%ric%or %he secon# %he Nuclear Sco5e an# %he connec%in! o5era%or is #e%ermine# b0 %he na%ure of %he #e%erminer$ The DRS resul%in! af%er in%er5re%in! (C+/ rela%ive %o an em5%0 in5u% DRS is !iven in (C1/3
2B
In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions (C+/ 7ver0 s%u#en% came in$
(C1/
; ; student(;/ A. A. A The DRS A. is %he Res%ric%orI %he DRS A. is %he NS$ The com5le; con#i%ions associa%e# 9i%h such com5le; DRSs sa0 %ha% a func%ion f is an embe##in! func%ion for A in : 6us% in case ever0 f. %ha% e;%en#s f an# is an embe##in! func%ion for A. can be e;%en#e# %o a func%ion f. %ha% is an embe##in! func%ion for A. (embe##in! func%ions are 5ar%ial func%ions from #iscourse referen%s %o DI a func%ion f. e;%en#s a func%ion f iff f. an# f a!ree on values for %he #iscourse referen%s for 9hich f is #efine#$/$ Crucial for #0namic issues concernin! in%eran# in%ra-sen%en%ial 5ronominal reference %he Res%ric%or is 5rocesse# 5rior %o %he NS an# %herefore informa%ion 5rovi#e# in %he Res%ric%or is accessible %o %he NS bu% no% %he o%her 9a0 aroun#$ Fur%hermore no%e %ha% %he @uan%ifica%ional DP has no% con%ribu%e# a #iscourse referen% in %he main DRS A (unli-e 9ha% ha55ens in %he case of non-@uan%ifica%ional nominals/$ This 5ro5er%0 is res5onsible for %he fac% %ha% such DPs canno% normall0 ac% as an%ece#en%s for #iscourse 5ronouns$ Non-@uan%ifica%ional nominals sim5l0 in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% an# a con#i%ion on %ha% referen% bu% #o no% crea%e e;%ra s%ruc%ure$ A s5ecial con#i%ion ma0 re@uire %he in%ro#uce# #iscourse referen% %o be i#en%ical %o some #iscourse referen% 5resen% in %he in5u% DRS in 9hich case no ac%ual increase in #iscourse referen%s is involve#$ The effec% of in%ro#ucin! a #iscourse referen% (9he%her novel or no%/ is %he e@uivalen% of bein! an e-%05e nominal$ 8uan%ifica%ional DPs (%hose of %05e e e e%t f t f / have %he com5le; effec% 6us% s-e%che#$ The effec% of nominals ac%in! as 5re#ica%ive nominals is %o sim5l0 in%ro#uce a 5re#ica%ive con#i%ion as e;em5lifie# in (C2/ an# i%s DRS in (C4/3
(C2/ (C4/ Nohn is a #oc%or$
came in(;/
; ; [ ?o!n doctor(;/ These nominals %hen (of %05e e e t f/ #o no% in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% in#e5en#en%l0 of %heir s0n%a;I %heir con%ribu%ion is %he same as %ha% of a 5re#ica%e such as leave0 The crucial @ues%ion %ha% arises if 9e are in%eres%e# in %he seman%ics of #e%erminers 9i%hin %his frame9or- is ho9 %o fur%her #is%in!uish be%9een %05es of non-@uan%ifica%ional nominals of various sor%s$ The #is%inc%ions can be ma#e a% %he level of %he 5ro5er%ies of %he #iscourse referen% in%ro#uce# (such as 9he%her i% refers %o an or#inar0 en%i%0 or a -in#-level en%i%0/ as 9ell as a% %he level of %he con#i%ions %he nominal brin!s alon!$ Fur%hermore #is%inc%ions ma0 involve %he 5ro5er%ies of %he #iscourse s%ruc%ure %ha% serves as in5u% %o %he relevan% e;5ression or %he 5ro5er%ies of %he ou%5u% s%ruc%ure$ These #is%inc%ions 9ill be #evelo5e# in %he cha5%er #e#ica%e# %o %he seman%ics of #e%erminers (cha5%er 4/$
2C
'are Nouns
2. Ba0e No1ns
CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN
1. Int0o31/t.on
+$+ The Dis%ribu%ion of 'are Nouns +$1 The s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure of 'are Nouns +$2 The Seman%ics of 'are Nouns3 Lac- of Ar%icle an# Domain of Reference
2. Ba0e Pl10als an3 Ba0e Mass No1ns .n A0416ent Pos.t.ons 1$+ :or5holo!ical Case is incom5a%ible 9i%h 'are Nouns
1$1 The 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion
3. Se6ant./ Const0a.nts on Ba0e No1ns .n A0416ent Pos.t.ons

2$+ 'are Nouns an# T05es of Pre#ica%es 2$1 VP-level 7;is%en%ial Closure 2$2 7;is%en%ial vs$ Presu55osi%ional Pre#ica%es 2$4 Sco5e 2$, Ana5horic 5eculiari%ies 2$. As5ec%ual 5eculiari%ies
$. Co1nt Ba0e S.n41la0s .n A0416ent Pos.t.ons

4$+ Classes of verbs 4$1 Fur%her le;ical cons%rain%s 4$2 'are Sin!ulars in sub6ec% 5osi%ions 4$4 'are Sin!ulars af%er 5re5osi%ions 4$, The Seman%ic Anal0sis of 'are Sin!ulars
%. Ba0e No1ns .n a3no6.nal 5os.t.ons &. Ba0e Abst0a/t No1ns .n A0416ent Pos.t.ons (. Ba0e No1ns .n P0e3./ate Pos.t.ons. A /o65a0.son D.t8 S.n41la0 In3ef.n.tes
<$+$ Classes of nouns <$1 The in%ernal ma-e-u5 of 'are Sin!ulars an# Sin!ular In#efini%es <$2 T9o %05es of co5ular sen%ences <$4 'are nouns in im5ersonal cons%ruc%ions
4=
'are Nouns
1. Int0o31/t.on
Romanian is a lan!ua!e %ha% has #efini%e an# in#efini%e ar%icles bu% never%heless allo9s NPs 9i%hou% ar%icles or o%her #e%erminers (hencefor%h >bare NPs? abbrevia%e# 'Ns/ %o occur in ar!umen% 5osi%ions mos% 5rominen%l0 ob6ec% 5osi%ions$ Ui%h %he !rea% ma6ori%0 of verbs %he lac- of #e%erminer is allo9e# for coun% 5lurals an# mass nouns$ 'are coun% sin!ulars on %he o%her han# can be use# 9i%hou% %he sin!ular in#efini%e ar%icle onl0 in cer%ain res%ric%e# con%e;%s$ Af%er e;aminin! %he cons%rain%s on %he #is%ribu%ion an# in%er5re%a%ion of 'Ns in ar!umen% 5osi%ions 9e 9ill %urn %o 'Ns in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions$ Ue 9ill no% be concerne# here 9i%h 5ro5er names (see Cha5%er +1/ nor 9i%h %he 5henomenon of ar%icle-#ro5 af%er 5re5osi%ions (see Cha5%er B/$ 1.1. T8e D.st0.b1t.on of BNs 'are 5lurals ('Ps/ an# bare mass nouns (':Ns/ can freel0 a55ear as #irec% ob6ec%s of mos% verbs as 9ell as in %he 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion$ No%e %ha% %hese nominal e;5ressions are bare insofar as %he0 lac- #e%erminers bu% %he0 #o allo9 mo#if0in! a#6ec%ives PPs or rela%ives3
(+/ a$ Am #esena% co5aci$ have$+ #ra9n %rees >I/Ue have #ra9n %rees$? b$ Ion mLnWncL numai brWnAL$ Ion ea%s onl0 cheese >Ion ea%s onl0 cheese$? a$ Aici se s5alL rufe #elica%e$ Oere R7FL 9ash$2 clo%hes #elica%e >Delica%e clo%hes !e% 9ashe# here$? b$ Se vor 5une En funcRiune mi6loace #e asi!urare a liniM%ii 5ublice$ R7FL 9ill$2PL 5u% in func%ion means of ensurin! G7N %ran@uili%0-%he$G7N 5ublic >There 9ill be im5lemen%e# means %o 5reserve 5ublic %ran@uili%0 ? c$ Li5seM%e/a mai rLmas cafea$ misses has s%ill lef% coffee >There is coffee missin!/There is coffee lef%? #$ Ieri s-a bLu% vin roMu$ 0es%er#a0 R7FL-has #run- 9ine re# >Re# 9ine 9as #run- 0es%er#a0$? e$ Pe s%ra#L cur!ea noroi$ on s%ree% flo9$I:PF$2SG mu# >There 9as mu# flo9in! on %he s%ree%$? f$ Dins5re mun%e venea !rin#inL$ from moun%ain come$ I:PF$2SG hail >There 9as hail comin! from %he moun%ain$? !$ Pe masL era Em5rLM%ia%L fLinL$ on %able 9as$2SG s5rea# flour$ >There 9as flour s5rea# on %he %able$? h$ `n fiecare Ai mL cau%L 5rie%eni$ in ever0 #a0 me$ACC loo--for$2 frien#s >There are frien#s loo-in! for me ever0 #a0$?
(1/
The #is%ribu%ion of 'Ns is never%heless more res%ric%e# %han %ha% of full DPs (nominals 9i%h an over% #e%erminer/$ Thus 'Ns canno% a55ear in %he 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion (see sec%ion 1$1 for a refinemen% of %his !eneraliAa%ions/ nor as %he ob6ec% of e;5eriencer-sub6ec% 5s0ch-verbs
4+
'are Nouns
such as love !ate detest respect e%c$

(2/ a$ X Prie%eni mL cau%L En fiecare Ai$ frien#s me$ ACC loo--for in ever0 #a0 b$ - Co5ii au a6uns$ chil#ren have arrive# X Ion res5ec%L 5rofesori$ Ion res5ec%s 5rofessors
(4/
The #is%ribu%ion of coun% bare sin!ulars ('Ss hencefor%h/ is much more res%ric%e# %han %ha% of 'Ps an# ':Ns$ Thus 'Ss are !enerall0 rule# ou% in %he con%e;%s illus%ra%e# above3
(,/ a$ -Am #esena% co5ac0 have$+ #ra9n %ree b$ X Li5seM%e car%e$ misses boo-
The e;am5le in (,/ becomes !ramma%ical 9i%h %he a##i%ion of a sin!ular in#efini%e #e%erminer$
(./ a$ Am #esena% un co5ac$ have$+ #ra9n a %ree >I/Ue have #ra9n a %ree$? b$ Li5seM%e o car%e$ misses a boo>There is a boo- missin!?
Never%heless bare sin!ulars can a55ear @ui%e 5ro#uc%ivel0 in %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion of a re#uce# number of verbs e$!$ !ave an# ac@uisi%ion verbs in%ensional verbs such as loo# for some verbs such as &ear or use% li!h% verbs an# also in i#ioma%ic e;5ressions3
(</ a$ Ion are casL$ (maMinL/ co5il mic/car%e #e cre#i%/5aMa5or%/ Ion has house car chil# car# of cre#i% 5ass5or% >Ion has a house/car/chil#/cre#i% car#/5ass5or%? b$ Casa as%a are lif%$ house-%he %his has eleva%or >This house has an eleva%or$? c$ Ne-au 5us En sfWrMi% lif%$ us$DAT-have$2PL 5u% finall0 eleva%or >A% las% %he0 5u% in an eleva%or$? #$ Ion Mi-a cum5Lra% casL$ Ion R7FL$DAT-has bou!h% house >Ion bou!h% a house (for himself/?
The #a%a 6us% revie9e# 5oin%s %o %he necessi%0 of a %hree-9a0 #is%inc%ion3 (i/ DPs 9i%h over% #e%erminersI (ii/ bare 5lurals an# bare mass nouns (also abs%rac% nouns see * 1$4/ (iii/ coun% bare sin!ulars$ The anal0sis of 'Ns shoul# also %a-e in%o accoun% 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions 9here 'Ss al%erna%e in a remar-able 9a0 9i%h sin!ular in#efini%es3
(B/ Ion e (un/ 5rofesor$ Ion is a 5rofessor >Ion is (a/ 5rofessor?
41
'are Nouns
1.2. T8e s9nta/t./ st01/t10e of BNs The %hree-9a0 #is%inc%ion in %he #is%ribu%ion of nominal cons%i%uen%s observe# above can be correla%e# 9i%h a %hree-9a0 #is%inc%ion in s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure3
(C/ a$ NP copil chil# b$ NumP NumT
PL
NP copii chil#$PL
c$ De% un a
DP NumP NumT NP copil chil#$SG
SG
The %9o %05es of bare nominals are similar in %ha% %he0 bo%h lac- %he func%ional ca%e!or0 De% bu% none%heless belon! %o #ifferen% s0n%ac%ic ca%e!ories3 bare 5lurals are NumPs 5ro6ec%ions of %he func%ional ca%e!or0 of Number 9hereas bare (coun%/ sin!ulars are 5urel0 le;ical 5ro6ec%ions of %he noun NPsI bo%h %05es of 'Ns #iffer from full-fle#!e# DPs 9hich are hea#e# b0 a De%(erminer/$ Problems arise ho9ever as soon as 9e %a-e in%o accoun% %he #is%ribu%ion of 'Ns in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions (see sec%ion 2 belo9/$ I% 9ill %urn ou% %ha% 9e canno% %rea% 'Ns in ar!umen% 5osi%ions on a 5ar 9i%h 'Ns in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions an# one 9a0 of #is%in!uishin! be%9een %he %9o is %o assume %ha% 'Ns in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions are bare NPs 9hereas 'Ns in ar!umen% 5osi%ions are full DPs hea#e# b0 a null De%$ This h05o%hesis is 9elcome insofar as i% is in line 9i%h a 9i#el0 assume# homomor5hism be%9een #is%ribu%ion s0n%a; an# seman%ics3 ar!umen% 5osi%ions are occu5ie# b0 full DPs 9hich are en%i%0-#eno%in! cons%i%uen%sI 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions are occu5ie# b0 bare NPs 9hich #eno%e 5ro5er%ies$
The h05o%hesis %ha% 'Ns in ar!umen% 5osi%ions are full DPs ra%her %han mere NPs is su55or%e# b0 a lan!ua!e such as French 9hich allo9s 'Ns in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions bu% no% in ar!umen% 5osi%ions 9here de-5hrases are use# ins%ea#3 (i/ (ii/ a$ Nean es% 5rofesseur$ b$ Nean e% :arie son% 5rofesseurs$ a$ Nean a une voi%ure/Xvoi%ure$ b$ Nean lisai% #es romans/Xromans$
42
'are Nouns
The French #a%a can be ca5%ure# b0 assumin! %ha% (i/ ar!umen% 5osi%ions mus% hos% full DPs (universal cons%rain%/ an# (ii/ French #oes no% have null De%?s bu% mus% ins%ea# use des$ No eas0 accoun% can be 5ro5ose# if 9e assume %he al%erna%ive vie9 accor#in! %o 9hich bare NPs are allo9e# in ar!umen% 5osi%ions3 since French allo9s bare NPs in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions 9e canno% un#ers%an# 9h0 %he0 shoul# no% be allo9e# in ar!umen% 5osi%ions$
1.3. T8e Se6ant./s of BNs? La/> of A0t./le an3 Do6a.n of Refe0en/e Coun% sin!ular nouns #iffer from 5lurals an# mass nouns in %erms of %heir #omain of reference3 coun% sin!ular nouns refer %o a%omic en%i%ies 9hereas 5lurals as 9ell as mass nouns refer %o sums (i$e$ en%i%ies %ha% consis% of o%her en%i%ies/$ Sum-reference is correla%e# 9i%h %he so-calle# >cumula%ive? 5ro5er%03 if a cer%ain amoun% of ma%%er A is coffee an# a cer%ain amoun% of ma%%er ' is coffee %hen A an# ' is coffeeI in %he same 9a0 if a !rou5 of animals A are ca%s an# a !rou5 of animals ' are ca%s %hen A an# ' are ca%s$ In shor% a sum en%er%ains a 5ar%-9hole rela%ion 9i%h o%her sums 9hereas an a%omic en%i%0 is #is6oin% from all %he o%her a%omic en%i%ies$ The use of an in#efini%e ar%icle vs$ %he use of a bare noun %hus a55ears %o be correla%e# %o a #ifference in #eno%a%ion3 coun% sin!ular nouns 9hich refer %o a%omic en%i%ies (necessaril0 #is6oin% from each o%her/ are !enerall0 use# 9i%h an in#efini%e ar%icle 9hereas 5lurals as 9ell as mass nouns 9hich refer %o sums (overla55in! en%i%ies/ ma0 be use# >bare?$ Le% us no9 recall %ha% coun% sin!ulars can be use# bare in cer%ain res%ric%e# con%e;%s$ Gne mi!h% be %em5%e# %o assume %ha% in such con%e;%s bare sin!ulars #eno%e sums on a 5ar 9i%h bare 5lurals an# bare mass nouns$ This h05o%hesis can be a#o5%e# onl0 if 9e allo9 %he no%ion of >sum? %o be #efine# in %he a%omic #omain$ A less cos%l0 al%erna%ive is %o assume %ha% bare coun% sin!ulars are no% referen%ial e;5ressions in o%her 9or#s %he0 #o no% in%ro#uce a variable in%o %he seman%ic re5resen%a%ion bu% ins%ea# %he0 are 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ressions$
2. Ba0e Pl10als an3 Ba0e Mass No1ns .n A0416ent Pos.t.ons

As announce# in sec%ion +$+ above %he #is%ribu%ion of bare nouns is more res%ric%e# %han %ha% of DPs 9i%h over% #e%erminers$ In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill illus%ra%e %his !eneraliAa%ion in more #e%ail for 5lurals an# mass nouns$ The #is%ribu%ion of abs%rac% nouns an# coun% sin!ulars 9ill be e;amine# se5ara%el0 since %he0 raise s5ecific 5roblems$ Coun% bare sin!ulars have a #is%ribu%ion %ha% is much more cons%raine# %han %ha% of %he o%her 'Ns$ Abs%rac% nouns can a55ear in cer%ain im5ersonal cons%ruc%ions 9hich are inaccessible %o o%her (bare or non bare/ nominals$ Ui%h mos% 5re#ica%es bare 5lurals an# bare mass nouns can a55ear in %he #irec% ob6ec% 5osi%ion as 9ell as in %he 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion (see e;am5les (+/-(1/ in %he In%ro#uc%ion above/$ Some 5re#ica%es bloc- %his 5ossibili%0 an issue %ha% 9ill be e;amine# in %he sec%ion #evo%e# %o %he seman%ics of 'Ns$ In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill concen%ra%e on %he mor5ho-s0n%ac%ic cons%rain%s on %he #is%ribu%ion of 'Ns$ 2.1. Mo058olo4./al Case .s .n/o65at.ble D.t8 BNs In Romanian mor5holo!ical Case mar-in! (9hich e;is%s for %he Da%ive-Geni%ive an# %he Voca%ive/ #e5en#s on %he 5resence of an over% #e%erminer (see Cha5%er + *+$4/$ Therefore bare 5lurals canno% be mar-e# 9i%h mor5holo!ical Da%ive-Geni%ive Case$ Pre5osi%ional mar-ers are use# ins%ea# namel0 de for Geni%ives an# la for Da%ives (see Cha5%er + *+$4 an# Cha5%er . *2/$ The follo9in! e;am5les illus%ra%e %he al%erna%ion be%9een inflec%ional an# 5re5osi%ional de-mar-in! for Geni%ives in %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion of #everbal nouns3 44
'are Nouns
(+=/
a$ acor#area 5remiilor / unor 5remii / #e 5remii a9ar#$INF-%he 5riAes-%he$G7N some$G7N 5riAes of 5riAes >%he a9ar#in! of 5riAes/of some 5riAes/of 5riAes? b$ cons%rucRia blocurilor / unor blocuri/ #e blocuri buil#in!-%he bloc-s-%he$G7N some$G7N bloc-s of bloc-s >%he buil#in! of bloc-s/of some bloc-s/of bloc-s? c$ cunoaM%erea limbilor s%rLine / unor limbi s%rLine /#e limbi s%rLine -no9$INF-%he lan!ua!es-%he$G7N forei!n some$G7N lan!ua!es forei!n of lan!ua!es forei!n >%he -no9le#!e of forei!n lan!ua!es/of some forei!n lan!ua!es/of forei!n lan!ua!es? #$ vWnAarea maMinilor /unor maMini / #e maMini sell$INF-%he cars-%he$G7N some$G7N cars of cars >%he sale of cars/of some cars/of cars?
A#nominal 'Ns 5rece#e# b0 de ma0 also func%ion as a#6unc%s (noun mo#ifiers/$ Ue 9ill #iscuss %his use in %he sec%ion #e#ica%e# %o 'Ss (see 1$2$, belo9/ because 'Ss %oo are allo9e# in %his 5osi%ion$ The follo9in! e;am5les illus%ra%e %he al%erna%ion be%9een inflec%ional mar-in! an# lamar-in! 9i%h #a%ives$ Dnli-e de %he mar-er la is no% res%ric%e# %o 'Ns bu% also a55ears 9i%h uninflec%e# #e%erminers (nite% car#inals an# o%her @uan%i%0 e;5ressions see cha5%er 2 *,$2/3
(++/ a$ Am #a% bomboane co5iilor / unor co5ii / la co5ii / la Aece have$+ !iven can#ies chil#ren-%he$DAT some$DAT chil#ren %o chil#ren %o %en co5ii / la niM%e co5ii chil#ren %o some chil#ren >I !ave can#ies %o %he chil#ren/%o some chil#ren/%o chil#ren/%o %en chil#ren/%o some chil#ren? b$ Din %onul vocii se ve#ea cL se a#reseaAL la subor#onaRi nu from %one-%he voice-%he$G7N R7FL sa9$I:PF$2SG %ha% R7FL a##resses %o subor#ina%es no% la 5rie%eni$ %o frien#s >Gne coul# see from %he %one of his voice %ha% he 9as %al-in! %o subor#ina%es no% %o frien#s? c$ Dn acci#en% se 5oa%e En%Wm5la Mi la 5ersoane a%en%e$ an acci#en% R7FL can ha55en also %o 5ersons careful >An acci#en% can occur %o careful 5eo5le as 9ell? #$ DL#ea lecRii #e ma%ema%icL la a#ulRi$ !ave$I:PF$2SG lessons of ma%hema%ics %o a#ul%s >(S/he !ave ma%h lessons %o a#ul%s? e$ `n %im5ul vacanRei a scris la s%u#enRi avansaRi$ in %ime-%he holi#a0-%he$G7N has 9ri%%en %o s%u#en%s a#vance# >Durin! %he holi#a0 (s/he 9ro%e %o a#vance# s%u#en%s? f$ DL#ea lecRii #e ma%ema%icL la a#ulRi analfabeRi$ !ave$I:PF$2SG lessons of ma%hema%ics %o a#ul%s illi%era%e >(S/he !ave ma%h lessons %o illi%era%e a#ul%s?
The 5re5osi%ionall0 mar-e# 'Ns illus%ra%e# in %hese e;am5les have %he non-s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion %ha% charac%eriAes 'Ns in ob6ec% or 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ions (9here %he0 have no Case inflec%ion/$ Uhen reference %o a s5ecific en%i%0 is in%en#e# an in#efini%e #e%erminer is use# 9hich can be mar-e# ei%her 9i%h mor5holo!ical Case or 9i%h a 5re5osi%ion$ 2.2. T8e 50e2e0bal s1b7e/t 5os.t.on 'are 5lurals an# bare mass nouns are sub6ec% %o %he 3a#ed 3oun ,onstraint )9hich also hol#s
4,
'are Nouns
in S5anish an# I%alian/$ I% shoul# be s%resse# %ha% >na-e#? means no% onl0 #evoi# of #e%erminer bu% also #evoi# of an0 -in# of mo#ifier3
(+1/ An unmo#ifie# common noun in %he 5reverbal 5osi%ion canno% be %he surface sub6ec% of a sen%ence un#er con#i%ions of normal s%ress an# in%ona%ion$
This cons%rain% is illus%ra%e# b0 %he e;am5les in (+2/a-c$ The e;am5les in (+4/ sho9 %ha% na-e# nouns are allo9e# in %he 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion3
(+2/ a$ Xvaci 5LM%eau 5e 5a6iM%e$ co9s !raAe#$I:PF on mea#o9 b$ XMoareci au ieMi% #in #ula5 mice have !o%-ou% from close% c$ XsmWn%WnL cLAuse 5e 6os cream fall$PLPF$2SG on #o9n #$ X:unci%ori cLlL%oresc En %renul Ls%a 9or-ers %ravel in %rain-%he %his a$ Pe 5a6iM%e 5LM%eau vaci on mea#o9 !raAe#$I:PF$2PL co9s >There 9ere co9s !raAin! on %he mea#o9? b$ Au ieMi% Moareci #in #ula5$ have$2PL !o%-ou% mice from close% >There have been mice comin! ou% from %he close%? c$ CLAuse smWn%WnL 5e 6os fall$PLPF$2SG cream on #o9n >Cream ha# fallen on %he !roun#? #$ `n %renul Ls%a cLlL%oresc munci%ori in %rain-%he %his %ravel$2PL 9or-ers >Uor-ers %ravel 9i%h %his %rain?
(+4/
No%e no9 %ha% 5reverbal bare sub6ec%s are acce5%able if %he0 are mo#ifie# b0 an a#6ec%ive or a PP (see (+,// or con6oine# (see (+.// even 9i%h a neu%ral in%ona%ion3
(+,/ a$ Valuri uriaMe loveau s%Wncile $ 9aves hu!e hi%$I:PF roc-s-%he >There 9ere hu!e 9aves hi%%in! %he roc-s? b$ S%ea!uri mul%icolore flu%urau En vWn%$ fla!s mul%icolore# 9ave#$I:PF in 9in# >There 9ere mul%icolore# fla!s 9avin! in %he 9in#? c$ Lumini elec%rice in%ermi%en%e anunRau a%eriALrile$ li!h%s elec%ric in%ermi%%en% announce#$ I:PF lan#in!s-%he >In%ermi%%en% elec%ric li!h%s announce# %he lan#in!s? #$ A5L mur#arL se 5relin!ea #e sub #ula5$ 9a%er #ir%0 R7FL ooA-ou%$I:PF from un#er close% >There 9as #ir%0 9a%er ooAin! ou% from un#ernea%h %he close%? (+./ a$ Nu era o #emons%raRie obiMnui%L$ :ineri Mi RLrani femei Moferi Mi vWnAL%ori no% 9as a #emons%ra%ion usual miners an# farmers 9omen #rivers an# sellers %oRi ieMiserL En s%ra#L$ all !e%-ou%$PLPF$2PL in s%ree% >I% 9as no% a usual #emons%ra%ion$ :iners an# farmers 9omen #rivers an# sellers all ha# come ou% on %he s%ree%? b$ CLrRi caie%e #osare Mi fo%oco5ii um5leau %o% biroul boo-s no%eboo-s files an# 5ho%oco5ies fill-ou%$ I:PF 9hole #es--%he >'oo-s no%eboo-s files an# 5ho%oco5ies fille# ou% %he en%ire #es-?
4.
'are Nouns
The acce5%abili%0 of mo#ifie# an# con6oine# 'Ns mi!h% be #ue %o 5roso#ic reasons3 mo#ifie# or con6oine# nouns coun% as >heav0? an# as such %he0 ma0 be allo9e# %o occu50 s5ecial 5osi%ions$ Le% us also consi#er %he e;am5les in (+</ an# (+B/ 9hich in#ica%e %ha% na-e# sub6ec%s can occur in %he 5reverbal 5osi%ion 5rovi#e# %ha% %he0 are focuse# or %o5icaliAe#3
(+</ iGAR7CI au ieMi% #in #ula5 (Mi nu 5Lian6eni/ $ :ice have !o%-ou% from close% an# no% s5i#ers >I% is mice %ha% 9ere comin! ou% of %he close% (no% s5i#ers/? (+B/ a$ Camere S7 GaS7SC rooms R7FL fin#$2PL >Gne can fin# rooms? b$ La5%e S7 GaS7iT7 mil- R7FL fin#s >Gne can fin# mil-?
No%e ho9ever %ha% %he 5reverbal 5osi%ions in e;am5les of %his %05e are no% sub6ec% 5osi%ions (in %echnical %erms %he 5osi%ion of 5reverbal sub6ec%s is S5ec IP/ bu% ra%her Focus or To5ic 5osi%ions 9hich can hos% DPs o%her %han sub6ec%s e$!$ #irec% or in#irec% ob6ec%s PPs e%c$ In o%her 9or#s %hese e;am5les are irrelevan% for %he Na-e# Sub6ec% Cons%rain%$ In or#er %o be%%er un#ers%an# %his cons%rain% 9e mus% un#ers%an# 9h0 i% #oes no% hol# in o%her lan!ua!es 7n!lish in 5ar%icular$ An im5or%an% #ifference be%9een %he %9o lan!ua!es is %ha% sub6ec%s can occur bo%h 5os%verball0 an# 5reverball0 in Romanian 9hereas in 7n!lish %he0 mus% occur 5reverball0 (9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of t!ere-sen%ences an# loca%ive inversion/$ In more %echnical %erms 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% Nomina%ive Case is assi!ne# in %he 5reverbal 5osi%ion (more 5recisel0 in S5ec IP/ in 7n!lish bu% in %he 5os%verbal 5osi%ion (insi#e %he VP e$!$ in S5ec VP/ in Romanian$ Since %he0 are assi!ne# Nomina%ive Case in a VP-in%ernal 5osi%ion Romanian bare sub6ec%s nee# no% raise %o %he 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion$ 'u% 9e s%ill #o no% -no9 9h0 bare sub6ec%s cannot raise %o %he 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion in clear con%ras% 9i%h DPs hea#e# b0 over% De%?s 9hich can #o so$ Ue 9oul# li-e %o su!!es% %ha% %he follo9in! cons%rain% bearin! on informa%ion s%ruc%ure mi!h% be a% 9or-3
(+C/ Uea- in#efini%e 'Ns canno% func%ion as Themes$
The im5ossibili%0 of bein! Themes charac%eriAes 9ea- in#efini%e 'Ns as o55ose# %o !eneric 'Ns (see 7n!lish 'Ps in 5ar%icular/$ Since Romanian #oes no% have !eneric 'Ns 9e mean >9ea- in#efini%e? 'Ns 9henever 9e %alabou% 'Ns$ The no%ion of Theme use# in (+C/ is #is%inc% from %he no%ion of To5ic3 (i/ %he Theme is in%ernal %o %he minimal sen%en%ial #omain (%he IP/ 9hereas %he To5ic is hi!her %han %he IPI (ii/ To5ics nee# no% corres5on# %o one of %he ar!umen%s of %he sen%ence bu% ma0 ins%ea# be merel0 rela%e# %o one ar!umen% via an ana5horic rela%ion e$!$ John% > met his mot!er yesterdayI (iii/ To5ics ma0 refer %o 5ro5er%ies (see %he e;am5les in (+B// 9hereas Themes mus% refer %o en%i%ies$ The reason for %he im5ossibili%0 s%a%e# in (+C/ follo9s from %he con%ra#ic%ion be%9een %he follo9in! %9o 5ro5osi%ions each of 9hich is @ui%e uncon%roversial3
(1=/ (1+/ Themes are e;is%en%iall0 5resu55ose#$ Uea- in#efini%e 'Ns #o no% 5resu55ose %he e;is%ence of %heir referen%$
(1=/ is inheren% %o %he ver0 no%ion of Theme if 9e a#mi% %ha% %he Theme-Rheme
4<
'are Nouns
confi!ura%ion 5resu55oses %he e;is%ence of %he in#ivi#ual #eno%e# b0 %he Theme %o 9hom %he 5re#ica%e #esi!na%e# b0 %he Rheme is a%%ribu%e#$ (1+/ is also uncon%roversial an# is curren%l0 im5lemen%e# b0 assumin! %ha% 'Ns mus% be boun# b0 e;is%en%ial closure (see sec%ion 2$1 belo9/$ Goin! bac- %o 5reverbal sub6ec%s 'Ns are rule# ou% from %ha% 5osi%ion because in Romanian an unmar-e# 5reverbal sub6ec% is a Theme$ This is no% %he case in lan!ua!es such as 7n!lish or French 9here %he 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion mus% be reache# in or#er for Nomina%ive Case %o be assi!ne#$
Ano%her accoun% for %he cons%rain% on 5reverbal sub6ec% bare nouns 9hich has been 5ro5ose# is %ha% bare nouns have an em5%0 D 9hich canno% be license# in %he 5reverbal 5osi%ion because i% re@uires 5ro5er !overnmen%$ Pos%verbal sub6ec%s on a 5ar 9i%h ob6ec%s 9oul# have %heir null D license# in %he 5os%verbal 5osi%ion un#er c-comman# b0 %he verb$ This accoun% is 5roblema%ic for %he follo9in! reasons3 (i/ if %he cons%rain% 9ere s0n%ac%ic 9e 9oul# no% e;5ec% i% %o be 9ea-ene# or %o #isa55ear if %he sub6ec% is heav0I (ii/ %he connec%ion 9i%h %he free#om of sub6ec% 5lacemen% in Romance lan!ua!es an# %he rela%ion be%9een sub6ec% 5lacemen% an# informa%ion s%ruc%ure 9hich un#erlies (,B/-(,C/ is los% in %his accoun%$ Ue shoul# ho9ever no%e %ha% %he accoun% base# on %he no%ion of Theme is no% sufficien% ei%her %o e;5lain %he #isa55earance of %he cons%rain% 9i%h heav0 sub6ec%s$
In sum %he 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion can be reache# onl0 as a resul% of a 5ar%icular re@uiremen% e$!$ Case mar-in! (in lan!ua!es such as 7n!lish or French 9here Nomina%ive Case is canonicall0 assi!ne# in %he 5reverbal 5osi%ion/ Theme-mar-in! (in Romance lan!ua!es 9here Nomina%ive case can be assi!ne# 5os%verball0/ or 5roso#ic re@uiremen%s rela%e# %o %he >9ei!h%? of %he sub6ec% (9he%her i% is a sim5le elemen% or a mo#ifie# or con6oine# e;5ression/$ 'esi#es %he cons%rain% in (+1/ %here are some o%her cons%rain%s on sub6ec% bare nouns 9hich are no% 0e% full0 un#ers%oo# nor %horou!hl0 #escribe#$ Thus sub6ec% bare nouns seem %o be e;clu#e# 9i%h %ransi%ive verbs even in %he 5os%verbal 5osi%ions3
(11/ a$ X:i-au a#us cole!i niM%e ca#ouri me$DAT-have$2PL brou!h% collea!ues some 5resen%s b$ KKFlorile mi le-au a#us cole!i flo9ers-%he me$DAT CL$ACC-have$2PL brou!h% collea!ues c$ KK:-au invi%a% 5rie%eni la cinL me$ACC-have$2PL invi%e# frien#s %o #inner #$ X:-au invi%a% s%u#enRi la cinL me$ACC-have$2PL invi%e# s%u#en%s %o #inner
A mo#ifie# bare noun some%imes allevia%es %his cons%rain% (see (12//$ The same effec% a55ears in %he 5reverbal 5osi%ion as 9e have seen in (+,/a an# c above re5ea%e# belo93
(12/ ClL#irile as%ea le-au cons%rui% oameni care aveau simRul frumosului buil#in!s-%he %hese CL$ACC-have buil% 5eo5le 9ho ha# sense-%he beau%iful-%he$ G7N >The buil#in!s 9ere ma#e b0 5eo5le 9ho ha# %he sense of beau%0? (+,/ a$ Valuri uriaMe loveau s%Wncile $ 9aves hu!e hi%$I:PF roc-s-%he >There 9ere hu!e 9aves hi%%in! %he roc-s? c$ Lumini elec%rice in%ermi%en%e anunRau a%eriALrile$ li!h%s elec%ric in%ermi%%en% announce#$ I:PF lan#in!s-%he >In%ermi%%en% elec%ric li!h%s announce# %he lan#in!s?
Pos%verbal sub6ec%s are fine even in %ransi%ive sen%ences 9hen %he0 are un#er con%ras%ive focus usuall0 in sen%ence-final 5osi%ion$ In %his case %he0 #o no% seem %o be use# in or#er %o
4B
'are Nouns
in%ro#uce an en%i%0 bu% ra%her %o insis% on %he class of an en%i%0 involve# in an even%$
(14/ a$ De cW%va %im5 Emi scriu scrisori numai 5rie%eni of some %ime me$DAT 9ri%e le%%ers onl0 frien#s >La%el0 onl0 frien#s 9ri%e me le%%ers? b$ Pe Ion l-au muMca% jkNjARI nu 5Lien6eni DG: Ion CL$ACC-have$2PL bi%%en mos@ui%oes no% s5i#ers >Ion has been bi%%en b0 mos@ui%oes no% b0 s5i#ers? c$ K:-au invi%a% PRI7T7NI la cinL nu necunoscuRi$ me$ ACC-have$2PL invi%e# frien#s %o #inner no% s%ran!ers >I% is frien#s %ha% invi%e# me %o #inner no% s%ran!ers?
Preverbal sub6ec% bare nouns in neu%ral con%e;%s are 5referabl0 use# in sen%ences #escribin! a scene as 9e can see in (+,/ above$ Com5are (+,/c-# re5ea%e# belo9 9i%h %he e;am5les in (1,/3
(+,/ c$ Lumini elec%rice in%ermi%en%e anunRau a%eriALrile$ li!h%s elec%ric in%ermi%%en% announce#$I:PF lan#in!s-%he >In%ermi%%en% elec%ric li!h%s announce# %he lan#in!s? #$ A5L mur#arL se 5relin!ea #e sub #ula5$ 9a%er #ir%0 R7FL ooA-ou%$I:PF from un#er close% >There 9as #ir%0 9a%er ooAin! ou% from un#ernea%h %he close%? (1,/ a$ KLumini elec%rice in%ermi%en%e s-au a5rins a%unci En salL li!h%s elec%ric in%ermi%%en% R7FL-have li% %hen in room >In%ermi%%en elec%ric li!h%s %hen li% in %he room? b$ KKA5L mur#arL s-a 5relins #e sub #ula5$ 9a%er #ir%0 R7FL-has ooAe#-ou% from un#er close% >Dir%0 9a%er ooAe# ou% from enea%h %he close%?
A s%ill #ifferen% case is illus%ra%e# in (1./ belo93

(1./ a$ Ar!umen%e #e aces% !en sun% nesemnifica%ive$ ar!umen%s of %his -in# are insi!nifican% >Ar!umen%s of %his -in# are insi!nifican%? b$ 'LrbaRi ca Ls%a ERi a#uc numai 5a!ubL$ men li-e %his 0ou$DAT brin! onl0 #ama!e >:en li-e %his can onl0 cause 0ou #ama!e?
In %his case i% seems %ha% i% is %he #eic%ic com5onen% of %he mo#ifier P de acest en% ca sta P 9hich allo9s %he use of %he bare noun$ Dnli-e %he e;am5les (+,/ %hese sen%ences are no% #escri5%ions of a scene bu% ra%her !eneraliAa%ions %ha% hol# of %he sub-in#s in%ro#uce# b0 #emons%ra%ives of %he %05e >of %his -in#? >li-e %his? e%c %he e;am5les bein! 5ara5hrasable b0 >%ha%/%his -in# of N?3 acest en de ar umente >%his -in# of ar!umen%s? acest en de brbai% asemenea brbai >%his -in# of men such men?$ This in%er5re%a%ion is no% o%her9ise foun# 9i%h bare nouns (see sec%ion 2 9here i% 9ill be sho9n %ha% bare nouns are 9ea- in#efini%es boun# b0 e;is%en%ial closure/$ Sen%ences 9i%h 5reverbal mo#ifie# bare nouns can also e;5ress !eneraliAa%ions if %he mo#ifier is an even%ive 5re#ica%e as can be seen b0 com5arin! (1</a-b 9i%h a_-b_3
(1</ a$ 7lefanRi albi 5limbWn#u-se 5e s%ra#L s%Wrnesc En%o%#eauna curioAi%a%ea$ ele5han%s 9hi%e 9al-in!-R7FL on s%ree% s%ir al9a0s curiosi%0-%he >Uhi%e ele5han%s 9al-in! on %he s%ree% al9a0s s%ir curiosi%0?
4C
'are Nouns a_$ X7lefanRi albi s%Wrnesc En%o%#eauna curioAi%a%ea$ ele5han%s 9hi%e s%ir al9a0s curiosi%0-%he b$ CWini care se hWr6onesc nu 5rovoacL niciun 5ericol #o!s 9hich R7FL s-0lar- no% 5rovo-e no #an!er >Do!s s-0lar-in! are no #an!er? b_$ XCWini mici nu 5rovoacL niciun 5ericol Do!s small no% 5rovo-e no #an!er
The res%ric%ion on %he mo#ifier in#ica%es %ha% %he !eneric rea#in! is ob%aine# b0 @uan%ifica%ion over even%s ra%her %han over in#ivi#uals$ In o%her 9or#s %he bare noun is an e;is%en%ial license# b0 %he even%ive 5re#ica%e of %he res%ric%ion sco5in! un#er a @uan%ifier over even%s$ Thus (1</a can be 5ara5hrase# as follo9s3
(1</_ a$ for all even%s e of ele5han%s 9al-in! in %he s%ree% e s%irs curiosi%0$
3. Se6ant./ Const0a.nts on BNs .n A0416ent Pos.t.ons

Some of %he res%ric%ions on %he #is%ribu%ion of 'Ns in ar!umen% 5osi%ions can be a%%ribu%e# %o seman%ic fac%ors$ Ue 9ill %hus sho9 %ha% bare nouns are allo9e# 9i%h >e;is%en%ial? 5re#ica%es an# bloc-e# 9i%h >5resu55osi%ional? 5re#ica%es (sec%ion 2$+//$ This #ifference 9ill be re5resen%e# in %erms of a mechanism of e;is%en%ial closure (sec%ion 2$1/ 9hich is 5ossible 9i%h cer%ain 5re#ica%es labele# >e;is%en%ial? bu% no% 9i%h o%hers calle# >5resu55osi%ional?$ In sec%ion 2$2$ 9e sho9 %ha% %hese %9o classes of 5re#ica%es #iffer re!ar#in! 9he%her %he0 allo9 or #o no% allo9 %he s5a%ial localiAa%ion of %heir ar!umen%s$ Sec%ions 2$4 an# 2$, res5ec%ivel0 5resen% %he ana5horic an# as5ec%ual 5eculiari%ies of 'Ps an# 'PNs$ 3.1. Ba0e No1ns an3 T95es of P0e3./ates 'are nouns are rule# ou% in %he ar!umen% 5osi%ions of cer%ain 5re#ica%es$ This im5ossibili%0 is e;%remel0 clear for %he ob6ec%s of verbs such as a iubi% a ur% a detesta e%c$3
(1B/ a$ X:aria a#orL cafea :aria a#ores coffee b$ XIon #e%es%L mere Ion ha%es a55les
'Ns are also rule# ou% from %he 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion of cer%ain 5re#ica%es$ The e;am5les in (1C/ e;hibi% minimal 5airs %ha% #iffer b0 %he use of bare sub6ec%s versus in#efini%e or #efini%e 5os%verbal sub6ec%s3
(1C/ a$ XNu M%iam cL seamLnL En%re ele civiliAaRii 5rimi%ive$ No% -ne9$+SG %ha% resemble$2PL be%9een %hem civiliAa%ions 5rimi%ive a?$ Nu M%iam cL seamLnL En%re ele unele civiliAaRii 5rimi%ive$ no% -ne9$+SG %ha% resemble$2PL be%9een %hem cer%ain-%he civiliAa%ions 5rimi%ive$ >I #i# no% -no9 %ha% cer%ain 5rimi%ive civiliAa%ions are ali-e? b$ X:ariei Ei 5lace ciocola%L$ :aria$DAT her$DAT li-es chocola%e$ b?$ :ariei Ei 5lace ciocola%a$ :aria$DAT her$DAT li-es chocola%e-%he >:aria li-es chocola%e?
In in%ui%ive %erms %he 5re#ica%es in (1C/a an# (1C/b can be charac%eriAe# as necessaril0
,=
'are Nouns
5resu55osin! %he e;is%ence of %heir ob6ec% or sub6ec% res5ec%ivel0 hence %he label >5resu55osi%ional 5re#ica%es? use# hencefor%h$ The observe# un!ramma%icali%0 is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% 'Ns #o no% 5resu55ose %he e;is%ence of %heir referen% an# %herefore 'Ns are le!i%ima%e onl0 in %hose con%e;%s %ha% allo9 %he e;is%ence of %heir referen% %o be asser%e#I in more %echnical %erms 'Ns mus% be le!i%ima%e# b0 e;is%en%ial closure$ 3.2. 'P+le2el E<.stent.al Clos10e In or#er %o un#ers%an# 9h0 %he e;am5les in 1C(a?/-(b?/ are un!ramma%ical le% us firs% see ho9 !ramma%ical e;am5les such as (2=/ can be anal0Ae#3
(2=/ (2=?/ Ion scria scrisori$ Ion 9ro%e$I:PF le%%ers >Ion 9as 9ri%in! le%%ers? A (9ri%e (6 A/ l le%%ers (A//
Turnin! no9 %o 5re#ica%es such as love% !ate% e%c$ %he0 can be charac%eriAe# as 5resu55osin! %he e;is%ence of %heir #irec% ob6ec%$ Since 5resu55osi%ion of e;is%ence an# asser%ion of e;is%ence are e;clusive of each o%her such 5re#ica%es bloc- VP-level e;is%en%ial closure$ The im5ossibili%0 of 'Ns %o combine 9i%h 5re#ica%es of %his %05e (see %he un!ramma%icali%0 of e;am5les (1B/ above an# (2+/ belo9/ can no9 be a%%ribu%e# %o %he fac% %ha% %he variable su55lie# b0 %he 'N canno% be le!i%ima%e# via e;is%en%ial closure$ Sin!ular in#efini%e DPs can combine 9i%h 5resu55osi%ional 5re#ica%es because DPs %ha% are !overne# b0 over% De%erminers (in 5ar%icular b0 in#efini%e ar%icles/ can be referen%iall0 in#e;e# an# as such %he0 #o no% nee# %o be le!i%ima%e# via e;is%en%ial closure$ In con%e;%s of %his %05e sin!ular in#efini%es %a-e a referen%ial/s%ron! in%er5re%a%ion (see cha5%er 4 on %he Seman%ics of De%erminers/3
(2+/ a$ XIon a#mirL 5rofesori$ Ion a#mires 5rofessors b$ Ion a#mirL un 5rofesor$ Ion a#mires a 5rofessor >Ion a#mires a 5rofessor?
3.3. E<.stent.al 2s. P0es155os.t.onal P0e3./ates Le% us no9 %r0 %o #efine %he em5irical cri%erion %ha% allo9s us %o #is%in!uish be%9een e;is%en%ial an# 5resu55osi%ional 5re#ica%es$ A 9ell--no9n #is%inc%ion is %ha% be%9een s(%a!e-/level (i$e$ 5re#ica%es 9i%h %ransi%or0 in%er5re%a%ions/ an# i(n#ivi#ual-/level (i$e$ 5re#ica%es 9i%h 5ermanen% or s%able in%er5re%a%ions/ 5re#ica%es$ :os% s-level 5re#ica%es in#ee# allo9 bare nouns in bo%h 5os%verbal sub6ec% an# ob6ec% 5osi%ions an# mos% i-level 5re#ica%es #isallo9 %hem$ Oo9ever %he e;am5les in (21/ sho9 %ha% cer%ain s-level 5re#ica%es #isallo9 bare nouns an# %hose in (22/ sho9 %ha% cer%ain i-level 5re#ica%es allo9 bare nouns3
(21/ a$ XPe scenL erau %riM%i co5ii$ on s%a!e 9ere$2PL sa# chil#ren b$ X`n uAinL erau obosiRi munci%ori$ in 5lan% 9ere$2PL %ire# 9or-ers c$X:ariei i-au 5lLcu% 5rL6i%uri$ :aria$DAT her$DAT-have$2PL li-e# ca-es
,+
'are Nouns (22/ a$ Co5aci EnalRi Encon6oarL cas%elul$ %rees %all surroun# cas%le-%he >Tall %rees surroun# %he cas%le? b$ Aces% manuscris conRine !reseli$ %his manuscri5% con%ains errors >This manuscri5% con%ains errors?
7;am5les of %his %05e sho9 %ha% %he s-level vs i-level #is%inc%ion is no% 5erfec%l0 correla%e# 9i%h %he #is%inc%ion be%9een e;is%en%ial an# 5resu55osi%ional 5re#ica%es$ Ano%her relevan% em5irical cri%erion is s5ace localiAa%ion$ Ue ma0 in#ee# observe %ha% %hose 5re#ica%es %ha% allo9 s5ace a#verbials also allo9 bare nouns$ Those %ha% canno% be combine# 9i%h s5ace a#verbials #o no% allo9 bare nouns ei%her$
(24/ a$ X`n cur%e era %ris%/neliniM%i%/bolnav Ion in cour%0ar# 9as$2SG sa# res%less ill Ion b$ X `n cur%e erau %riM%i/neliniM%iRi/bolnavi co5ii in cour%0ar# 9ere$2PL sa# res%less ill chil#ren a$ Dn#e a #ansa% /a lucra% IonK Uhere has #ance# has 9or-e# Ion >Uhere #i# Ion #ance/9or-K? b$ `n cur%e #anseaAL /lucreaAL co5ii in cour%0ar# #ance$2 9or-$2 chil#ren >Chil#ren #ance/9or- in %he cour%0ar#?
(2,/
Dnli-e %he #is%inc%ion %ransi%or0/s-level vs 5ermanen%/i-level 9hich affec%s %he 5re#ica%ion in i%s en%ire%0 an# conse@uen%l0 %he 9hole ran!e of ar!umen%s of a cer%ain 5re#ica%e %he cri%erion of s5a%ial localiAa%ion leaves o5en %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% onl0 cer%ain ar!umen%s are localiAe# in s5ace an# as such onl0 %hose ar!umen%s can be boun# b0 e;is%en%ial closure an# conse@uen%l0 be e;5resse# b0 bare nouns$ Thus %he verbs in (2./a-b #escribe %he 5osi%ion of %he sub6ec% rela%ive %o %he ob6ec% an# %he 5osi%ion of %he ob6ec% rela%ive %o %he sub6ec% res5ec%ivel0$ Gnl0 %he loca%e# ar!umen% P %he sub6ec% in ((2./a// %he ob6ec% in ((2./b/ - can be a bare noun$
(2./ a$ Dale #e 5ia%rL aco5ereau %erenul$ slabs of s%one covere# !roun#-%he >Slabs of s%one covere# %he !roun#? b$ ColecRia conRinea %ablouri #e :one%$ collec%ion-%he con%aine# 5ain%in!s b0 :one% >The collec%ion con%aine# 5ain%in!s b0 :one%?
3.$. S/o5e Sin!ular in#efini%es sho9 sco5e ambi!ui%ies 9i%h res5ec% %o ano%her @uan%ifier an a#verb or an in%ensional verb 9hereas bare 5lurals necessaril0 have narro9 sco5e$ Thus bo%h of %he %9o e;am5les in (2</a an# (2%here is a lo!ician such %ha% :aria assumes %ha% Pe%re s5o-e %o him?3
(2</ a$ :aria 5resu5une cL Pe%re a vorbi% cu un lo!ician$ :aria assumes %ha% Pe%re has %al-e# 9i%h a lo!ician >:aria assumes %ha% Pe%re has %al-e# %o a lo!ician? b$ :aria 5resu5une cL Pe%re a vorbi% cu lo!icieni$ :aria assumes %ha% Pe%re has %al-e# 9i%h lo!icians
,1
'are Nouns >:aria assumes %ha% Pe%re has %al-e# %o lo!icians?
7;am5les (2B/-(2C/ illus%ra%e sco5e 9i%h res5ec% %o a @uan%ifie# e;5ression3

(2B/ a$ ToRi 5rofesorii ne-au recoman#a% o car%e$ all 5rofessors-%he us$DAT-have recommen#e# a boo>All %eachers recommen#e# us a boo-? b$ `n fiecare Ai a %elefona% un s%u#en%$ in ever0 #a0 has calle# a s%u#en% >A s%u#en% calle# ever0 #a0? a$ ToRi 5rofesorii ne-au recoman#a% cLrRi$ all 5rofessors-%he us$DAT-have recommen#e# boo-s >All %eachers recommen#e# us boo-s? b$ `n fiecare Ai au %elefona% s%u#enRi$ in ever0 #a0 have$2PL calle# s%u#en%s >S%u#en%s calle# ever0 #a0?
(2C/
The e;am5les in (2C/ onl0 allo9 %he narro9-sco5e# rea#in! of %he bare 5lurals3 %he boo-s an# %he s%u#en%s co-var0 9i%h 5rofessors an# #a0s res5ec%ivel0$ The e;am5les in (2B/ on %he o%her han# also allo9 %he 9i#e-sco5e# rea#in!3 %he 5rofessors recommen#e# %he same booan# %he same s%u#en% %ele5hone# ever0 #a0 res5ec%ivel0$ Sco5e 9i%h res5ec% %o ne!a%ion sho9s an even clearer con%ras% be%9een sin!ular in#efini%es an# bare 5lurals3 bare 5lurals canno% esca5e %he sco5e of ne!a%ion 9hereas sin!ular in#efini%es are in%er5re%e# as sco5in! ou% of a ne!a%ive con%e;% un#er a neu%ral in%ona%ion ((4=/a can have a narro9 sco5e rea#in! 9i%h heav0 s%ress on un an# student% meanin! >no% even one?/3
(4=/ a$ N-am e;amina% un s%u#en%$ no%-have$+ e;amine# a s%u#en% >I haven?% e;amine# a s%u#en%? b$ N-am e;amina% s%u#enRi$ no%-have$+ e;amine# s%u#en%s >I haven?% e;amine# s%u#en%s?
Re!ar#in! sco5e 5ro5er%ies bare 5lurals con%ras% no% onl0 9i%h sin!ular in#efini%es bu% also 9i%h 5lurals hea#e# b0 in#efini%e #e%erminers such as car#inal numerals or %he in#efini%e ar%icle nite >(9ea- form of/ some?3
(4+/ a$ :aria cre#e cL Pe%re a fura% niM%e cLrRi$ :aria %hin-s %ha% Pe%re has s%olen some boo-s >:aria believes %ha% Pe%re has s%olen some boo-s? b$ `n fiecare searL au %elefona% %rei s%u#enRi$ in ever0 evenin! have$2PL calle# %hree s%u#en%s >Three s%u#en%s calle# ever0 ni!h%? c$ Trei 5rofesori au fos% 5reAenRi Mi %rei nu$ Three 5rofessors have been 5resen% an# %hree no% >Three 5rofessors 9ere 5resen% an# %hree (o%hers/ 9ere no%?
'are mass nouns resemble 'Ps in %ha% %he0 are necessaril0 narro9-sco5e#3
(41/ a$ :aria cre#e cL Ion a fura% lemn$ :aria %hin-s %ha% Ion has s%olen 9oo# >:aria %hin-s Ion has s%olen 9oo#?
,2
'are Nouns b$ Trei s%u#enRi au a#us vin$ %hree s%u#en%s have brou!h% 9ine >Three s%u#en%s have brou!h% 9ine?
The %heore%ical anal0sis of sco5e in%er5re%a%ions is curren%l0 un#er #eba%e$ Accor#in! %o %he %ra#i%ional vie9 sco5e ambi!ui%ies are #ue %o a #ifference in %he rela%ive hierarchical 5osi%ions of %9o @uan%ifiers$ Ui%hin %his %05e of accoun% %he obli!a%or0 narro9 sco5e of 'Ns can be a%%ribu%e# %o %he fac% %ha% %he variable %ha% %he0 in%ro#uce is boun# b0 VP-level e;is%en%ial closure (see * +$2 an# 1$2 above/3 assumin! %ha% @uan%ifiers a%%ach %o %he IP #omain %he0 9ill al9a0s %a-e sco5e over VP-level e;is%en%ial closure$ Accor#in! %o an al%erna%ive accoun% %he so-calle# >sco5al? cons%ruals are not #ue %o #ifferen% sco5e assi!nmen%s of %9o @uan%ifiers bu% ra%her %o #e5en#enc0 rela%ions %ha% are es%ablishe# be%9een a @uan%ifier an# a #e5en#en% e;5ression (see Cha5%er 4 *2$+$+/$ Ui%hin %his accoun% %he so-calle# >narro9-sco5e? rea#in! of in#efini%es (see e;am5les (1/a-b above/ is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he in#efini%e DP is #e5en#en% on %he @uan%ifie# DP$ No%e no9 %ha% i% is reasonable %o believe %ha% %his accoun% #oes no% e;%en# %o narro9-sco5e# 'Ns3 !ran%in! %ha% onl0 referen%ial %erms are #e5en#en% (see cha5%er 4 *2$+$+/ 'Ns canno% be #e5en#en% because %he0 are no% referen%ial$ The so-calle# >narro9 sco5e? of 'Ns can ins%ea# be vie9e# as a conse@uence of %he fac% %ha% %he variable %he0 su55l0 can onl0 be le!i%ima%e# via VP-level e;is%en%ial closure$ The fac% %ha% bare 5lurals an# bare mass nouns necessaril0 %ransla%e as variables is ar!uabl0 rela%e# %o %heir cumula%ive reference$ Cumula%ive reference charac%eriAes 'Ns re!ar#less of %he con%e;% in 9hich %he0 a55ear an# in 5ar%icular re!ar#less of %he 5resence of ano%her o5era%or$ Dn#er %his vie9 i% is cumula%ive reference %ha% e;5lains 9h0 'Ns lac- 9i#e-sco5e in%er5re%a%ions$ 3.%. Ana58o0./ 5e/1l.a0.t.es 'Ps canno% func%ion as an%ece#en%s of al%erna%ive 5ronouns such as alii >o%hers? or ceilali >%he o%hers?3
(42/ a$ Ion a recoman#a% %rei /niM%e romane iar :aria a recoman#a% al%ele Ion has recommen#e# %hree some novels an# :aria has recommen#e# o%hers-%he >Ion recommen#e# %hree/some boo-s an# :aria recommen#e# o%hers? b$ mIon a recoman#a% romane iar :aria a recoman#a% al%ele Ion has recommen#e# novels an# :aria has recommen#e# o%hers-%he a$ AAi au veni% niM%e /%rei oas5eRi s%rLini$ :Wine vor a6un!e ceilalRi$ %o#a0 have$2PL come some %hree !ues%s forei!n %omorro9 9ill$2PL arrive %he-o%hers >Some/%hree forei!n !ues% have come %o#a0$ The o%hers 9ill arrive %omorro9? b$ mAAi au veni% oas5eRi s%rLini$ :Wine vor a6un!e ceilalRi$ %o#a0 have$2PL come !ues%s forei!n %omorro9 9ill$2PL arrive %he-o%hers
(44/
No%e %ha% res%ric%ions of %his %05e #o no% in#ica%e %ha% 'Ps are non-referen%ial$ In#ee# %he0 allo9 a55osi%ive rela%ives 9hich are %05ical of referen%ial DPs3
(4,/ :aria a#ucea #e la biblio%ecL cLrRi 5e care Ion le ci%ea$ :aria brou!h%$I:PF from librar0 boo-s DG: 9hich Ion CL$2PL$ACC rea#$I:PF >:aria use# %o brin! boo-s from %he librar0 9hich Ion rea#?
The unacce5%abili%0 6u#!men%s illus%ra%e# in (42/b an# (44/b can be a%%ribu%e# %o %he nonin#ivi#ualiAable %05e of reference %ha% charac%eriAes 'Ps i$e$ %o %he fac% %ha% %he0 refer %o sums an# correla%ivel0 %ransla%e as non-in#e;e# variables$ (see *+$2 above/$ 'are mass nouns behave li-e bare 5lurals3
,4
'are Nouns (4./ (4</ :aria a#ucea vin 5e care Ion El bea$ :aria brou!h%$I:PF 9ine DG: 9hich Ion CL$2SG$ACC #ran-$I:PF >:aria use# %o brin! 9ine 9hich Ion #ran-? m:aria a bLu% vin iar Ion a bLu% al%ul$ :aria has #run- 9ine an# Ion has #run- o%her-%he
No%e %ha% mass nouns resis% in#ivi#ualiAa%ion even 9he0 %he0 are 5rece#e# b0 a #e%erminer in clear con%ras% 9i%h coun% 5lurals3
(4B/ a$ m:aria a bLu% niM%e vin iar Ion a bLu% al%ul :aria has #run- some 9ine an# Ion has #run- o%her-%he b$ :aria a vLAu% niM%e filme iar Ion a vLAu% al%ele$ :aria has seen some movies an# Ion has seen o%hers >:aria sa9 some movies an# Ion sa9 some o%hers?
The con%ras% sho9n in (4B/a-b in#ica%es %ha% nite Bsome. has a #ifferen% role #e5en#in! on 9he%her i% !overns a mass noun or a 5lural coun% noun3 9i%h mass nouns nite >some? in%ro#uces a @uan%i%0 of mass (much li-e %he bare mass noun i%self/ 9hereas 9i%h 5lural coun%s nouns nite >some? ma0 in%ro#uce an in#ivi#ualiAe# 5lural en%i%0 #is%in!uishable from o%her 5lural en%i%ies of %he same -in#$ From %he 5oin% of vie9 of ana5horic rela%ions in#efini%e mass DPs #iffer in in%eres%in! 9a0s from in#efini%e 5lural DPs bu% %his is ou% of %he sco5e of our 5resen% #iscussion 9hich concerns 'Ns$ 3.&. As5e/t1al 5e/1l.a0.t.es 'are 5lurals are no% ca5able of 5rovi#in! %he -in# of #elimi%a%ion necessar0 for %elici%0$ Thus cer%ain 5re#ica%es have achievemen% an# accom5lishmen% rea#in!s 9hen %heir ob6ec% is an in#efini%e DP bu% ac%ivi%0 rea#in!s 9hen %heir ob6ec% is a bare 5lural$ The e;am5les in (4C/ab sho9 %ha% %he al%erna%ion be%9een culmina%ive a#verbs of a limi%e# #ura%ion (e$!$ n dou luni >in %9o mon%hs?/ an# non-culmina%ive a#verbs (timp de dou luni >#urin! %9o mon%hs?/ is correla%e# 9i%h %he al%erna%ion be%9een an in#efini%e 5lural an# a bare 5lural occu50in! %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion3
(4C/ a$ Am scris %rei ar%icole gEn #ouL lunih /gX%im5 #e #ouL lunih$ have$+ 9ri%%en %hree ar%icles in %9o mon%hs %ime of %9o mon%hs >I/Ue 9ro%e %hree ar%icles in %9o mon%hs/for %9o mon%hs? b$ A cLlca% o mulRime #e cLmLMi gEn %rei oreh/gX%im5 #e %rei oreh$ has irone# a lo% of shir%s in %hree hours %ime of %hree hours >She irone# a lo% of shir%s in %hree hours/for %hree hours? a$ Am scris ar%icole gXEn #ouL lunih /g%im5 #e #ouL lunih$ have$+ 9ri%%en ar%icles in %9o mon%hs %ime of %9o mon%hs >I/Ue 9ro%e ar%icles in %9o mon%hs/for %9o mon%hs? b$ A cLlca% cLmLMi gXEn %rei oreh/g%im5 #e %rei oreh$ has irone# shir%s in %hree hours %ime of %hree hours >She irone# shir%s in %hree hours/for %hree hours?
(,=/
No%e fur%hermore %ha% %he use of bare 5lurals im5oses a "#ura%ive& rea#in! %o 5re#ica%es such as a omor >%o -ill? or a descoperi >%o #iscover? 9hich are o%her9ise non-#ura%ive$ This e;5lains 9h0 such 5re#ica%es can be embe##e# or no% un#er %he as5ec%ual verb a continua "%o con%inue& #e5en#in! on 9he%her %heir ob6ec% is a bare 5lural or a 5lural in#efini%e3
,,
'are Nouns (,+/ a$ XA con%inua% sL omoare %rei !Lini$ has con%inue# SD'N -ill$2 %hree hens b$ XA con%inua% sL #esco5ere niM%e !reMeli$ has con%inue# SD'N #iscover some mis%a-es a$ A con%inua% sL omoare !Lini$ has con%inue# SD'N -ill$2 hens >Oe -e5% on -illin! hens? b$ A con%inua% sL #esco5ere !reMeli$ has con%inue# SD'N #iscover$2 mis%a-es >Oe -e5% on fin#in! mis%a-es?
(,1/
The same observa%ion can be ma#e re!ar#in! %he 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion in 5ar%icular 9i%h in%ransi%ive verbs e;5ressin! a chan!e of s%a%e3
(,2/ a$ Con%inuau sL a6un!L ginvi%aRih/gKKniM%e invi%aRih$ con%inue$I:PF$2PL SD'N arrive$2 !ues%s some !ues%s >Gues%s/some !ues%s -e5% on arrivin!? b$ Au e;5lo#a% gbombeh/gX5a%ru bombeh %rei Aile #e-a rWn#ul$ have$2PL e;5lo#e# bombs four bombs %hree #a0s in-a-ro9 >'ombs/Four bombs have e;5lo#e# for %hree #a0s in a ro9?
These observa%ions cons%i%u%e evi#ence in favour of a ne!a%ive charac%eriAa%ion of bare 5lurals3 %he0 canno% refer %o a @uan%iAe# en%i%0 (%he0 can onl0 refer %o amoun%s of ma%%er of unboun#e# @uan%i%0/ an# as such %he0 canno% con%ribu%e %he -in# of #elimi%a%ion necessar0 for Jboun#e#J 5rocesses$ 7;am5les (,4/-(,,/ sho9 %ha% bare 5lurals are e;clu#e# if boun#e#ness is force# b0 some o%her elemen% of %he con%e;% e$!$ as5ec%ual verbs such as a ncepe >%o be!in? or a termina >%o finish? or 5re5osi%ions such as dup >af%er?3
(,4/ a$ Am Ence5u% %rei romane/KKromane$ have$+ be!un %hree novels novels >I s%ar%e# %hree novels/novels? b$ Am %ermina% #ouL 5or%re%e/K5or%re%e$ have$+ finishe# %9o 5or%rai%s 5or%rai%s >I finishe# %9o 5or%rai%s/5or%rai%s? a$ Du5L #ouL/cW%eva s%icle #e vin ^ af%er %9o/ some bo%%les of 9ine >Af%er %9o/some bo%%les of 9ine ^? b$ XDu5L s%icle #e vin $$$ af%er bo%%les of 9ine
(,,/
A similar effec% can be observe# 9i%h absolu%e 5ar%ici5les %ha% follo9 o dat >once?$ The meanin! of %he follo9in! e;am5les can be rou!hl0 5ara5hrase# as >as soon as (%he/ e;ercises have been correc%e#?3
(,./ a$ G#a%L corec%a%e e;erciRiile $$ once correc%e# e;ercises-%he >The momen% %he e;ercises have/ha# been correc%e# ^? b$ XG#a%L corec%a%e e;erciRii $$$ once correc%e# e;ercises $$$
'are mass nouns behave li-e bare 5lurals in %ha% %he0 in#uce a%elici%03
,.
'are Nouns (,</ a$ Ion a bLu% vin g%im5 #e o orLh/gXEn%r-o orLh$ Ion has #run- 9ine %ime of an hour in an hour >Ion #ran- 9ine for an hour/in an hour? b$ Ion a %ermina% vinul @Xvin$ Ion has finishe# 9ine-%he 9ine >Ion finishe# %he 9ine/9ine?
Com5are mass nouns !overne# b0 over% #e%erminers or @uan%i%0 e;5ressions 9hich refer %o boun#e# en%i%ies an# as such in#uce %elici%0 effec%s on a 5ar 9i%h sin!ular an# 5lural in#efini%es3
(,B/ a$ :aria a mWnca% #ouL -ilo!rame #e #ulceaRL gEn%r-o orLh/g X%im5 #e o orLh$ :aria has ea%en %9o -ilo!rams of 6am in one hour %ime of an hour >:aria a%e %9o -ilos of 6am in an hour/for an hour? b$ Ion a %ermina% #ouL s%icle #e vin$ Ion has finishe# %9o bo%%les of 9ine >Ion finishe# %9o bo%%les of 9ine?
$. Co1nt Ba0e S.n41la0s .n A0416ent Pos.t.ons

The #is%ribu%ion of coun% bare sin!ulars ('Ss/ in ar!umen% 5osi%ions is more res%ric%e# %han %ha% of bare 5lurals 9hich su!!es%s %ha% %he0 are no% referen%ial e;5ressions (in o%her 9or#s %he0 #o no% #eno%e an en%i%0/ bu% ra%her %he0 func%ion as mo#ifiers of %he verbal 5re#ica%e (in more %echnical %erms %he0 #eno%e 5ro5er%ies %ha% mo#if0 %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he verbal 5re#ica%e/$ $.1. Classes of 2e0bs Ui%h mos% classes of verbs coun% bare sin!ulars are #isallo9e# no% onl0 in sub6ec% bu% also in ob6ec% 5osi%ions in clear con%ras% 9i%h bare 5lurals3
(,C/ a$ Am vLAu% (#ouL /niM%e /cW%eva/ 5LsLri have$+ seen %9o some several bir#s >I/Ue sa9 %9o/some/several bir#s? b$ Am vLAu% X(o/ 5asLre have$+ seen a bir# >I/Ue sa9 a bir#?
Cer%ain 5re#ica%es #o ho9ever allo9 'Ss in ob6ec% 5osi%ions (bu% no% in sub6ec% 5osi%ions see * 2$+$, belo9/$ Such 5re#ica%es can be !rou5e# in %hree le;ical classes3 (i/ a avea B%o have? an# ac@uisi%ion verbsI (ii/ verbs such as a purta or a folosi >%o 9ear %o use? 9hich can be vie9e# as 5resu55osin! %he verb >have? i%selfI (iii/ in%ensional verbs such as a cuta >loofor? 9hich can also be vie9e# as im5l0in! some -in# of 5ros5ec%ive 5ossession3 E.F a avea Gto 8a2eH an3 a/I1.s.t.on 2e0bs
(.=/ a$ Ion are gcasL maMinL co5il mic car%e #e cre#i% 5aMa5or% bucL%LreasLh Ion has house car chil# car# of cre#i% 5ass5or% coo-( F7:/ >Ion has a house/car/chil#/cre#i% car#/5ass5or%/coo-? b$ Casa as%a are glif% scarL #e serviciu !rL#inLh$ house-%he %his has eleva%or s%aircase of service !ar#en >This house has an eleva%or/s%aircase/!ar#en?
,<
'are Nouns c$ Ne-au 5us En sfWrMi% lif%$ us$DAT-have$2PL 5u% finall0 eleva%or >A% las% %he0 5u% in an eleva%or$? #$ Ion Mi-a cum5Lra% casL$ Ion R7FL$DAT-has bou!h% house >Ion bou!h% a house (for himself/?
E..F a purta Gto Dea0H= a folosi= a conduce Gto 30.2eH

(.+/ a$ :aria 5oar%L 5an%alon/5LlLrie/uniformL/5oMe%L/crava%L/cLmaML/rochie scur%L$ :aria 9ears 5an% ha% uniform 5urse %ie shir% #ress shor% >:aria is 9earin! 5an%/ha%/uniform/5urse/%ie/shir%/shor% #ress? b$ Ion foloseM%e s%ilou/creion$ Ion uses 5en 5encil >Ion uses a 5en/5encil? c$ Ion con#uce camion$ Ion #rives %ruc>Ion #rives a %ruc-?
E...F 50os5e/t.2e 5ossess.on ? a cuta, a gsi, a vrea, a dori

(.1/ a$ Ion cau%L secre%arL/ nevas%L/femeie /5rofessor bucL%ar$ Ion see-s secre%ar0 9ife 9oman 5rofessor coo>Ion is loo-in! for a secre%ar0/9ife/9oman/%eacher/coo-? b$ Ion #oreM%e nevas%L %WnLrL$ Ion 9ishes 9ife 0oun! >Ion 9ishes a 0oun! 9ife?
There are %9o o%her con%e;%s in 9hich bare sin!ulars are allo9e# namel0 9i%h li!h% verbs an# 9i%h i#ioms3
(.2/ a$ a lua loc /5ar%e/fiinRL /no%L #e$$$ %o %a-e 5lace 5ar% bein! no%e of >%o %a-e 5lace/ %o %a-e 5ar%/ %o come in%o bein!$ %o %a-e no%e of? b$ a #a loc /e;em5lu /#ova#L #e$$$ %o !ive 5lace e;am5le 5roof of >%o !ive rise %o/%o !ive an e;am5le/%o sho9? c$ a Rine loc #e$$$ %o -ee5 5lace of >%o be a subs%i%u%e for?
'are sin!ulars can also occur in cer%ain i#ioma%ic s%ruc%ures 9hich are charac%eriAe# b0 %he re5e%i%ion of %he same 'S occurrin! as a sub6ec% an# as %he ar!umen% of a 5re5osi%ion3
(.4/ a$ Cui 5e cui se scoa%e$ nail DG: nail R7FL 5ulls-ou% >Gne nail #rives ou% ano%her? b$ 'an la ban %ra!e$ mone0 %o mone0 #ra9s >:one0 a%%rac%s mone0? c$ Deal cu #eal se En%WlneM%e #ar om cu omK hill 9i%h hill R7FL mee%s bu% man 9i%h man >7ven hills mee% le% alone men?
,B
'are Nouns
I% is no% clear %ha% 'Ss in %he la%%er %9o con%e;%s shoul# be anal0Ae# in %he same 9a0 as %hose a55earin! in %he 5revious con%e;%s$ A #ifferen%ia%in! anal0sis is su!!es%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% in cer%ain lan!ua!es e$!$ in French bare sin!ulars (as 9ell as bare 5lurals/ are allo9e# 9i%h cer%ain li!h% verbs an# in cer%ain i#ioma%ic e;5ressions bu% consis%en%l0 banne# 9i%h %he verbs lis%e# in (i/-(iii/ inclu#in! avoir >have?$
$.2. F10t8e0 Le<./al Const0a.nts The e;am5les in (.,/a-b sho9 %ha% %he choice of %he noun i%self is cons%raine#3
(.,/ a$ Ion are / a cum5Lra% (un/ a5ar%amen%/ (o/ casL /(o/ maMinL /(un/ calcula%or$ Ion has has bou!h% an a5ar%men% a house a car a com5u%er >Ion has/bou!h% an a5ar%men%/a house/a car/a com5u%er? b$ Ion are/ a cum5Lra% KK(un/ cas%el/X(un/ bloc/X(o/ fabricL$ Ion has has bou!h% a cas%le a bloc- a fac%or0 >Ion has/bou!h% a cas%le/a bloc-/a fac%or0?
Uha% seems %o ma%%er is %ha% %he verb %o!e%her 9i%h %he 'S refers %o a conven%ionaliAe# ac%ivi%0 or a conven%ionaliAe# %05e of 5ossession$ $.3. Ba0e S.n41la0s .n s1b7e/t 5os.t.ons 'Ss can also a55ear in %he 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion of im5ersonal S7-5assives buil% 9i%h %he %05es of verbs %ha% allo9 'Ss in ob6ec% 5osi%ions3
(../ a$ Ni s-a 5us En sfWrMi% lif%$ us$DAT R7FL-has 5u% finall0 eleva%or >A% las% %he0 5u% in an eleva%or (for us/? b$ Anul Ls%a s-a cum5Lra% cu5%or anul vii%or se va cum5Lra masinL 0ear-%he %his R7FL-has bou!h% oven 0ear-%he ne;% R7FL 9ill$2SG bu0 machine #e s5Lla% of 9ashin! >This 0ear an oven 9as bou!h% ne;% 0ear a 9ashin! machine 9ill be bou!h%? c$ De anul %recu% se 5oar%L 5an%alon/5LlLrie/uniformL/crava%L/cLmaML/rochie scur%L$ since 0ear-%he las% R7FL 9ears 5an% ha% uniform %ie shir% #ress shor% >Since las% 0ear i% is fashionable %o 9ear 5an%s/ha%/uniform/%ie/shir%/shor% #ress? #$ Se cau%L secre%arL/5rofesor #e ma%ema%icL bucL%ar$ R7FL see-s secre%ar0 5rofessor of ma%hema%ics coo>A secre%ar0/ma%hema%ics 5rofessor/coo- is nee#e#?
'Ss can also be 5os%verbal sub6ec%s of %he verb a fi >%o be?$ No%e %ha% %hese e;am5les are all 5ara5hrasable b0 sen%ences 9i%h a avea >%o have? e$!$ (.</a an# (.The facul%0 has a secre%ar0? b$ `n bloc nu e 5or%ar$ in bloc- no% is #oorman >The buil#in! has no #oorman?
The same res%ric%ion a55lies here as for %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion3 %he 5resence of a cer%ain %05e of en%i%0 in a loca%ion is conven%ionaliAe# for %he res5ec%ive %05e of loca%ion$ SummariAin! %he res%ric%e# #is%ribu%ion of 'Ss in %he 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion is no% #ue %o a s0n%ac%ic 5rohibi%ion bu% ra%her %o %he le;ical res%ric%ions %ha% have also been observe# ,C
'are Nouns
above for %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion$ Such le;ical res%ric%ions are %o be anal0Ae# as cons%rain%s on %he %05e of ar!umen% %ha% can be e;5resse# b0 'Ss3 'Ss canno% be e;%ernal ar!umen%sI %he0 can be in%ernal ar!umen%s bu% onl0 9i%h a limi%e# number of verbs$ The !eneraliAa%ion seems %o be %ha% onl0 >5ossessees? (%a-en in a ver0 !eneral sense/ can be e;5resse# b0 'Ss$ $.$. Ba0e S.n41la0s afte0 50e5os.t.ons 'efore illus%ra%in! %he use of 'Ss af%er 5re5osi%ions le% us ma-e i% clear %ha% 9e are onl0 in%eres%e# in %he non-#efini%e rea#in! of 'Ss$ Ue 9ill leave asi#e %he 5henomenon of >#efini%e ar%icle #ro5? af%er 5re5osi%ions (see Cha5%er B *+$2/$ 'Ss are allo9e# af%er %he 5re5osi%ion &it! in%ro#ucin! %he 5ossessee as e;5ec%e# !iven %he 5re#ilec%ion of 'Ss %o a55ear as 5ossessee ar!umen%s3
(.B/ a$ femeie cu fus%L scur%L 9oman 9i%h s-ir% shor% >9oman 9i%h shor% s-ir%? b$ Vorbea cu voce %are %al-e#$2SG 9i%h voice lou# >he %al-e# ou% lou#?
'Ss ma0 also a55ear af%er loca%ive an# ins%rumen%al 5re5osi%ions$ In %his con%e;% %he0 are allo9e# onl0 if %he !rou5 verb H PP e;5resses a conven%ionaliAe# ac%ivi%0/s%a%e of affairs3
(.C/ a$ Dorm 5e 5a% %are$ slee5$+SG on be# har# >I slee5 on a har# be#? a?$ KKDorm 5e masL %are$ slee5$+SG on %able har# >I slee5 on a har# %able? b$ Car%ofii se 5rL6esc En %i!aie #e Teflon$ 5o%a%oes R7FL fr0 in 5an of Teflon >Po%a%oes nee# %o be frie# in a Teflon 5an? c$ Taie cu cuRi% AimRa%$ cu%s 9i%h -nife #en%a%e >Oe cu%s 9i%h a #en%a%e -nife?
8ui%e e;5ec%e#l0 'Ps an# bare mass nouns are also allo9e# af%er 5re5osi%ions3
(<=/ a$ un co5ac cu flori frumoase a %ree 9i%h flo9ers beau%iful >a %ree 9i%h beau%iful flo9ers? b$ o canL cu la5%e a cu5 9i%h mil>a cu5 of mil-? c$ Dorm 5e frunAe usca%e/ 5e 5LmWn% ume#$ slee5$+SG on leaves #r0 on !roun# 9e% >I slee5 on #r0 leaves/on 9e% soil?
$.%. T8e Se6ant./ Anal9s.s of Ba0e S.n41la0s $.%.1. Ba0e S.n41la0s as P0o5e0t9+Denot.n4 E<50ess.ons In in%ui%ive %erms 'Ss can be sai# %o be non-s5ecific an#/or non-referen%ial as o55ose# %o
.=
'are Nouns
sin!ular in#efini%e DPs 9hich can be sai# %o be s5ecific an#/or referen%ial$ Oo9ever %heir non-s5ecifici%0/non-referen%iali%0 shoul# be #is%in!uishe# from %he non-s5ecifici%0 of bare 5lurals an# bare mass nouns$ In sec%ions +$2 an# 2 above 9e have 5ro5ose# %ha% %he lac- of ar%icle si!nals cumulative reference$ Since sin!ular coun% nouns #o no% have cumula%ive reference (each a%omic en%i%0 is #is%inc% from all %he o%her a%omic en%i%ies of a !iven #omain/ bare coun% sin!ulars canno% be assume# %o %ransla%e as variables over sums$ Ue ma0 ins%ea# assume %ha% %he0 are 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ressions$ In sum non-s5ecific in%er5re%a%ions corres5on# %o %9o #is%inc% %05es of #eno%a%ion3 reference %o ran#om sums on %he one han# (e-%05e #eno%a%ion/ an# 5ro5er%0-#eno%a%ion (ee %f %05e #eno%a%ion/ on %he o%her han#$ $.%.2. In/o05o0at.n4 P0e3./ates 'ecause 'Ss are 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ressions %he0 canno% combine 9i%h 5re#ica%es of %he canonical %05e 9hich mus% be sa%ura%e# b0 e-%05e e;5ressions$ The0 can onl0 combine 9i%h cer%ain 5re#ica%es call %hem >incor5ora%in!? 5re#ica%es re5resen%e# as in (<+/3
(<+/ P 0 ; Yhave (; 0/ P(0/Z
Re5resen%e# in %his 9a0 5re#ica%es such as to !ave to &ear to loo# for e%c$ have ar!umen% 5osi%ions %ha% are alrea#0 sa%ura%e# a% %he level of %he Le;icon (because %he0 are boun# b0 e;is%en%ial closure in %he le;ical re5resen%a%ion i%self/ bu% %he0 remain 5ar%iall0 unsa%ura%e# insofar as %he0 9ai% for 5ro5er%ies %ha% res%ric% %he varia%ion #omain of %he ar!umen% variable$ Accor#in! %o %his anal0sis %hen 'Ss %ransla%e as 5ro5er%ies %ha% sa%ura%e incor5ora%in! 5re#ica%es re5resen%e# as in (<+/$ To illus%ra%e consi#er an e;am5le such as (<1/3
(<1/ Casa as%a are lif%$ house-%he %his has eleva%or (<1?/ (P$0$ ; (have (; 0/ ) P (0/// (%his house / (eleva%or/
The re5resen%a%ion in (<1&/ can no9 be ob%aine# %hrou!h a 5rocess of -conversion 9hich inser%s %he 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! bare noun elevator in %he 5osi%ion P boun# b0 %he hi!hes% lamb#a-o5era%or3
(<1??/ (;$ 0$ have (; 0/ ) eleva%or (0// (%his house /
Finall0 (<1&?/ can be ob%aine# %hrou!h a secon# o5era%ion of -conversion3

(<1???/ 0$ have (%his house 0/ ) eleva%or (0//
In sum %he anal0sis of %he #is%ribu%ion of bare nouns has le# %o #is%in!uish be%9een %he follo9in! %hree classes of 5re#ica%es3 (<2/ a$ Dnmar-e# 5re#ica%es3 %he0 allo9 VP-level e;is%en%ial closure an# as such %he0 ma0 combine 9i%h 'Ps an# ':Ns in a##i%ion %o run-of-%he-mill DPs$ b$ Presu55osi%ional 5re#ica%es3 #o no% allo9 VP-level e;is%en%ial closure an# as such canno% combine 9i%h 'Ps an# ':Ns$ c$ Incor5ora%in! 5re#ica%es3 e;is%en%ial o5era%or in %heir le;ical re5resen%a%ion C!ave% buy% &ear% intensional loo# for% 00D allo9in! %hem %o combine 9i%h 'Ss
$.%.3. Na00oD s/o5e D.t8 0es5e/t to Ne4at.on .+
'are Nouns
All bare nouns ('Ps bare mass nouns an# 'Ss/ %a-e narro9 sco5e 9i%h res5ec% %o ne!a%ion3
(<4/ a$ N-am ci%i% romane #e Tols%oi$ no%-have$+ rea# novels b0 Tols%o0 >I haven?% rea# novels b0 Tols%o0? b$ De #oi ani n-am bLu% vin$ of %9o 0ears no%-have$+ #run- 9ine >I haven?% #run- 9ine for %9o 0ears (no9/? c$ Ion nu are/ nu Mi-a cum5Lra% a5ar%amen%/ maMinL/ calcula%or$ Ion no% has/no% himself$DAT-has bou!h% a5ar%men% car com5u%er >Ion #i#n?% bu0 himself an a5ar%men%/car/com5u%er?
No%e no9 %ha% in e;am5les such as (<,/a-b buil% 9i%h non-incor5ora%e# verbs narro9 sco5e 9i%h res5ec% %o ne!a%ion canno% be in#ica%e# b0 usin! a 'S3
(<,/ a$ XN-am ci%i% roman #e Tols%oi$ no%-have$+ rea# novel b0 Tols%o0 b$ XDe #oi ani n-am En%Wlni% 5rie%en$ of %9o 0ears no%-have$+ me% frien#
These e;am5les in#ica%e %ha% %he #ifference be%9een incor5ora%in! an# non-incor5ora%in! verbs is main%aine# un#er ne!a%ion3 !iven %ha% 'Ss can onl0 be le!i%ima%e# b0 incor5ora%in! verbs %he0 are rule# ou% in (<,/$ Ui%h non-incor5ora%in! verbs coun% sin!ular nouns in %he sco5e of ne!a%ion mus% be 5rece#e# b0 a ne!a%ive 9or#3
(<./ a$ N-am ci%i% niciun roman #e Tols%oi$ no%-have$+ rea# no novel b0 Tols%o0 >I haven?% rea# an0 novel b0 Tols%o0? b$ De #oi ani n-am En%Wlni% niciun 5rie%en$ of %9o 0ears no%-have$+ me% no frien# >I haven?% me% an0 frien# for %9o 0ears (no9/?
The use of niciun 9i%h verbs allo9in! 'Ss is mar-e#I i% is 5ossible if %he corres5on#in! affirma%ion !ave$E a F 9as 5resu55ose#3 (i/ N-am nicio maMinL no%-have$+ no car >I have no car? (ii/ Nu cau% nicio secre%arL$ no% loofor$+SG no secre%ar0 >I?m no% loo-in! for an0 secre%ar0?
There are no ne!a%ive 9or#s for 5lurals an# mass nouns 9hich are use# bare 9hen occurrin! in %he sco5e of ne!a%ion as in (<2/a-b$ No%e no9 %ha% in e;am5les u%%ere# 9i%h an unmar-e# in%ona%ion DPs hea#e# b0 over% De%erminers an# in 5ar%icular sin!ular coun% in#efini%es are force# %o %a-e 9i#e sco5e 9i%h res5ec% %o ne!a%ion3
(<</ a$ N-am ci%i% un roman #e Tols%oi$ no%-have$+ rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 Gnl0 5ossible rea#in!3 >There is a novel b0 Tols%o0 9hich I haven?% rea#$? b$ N-am ci%i% un RG:AN #e Tols%oi no%-have$+ rea# a NGV7L b0 Tols%o0 >I haven?% rea# a sin!le novel b0 Tols%o0?
.1
'are Nouns
Par%s of %he in#efini%e can be in%er5re%e# in %he focus of %he ne!a%ion 5rovi#e# %ha% %he0 are con%ras%ivel0 s%resse#$ The al%erna%ive mus% usuall0 be e;5lici%l0 asser%e#$ Uhen i% is %he in#efini%e ar%icle %ha% is con%ras%ivel0 focuse# i% is in%er5re%e# as a numeral3 (i/ a$ N-am ci%i% DN roman #e Tols%oi (ci #ouL/$ no%-have$+ rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 bu% %9o >I haven?% rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 (bu% %9o/? b$ N-am ci%i% un RG:AN #e Tols%oi (ci o nuvelL/$ no%-have$+ rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 bu% a shor%-s%or0 >I haven?% rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 (bu% a shor% s%or0/?
If %he in#efini%e as a 9hole is ne!a%e# Focus s%ress canno% be assi!ne# bu% %he al%erna%ive mus% be asser%e# as in (ii/ (com5are (i/ 9here %he al%erna%ive ma0 be lef% uns5ecifie#/3 (ii/ N-am ci%i% un roman #e Tols%oi ci o nuvelL #e Dos%oievs-i$ no%-have$+ rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 bu% a shor% s%or0 b0 Dos%oievs-i >I haven?% rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 bu% a shor% s%or0 b0 Dos%oievs-i?
Ui%h an unmar-e# in%ona%ion sin!ular coun% in#efini%es canno% combine 9i%h ne!a%e# incor5ora%in! verbs %he use of 'Ss becomin! @uasi-obli!a%or0$ Com5are %he e;am5les in (<B/ belo9 9i%h %hose in (.1/ (.,/ 9here a 'S al%erna%es 9i%h an in#efini%e3
(<B/ a$ Ion nu are/ nu Mi-a cum5Lra% (Xun/ a5ar%amen%/ (Xo/ casL/ (Xo/ maMinL/ Ion no% has no% himself$DAT-has bou!h% an a5ar%men% a house a car (Xun/ calcula%or$ a com5u%er >Ion #oesn?% have/#i#n?% bu0 an a5ar%men%/a house/a car/a com5u%er? b$ AAi :aria nu 5oar%L (Xun/ 5an%alon/ (Xo/ 5LlLrie/ (Xo/ uniformL/(Xo/ 5oMe%L/ To#a0 :aria no% 9ears a 5an% a ha% a uniform a 5urse (Xo/ crava%L/ (Xo/ cLmaML/(Xo/ rochie scur%L a %ie a shir% a #ress shor% >To#a0 :aria isn?% 9earin! (a 5air of/ 5an%s/a ha%/a uniform/a 5urse/a %ie/a shir%/a shor% #ress? c$ Ion nu cau%L (Xo/ secre%arL/ (Xo/ nevas%L/(Xo/ femeie/(Xun/ 5rofesor/ (Xun/ bucL%ar$ Ion no% see-s a secre%ar0 a 9ife a 9oman a 5rofessor a coo>Ion #oesn?% loofor a secre%ar0/a 9ife/a 9oman/a 5rofessor/a coo-?
The unacce5%abili%0 of %he in#efini%e ar%icle in %hese e;am5les is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% 9i%h incor5ora%in! verbs s5ecific rea#in!s of in#efini%e ob6ec%s are mar-e# unusual com5are# %o %he non-s5ecific rea#in!s$ Uhenever a s5ecific or a 5ar%i%ive rea#in! is in%en#e# %he in#efini%e ar%icle mus% be use#$ Thus for houses %ha% are close# 9i%h %hree -e0s one ma0 sa0 (<C/ 9here o c!eie means >one of %he -e0s? ra%her %han >a -e0?3
(<C/ Nu 5o% in%ra fiin#cL nu am o cheie no% can$+SG en%er because no% have$+SG a -e0 >I canno% en%er because I #o no% have one -e0?
In sum usin! a bare noun ei%her sin!ular or 5lural is a 9a0 of in#ica%in! narro9es% 5ossible sco5e in 5ar%icular narro9 sco5e 9i%h res5ec% %o ne!a%ion$ The im5or%an% #ifference be%9een 'Ps an# 'Ss is %ha% 'Ss can be use# onl0 9i%h incor5ora%in! verbs$
%. Ba0e No1ns .n a3no6.nal 5os.t.ons
.2
'are Nouns
'are nouns an# in 5ar%icular 'Ss are also allo9e# in a#nominal 5osi%ions ei%her as mo#ifiers or as ar!umen%s of a N-hea#$ In bo%h cases %he0 mus% be 5rece#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion de (9e leave asi#e %hose con%e;%s in 9hich %he 'N is embe##e# in an a#nominal PP/ 9hich is 5resumabl0 nee#e# as a s0n%ac%ic le!i%imiAer (recall %ha% inflec%ional !eni%ive Case canno% be assi!ne# %o 'Ns in Romanian/$ In e;am5les such as (B=/ 'Ss #eno%e 5ro5er%ies %ha% mo#if0 %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 %he hea# noun (see cha5%er . *2 an# cha5%er B *2$1$+ for %he various meanin!s %hese PPs ma0 conve0/$
(B=/ hainL #e 6u#ecL%or #ress of 6u#!e >6u#!e #ress?
This use is also foun# 9i%h bare 5lurals3

(B+/ a$ !rL#iniRL #e co5ii !ar#en of chil#ren >-in#er!ar%en? b$ casL #e oas5eRi house of !ues%s >!ues% house?
No%e %ha% in a##i%ion %o %his use bare 5lurals an# bare mass nouns (in%ro#uce# b0 de/ bu% no% 'Ss ma0 also func%ion as ob6ec%s of #everbal nouns in com5le; even% nominaliAa%ions (see cha5%er ++/ in a mor5holo!0-#riven al%erna%ion 9i%h %he !eni%ive (as sho9n in cha5%er . sec%ion 1$1$+/$ Ar!umen%al 'Ns are s%ruc%urall0 #ifferen% from mo#ifier 'Ns3 %he0 occu50 an obli!a%or0 5osi%ion 9i%h com5le; even% nominaliAa%ions (see cha5%er ++/ an# %he0 are res%ric%e# %o 5lural an# mass 9hile mo#ifier de H 'Ns as 9e have seen ma0 have an0 number3
(B1/ a$ a#ucerea #e ca#ouri brin!$INF-%he of 5resen%s >%he brin!in! of 5resen%s? b$ Xa#ucerea #e ca#ou brin!$INF-%he of 5resen%
7ven nouns comin! from verbs 9hich allo9 'S ob6ec%s a55ear %o #isallo9 ar!umen%al 'Ss3
(B2/ a$ XcLu%area #e #oc%or search$INF-%he of #oc%or b$ XcLu%a%ul #e bucL%ar search$SDP-%he of cooc$ X5ur%a%ul #e 5LlLrie 9ear$SDP-%he of ha%
The #is%inc%ion be%9een ar!umen%al an# mo#if0in! a#nominal 'Ns ma0 corres5on# %o a ca%e!orial #is%inc%ion$ :o#if0in! 'Ns are %rul0 bare NPs 9hich lac- %he D-level of re5resen%a%ion$ Gn %he o%her han# 9e have seen %ha% %here are ar!umen%s in favor of %he DPanal0sis of 'Ns %ha% occu50 ar!umen%al 5osi%ions in %he sen%en%ial #omain3 s%ric%l0 s5ea-in! such 'Ns are no% bare NPs ra%her %he0 are !overne# b0 a cover% De%erminer$ This anal0sis seems %o e;%en# %o a#nominal ar!umen%al 'Ns$ The fac% %ha% 'Ss can a55ear in ar!umen% 5osi%ions in %he sen%en%ial #omain bu% no% in a#nominal ar!umen% 5osi%ions remains %o be .4
'are Nouns
e;5laine#$ :a0be %he nominal suffi; 5reven%s %he inser%ion of %he e;is%en%ial o5era%or$
&. Ba0e abst0a/t no1ns .n a0416ent 5os.t.ons

Abs%rac% nouns are allo9e# %o a55ear bare in %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion of cer%ain verbs3
(B4/ a$ AM%ea5%L #e la noi EnRele!ere Mi com5asiune $ 9ai%s from us un#ers%an#in! an# com5assion >(S/he e;5ec%s un#ers%an#in! an# com5assion from us? b$ Cau%L liniM%e$ see-s %ran@uili%0 >(S/he see-s %ran@uili%0? c$ Cere subal%ernilor 5unc%uali%a%e$ #eman#s subor#ina%es$DAT 5unc%uali%0 >(S/he #eman#s 5unc%uali%0 from his/her subor#ina%es? #$ Im5une subal%ernilor e;ac%i%a%e$ im5oses subor#ina%es$DAT e;ac%i%u#e >(S/he im5oses e;ac%i%u#e on his/her subor#ina%es? e$ Ne-a ceru% caAare$ us$DAT-has as-e# lo#!in!$? >(S/he as-e# us for lo#!in!?
The bare use of abs%rac% nouns is e;5ec%e# !iven %he fac% %ha% %he0 are com5arable %o mass nouns P for ins%ance %he0 allo9 @uan%i%0 5hrases (see (B,// P$ This 5ro5er%0 is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he0 have a scalar #imension (%he scale inheren% %o %he @uali%0/ on a 5ar 9i%h concre%e mass nouns 9hich have a scalar #imension corres5on#in! %o %he ammoun% of ma%%er$
(B,/ mul%L EnRele!ere /com5asiune/ liniM%e much un#ers%an#in! com5assion %ran@uili%0 >a lo% of un#ers%an#in!/com5assion/%ran@uili%0?
'are abs%rac% nouns can a55ear 5ro#uc%ivel0 in 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ions 9i%h im5ersonal S7-verbs in e;am5les %ha% are com5arable in in%er5re%a%ion %o %hose in (B4/3
(B4?/ a$ Se aM%ea5%L #e la noi EnRele!ere Mi com5asiune $ R7FL 9ai%s from us un#ers%an#in! an# com5assion >I% is e;5ec%e# from us (%o sho9/ un#ers%an#in! an# com5assion? b$ Se cau%L liniM%e$ R7FL see-s %ran@uili%0 >Tran@uili%0 is sou!h%? c$ Se cere subal%ernilor 5unc%uali%a%e$ R7FL #eman#s subor#ina%es-%he$DAT 5unc%uali%0 >Punc%uali%0 is #eman#e# from subor#ina%es? #$ Se im5une subal%ernilor e;ac%i%a%e$ R7FL im5oses subor#ina%es-%he$DAT e;ac%i%u#e >7;ac%i%u#e is im5ose# on subor#ina%es? e$ Ni s-a ceru% caAare$ us$DAT R7FL-has as-e# lo#!in!$? >Ue 9ere as-e# for lo#!in!$?
'are abs%rac% nouns also a55ear 9i%h su55or% verbs an# in i#ioma%ic e;5ressions3
.,
'are Nouns (B./ a$ a avea %im5 /nevoie/obicei %o have %ime nee# cus%om b$ a face s5or% /baie/ #ra!os%e/amor/ febrL /scan#al /curLRenie %o ma-e s5or% ba%h love love fever scan#al cleanin! c$ a 5rin#e cura6 /urL /ciu#L %o !a%her coura!e ha%e s5i%e
(. Ba0e S.n41la0s .n P0e3./ate Pos.t.ons. A /o65a0.son D.t8 S.n41la0 In3ef.n.tes

This sec%ion focuses on coun% bare sin!ulars in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions 9hich sho9 in%eres%in! con%ras%s 9i%h sin!ular in#efini%es$ No such con%ras%s e;is% for 'Ps 9hich are un#er#e%ermine# in %he sense %ha% %he0 can func%ion as %he 5lural coun%er5ar%s of ei%her 'Ss or sin!ular in#efini%es$ Sec%ion <$+ 5resen%s %he classes of nouns for 9hich coun% bare sin!ulars are 5ro#uc%ivel0 use# (ins%ea# of sin!ular in#efini%es/ in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions$ In %his con%e;% 'Ss func%ion as !enuine 5re#ica%es %heir #is%ribu%ion bein! 5arallel %o %he #is%ribu%ion of a#6ec%ives an# con%ras%in! 9i%h %he #is%ribu%ion of sin!ular in#efini%es$ 'Ss in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions can %herefore be anal0Ae# as bare NPs an# correla%ivel0 as #eno%in! 5ro5er%ies$ Co5ular sen%ences buil% 9i%h unmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es behave in a ver0 #ifferen% 9a0 9hich su!!es%s %ha% %he0 are no% 5re#ica%ional bu% ra%her i#en%ifica%ional/s5ecifica%ional sen%ences$ :o#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es as 9ell as unmo#ifie# in#efini%es %ha% e;5ress %he s5ea-er?s a%%i%u#e (e$!$ un clovn >a clo9n?% un imbecil >an i#io%?/ behave on a 5ar 9i%h 'Ss 9hich su!!es%s %ha% %he0 are sub6ec% %o a %05e-shif%in! rule$ (.1. Classes of no1ns Nouns %ha% refer %o 5rofessions roles social 5osi%ions or hobbies can a55ear 9i%hou% %he in#efini%e ar%icle 9hen %he0 occur as 5re#ica%es in co5ular sen%ences3
(B</ Ion e elev/ me#ic/ #ansa%or$ Ion is 5u5il #oc%or #ancer >Ion is a 5u5il/#oc%or/#ancer?
Nouns of %his %05e are s5ecial insofar as %he0 #escribe func%ions or roles of en%i%ies ra%her %han %he en%i%ies %ha% have %hose func%ions$ Com5are ob6ec%-referrin! nouns such as man% &oman% c!ild% bird% cat% c!air e%c$ 9hich #escribe en%i%ies ra%her %han %heir func%ions or roles$ In or#er %o #is%in!uish be%9een %hese %9o %05es of nouns 9e 9ill use %he labels > sortal. nouns 9hich #eno%e %he Bsortal. properties of en%i%ies (i$e$ %hose 5ro5er%ies %ha% charac%eriAe en%i%ies as belon!in! %o a cer%ain class sor% or -in# of ob6ec%s/ an# Brole. nouns 9hich #eno%e %heir func%ions or roles$ A !iven en%i%0 has onl0 one sor%al 5ro5er%0 bu% cer%ain en%i%ies ma0 have more %han one role3 %he same in#ivi#ual canno% be bo%h a man an# a 9oman (or if i% is bo%h i% is ano%her sor% of en%i%0 9hich is #efine# b0 %he con6unc%ion of %hose %9o sor%al 5ro5er%ies/ bu% he or she can be no% onl0 a #ancer bu% also a 5rofessor a la90er e%c$ The secon# class of nouns %ha% can a55ear 9i%hou% an ar%icle in co5ular sen%ences are rela%ional nouns3
(BB/ a$ 'Lia%ul Ls%a nu mi-e vLr /5rie%en /cole!$ bo0-%he %his no% me$DAT-is cousin frien# collea!ue >This bo0 is no% m0 cousin/frien#/collea!ue? b$ Ion nu e vLr 5rie%en cole! cu mine / cu :aria$
..
'are Nouns Ion no% is cousin frien# collea!ue 9i%h me >Ion is no% m0/:aria?s cousin/frien#/collea!ue? 9i%h :aria
No%e %ha% %he ar!umen% of %he rela%ional noun can be ei%her a full DP as in (BBb/ or a mo#if0in! bare NP in%ro#uce# b0 de3
(BC/ Ion e fiu #e avoca%$ Ion is son of la9er >Ion is a son of la90er?
Finall0 nouns such as candidat >can#i#a%e? or pri(onier >5risoner? 9hich refer %o a 5ar%ici5an% %o an even% can also a55ear bare3
(C=/ a$ Ion e can#i#a% la munici5ale$ Ion is can#i#a%e %o munici5als >Ion is can#i#a%e %o munici5al elec%ions? b$ Ion e 5riAonier #e #oi ani$ Ion is 5risoner of %9o 0ears >Ion has been a 5risoner for %9o 0ears (no9/?
The %05e of #a%a #escribe# so far can be foun# in all Romance lan!ua!es inclu#in! French$ French is in%eres%in! insofar as i% allo9s coun% bare sin!ulars an# coun% bare 5lurals in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions bu% no% in ar!umen% 5osi%ions (9here des mus% be use# 9i%h coun% 5lurals an# un$une >a:ASC/F7:? is obli!a%or0 9i%h coun% sin!ulars 9i%h %he onl0 e;ce5%ion of li!h% verbs an# i#ioms/$ The case of French s%ron!l0 su!!es%s %ha% bare nouns in ar!umen% 5osi%ions canno% be anal0Ae# in %he same 9a0 as bare nouns in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions$
Romanian #iffers from mos% of %he o%her Romance lan!ua!es in %ha% even sor%al nouns such as cat% do % c!air e%c$ can be use# bare in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions$ Uhen %he0 #o so %he0 are in%er5re%e# as >be of %he -in# #o!? or >have %he -in#-5ro5er%0 #o!?3
(C+/ a$ 7l e EncL co5il$ he is s%ill chil# >Oe is s%ill a chil#? b$ Ninou e 5a5a!al Mi :inou e 5isicL$ Ninou is 5arro% an# :inou is ca% >Ninou is a 5arro% an# :inou is a ca%? c$ Aces% obiec% ciu#a% e scaun$ %his ob6ec% s%ran!e is chair >This s%ran!e ob6ec% is a chair? #$ Cre# cL 5asLrea #e-acolo e rWn#unicL %hin-$+SG %ha% bir#-%he of-%here is s9allo9 >I %hin- %ha% bir# over %here is a s9allo9?
(.2. T8e .nte0nal 6a>e+15 of Ba0e S.n41la0s an3 S.n41la0 In3ef.n.tes Nominal 5re#ica%es nee# no% be bare$ Thus e;am5les such as (B</ an# (C+/ al%erna%e 9i%h %hose in (C1/ an# (C2/ 9here a sin!ular in#efini%e !overne# b0 an over% ar%icle is 5resen%3
(C1/ (C2/ Ion e un elev/ me#ic/ #ansa%or$ Ion is a 5u5il #oc%or #ancer >Ion is a 5u5il/#oc%or/#ancer? a$ 7l e EncL un co5il$ he is s%ill a chil#
.<
'are Nouns >Oe is s%ill a chil#? b$ Ninou e un 5a5a!al Mi :inou e o 5isicL$ Ninou is a 5arro% an# :inou is a ca% >Ninou is a 5arro% an# :inou is a ca%? c$ Aces% obiec% ciu#a% e un scaun$ %his ob6ec% s%ran!e is a chair >This s%ran!e ob6ec% is a chair? #$ Aceas%L 5asLre e o rWn#unicL$ This bir#-%he is a s9allo9 >This bir# is a s9allo9?
In 9ha% follo9s 9e 9ill e;amine %he #ifferences be%9een nominal 5re#ica%es 9i%h an# 9i%hou% an ar%icle$ (.2.1. A0416ents of DP+.nte0nal No1ns an3 a0416ents of Ba0e No1ns Ui%h rela%ional nouns %he 5resence versus absence of %he ar%icle #e5en#s on %he mor5hos0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he secon# ar!umen% of %he rela%ion$ No%e %ha% %he e;am5les in (BB/ re5ea%e# belo9 in 9hich %he secon# ar!umen% is realiAe# as a Da%ive or in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion &it! are buil% 9i%h a bare noun$ If %he in#efini%e ar%icle is inser%e# %he e;am5les become un!ramma%ical3
(BB/ a$ 'Lia%ul Ls%a nu mi-e vLr /5rie%en /cole!$ bo0-%he %his no% me$DAT-is cousin frien# collea!ue >This bo0 is no% m0 cousin/frien#/collea!ue? b$ Ion nu e vLr 5rie%en/ cole! cu mine/ cu :aria$ Ion no% is cousin frien# collea!ue 9i%h me 9i%h :aria >Ion is no% m0/:aria?s cousin/frien#/collea!ue? (BB?/ a$ X'Lia%ul Ls%a nu mi-e un vLr /un 5rie%en/un cole!$ bo0-%he %his no% me$DAT-is a cousin a frien# a collea!ue b$ XIon nu e un vLr /un 5rie%en /un cole! cu mine/ cu :aria$ Ion no% is a cousin a frien# a collea!ue 9i%h me 9i%h :aria0
The un!ramma%icali%0 of %hese e;am5les is no% rela%e# %o %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion$ The e;am5les belo9 illus%ra%e %he same 5rohibi%ion for %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion 9i%h #e%erminers such as %he in#efini%e ar%icle %he #emons%ra%ive an# %he #efini%e ar%icle3
(C4/ a$ XAm gvLAu% En%Wlni%h un 5rie%en glui Ion cu Ionh$ have$+ seen me% a frien# G'L Ion 9i%h Ionh b$ XAm gvLAu% En%Wlni%h aces% 5rie%en glui Ion cu Ionh$ have$+ seen me% %his frien# G'L Ion 9i%h Ion c$ XAm gvLAu% En%Wlni%h 5rie%enul gcu Ionh$ have$+ seen me% frien#-%he 9i%h Ion
The !eneraliAa%ion un#erl0in! %his %05e of un!ramma%icali%0 concerns %he in%ernal ma-e-u5 of nominal cons%i%uen%s 3 Da%ive DPs an# &it!- PPs canno% occu50 DP-in%ernal 5osi%ions re!ar#less of 9he%her %he DP occu5ies a 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion as in (BB/ or an ar!umen% 5osi%ion as in (C4/ an# re!ar#less of %he %05e of De%erminer (bu% see %he Remar- a% %he en# of %his subsec%ion/$ No%e also %ha% %he same 5rohibi%ion hol#s for ar!umen%al 'Ps 9hich s%ron!l0 su!!es%s %ha% %hese nominal 5ro6ec%ions are DPs (ra%her %han bare NPs or bare NumPs/3
(C,/ a$ XI-am gvLAu% / En%Wlni%h 5rie%eni lui Ion$ him$DAT-have$+ seen me% frien#s G'L Ion
.B
'are Nouns b$ XAm gvLAu% / En%Wlni%h 5rie%eni gcu Ionh$ have$+ seen me% frien#s 9i%h Ion
The un!ramma%icali%0 of (C,/a-b con%ras%s 9i%h %he !ramma%icali%0 of %he e;am5les in (C./ 9hich sho9 %ha% 'Ps in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions allo9 Da%ive-mar-e# ar!umen%s as 9ell as PPs hea#e# b0 cu >9i%h?3
(C./ a$ 'LieRii LM%ia nu-mi sun% veri/ 5rie%eni cole!i$ bo0s-%he %hese no%-me$DAT are cousins frien#s collea!ues >These bo0s are no% m0 cousins/frien#s/collea!ues? b$ Ion Mi Dan nu-s veri/ 5rie%eni / cole!i cu mine/ cu :aria$ Ion an# Dan no%-are cousins frien#s collea!ues 9i%h me 9i%h :aria >Ion an# Dan are no% m0/:aria?s cousins/frien#s/collea!ues?
This arra0 of #a%a in#ica%e %ha% 9hen %he0 are cons%ruc%e# 9i%h Da%ives an# 9i%h-PPs 'Ss an# 'Ps in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions (see (BB/ an# (C./ res5ec%ivel0/ are no% DPs (if %he0 9ere %hese e;am5les 9oul# be un!ramma%ical/ bu% ra%her bare NPs$ This con%ras% su55or%s %hus %he anal0sis of 'Ss in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions in !eneral as NPs$ The Number fea%ure i%self is no% an in%er5re%able fea%ure of %he nominal 5re#ica%e bu% ra%her is inheri%e# from %he sub6ec% DP via a!reemen%$ 'Ps in ar!umen% 5osi%ions on %he o%her han# behave on a 5ar 9i%h full DPs insofar as %he0 #isallo9 Da%ives an# &it!-PPs$ To conclu#e bare nominals in co5ular sen%ences are allo9e# %o %a-e %he same %05e of ar!umen%s an# mo#ifiers e$!$ Da%ives an# PPs as o%her clausal 5re#ica%es such as verbs or a#6ec%ives$ Ue ma0 sa0 %ha% such cons%i%uen%s canno% be syntactically le!i%ima%e# b0 %he noun qua ob6ec%-#escribin! 5re#ica%e (al%hou!h %he0 ma0 be selec%e# b0 %he noun in o%her 9or#s %he0 ma0 be ar!umen%s of %he noun/ bu% ra%her b0 %he noun qua clausal 5re#ica%e$ The un!ramma%icali%0 of %he e;am5les buil% 9i%h sin!ular in#efini%es (see XHX/ s%ron!l0 su!!es%s %ha% sin!ular in#efini%es in 5os%co5ular 5osi%ions #o no% func%ion as !enuine clausal 5re#ica%es bu% ra%her as DPs$ No%e also %ha% bare rela%ional nouns such as %hose in (C./ #isallo9 !eni%ive DPs 9hile %he corres5on#in! sin!ular in#efini%es allo9 %hem3
(C</ 'Lia%ul Ls%a nu e X(un/ vLr / 5rie%en/ cole! al lui$ bo0-%he %his no% is a cousin frien# collea!ue G7N his >This bo0 is no% a cousin/frien#/collea!ue of his?
This res%ric%ion is no% foun# 9i%h o%her 'Ss %a-in! com5lemen%s3 (i/ 7l e #e mulRi ani a#minis%ra%or al uAinei / an!a6a% al com5aniei he is of man0 0ears a#minis%ra%or G7N 5lan%-%he$G7N em5lo0ee G7N com5an0-%he$G7N >Oe has been a 5lan% a#minis%ra%or /com5an0 em5lo0ee for man0 0ears?
(.2.2. P0e5os.t.onal an3 a32e0b.al a371n/ts A similar al%erna%ion be%9een a 'S an# an in#efini%e can be foun# 9i%h 5rofession names 3
(CB/ a$ Ion e (Xun/ 5rofesor En 'ucureM%i/ la RarL$ Ion is a 5rofessor in 'uchares% a% coun%r0si#e >Ion is a %eacher in 'uchares%/a% %he coun%r0si#e? b$ Ion e X(un/ 5rofesor #in 'ucureM%i/ #e la RarL$ Ion is a 5rofessor from 'uchares% of a% coun%r0si#e >Ion is a %eacher from 'uchares%/from %he coun%r0si#e?
In or#er %o #escribe %he #a%a in (CB/a-b 9e mus% recall %ha% in Romanian 5re5osi%ional .C
'are Nouns
a#6unc%s mus% be 5rece#e# b0 de 9henever %he0 occur in a#nominal 5osi%ions ne;% %o an en%i%0-#eno%in! noun 3
(CC/ a$ Ion are/ a vLAu% Yo casLZ YEn 'ucureM%i/ la mareZ$ Ion has has seen a house in 'uchares% a% sea >Ion has/has seen a house in 'uchares%/b0 %he sea? b$ YCasa lui Ion #in ([ #e HEn/ 'ucureM%i / #e la mareZ$ house-%he G7N Ion from ([ of H in/ 'uchares% of a% sea >Ion?s house in/from 'uchares%/b0 %he sea?
Since in (CB/a %he PP is no% 5rece#e# b0 de i% canno% be le!i%ima%e# in a DP-in%ernal 5osi%ion I %his e;5lains 9h0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle is e;clu#e#$ If %he noun remains bare i% ma0 func%ion as a clausal 5re#ica%e (ra%her %han as a DP-in%ernal 5re#ica%e/ an# as such i% can le!i%ima%e %he PP$ Conversel0 PPs 5rece#e# b0 de are of necessi%0 DP-in%ernal an# %herefore %he in#efini%e ar%icle is nee#e# (see (CB/b/$ No%e %ha% %he same al%erna%ion can be foun# 9i%h sor%al i$e$ ob6ec%-referrin! nouns$ The onl0 com5lica%in! fac%or is %ha% sor%al nouns are com5a%ible 9i%h DP-e;%ernal PPs onl0 in con%ras%ive con%e;%s3
(+==/ a$ :iRu e (Xo/ 5isicL la oraM si (Xun/ cWine la RarL$ :iRu is a ca% a% ci%0 an# a #o! in coun%r0si#e >:iRu is a ca% in %he ci%0 an# a #o! a% %he coun%r0si#e? b$ :iRu e o 5isicL #e la oraM$ :iRu is a ca% of a% ci%0$ >:iRu is a ci%0 ca%?
Tem5oral a#verbials 9i%hou% de can be use# onl0 DP-e;%ernall0 an# correla%ivel0 %he noun (9hich can be of an0 %05e/ mus% be bare3
(+=+/ a$ Prie%enul meu e (Xun/ s%u#en% Aiua Mi (Xun/ #is--6oc-e0 noa5%ea$ frien#-%he m0 is a s%u#en% #a0-%he an# a DN ni!h%-%he >:0 frien# is a s%u#en% #urin! %he #a0 an# a DN #urin! %he ni!h%? b$ Gol#ora- e (Xun/ miel Aiua Mi (Xun/ lu5 noa5%ea$ Gol#oea- is a lamb #a0-%he an# a 9olf ni!h%-%he >Gol#oea- is a lamb #urin! %he #a0 an# a 9olf #urin! %he ni!h%?
The use of bare sor%al nouns illus%ra%e# here has a clear seman%ic effec%3 %he sub6ec% mus% be in%er5re%e# as some fan%as%ic crea%ure %ha% has %he !if% of me%amor5hosis$ Uha% is 5ar%icularl0 in%eres%in! is %ha% %he 5resence of sen%en%ial a#verbials coerces sor%al 5ro5er%ies 9hich are necessaril0 s%able viA$ 5ermanen% in%o s-level (%em5orar0/ 5ro5er%ies 9hich are incom5a%ible 9i%h %he 5resence of an in#efini%e ar%icle$
Re6a0> +$ In e;am5les of %he %05e in (/ bare sor%al nouns are allo9e# even in %he o%her Romance lan!ua!es 9hich are curren%l0 #escribe# as #isallo9in! %hem in %he 5os%co5ular 5osi%ion$ Re6a0> 2. The !eneraliAa%ion %ha% Da%ives loca%ive an# &it!- PPs an# a#verbials canno% be DPin%ernal hol#s for en%i%0-referrin! DPs$ 7ven%-referrin! DPs 9hich are no% #irec%l0 relevan% here allo9 %hem (see Cha5%er ++ P Deverbal nouns/3 Prie%enia cu Ion nu #uce la nimic bun$ frien#shi5-%he 9i%h Ion no% lea#s %o no%hin! !oo# >'ein! frien#s 9i%h Ion #oesn?% lea# %o an0%hin! !oo#? Nas%erea En 'ucureM%i ERi oferL mari avan%a6e$ bir%h-%he in 'uchares% 0ou$DAT offers bi! a#van%a!es >'ein! born in 'uchares% offers 0ou !rea% a#van%a!es?
(i/ (ii/
<=
'are Nouns
(.2.3. Mo3.f.e0s an3 A0416ents of Ba0e S.n41la0s Consi#er no9 %he case of bare 5re#ica%es accom5anie# b0 a#6ec%ives3
(+=1/ a$ Ion e un me#ic !eneralis%/ cins%i%/ care are 5es%e ,= ani$ Ion is a #oc%or !eneralis% hones% 9ho has over ,= 0ears >Ion is a !eneralis% #oc%or/ an hones% #oc%or/ a #oc%or 9ho has over ,= 0ears? b$ Ion e me#ic !eneralis%/Xcins%i%/Xcare are 5es%e ,= ani$ Ion is #oc%or !eneralis% hones% 9ho has over ,= 0ears c$ Pe%re e 5rofesor #e ma%ema%icL/ #ansa%or #e %an!o$ Pe%re is %eacher of ma%hema%ics #ancer of %an!o >Pe%re is a ma%h %eacher/%an!o #ancer?
These e;am5les seem %o sho9 %ha% onl0 classif0in! a#6ec%ives an# PPs can mo#if0 a coun% bare sin!ular 0iel#in! reference %o more s5ecific roles func%ions 5rofessions e%c$ No%e ho9ever %ha% in cer%ain con%e;%s 'Ss in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions can be mo#ifie# b0 a#6ec%ives %ha% are no% classif0in!3
(+=2/ a$ Paul e avoca% bun$ Paul is la90er !oo# >Paul is a !oo# la90er? b$ Ion e 5rofesor 5ros%$ Ion is %eacher ba# >Ion is a ba# %eacher? c$ :aria e 5ianis%L bunL$ :aria is 5ianis% !oo# >:aria is a !oo# 5ianis%? #$ Ion e 5ensionar %WnLr$ Ion is re%ire# 0oun! >Ion is a 0oun! re%ire# 5erson?
In %hese e;am5les ood la&yer bad professor or ood pianist are no% sub%05es of 5rofessionI ho9ever %hese a#6ec%ives are no% in%ersec%ive ei%her3 e;am5le (a/ #oes no% mean %ha% Paul is bo%h a la90er an# !oo# a% hear% bu% onl0 %ha% he is !oo# as a la90er$ No%e finall0 %ha% %hese e;am5les #o no% im5l0 %ha% %he sub6ec%s are 5rofessional la90ers or 5ianis%s %he0 ma0 be un#ers%oo# as havin! %hose roles as hobbies$ :oreover %he a#6ec%ive seems %o 5rovi#e %he ne9 informa%ion of %he sen%ence$ Thus @ues%ions of %he %05e in (+=4/ 9hich are @ues%ions re!ar#in! 5rofessions canno% be ans9ere# 9i%h %his %05e of mo#ifie# 'SI onl0 classif0in! mo#ifiers are allo9e#3
(+=4/ a$ Ce e Ion K 9ha% is Ion >Uha% is Ion? b$ Ion e 5rofesor (#e ma%ema%icL/$ Ion is %eacher of ma%hema%ics >Ion is a (ma%h/ %eacher? c$ mIon e 5rofesor bun$ Ion is %eacher !oo# >Ion is a !oo# %eacher?
The in%ui%ive rea#in! associa%e# %o e;am5les of %he %05e in (+=2/ can be 5ara5hrase# b0 >Paul is !oo# as a la90er? e%c$ Similar e;am5les can be buil% 9i%h rela%ional nouns3
<+
'are Nouns (+=,/ :aria va fi mamL bL%rWnL$ :aria 9ill be mo%her ol# >:aria 9ill become mo%her ol#?
Cer%ain @uasi-i#ioms are anal0Aable in a similar 9a03

(+=./ a$ :aria e fa%L bL%rWnL$ :aria is !irl ol# >:aria is a s5ins%er? b$ Ion e %a%L %WnLr$ Ion is fa%her 0oun! >Ion is a 0oun! fa%her?
(.3. TDo t95es of /o51la0 senten/es The observa%ions ma#e in %he 5revious sec%ion clearl0 in#ica%e %ha% %he 5re#ica%e nominals a55earin! in co5ular sen%ences ma0 be ei%her bare NPs or DPs$ Ue ma0 9on#er 9he%her %his #ifference correla%es 9i%h a #ifference be%9een %9o %05es of co5ular sen%ences or 9he%her some %05e-shif%in! mechanism can be 5os%ula%e# 9hich shif%s a DP-%05e #eno%a%ion (%05e e/ occurrin! in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion %o a 5re#ica%e-%05e #eno%a%ion (%05e ee %f/$ No%e %ha% if %05eshif%in! 9ere a% 9or- for sin!ular in#efini%es 9e 9oul# no% e;5ec% %he choice of a 'S versus a sin!ular in#efini%e %o #e5en# on %he lar!er con%e;%3 a DP 9oul# func%ion as a 5re#ica%e as soon as 9e combine# i% 9i%h %he co5ula$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e sho9 %ha% sin!ular in#efini%e DPs %ha% are buil% 9i%h a non-mo#ifie# noun (e$!0% un actor >an ac%or?% un student >a s%u#en%?% e%c$/ occurrin! in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions cannot be shif%e# %o a 5ro5er%0-%05e of #eno%a%ion 0iel#in! clear con%ras%s 9i%h bare Ns$ Oo9ever %hese con%ras%s are much less clear viA$ #isa55ear 9hen %he sin!ular in#efini%e is buil% 9i%h an a#nominal mo#ifier (e$!$ un actor bun >a !oo# ac%or? un student silitor >a har#-9or-in! s%u#en%? e%c$/ 9hich su!!es%s %ha% %his -in# of sin!ular in#efini%es can be shif%e# %o 5ro5er%0-%05e #eno%a%ion$ The 5ro5er%0 #eno%a%ion also a55ears 9i%h cer%ain unmo#ifie# nouns #eno%in! @uali%ies such as un dobitoc >an i#io%? un eniu >a !enius? an# 9i%h o%her nouns in a me%a5horical use 9here %he0 #eno%e (sub6ec%ive/ scalar @uali%ies (see <$2$2 belo9/$ These em5irical !eneraliAa%ions 5oin% %o %he necessi%0 of #is%in!uishin! be%9een %9o %05es of co5ular sen%ences$ Co5ular sen%ences buil% 9i%h bare sin!ulars (as 9ell as %hose buil% 9i%h mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es/ rel0 on !enuine 5re#ica%ion 9hereas co5ular sen%ences buil% 9i%h unmo#ifie# in#efini%es are %o be anal0Ae# as (a 5ar%icular %05e of/ i#en%ifica%ional sen%ences$ '0 a >!enuine? rule of 5re#ica%ion 9e mean %ha% %he sen%ence asser%s %ha% %he sub6ec% has %he 5ro5er%0 (or %he 5rofession role/ or en%er%ains %he rela%ion #escribe# b0 %he 5re#ica%e$ In i#en%ifica%ional sen%ences on %he o%her han# %he sub6ec% refers %o a 0e% noni#en%ifie# en%i%0 (9hich has no 5ro5er%0 o%her %han %he (sor%al/ 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 i%s nominal #escri5%ion/ %ha% is i#en%ifie# %o %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he 5re#ica%e$ (.3.1. P0e3./at.onal senten/es In %his sec%ion 9e enumera%e %he con%e;%s in 9hich a clear con%ras% a55ears be%9een bare sin!ulars 9hich are allo9e# an# sin!ular in#efini%es 9hich are rule# ou%$ This con%ras% can be anal0Ae# b0 sa0in! %ha% %he relevan% con%e;%s re@uire a !enuine 5re#ica%ion rela%ion$ For each class of e;am5les 9e sho9 %ha% mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es are allo9e# 9hich in#ica%es %ha% %05e-shif%in! from en%i%0- %o 5ro5er%0-#eno%a%ion is 5ossible 5rovi#e# %ha% %he noun is mo#ifie#$
<1
'are Nouns
; P0e3./ate 5os.t.on of s6all /la1ses In %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion of small clauses 'Ss are allo9e# 9hereas sin!ular in#efini%es are #isallo9e#$ The fac% %ha% %his 5osi%ion allo9s !enuine 5re#ica%ion is in#ica%e# b0 %he 5ossibili%0 of o%her %05es of 5os%-co5ular 5re#ica%es e$!$ a#6ec%ives or PPs$ The e;am5le in (+=<_/ sho9s %ha% a mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%e can func%ion as %he 5re#ica%e of a small clause3
(+=</ a$ 7u El cre#eam/ soco%eam (Xun/ 5rofesor$ I him$ACC %hou!h% consi#ere# a %eacher >I consi#ere# him a %eacher? b$ 7u El cre#eam #eM%e5%$ I him$ACC %hou!h% smar% >I consi#ere# him smar%? c$ 7u El cre#eam En 5rime6#ie$ I him$ACC %hou!h% in #an!er >I consi#ere# him in #an!er? #$ 7u El cre#eam la Paris I him$ACC %hou!h% a% Paris >I consi#ere# him in Paris? (+=<_/ 7u El soco%eam un 5rofesor bun$ I him$ACC consi#ere# a %eacher !oo# >I consi#ere# him a !oo# %eacher?
Dnmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es are acce5%able for nouns #eno%in! (scalar/ @uali%ies3
(+=B/ a$ Te consi#er un #obi%oc 0ou$ACC consi#er$+SG an i#io% >I consi#er 0ou an i#io%? b$ `l soco%eam un !eniu him$ACC consi#ere#$+SG a !enius >I consi#ere# him a !enius?
G%her nouns ma0 behave in %he same 9a0 9hen %he0 are me%a5horicall0 use# meanin! >li-e an N havin! %he 5ro5er%ies of an N?3
(+=C/ `l soco%ea un come#ian / un clovn him$ACC consi#ere#$2SG a come#ian a clo9n >Oe consi#ere# him a comic/a clo9n?
n Se/on3a09 50e3./ates Secon#ar0 5re#ica%ion bearin! on %he sub6ec% is ano%her con%e;% in 9hich 'Ss con%ras% 9i%h unmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es$ A!ain mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es as 9ell as %hose #eno%in! scalar @uali%ies are acce5%able3
(++=/ Ion s-a nLscu% (Xun/ 5rinR Mi a muri% (Xun/ cerMe%or$ Ion R7FL-has born a 5rince an# has #ie# a be!!ar >Nohn 9as born a 5rince an# #ie# a be!!ar? (+++/ Ion s-a nLscu% un 5rinR bo!a% Mi a muri% un cerMe%or sLrac$ Ion R7FL-has born a 5rince rich an# has #ie# a be!!ar 5oor >Ion 9as born a rich 5rince an# #ie# a 5oor be!!ar? (++1/ Ion s-a nLscu% un !eniu Mi a muri% un #obi%oc$ Ion R7FL-has born a !enius an# has #ie# an i#io% >Ion 9as born a !enius an# #ie# an i#io%?
<2
'are Nouns
n -1ant.f./at.onal s1b7e/ts3 The e;am5les in (++2/ sho9 %ha% 'Ss can be 5re#ica%e# of @uan%ifica%ional sub6ec%s 9hereas sin!ular unmo#ifie# in#efini%es canno% #o so (9i%h %he e;ce5%ion no%e# above see (c//3
(++2/ a$ Nimeni nu e (Xun/ ac%or$ nobo#0 no% is an ac%or >Nobo#0 is an ac%or? b$ Gricine 5oa%e fi (Xun/ me#ic$ an0bo#0 can be a #oc%or >An0bo#0 can be a #oc%or? c$ Nu oricine 5oa%e fi un !eniu$ no% an0bo#0 can be a !enius >No% an0bo#0 can be a !enius?
8uan%ifie# e;5ressions #eno%e !eneraliAe# @uan%ifiers i$e$ se%s of 5ro5er%ies ra%her %han en%i%ies an# %herefore %he main 5re#ica%e 9i%h 9hich %he0 combine #eno%es a 5ro5er%0$ The un!ramma%icali%0 of unmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es in#ica%es %ha% %hese e;5ressions canno% be anal0Ae# as #eno%in! 5ro5er%ies$ This un!ramma%icali%0 ma0 be e;5laine# un#er %he assum5%ions %ha% %he0 #eno%e en%i%ies an# %he i#en%ifica%ional co5ula re@uires an en%i%0 #eno%a%ion in bo%h ar!umen%s of %he rela%ion 9hich e;clu#es !eneraliAe# @uan%ifiers as sub6ec%s$ :o#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es are never%heless acce5%able in %he same con%e;%3
(++4/ a$ Nimeni nu e un ac%or #esLvWrMi% 5WnL nu 6oacL Re!ele Lear$ nobo#0 no% is an ac%or accom5lishe# before no% 5la0s Sin! Lear >Noone is an accom5lishe# ac%or un%il he 5la0s Sin! Lear? b$ Gricine 5oa%e fi un me#ic bun #acL M%ie sL vorbeascL cu bolnavii$ an0bo#0 can be a #oc%or !oo# if -no9s SD'N s5ea9i%h ill-5eo5le-%he >An0one can be a !oo# #oc%or is (s/he -no9s %o %al- %o %he sic-?
; Ante/e3ents of /eea /e GD8./8H E.n non+0est0./t.2e 0elat.2e /la1sesF The e;am5les in (++,/ can be un#ers%oo# b0 assumin! %ha% ceea ce >9hich? can onl0 resume a 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ression$ Gnce a!ain 'Ss as 9ell as mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es func%ion as 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! 9hereas unmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es canno% #o so3
(++,/ a$ Ion e (Xun/ me#ic ceea ce eu nu voi fi nicio#a%L$ Ion is a #oc%or 9hich I no% 9ill be never >Ion is a #oc%or some%hin! I 9ill never be? b$ :aria e in%eli!en%L ceea ce eu nu voi fi nicio#a%L$ :aria is smar% 9hich I no% 9ill be never >:aria is smar% some%hin! I 9ill never be? c$ Ion e (un/ me#ic bun ceea ce eu nu voi fi nicio#a%L$ Ion is a #oc%or !oo# 9hich I no% 9ill be never >Ion is a !oo# #oc%or some%hin! I 9ill never be?
; Qua senten/es @ua-mo#ifiers can be use# 9i%h 'Ss because %hese e;5ressions #eno%e roles 5rofessions e%c$ bu% no% 9i%h sin!ular in#efini%es 9hich #eno%e en%i%ies %ha% have a cer%ain role or 5rofession3
(++./ a$ Ion e #e 5rofesie (Xun/ avoca% Ion is of 5rofession a la90er
<4
'are Nouns >Ion is a la90er? b$ Ca reli!ie Ion e (Xun/ creM%in$ As reli!ion Ion is a Chris%ian >As for his reli!ion Ion is a Chris%ian?
In %his case mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es are also un!ramma%ical3

(++</ XIon e #e 5rofesie un avoca% bun$ Ion is of 5rofession a la90er !oo#
This is e;5ec%e#3 #ue %o %05e-shif%in! mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es #eno%e %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! a !oo#/ba# la90er bu% %he0 canno% #eno%e %he 5rofession of !oo#/ba# la90er$ (.3.2. I3ent.f./at.onal+s5e/.f./at.onal senten/es Ue have so far !iven a ne!a%ive charac%eriAa%ion of 5os%co5ular unmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es3 %he0 canno% func%ion as !enuine 5re#ica%es i$e$ as 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ressions$ Ue shoul# no9 %urn %o a 5osi%ive charac%eriAa%ion3 (i/ 9ha% are %he con%e;%s in 9hich %he0 are allo9e#K (ii/ 9ha% %05e of rela%ion is es%ablishe# be%9een %he sub6ec% an# a 5os%co5ular sin!ular in#efini%eK Uhen %he0 are no% mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es can be use# as 5re#ica%es onl0 in a res%ric%e# number of con%e;%s3 ; AnsDe0s to cine+I1est.ons In cine-@ues%ions %he 5os%co5ular DP is a sub6ec% %ha% refers %o an en%i%0 %ha% is no% 0e% i#en%ifie# b0 %he s5ea-er (%he @ues%ioner/I cine >9ho? i%self is %he 5re#ica%e of %he @ues%ion3
(++B/ Cine e :aria K 9ho is :aria >Uho is :ariaK?
The 5re#ica%ional s%a%us of cine is clear 9hen 9e consi#er %he ans9ers %o cine-@ues%ions3
(++C/ a$ :aria e sora mea$ :aria is sis%er-%he m0 >:aria is m0 sis%er? b$ :aria e o cole!L #e-a mea$ :aria is a collea!ue of-G7N mine >:aria is a collea!ue of mine? c$ :aria e o 5rofesoarL$ :aria is a %eacher(F7:/ >:aria is a %eacher? #$ m:aria e 5rofesoarL$ :aria is %eacher(F7:/ >:aria is %eacher?
In %hese sen%ences %he 5os%co5ular DPs 9hich re5lace cine >9ho? are 5re#ica%es$ An# since %he sub6ec%-5re#ica%e 5ar%i%ion is 5resumabl0 %he same in @ues%ion-ans9er 5airs 9e are le# %o anal0Ae cine as a 5re#ica%e$ No%e %ha% %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion of &!o-@ues%ions canno% hos% referen%ial #efini%e e;5ressions (unless &!o is in%er5re%e# as &!ic! i$e$ D-lin-e# see %he #iscussion 5rece#in! e;am5les (+11/ or as >9ha% is %he im5or%an% 5erson %ha% ; is?$$$/3
<,
'are Nouns (+1=/ a$ (X/ Cine e fra%ele luiK 9ho is bro%her-%he his >Uho is his bro%herK? b$ (X/ Cine e vecinul K 9ho is nei!hbor-%he >Uho is %he nei!hborK? (9i%h non-D-lin-e# cine/
'esi#es 5ro5er names %he onl0 DPs %ha% are allo9e# in cine-@ues%ions are a%%ribu%ive #efini%es an# DPs 9i%h referen%s i#en%ifie# b0 #ei;is 9hose i#en%i%0 is un-no9n3
(+1+/ a$ Cine e asasinul lui Ion K 9ho is assassin-%he G'L Ion >Uho is Ion?s mur#ererK? b$ Cine e aces% omK 9ho is %his man >Uho is %his manK?
No%e %ha% %he 5ro5er names %ha% are use# in cine-@ues%ions can %hemselves be vie9e# as a%%ribu%ive bein! 5ara5hrasable b0 >%he 5erson calle# :aria?3
(++B?/ Cine e (5ersoana care se numeM%e/ :aria K 9ho is 5erson 9hich R7FL calls :aria >Uho is (%he 5erson name#/ :ariaK?
These res%ric%ions in#ica%e %ha% in cine-@ues%ions %he sub6ec% DP can onl0 refer %o a no% 0e% i#en%ifie# en%i%0 9hich %he hearer is ur!e# %o i#en%if0/s5ecif0$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e 9ill refer %o such sen%ences as identificational/specificational sen%ences$ Uhenever cine >9ho? is in%er5re%e# as >9hich (one/? (b0 bein! D-lin-e# or over%l0 mo#ifie# b0 cer%ain a#verbials e$!$ cine aici de fa >9ho here 5resen%? >9ho amon! %he 5eo5le here?/ %he sen%ences in (+1=/ become acce5%able$ This observa%ion is no% sur5risin! !iven %he fac% %ha% care-@ues%ions (>9hich?-@ues%ions/ allo9 referen%ial sub6ec%s 3
(+11/ a$ Care e fra%ele avoca%uluiK 9hich is bro%her-%he la90er-%he$G7N >Uho is %he la90er?s bro%herK? b$ Care e vecinulK 9hich is nei!hbor-%he >Uhich is %he nei!hborK?
This observa%ion su!!es%s %ha% care-sen%ences are no% i#en%ifica%ional bu% ra%her i#en%i%0 sen%ences 9hich es%ablish an i#en%i%0 rela%ion be%9een %9o e@uall0 i#en%ifie# referen%ial e;5ressions$ The res%ric%ion %o a%%ribu%ive #efini%e DPs observe# above for cine >9ho?- @ues%ions can also be observe# for co5ular sen%ences buil% 9i%h unmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es$ The e;am5le in (+12/c is acce5%able 9hereas %he e;am5les in (+12/a-b are unacce5%able un#er %he normal rea#in! of un avocat an# un medic (i$e$ 9hen %hese nouns are no% me%a5horicall0 use# for @uali%ies/0 The e;am5les in (+12/a-c are acce5%able if %he in#efini%es have a s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion (un avocat an# un medic 9oul# be in%er5re%e# as >a la90er I -no9? or >a #oc%or from %he Sal5o%ripre?/ in 9hich case %he co5ular sen%ences are i#en%i%0 s%a%emen%s ra%her %han i#en%ifica%ional/s5ecifica%ional sen%ences3
(+12/ a$ mFra%ele lui Ion e un avoca%$
<.
'are Nouns bro%her-%he G'L Ion is a la90er >Ion?s bro%her is a la90er? b$ mVecinul e un me#ic$ nei!hbor-%he is a #oc%or >The nei!hbor is a la90er? c$ Asasinul lui Ion e un me#ic$ assassin-%he G'L Ion is a #oc%or >Ion?s mur#erer is a #oc%or?
; P0esentat.onal /onte<ts Co5ular sen%ences buil% 9i%h neu%er sub6ec%s of %he %05e t!is$t!at are curren%l0 classifie# as i#en%ifica%ional an# as such %he0 are e;5ec%e# %o allo9 sin!ular in#efini%es in %he 5os%co5ular 5osi%ion3
(+14/ a$ as%a e un creion$ (9hen %eachin! a chil# %he names of %hin!s/ %his is a 5encil >This is a 5encil? b$ ala e un elefan%$ (9i%h a chil# in a Aoo/ %ha% is an ele5han% >Tha% is an ele5han%?
Demons%ra%ive DPs in sub6ec% 5osi%ion ma0 be vie9e# as a sub-%05e of i#en%ifica%ional sen%ences in 9hich %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he sub6ec% is i#en%ifie# as belon!in! %o a -in# an# %he 5re#ica%e is more s5ecific in %ha% i% i#en%ifies %he same en%i%0 as belon!in! %o a sub--in#$
(+1,/ PasLrea as%a e o rWn#unicL$ bir#-%he %his is a s9allo9 >This bir# is a s9allo9?
The e;am5le (+1=/b above is %he in%erro!a%ive coun%er5ar% of %his cons%ruc%ion 9here cine is %he 5re#ica%e$ ; Be4.nnn.n4 of a sto09 Sin!ular in#efini%es are also allo9e# as co5ular 5re#ica%es a% %he be!innin! of a s%or03
(+1./ Ion ges%eh/gerah gun bLrba% #e 2= anih/ gun avoca%h$ Ion is 9as a man of 2= 0ears a la90er >Ion {is/9as} {a 2=-0ear-ol#/a la90er }
Ion is no% 0e% -no9n %o %he rea#er an# %he 9ri%er in%ro#uces Ion b0 i#en%if0in! him 9i%h a ran#om in#ivi#ual 9ho is a la90er$ ; Def.n.t.ons Sin!ular in#efini%es are also allo9e# in #efini%ional s%a%emen%s3
(+1</ a$ Flu%urele e un le5i#o5%er$ bu%%erfl0-%he is a le5i#o5%eron >The bu%%erfl0 is a le5i#o5%eron? b$ 'alena e un mamifer$ 9hale-%he is a mammal >The 9hale is a mammal?
<<
'are Nouns
Defini%ions can be anal0Ae# as involvin! an a%%ribu%ive use of a name of -in# e$!$ %he -in# abou% 9e #o no% -no9 an0%hin! else besi#es i%s name e$!$ >bu%%erfl0? or >9hale? an# a 5re#ica%e %ha% #eno%es a class of -in#s (or %he h05er--in#/ %o 9hich %ha% -in# belon!s e$!$ %he class of le5i#o5%erons 9hich con%ains o%her sub--in#s besi#es bu%%erflies$ Similarl0 in (+1</b %he -in# 9hale is #efine# as belon!in! %o %he class of -in#s #eno%e# b0 %he h05er--in# mammalI in o%her 9or#s %he 9hale is a sub--in# of mammals$ (.3.3. Meta58o0./ 1ses of s.n41la0 .n3ef.n.tes Ue have seen %ha% sin!ular in#efini%es 9i%h @uali%0 rea#in!s 9hich are of%en base# on me%on0mic shif%s 5a%%ern 9i%h 'Ss (an# a#6ec%ives/ ra%her %han 9i%h o%her (unmo#ifie#/ sin!ular in#efini%es3
(+1B/ Ion es%e un clo9n/ un 5orc/ un mL!ar/ un i#io%$ Ion is a clo9n a 5i! a #on-e0 an i#io% >Ion is a clo9n/a 5i!/a #on-e0/an i#io%?
A 5ossible e;5lana%ion for %his behaviour is %ha% %hese nouns allo9 %05e-shif%in! of %he in#efini%e DPs %o a 5ro5er%0 rea#in! 5robabl0 #ue %o %he @uali%0 in%er5re%a%ion$ Therefore sen%ences of %his %05e are 5re#ica%ional an# as such %he0 are com5a%ible 9i%h referen%ial sub6ec%s$ (.3.$. Con/l1s.ons Three %05es of co5ular sen%ences 9ere i#en%ifie# above3 5re#ica%ional i#en%ifica%ional/s5ecifica%ional an# i#en%i%0 sen%ences$ Gu% of %hese %05es onl0 %he firs% %9o 9ere e;amine# in some #e%ail$ The main !eneraliAa%ions concernin! each of %hem can be summariAe# as follo9s$ Pre#ica%ional sen%ences can %a-e referen%ial or @uan%ifica%ional sub6ec%s %heir 5re#ica%e is 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! an# (limi%in! ourselves %o sin!ular sub6ec%s/ can be e;5resse# b0 'Ss or mo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es (via %05e-shif%in!/$ I#en%ifica%ional/ s5ecifica%ional sen%ences on %he o%her han# can %a-e onl0 non-i#en%ifie# referen%ial sub6ec%s (a%%ribu%ive #efini%e DPs or #eic%ic DPs referrin! %o #irec%l0 5erceive# ob6ec%s/ an# %he0 are buil% 9i%h en%i%0-#eno%in! 5re#ica%es e;5resse# b0 sin!ular in#efini%e or #efini%e DPs$ The co5ular verb '7 %o!e%her 9i%h an en%i%0-#eno%in! DP #eno%es an i#en%i%0 rela%ionI 9hen %he 5re#ica%e is a sin!ular in#efini%e %he sub6ec% is i#en%ifie# %o a ran#om member of %he class$ The fac% %ha% unmo#ifie# sin!ular in#efini%es canno% be %05e-shif%e# is no% a >#ee5? 5ro5er%0$ Ra%her i% mi!h% be #ue %o econom0 consi#era%ions3 if 9e 9an% %o 5re#ica%e %he 5ro5er%0 of havin! a 5rofession/role e%c$ an# if %he lan!ua!e has 'Ss 9hich #irec%l0 refer %o 5rofessions roles %hen 9e 9ill use 'Ss ra%her %han a sin!ular in#efini%e %ha% 9oul# mean >%he class of in#ivi#uals %ha% have %ha% 5rofession?$ (.$. Ba0e no1ns .n .65e0sonal /onst01/t.ons Finall0 bare abs%rac% nouns can a55ear in im5ersonal cons%ruc%ions of %he %05e sho9n belo93
(+1C/ (+2=/ :i-e fri!/ fricL/ se%e/ silL %eamL/ !reaRL me$DAT-is col# fri!h% %hirs% #is!us% fear sic-ness >I am col#/fri!h%ene#/%hirs%0/#is!us%e#/afrai#/sic-? 7 En%uneric/ soare/ fri!/ iarnL is #ar-ness sun col# 9in%er >I% is #ar-/sun/col#/9in%er?
<B
'are Nouns
'o%h classes of e;am5les in (+1C/ an# (+2=/ are buil% 9i%h %he verb '7 use# im5ersonall0 in %he 2r# 5erson sin!ularI %he0 #iffer in %ha% %he e;am5les in (+1C/ e;5ress 5s0cholo!ical s%a%es an# correla%ivel0 %he0 are buil% 9i%h a Da%ive-mar-e# 7;5eriencer 9hereas %he e;am5les in (+2=/ e;5ress me%eorolo!ical s%a%es$ The %9o classes of e;am5les behave ali-e in %9o no%e9or%h0 res5ec%s$ Firs% a#6ec%ives can subs%i%u%e for %he abs%rac% bare nouns ( bine >!oo# 9ell? in (+2+/ is %he !en#erless form of %he a#6ec%ive bun >!oo#? see Cha5%er < *+$+/3
(+2+/ :i-e cal# / :i-e bine me$DAT-is 9arm me$ DAT-is !oo# >I am 9arm/ I am fine? (+21/ 7 cal# / e bine$ is 9arm is !oo# >I%?s 9arm/i%?s fine?
The fac% %ha% a#6ec%ives occu50 (or a% leas% seem %o occu50/ %he same s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion as nominal cons%i%uen%s su!!es%s %ha% %hese nouns occu50 a 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion3 %he onl0 o%her con%e;% in 9hich a#6ec%ives an# nouns sho9 %he same #is%ribu%ion as nominal cons%i%uen%s is %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion (e$!$ >on e elev an# >on e inteli ent/$ Com5are ar!umen% 5osi%ions 9here a#6ec%ives are #isallo9e# even in %hose con%e;%s %ha% allo9 bare nouns$ Thus %he e;am5les in (+22/ 9hich minimall0 #iffer from (B4/ b0 havin! an a#6ec%ive ins%ea# of a bare noun are un!ramma%ical3
(+22/ a$ XAM%ea5%L #e la noi cal# Mi amabil$ e;5ec%s from us 9arm an# charmin! b$ XCau%L rece$ see-s col# c$ XCere mo#ern$ #eman#s mo#ern #$ XIm5une an%ic/ vechi$ im5oses an%i@ue ol# e$ XSe aM%ea5%L #e la noi cal# Mi amabil$ R7FL e;5ec%s from us 9arm an# charmin! f$ XSe cau%L rece$ R7FL see-s col# !$ XSe cere mo#ern$ R7FL #eman#s mo#ern h$XSe im5une an%ic/ vechi$ R7FL im5oses an%i@ue ol#
The secon# observa%ion is %ha% in %hese im5ersonal cons%ruc%ions bare nouns can be mo#ifie# b0 #e!ree a#verbs such as foarte >ver0?% e'trem de >e;%remel0?% att de >so? e%c$3
(+24/ a$ :i-e foar%e foame$ me$DAT-is ver0 hun!er >I?m ver0 hun!r0? b$ 7 a%W% #e beAnL EncW% nu vL# la #oi 5aMi$ is so #ar-ness %ha% no% see$+SG a% %9o s%e5s >I% is so #ar- %ha% I can?% see %9o s%e5s in fron% of me?
No%e a!ain %ha% #e!ree a#verbs are no% allo9e# in %he %05e of e;am5les !iven in (+22/3
<C
'are Nouns (+2,/ a$ XAM%ea5%L #e la noi foar%e EnRele!ere$ e;5ec%s from us ver0 com5rehension b$ XSe cau%L a%W% #e liniM%e$ R7FL see-s so %ran@uili%0
No%e also %ha% i% is onl0 in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions %ha% cer%ain bare nouns can be mo#ifie# b0 #e!ree a#verbs3
(+2./ a$ Ion e foar%e bLrba%/ co5il$ Ion is ver0 man chil# >Ion is ver0 manli-e/chil#li-e? b$ :aria e a%W% #e femeied :aria is so-much of 9oman ":aria is so feminined& c$ Xun gfoar%e /a%W% #e h bLrba% a lua%-o #e soRied a ver0 so-much of man has %a-en-her as 9ife
These observa%ions su!!es% %ha% bare abs%rac% nouns func%ion as en%i%0-#eno%in! e;5ressions 9hen %he0 occur in canonical ar!umen% 5osi%ions bu% as 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! 9hen %he0 occur in im5ersonal cons%ruc%ions of %he %05es illus%ra%e# in (+2=/$ Therefore 9e 5ro5ose %ha% in %he cons%ruc%ions e;amine# here %he noun #oes no% occu50 an ar!umen% 5osi%ion bu% a 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion (%he com5lemen% of %he co5ula or of a 5re#ica%ive hea# Pre# selec%e# b0 %he co5ula/$
B=
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories
3. T8e S9nta< of Dete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 F1n/t.onal Cate4o0.es

IGN GIDRG7A
,. Int0o31/t.on. No6.nal f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es 1. F1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es as 8ea3s of 6a<.6al no6.nal 50o7e/t.ons. T8e DP t8eo09 2. D.st0.b1t.onal /lasses 3. No1n ell.5s.s= 50o+N an3 50o+DP
2$+$ Nominal func%ional elemen%s %ha% never allo9in! N-elli5sis 2$1$ Nominal func%ional elemen%s %ha% allo9 N-elli5sis 2$2$ Pro-DPs (5ronouns/
$. Mo3.f.e0s an3 /o65le6ents l./ense3 b9 no6.nal f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es= 580asal NFCs an3 t8e .ss1e of 5a0t.t.2e PPs
4$+$ A55ro;ima%ion mo#ifiers an# o%her mo#ifiers license# b0 @uan%ifiers 4$1$ Phrasal car#inals 4$2$ Scalar @uan%i%a%ives 4$4$ Par%i%ive PPs
%. -1ant.tat.2e e<50ess.ons
,$+$ A#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ives ,$1$ Car#inals ,$2$ NominaliAe# car#inals @uan%i%0 nouns an# o%her func%ional nouns ,$4$ 8uan%i%0 e;5ressions %ha% al9a0s occu50 %he D la0er ,$,$ 8uan%i%0 e;5ressions in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion ,$.$ No%e on %he 9or# un >a one?
&. Co66on 50o5e0t.es of I1ant.tat.2es an3 so6e .n3ef.n.te 3ete06.ne0s (. T8e alte0nat.2e an3 t8e .3ent.t9 3ete06.ne0
<$+$ Al%erna%ive #e%erminers <$1$ The i#en%i%0 #e%erminer <$2$ Com5lemen%s of e@uali%0 an# #ifference
). Def.n.te 3ete06.ne0s
B$+$ The #efini%e ar%icle B$1$ Demons%ra%ives B$2$ Defini%e 5hrases in S5ecDP
*. P0e+3ete06.ne0s 1,. T8e s9ste6 of /o65o1n3 3ete06.ne0s= 50o+DPs an3 50o+lo/at.2e+a32e0b.als
B+
,. Int0o31/t.on. No6.nal f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es

This cha5%er is #e#ica%e# %o func%ional 9or#s in %he nominal 5hrase 9hich can be !rou5e# in%o %he follo9in! #is%ribu%ional classes3 (i/ De%erminers (Ds/ (ii/ Pos%-D func%ional i%ems 9hich ma0 also occu50 %he D 5osi%ion (iii/ Func%ional i%ems 9hich are al9a0s 5os%-D (iv/ Pre-D func%ional i%ems De%erminers are %he 9or#s 9i%h %he #is%ribu%ion of %he in#efini%e ar%icle an# of %he #is%ribu%ive universal fiecare >ever0 each? as sho9n in (+/$
(+/ a$ o (Xaceas%L/orice/fiecare/unele/niM%e/cW%eva/ car%e(Xa/ a %his an0 each some s?m a-fe9 boo-(-%he/ b$ aceas%L (Xo/fiecare/orice/niM%e/cW%eva/ car%e(Xa/ c$ fiecare (Xo/aceas%L/orice/niM%e/cW%eva/ car%e(Xa/ #$ orice (Xo/aceas%L/unele/niM%e/cW%eva/ car%e(Xa/ e$ unele (Xo/aces%e/orice/niM%e/cW%eva/ cLrRi(Xle/ some a %hese an0 s?m a fe9 boo-s(-%he/ f$ niM%e (Xo/aces%e/orice/cW%eva/ cLrRi(Xle/ !$ cW%eva (Xo/aces%e/orice/unele/niM%e/ cLrRi(Xle/ h$ (Xo/aceas%L/orice/unele/niM%e/cW%eva/ car%ea/cLrRile
These elemen%s al9a0s 5rece#e never follo9 mo#ifiers of %he noun3

(1/ (XfrumoasL/ o (frumoasL/ car%e (frumoasL/ beau%iful a beau%iful boo- beau%iful
A number of func%ional 9or#s 9hich can co-occur 9i%h #e%erminers (follo9in! %hem/ P car#inals altul >o%her? @uan%i%a%ives such as mult% muli >much man0? puin% puini >fe9? P ma0 also a55ear in %he firs% 5osi%ion of %he nominal 5ro6ec%ion 9i%hou% a #e%erminer (com5are (2/a c e %o (2/b # f/I in %his case %he0 ma0 be assume# %o 5la0 %he role of %he #e%erminer ma55in! %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he NP in%o a referen%ial or @uan%ifica%ional e;5ression$ Ue ma0 %hus assume %ha% in e;am5les such as (2/b # f/ %hese i%ems occu50 %he D 5osi%ion3
(2/ a$ Cei Ca5te 5rie%eni s-au En%Wlni% la barul >Vic%oria?$ %he seven frien#s R7FL-have me% a% 5ub-%he Vic%oria >The seven frien#s me% a% %he Vic%oria bar$? b$ Ja5te 5rie%eni s-au En%Wlni% la barul >Vic%oria?$ seven frien#s R7FL-have me% a% 5ub-%he Vic%oria >Seven frien#s have me% a% %he Vic%oria bar$? c$ AceM%i 61lA. ani i-am 5e%recu% En Grecia$ %hese man0 0ears CL$ACC -have$+ s5en% in Greece >These man0 0ears I s5en% in Greece$? #$ M1lA. ani i-am 5e%recu% En Grecia$ :an0 0ears CL$ACC-have$+ s5en% in Greece >:an0 0ears I s5en% in Greece$? e$ Aces%e alte En%rebLri le lLsLm 5en%ru mai %WrAiu$ %hese o%her @ues%ions CL$ACC le%$+PL for more la%e >Ue leave %hese o%her @ues%ions for la%er$? f$ Alte En%rebLri le lLsLm 5en%ru mai %WrAiu$ o%her @ues%ions CL$ACC le%$+PL for more la%e
B1
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories >Ue leave o%her @ues%ions for la%er$?
'esi#es %his #is%ribu%ional fac% #e%erminers share 9i%h %he o%her func%ional ca%e!ories (9hich 9e labele# 5re-D an# 5os%-D/ a number of o%her 5ro5er%ies3 (i/ The0 are !ramma%ical or func%ional 9or#s$ This is %o sa0 %ha% unli-e ma6or le;ical ca%e!ories (verbs nouns a#6ec%ives a#verbs an# 5re5osi%ions/ %he0 form close# classes 9i%h a fi;e# an# @ui%e abs%rac% lo!ic in%er5re%a%ion (car#inals are car#inali%0 5re#ica%esI 5re-Ds e;5ress universal @uan%ifica%ionI %he al%erna%ive e;5resses %he ne!a%ion of an i#en%i%0 rela%ion/$ Such 9or#s are in %he mo#el of !rammar use# in %his boo- anal0Ae# as func%ional ca%e!ories$ Func%ional ca%e!ories !enerall0 re@uire %he su55or% of one an# onl0 one le;ical ca%e!or0$ For %he func%ional ca%e!ories #iscusse# here %his ca%e!or0 is %he Noun hence %he label nominal functional cate ories use# here$ For in#ivi#ual i%ems belon!in! %o %hese ca%e!ories 9e 9ill use %he label nominal functional elements0 (ii/ The0 allo9 %he elli5sis of %he noun$ There are bu% a fe9 e;ce5%ions %o %his !eneraliAa%ion 9hich 9ill be #iscusse# in sec%ion 2 belo9 (see es5eciall0 2$+/( nite >s?m? alde ce >9ha%? orice >9ha%ever?/$ The #efini%e ar%icle (-L$cel/ an# %he in#efini%e ar%icle un are no% an e;ce5%ion %o %his rule bu% %he0 sim5l0 have s5ecial forms 9hen combine# 9i%h em5%0 nouns3 cel an# unul (see (4/e/$ Some researchers also anal0Ae 5ersonal 5ronouns as forme# b0 a #efini%e ar%icle an# an elli5%ical/em5%0 noun$ See sec%ion 2 for ar!umen%s in favor an# a!ains% such an anal0sis$ The mo#ifiers of %he noun #on?% allo9 N-elli5sis$ Some%imes #e%erminers have s5ecial forms 9hen combinin! 9i%h an em5%0 noun ((4/#-e/$ Some%imes ins%ea# of elli5sis %he nominal con%en% is incor5ora%e# in%o %he #e%erminer 9hich %hus func%ions as a 5ro-DP (5ronoun/ ((,// ( nimeni >nobo#0? con%ains besi#e %he ne!a%ive @uan%ifier e;5resse# b0 niciun %he #escri5%ive con%en% /H5erson// (see * 2 for a #e%aile# #iscussion of %his issue/3
(4/ a$ F.e/a0e a veni% la conferinRL$ each has come %o conference >7ver0one came %o %he conference? b$ (Cei/ t0e. au veni% la conferinRL$ %he %hree have come %o conference ?(The/ %hree have come %o %he conference$? c$ ToA. au veni% la conferinRL$ all$:PL have come %o conference ?All came %o %he conference$? #$ N./.1n1l nu a veni% la conferinRL$ none no% has come %o conference >No one came %o %he conference? e$ Doar 1n1l a veni%$ onl0 one has come >Gnl0 one came? N.6en. nu a veni%$ nobo#0 no% has come >Nobo#0 came$?
(,/
(iii/ The0 a55ear before o%her mo#ifiers of %he noun an# (9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of lon! #emons%ra%ives acesta% acela %he #efini%e al%ena%ive cellalt >%he o%her? or#inals an# %he universal @uan%ifiers toi% tot >all? amndoi >bo%h?/ before %he noun i%self3
(./ a$ (Xfrumoase/ aces%e (frumoase/ lalele (frumoase/ beau%iful %hese beau%iful %uli5s beau%iful
B2
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories b$ (Xfrumoase/ Aece (frumoase/ lalele (frumoase/ beau%iful %en beau%iful %uli5s beau%iful
In %ra#i%ional !rammar %he various nominal func%ional ca%e!ories enumera%e# above 9ere s5li% in%o several classes3 ar%icles 5ronominal a#6ec%ives 5ronouns numeralsI onl0 %he ar%icle 9as consi#ere# a func%ional elemen% %he o%hers 9ere consi#ere# mo#ifiers of %he noun bein! assimila%e# %o a#6ec%ives an# 5ronouns 9hen %he0 s%an# alone (9i%hou% an N/$ Oo9ever %he #is%ribu%ional fac%s concernin! #e%erminers an# %he 5ro5er%ies (i/-(iii/ nea%l0 in#ica%e %ha% nominal func%ional ca%e!ories form a na%ural class ver0 #ifferen% from a#6ec%ives$ The a#6ec%ival s%a%us of nominal func%ional ca%e!ories is su55or%e# b0 one 5ro5er%0 %ha% %he0 share 9i%h a#6ec%ives3 %he0 a ree in !en#er an# number 9i%h %he hea# noun$ Oo9ever #e%erminers are #ifferen% from a#6ec%ives 9i%h re!ar# %o ano%her fea%ure Case3 %he fea%ure of case is realiAe# on %he #e%erminer an# %ransmi%%e# %o %he noun an# i%s #e5en#en%s b0 an a!reemen% rela%ion$ This is in#ica%e# b0 %9o fac%s3 (i/ onl0 #e%erminers are unambi!uousl0 mar-e# for case (5u%%in! asi#e %he voca%ive 9hich an09a0 has a s5ecial s%a%us/ (e;$(<// an# (ii/ 9hen no #e%erminer is 5resen% %he noun canno% a#o5% %he obli@ue form bu% an in#e5en#en% case-mar-er - a >#umm0? 5re5osi%ion - mus% be inser%e# (e;$ (B//$
(</ sin!ular N$A$ o/aceas%:/al%: /fiecare fa%: a %his o%her each !irl G$D$ une./aces%e./al%e./fiecLre. fe%e N$A$ un/aces%/al% /fiecare bLia% a %his o%her each bo0 G$D$ un1./aces%1./al%1./fiecLr1. bLia% (B/ 5lural niM%e(unele//aces%e/al%e fe%e s?m some %hese o%her !irls uno0/aces%o0/al%o0 fe%e niM%e(un..//aceM%./alR. bLieR. s?m some %hese o%her bo0s uno0/aces%o0/al%o0 bLieRi
a$ cum5Lrarea #ro!urilo0 /uno0 #ro!uri bu0in!-%he #ru!s-%he$G7N/ some-PL$G7N #ru!s b$ cum5Lrarea 3e #ro!uri bu0in!-%he of #ru!s
:ore 5recisel0 Case is realiAe# on %he D 5osi%ion an# on 5re-Ds (see also cha5%er + *+$4/$ Uhen several nominal func%ional elemen%s co-occur onl0 %he firs% one bears %he unambi!uous case mar-in! (see (C/a com5are# %o (C/b/ unless %he firs% is a 5re-D universal an# %he secon# a (#efini%e/ #e%erminer (see (C/c/I in a##i%ion 9hen %he firs% #e%erminer is a 5os%-D i%em func%ionin! as a D %he secon# one ma0 receive %he case inflec%ion (see (C/#//3
(C/ a$ aces%o0 al%e 5robleme %hese$PL$G'L o%her$PL 5roblems b$ al%o0 5robleme o%her$PL$G'L 5roblems c$ %u%uro0 aces%o0 5robleme all$PL$G'L %hese$PL$G'L 5roblems #$ a%W%o0 al%o0 /al%e 5robleme so-man0$ PL$G'L o%her$PL$G'L/o%her$PL 5roblems
1. F1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es as 8ea3s of 6a<.6al no6.nal 50o7e/t.ons. T8e DP t8eo09

Func%ional ca%e!ories 9hich are s5ecifie# for a !iven le;ical ca%e!or0 (in our case N/ are B4
anal0Ae# in %he curren% !enera%ive frame9or- as !eads (V=-elemen%s/ %a-in! %he le;ical ca%e!or0/5ro6ec%ion (in %his case %he NP/ as a com5lemen%$ Recall %ha% besi#es belon!in! %o a close# class %he %9o follo9in! 5ro5er%ies charac%eriAe func%ional hea#s3 (i/ %he0 al9a0s re@uire a com5lemen% mar-e# 9i%h a 5ar%icular ca%e!orial fea%ure (in %his case (N// an# (ii/ %he0 are sim5le (#on?% have a##i%ional mo#ifiers or com5lemen%s/$ :os% nominal func%ional elemen%s com5l0 9i%h %hese cri%eria (for e;ce5%ions see above * = %he #iscussion un#er 5ro5er%0 (iii//$ Oo9ever %here are also cases in 9hich a (@uasi-/!ramma%icaliAe# i%em 5ro6ec%s a 5hrase of i%s o9n li-e le;ical i%ems (see * 4 for #iscussion/3 %he @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions muli ?man0?% puini ?fe9?% mult .much?% puin ?li%%le? have a #e!ree 5ro6ec%ion li-e re!ular a#6ec%ives (mai muli >more? foarte muli >ver0 man0? att de muli >so man0?/$ Car#inals ma0 combine 9i%h 5re5osi%ions (sub (ece persoane li%$ >un#er %en 5ersons? meanin! >less %han %en 5ersons?/ an# en%er cer%ain #e!ree cons%ruc%ions ( mai mult de (ece persoane >more %han %en 5ersons?/(see 4$1/$ In such case 9e can assume %ha% %he func%ional elemen% occu5ies a S5ecifier 5osi%ion$ The %ra#i%ional anal0sis an# %he !enera%ive vie9 5ro5ose# here are com5arable in %he case of ar%icles insofar as such elemen%s 9ere seen as #e5en#en% !ramma%ical 9or#s (%he coun%er5ar% of au;iliaries in %he verb 5hrase/ enco#in! %he H/-#efini%e fea%ure of %he noun 5hrase$ The !enera%ive a55roach is never%heless #ifferen% insofar as ar%icles are no% %rea%e# as fea%ures of %he le;ical elemen% bu% ra%her as func%ional hea#s 5ro6ec%in! %heir o9n 5hrase3 (+=/ un co5il > a chil#? -%ra#i%ional3 N - curren% frame9or-3 DP D_ D= un (in#ef/ copil un NP copil
Gn %he o%her han# elemen%s such as acest >%his? fiecare >ever0 each? att >so much? toi >all? 9ere %ra#i%ionall0 labelle# >5ronominal a#6ec%ives? an# consi#ere# %o be nominal mo#ifiers (>a%%ribu%es?/$ Ue have alrea#0 seen %ha% %here are s%ron! s0n%ac%ic as 9ell as seman%ic ar!umen%s %o inclu#e %hem in%o %he class of nominal func%ional ca%e!ories (NFCs/ %o!e%her 9i%h ar%icles an# 5ronouns an# a5ar% from nominal mo#ifiers (a%%ribu%es/$ 'elo9 9e 5resen% o%her ar!umen%s for #is%in!uishin! #e%erminers from mo#ifiers3 In cer%ain s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions such as %he 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion #e%erminers canno% be omi%%e#$ :o#ifiers can al9a0s be omi%%e#3
(++/ X (Doi/niM%e/cWRiva/ co5ii au veni%$ %9o s?m a-fe9 chil#ren have come
In o%her 5osi%ions #e%erminer-less 5lural or mass nouns are allo9e# 9hile #e%erminer-less (>bare?/ sin!ulars are ei%her forbi##en (%he 5os%verbal sub6ec%/ or res%ric%e# %o some %05es of 5re#ica%es (%he ob6ec% 5osi%ion/3
(+1/ a$ Am vLAu% 5LsLri
B,
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories have$+ seen bir#s b$ Am vLAu% X(o/ 5asLre have$+ seen a bir# c$ FboarL 5LsLri/X5asLre fl0$2 bir#s /bir#
For a uni%ar0 %rea%men% of cases of %05e (+1/ 9e coul# ei%her sa0 %ha% a null 5lural-mass #e%erminer is 5resen% or %ha% %hese con%e;%s re@uire %he 5resence of an in%erme#ia%e 5ro6ec%ion be%9een N an# D %he number 5hrase (NumP/ 9hich is realiAe# ei%her as abs%rac% H5lural/ Hmass or as %he in#efini%e ar%icle un$o$ Ue 9ill no% #eci#e here be%9een %hese al%erna%ives$ I% can be sho9n %ha% %he #ifference be%9een %he levels 5ro6ec%e# in %he nominal s%ruc%ure correla%e 9i%h seman%ic #ifferences$ This can easil0 be sho9n b0 com5arin! a#nominal DPs 9i%h a#nominal NPs in%ro#uce# b0 %he #umm0 5re5osi%ion de (9hich ar!uabl0 func%ions as a case-mar-er/$ In (+2/a %he !eni%ive-mar-e# DP refers %o an in#ivi#ual (a 5ar%icular en%i%0/ 9hereas in (+2/b no 5ar%icular en%i%0 is involve# ra%her %he N 5reserves i%s basic 5ro5er%0-rea#in!3
(+2/ a$ haina sol#a%ului coa%-%he sol#ier-%he$G7N >%he sol#ier?s coa%? b$ haina #e sol#a% coa%-%he de sol#ier >%he sol#ier coa%?
I% is 9or%h no%in! %ha% in or#er %o e;5ress %he #ifference e;5resse# in (+2/a-b %he lan!ua!es 9i%h no obli!a%or0 D-level (no ar%icles/ use a #erive# a#6ec%ive for %he 5ro5er%0 rea#in! (%he case b/3 (+4/ a$ mili%is ves%is sol#ier$G7N clo%hin! >%he/a sol#ier?s clo%hin!? b$ mili%aris ves%is sol#ier$ADN clo%hin! >sol#ier clo%hin!? La%in
'are NPs al9a0s have 5ro5er%0 #eno%a%ion$ Cases as (+,/a in 9hich 5re5osi%ions combine 9i%h bare nouns 9i%h a referen%ial #efini%e in%er5re%a%ion are onl0 an a55aren% e;ce5%ion3 in %he 5resence of an0 e;5ansion of %he N %he #efini%e ar%icle is re@uire# ((+,/b/$ This lea#s us %o assume %ha% in %he con%e;% 9here a 5re5osi%ion in%ro#uces a DP 9hich imme#ia%el0 #omina%es %he #efini%e ar%icle an# N (no in%erme#ia%e level is 5resen%/ %he #efini%e ar%icle %a-es a 5ar%icular mor5holo!ical realiAa%ion ei%her as a null mor5heme or as confla%e# 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ion$ This 5ro5osal is base# no% onl0 on %he in%er5re%a%ion bu% also on %he fac% %ha% an over% #efini%e ar%icle is e;clu#e# af%er 5re5osi%ions 9hen no >e;5ansion? of %he N is 5resen% ((+,/c/ (see cha5%er B *+$2/$
(+,/ a$ Pisica s-a ascuns sub scaun$ ca%-%he R7FL-has hi##en un#er chair >The ca% hi# un#er %he chair$? b$ Pisica s-a ascuns sub scaunX(ul/ ro%un# ca%-%he R7FL-has hi##en un#er chair-%he roun# >The ca% hi# un#er %he roun# chair$? c$ XPisica s-a ascuns sub scaunul$ ca%-%he R7FL-has hi##en un#er chair-%he
B.

No% all 5re5osi%ions behave li-e %ha%$ The e;ce5%ions are cu >9i%h? an# %he 5re5osi%ions %a-in! an obli@ue case (!eni%ive or #a%ive/$ In e;am5les such as (+,/b P 9hich con%ain a mo#ifier or a com5lemen% of %he N P %he ar%icle is obli!a%or0 if %he 5hrase is in%er5re%e# as #efini%e (>%he roun# chair?/I bare nouns are of course 5ossible (see cha5%er 1/ P e$!$ sub scaune vec!i >un#er ol# chairs? P bu% are in%er5re%e# as in#efini%es$
Ue conclu#e %ha% #e%erminers unli-e mo#ifiers an# com5lemen%s of N are sensi%ive %o %he s0n%ac%ic environmen% of %he nominal 5hrase$ This in#ica%es %ha% #e%erminers are hea#s bein! s0n%ac%icall0 selec%e# or license# from ou%si#e %he nominal 5hrase$ If 9e acce5% %ha% elemen%s ou%si#e %he nominal 5hrase s0n%ac%icall0 selec% for %he #e%erminer 9e can un#ers%an# 9h0 #e%erminers are al9a0s 5resen% in cons%ruc%ions 9i%h Nelli5sis (for 5ossible coun%ere;am5les see 2$4 belo9 9here 9e ar!ue %ha% a null D or Num is 5resen% in (mos% of/ %hese cases/$ Dnli-e noun com5lemen%s an# mo#ifiers NFCs are no% sensi%ive %o %he seman%ic con%en% of %he noun P %he onl0 fea%ure %he0 are sensi%ive %o is coun%/mass 9hich is a !ramma%icaliAe# fea%ure$ This !eneraliAa%ion is e;5ec%e# !iven %he charac%eriAa%ion of NFCs as !ramma%ical 9or#s 9hich 9e !ave in %he in%ro#uc%ion un#er (iii/3
(+./ a$ com5or%amen%ul /Xmun%ele /X5Lrul faRL #e el behaviour-%he moun%ain-%he hair-%he %o9ar#s him b$ Xcom5or%amen%ul/ mun%ele /KK5Lrul calcaros behaviour-%he moun%ain-%he hair-%he calcareous c$ Xcom5or%amen%ul /KKmun%ele /5Lrul blon# behaviour-%he moun%ain-%he hair-%he blon# #$ aces% com5or%amen% /mun%e /5Lr %his behaviour moun%ain hair
Uhen several nominal func%ional elemen%s (NF7s/ co-occur %heir or#er is fi;e#$ The cons%rain%s are s%ric%er %han %hose a55l0in! for a#6ec%ival a#6unc%s$ This fac% can be ca5%ure# b0 anal0Ain! each of %hese func%ional elemen%s as in%ro#ucin! a func%ional la0er (ei%her as %he hea# or as %he s5ecifier of a fuc%ional 5ro6ec%ion see belo9/ an# consi#erin! %ha% %he or#er of %hese func%ional 5ro6ec%ions is fi;e# (see (+</c an# * 1 belo9/$ The ri!i# or#er 9oul# be har#er %o re5resen% in an anal0sis 9here #e%erminers are mo#ifiers3
(+</ a$ aces%e al%e %rei cLrRi /(K/Xaces%e %rei al%e cLrRi %hese o%her %hree boo-s %hese %hree o%her boo-s b$ al%e cW%eva Aile / XcW%eva al%e Aile o%her a-fe9 #a0s a-fe9 o%her #a0s c$ [D [Al% [Car# [NP]]]]
There are NF7s 9hich selec% for a 5ar%icular NF73 %he universals toi >all? amndoi >bo%h? selec% #efini%e DPs (i$e$ DPs in%ro#uce# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle #emons%ra%ives %he #efini%e al%erna%iveI see * C for #e%ails/$ No%e ho9ever %ha% unli-e %he 5resence of a% leas% one F7 9hich is obli!a%or0 in some s0n%ac%ic environmen%s (see e;am5le (++/ above/ %he co-occurrence of several NF7s is al9a0s o5%ional$ Therefore if 9e a#o5% %he h05o%hesis %ha% each NF7 in%ro#uces a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion 9e shoul# consi#er %ha% %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ions belo9 D an# above D are o5%ional P 9e ma0 call %hem minor functional pro+ections$ The fac% %ha% NF7s allo9 N-elli5sis can easil0 be formula%e# in %he anal0sis of NF7s as hea#s3 %he i#en%ifica%ion of %he eli#e# ca%e!or0 is ensure# b0 %heir selec%ional 5ro5er%ies$ B<
The h05o%hesis %ha% NF7s are func%ional hea#s or s5ecifiers of #e#ica%e# func%ional 5ro6ec%ions also accoun%s for %heir 5lacemen% before %he noun con%ras%in! 9i%h %ha% of com5lemen%s an# mos% a#6ec%ives3 Romanian as %he o%her Romance lan!ua!es is a hea#ini%ial lan!ua!e$ The or#er of elemen%s insi#e %he nominal 5ro6ec%ions %hus obe0s %he !eneral 5a%%ern of %he lan!ua!e$ Ue assume %ha% a func%ional la0er ma0 be 5ro6ec%e# ei%her b0 fillin! i%s hea# or b0 fillin! i%s s5ecifier$ This is nee#e# because 5hrasal elemen%s (see * 4/ %oo ma0 @ualif0 as func%ional elemen%s un#er %he cri%eria 5resen%e# above al%hou!h %he0 canno% be assume# %o !ead a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion since %he0 are 5hrases no% hea#s3
(+B/ Y:ai mul% #e AeceZ co5ii sun% En o#aie$ more much %han %en chil#ren are in room >:ore %han %en chil#ren are in %he room$?
2. T8e 3.st0.b1t.onal /lasses

Ue have sai# %ha% several NF7s ma0 co-occur 9i%h one ano%her$ Ue have 5ro5ose# %ha% in %his case one of %hem occu5ies %he D 5osi%ion (normall0 %he firs%I %he onl0 e;ce5%ions are 5reD universals see belo9/ an# %he o%hers realiAe minor functional nominal pro+ections$ Le% us no9 classif0 NF7s accor#in! %o %he co-occurrence 9i%h o%her #e%erminers an# %he 9or# or#er 9hich ob%ains in such cases es%ablishin! %hus %he lis% of minor func%ional 5ro6ec%ions$ Ue 9ill limi% ourselves here %o 5hrases 9i%h an over% noun$ The func%ional elemen%s 9hich a55ear in 5hrases 9i%hou% an over% noun 9ill be anal0Ae# in %he ne;% sec%ion$ I$ De%erminers (Ds/3 %he0 are never 5rece#e# b0 ano%her NFI e;ce5% for %he 5re-Ds (see II/$ The0 in%ro#uce a nominal 5ro6ec%ion in 9ha% 9e i#en%ifie# as DP con%e;%s (see * +/3 %he #efini%e ar%icle (9i%h %he varian%s -L an# cel see * B/ %he in#efini%es un >a(n/ one? nite >some s?m? unii >(5ar%i%ive/ some? vreun >a an0 some?% %he ne!a%ive niciun)ul* >no no one? %he in%erro!a%ive ce >9ha% 9hich? an# i%s com5oun# orice >an0? %he in%erro!a%ive-rela%ive care >9hich? an# i%s com5oun#s fiecare >ever0 each?% oricare >an0? %he @uan%i%a%ives ct% ci >ho9 much ho9 man0? % ceva >some?% orict% orici >ho9ever much/man0? att% ati >as/so/%ha% much/man0? % niel >a li%%le a bi%? (collo@uial/ 5robabl0 also %he @uo%a%ive cutare >so an# so?$ The i#en%i%0 #e%erminer (acelai >%he same?/ is usuall0 no% 5rece#e# b0 a #e%erminer bu% ma0 e;ce5%ionall0 combine 9i%h %he in#efini%e ar%icle so i% is 5erha5s be%%er inclu#e# un#er III (5ossibl0 onl0 for some s5ea-ers i% is of %05e II see * </$ Shor% #emons%ra%ives (acest >%his one? acel >%ha% one?/ ma0 also be inclu#e# here if 9e consi#er %hem %o be #ifferen% i%ems from lon! #emons%ra%ives (acela$la/ 9hich occur imme#ia%el0 af%er %he #efini%e ar%icle$ Ambii >bo%h? %oo 9oul# belon! here unless 9e consi#er %ha% i% con%ains %he #efini%e ar%icle$ I% has in#ee# %he mor5holo!0 of an a#6ec%ive suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle bu% since a non-#efini%e form Xamb #oes no% e;is% an# i% behaves as a #e%erminer no% onl0 seman%icall0 bu% also b0 allo9in! N-elli5sis an# b0 al9a0s occu50in! %he firs% 5osi%ion in %he DP 9e 9ill sim5l0 %rea% i% as a D$ I% is 9or%h no%icin! %ha% unli-e i%s 5re-D s0non0m amndoi i% canno% a55ear in %he so-calle# floa%in! @uan%ifier cons%ruc%ion (see * C/3
(+C/ Casele au cLAu% amWn#ouL (KKambele/ houses-%he have fallen bo%h bo%h
II$ Pre-Ds3 %he universals toi >all? tot >all %he 9hole? amndoi >bo%h? all combinin!
BB
9i%h a #efini%e D3
(1=/ a$ %oa%e caseX(le/ all houses-%he b$ amWn#oi co5iiX(i/ bo%h chil#ren-%he
The0 9ill be %rea%e# in #e%ail in sec%ion C$ III$ NF7s 9hich ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 Ds bu% ma0 also a55ear as %he firs% NF7 of %he 5hrase in%ro#ucin! a nominal 5ro6ec%ion in a DP-con%e;% %hus func%ionin! as Ds3 (i/ imme#ia%el0 5os%-D 3 (lon!/ #emons%ra%ives$ Demons%ra%ives a55ear ei%her in D or imme#ia%el0 follo9in! NH#efini%e ar%icle$ The0 sho9 a shor% form 9hen %he0 are in D an# %a-e an (over%/ noun (see (1+/a/ an# a >lon!? or e;%en#e# form in %he 5ronominal use ((1+/c/ an# in 5os%-nominal (5os%-D/ 5osi%ion ((1+/b/$ This form is buil% b0 a##in! an - a %o %he shor% form$ For an anal0sis of %his behaviour see * B belo9$
(1+/ a$ aces%e case %hese houses b$ casele aces%ea houses-%he %hese-a c$ Nu-mi 5lac aces%ea no%-me$CL$DAT li-e$2PL %hese
Ue also encoun%er some com5oun#s forme# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle or a #emons%ra%ive H %he al%erna%ive #e%erminer3 cellalt >%he o%her? (9i%h %he sub-s%an#ar# varian% lalalt/% stlalt >%his o%her? (collo@uial/3
(11/ a$ cealal%L maMinL %he-o%her car b$ maMina cealal%L car-%he %he-o%her
Since %he or#er of %he mor5hemes obe0s %he !eneral 5a%%ern for al%erna%ives (9hich if a D or #emons%ra%ive is 5resen% follo9 i% see (1./-(1</ belo9/ an# bo%h 5ar%s of %he com5oun# re inflec%e# (e$!$ feminine cealalt% 5lural ceilali% celelalte% obli@ue s!$ celuilalt% celeilalte 5l$ ceilali% celeilalte/ 9e ma0 consi#er %ha% %hese com5oun#s are forme# in or af%er s0n%a; 9i%h cel an# %he #emons%ra%ive occu50in! %he D or %he 5os%-D #emons%ra%ive 5osi%ion (in (11/a an# b res5ec%ivel0/ an# %he al%erna%ive bein! a 5os%-D (%05e (iii/ belo9/$ (ii/ before %he al%erna%ive alt (bu% af%er (i//3 %he in#efini%e @uan%i%a%ives mult% muli >much man0? puin% puini >fe9? destul% destui >enou!h?I 9or#s of %his class are ei%her scalar (cf$ prea$foarte muli >%oo/ver0 man0?/ or incor5ora%e a #e!ree fea%ure ( destul [ destul de muli Benou!h?/ (iii/ %he al%erna%ive alt >o%her? (iv/ af%er alt3 car#inals ctva% civa >some a fe9 several?I no%e %ha% as o55ose# %o i%ems of class (ii/ %he0 are non-scalar @uan%i%a%ives$ Ue e;em5lif0 here %he co-occurrence an# or#erin! res%ric%ions of %hese func%ional ca%e!ories3
BC
(12/
Pos%-D as D3
%rei /al%e /mul%e/aces%e mere %hree/o%her/man0/%hese a55les
(14/
Pos%-D (i/3
merele aces%ea (bune/ a55les-%he %hese-a (!oo#/
(1,/
Pos%-D (i/ H Pos%-D (ii//(iv/3

a$ aces%e 5uRine/%rei mere %hese fe9 /%hree a55les b$ merele aces%ea 5uRine/%rei a55les-%he %hese-a fe9 /%hree
(1./
(DH/Pos%-D (ii/ H Pos%-D (iii/3

(aces%e/ mul%e al%e Aile %hese man0 o%her #a0s
(1</
(DH/ Pos%-D (iii/ H Pos%-D (iv/3

(aces%e/ al%e %rei Aile %hese o%her %hree #a0s
To %hese 9e ma0 a## some NF7s 9hich onl0 e;ce5%ionall0 co-occur 9i%h o%her NF7s3 %he 9or# acelai >same? (see also I above/ 9hich ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle a% leas% for some s5ea-ersI 5ossibl0 also %he @uo%a%ive cutare >so an# so? 9hich is e;ce5%ionall0 5rece#e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle or b0 a #emons%ra%ive$ 'ase# on %hese co-occurrence 5ossibili%ies an# or#erin! res%ric%ions %he follo9in! hierarch0 of func%ional 5ro6ec%ions can be es%ablishe# usin! %he labels Dniv for 5re-D universals Dem for 5os%-D #emons%ra%ives 8uan%+ for scalar @uan%i%a%ives Al% for %he al%erna%ive 8uan%1 for non-scalar @uan%i%03
(1B/ [Dniv [ D [ Dem [8uan%+ [Al% [8uan%1 [ NP]]]]]]]
IV$ Al9a0s 5os%-D$ These ma0 be calle# @uasi-a#6ec%ive F7s$ The0 have in common 9i%h F7s %he fac% %ha% %he0 belon! %o a close# class (%he0 have !ramma%ical meanin!/ %he 5lacemen% before o%her a#6ec%ives an# for some of %hem %he 5ossibili%0 of allo9in! N elli5sis$ The elemen%s %ha% belon! %o %his class are %he follo9in!3 or#inals 9hich are al9a0s in%ro#uce# b0 al (abou% al see 2$2$2 belo9/ 9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of prim >firs%? an# ultim >las%?I %he0 9ill be #iscusse# in sec%ion B #e#ica%e# %o #efini%e #e%erminersI divers an a#6ec%ive meanin! >#ifferen%? a55ears 9i%h 5lurals in environmen%s %05ical for bare 5lurals (cf$ (1C/c/ 9i%h %he #e%erminer-li-e meanin! >various?$ I% also allo9s Nelli5sis3
(1C/ a$ Am cum5Lra% 3.2e0se /:0A. have$+ bou!h% various$FPL boo-s(F/ >I bou!h% various boo-s? b$ Am cum5Lra% 3.2e0se have$+ bou!h% various$FPL >I bou!h% various s%uff? c$XD.2e0se E/:0A.F sun% #e vWnAare various$FPL (boo-s(F// are %o sell in%en#e# meanin!3 >various s%uff/boo-s is/are for sale?
Diferit >#ifferen%? has similar 5ro5er%ies bu% in %he #e%erminer-li-e meanin! #oes no% easil0
C=
allo9 N-elli5sis$ The #emons%ra%ive an# %he in%erro!a%ive care ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 de resul%in! in a cons%ruc%ion 9i%h %he meanin! >%his/9ha% sor% of?$ In %his case deHDem follo9s %he noun 9hich is in#efini%e 9hile deH9h- occu5ies %he firs% 5osi%ion in %he DP 5resumabl0 in or#er %o mar- %he DP as H9h$ No%ice also %ha% bo%h allo9 N elli5sis$
(2=/ a$ N-am !Lsi% bluAe 3e+astea no%-have$+ foun# blouses de-%hese >I/Ue #i#n?% fin# %his sor% of blouses? b$ De /a0e bluAe ai !Lsi%K de 9hich blouses have$1SG foun# >Uha% sor% of blouses have 0ou foun#K? c$ N-am !Lsi% 3e+astea no%-have$+ foun# de-%hese >I/Ue #i#n?% fin# %his sor%? #$ De /a0e n-ai !Lsi%K de 9hich no%-have$1SG foun# >Uha% sor% #i#n?% 0ou fin#K?
Ue consi#er %ha% de %urns %he #e%erminers in%o a#6ec%ival mo#ifiers$ The cons%ruc%ions 9hich resul% ma0 be calle# pro-ad+ectives$ No%e %ha% %he #emons%ra%ive a!rees 9i%h %he noun ( care is an09a0 uninflec%e#/$ This means %ha% de #oes no% in%ro#uce an em5%0 noun of %he %05e #ind (%hen 9e 9oul# have e;5ec%e# %o fin# sin!ular a!reemen% 9i%h %his noun as in 7n!lish t!is sort of G/$
G%her 9or#s 9hich func%ion as 5ro-a#6ec%ives ma0 be consi#ere# %rue a#6ec%ives (see cha5%er </3 asemenea% atare >such?$ The0 resemble func%ional ca%e!ories in %ha% %he0 are obli!a%oril0 5renominal an# %he0 in%erac% 9i%h %he #e%erminer la0er P %he0 are onl0 allo9e# in in#efini%e DPs$
%he a#6ec%ive anumi% >cer%ain? combinin! onl0 9i%h %he in#efini%e ar%icle for sin!ular coun% nouns an# 9i%h bare nouns o%her9ise (un anumit (iar >a cer%ain ne9s5a5er? vs$ -anumitul (iar >%he cer%ain ne9s5a5er? -orice anumit (iar >an0 cer%ain ne9s5a5er?/$ I% is !enerall0 5renominal$ The same behaviour is sho9n b0 %he in#eclinable a#6ec%ive anume 9i%h %he #ifference %ha% i% a55ears more of%en in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion$ Harecare >a cer%ain some? is usuall0 5rece#e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle or b0 no #e%erminer bu% in %he la%%er case i% is no% a D-elemen% since %he noun mus% be non-coun%able or 5lural$ This res%ric%ion %o!e%her 9i%h %he s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions in 9hich %his s%ruc%ure ma0 a55ear sho9s %ha% 9e have %o #eal %o a >bare 5lural/mass noun? (9hich ma0 be anal0Ae# ei%her as involvin! a null D or no D a% all an# licensin! of %he ar!umen% b0 5ro6ec%in! %he Num level see above/
(2+/ a$ A fos% anunRa% X(1n/ oa0e/a0e Dumi%ru An!helescu$ has been announce# a oarecare Dumi%ru An!helescu >A cer%ain Dumi%ru An!helescu 9as announce#$? b$ Are (oa0e/a0e/ %alen%$ has oarecare %alen% >Oe has some %alen%$?
Ano%her 5eculiari%0 of %his i%em is %ha% i% ma0 also a55ear 5os%-nominall0 9i%h a #ifferen% meanin!3 >no% havin! an0 relevan% 5ro5er%ies common? (fr$ quelconque/$ Ui%h %he secon# meanin! i% is %o be anal0Ae# as a re!ular a#6ec%ive3
C+
(21/
a$ Nu-mi 5lac oa6en.. :Ct.a oa0e/a0e$ No%-me$CL$DAT li-e 5eo5le-%he %hese oarecare >I #on?% li-e %hese or#inar0 5eo5le? b$ 7l nu e 1n a/to0 oa0e/a0e$ 7 o ve#e%L$ he no% is an ac%or oarecare$ is a s%ar >Oe?s no% 6us% an0 ac%or$ Oe?s a s%ar?
In %he case of N-elli5sis i% has %he rea#in! corres5on#in! %o %he 5os%-nominal 5osi%ion so 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% as a F7 i% #oes no% allo9 N elli5sis
(22/ A veni% 1n oa0e/a0e has come a oarecare >Somebo#0 or#inar0/insi!nifican% came?$
Dnli-e mos% NIFs i% is uninflec%e# in 5resen%-#a0 Romanian (i% use# %o have a 5lural oarecari/$ The in#eclinable oarece >some of a cer%ain level? (mos%l0 use# for %he level of a @uali%0/ is al9a0s 5renominal$ I% is !enerall0 5rece#e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle un or b0 no #e%erminer bu% in %his case i% onl0 %a-es mass nouns an# 5lurals 9hich sho9s %ha% i% is never a D$
Ambii >bo%h? 9oul# also belon! here if 9e consi#ere# %ha% i% con%ains a suffi;e# #efini%e ar%icle$ For %he #ifference be%9een i% an# re!ular a#6ec%ives see I above$
V$ Dn-inflec%e# 5re-D3 (i/ The #is%ribu%ivi%0 mar-er cte 9hich mar-s an in#efini%e DP as bein! #is%ribu%e# b0 some @uan%ifica%ional o5era%or$ I% ma0 also a55ear 9i%h car#inals in a#verbial 5osi%ions li-e a floa%in! @uan%ifier3
(24/ a$ ToRi au veni% cu /Kte 1n 50.eten all$:PL have come 9i%h cte a frien# >7ver0one came 9i%h a frien# (of his/? b$ Fe%ele au 5leca% /Kte t0e. !irls-%he have lef% cte %hree >The !irls lef% %hree b0 %hree?
The re!ional an# sub-s%an#ar# 5re-#e%erminer alde is use# 9i%h #efini%e DPs P 5ro5er names 5ersonal common nouns 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle 5ersonal 5ronouns an# #emons%ra%ives P referrin! %o 5ersons3 (2,/ a$ al#e Dumi%ru alde Dumi%ru b$ al#e 5rimarul alde mair-%he c$ al#e Lia alde %hose$:PL This 9or# is #ifficul% %o %ransla%e$ Some%imes i% e;5resses familiari%0 #eference or iron0 leavin! %he #eno%a%ion of %he DP unchan!e#$ I% ma0 also chan!e %he reference of %he DP bein! %ransla%able b0 >somebo#0 li-e V? (9here V is %he referen% of %he DP/$ In %his use i% is of%en 5rece#e# b0 de an# of%en has an affec%ive conno%a%ion mos%l0 #e5recia%ive$ Formerl0 an# no9a#a0s onl0 re!ionall0 i% has %he meanin! >%he !rou5 of V? >V an# his famil0?$ This mus% have been %he ori!inal meanin! of %he 9or# since i% comes from %he ar%icle al (formerl0 an in#e5en#en% form of %he #efini%e ar%icle/ an# %he 5re5osi%ion de 9hich ha# a 5ar%i%ive meanin! in %he ol# lan!ua!e$
C1
3. No1n ell.5s.s= 50o+N an3 50o+DP

NF7s ma0 be classifie# accor#in! %o 9he%her %he0 mus% combine 9i%h over% nouns or %he0 ma0 a55ear in a DP 9i%hou% an over% noun$ :os% NF7s belon! %o %he la%%er %05e 9hich 9ill be sho9n %o come in %9o varie%ies #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he NF7 is %o be anal0Ae# as %he sis%er of an em5%0 N (a 5ro-N/ or as a 5ro-DP$ 3.1. No6.nal F1n/t.onal Ele6ents t8at ne2e0 alloD N+ell.5s.s The onl0 un#is5u%able cases are nite >some s?m? %he uninflec%e# 5re-Ds alde an# cte an# %he a#6ec%ival F7s anumit% oarecare an# oarece$ I% is si!nifican% %ha% e;ce5% for anumit all %hese 9or#s are uninflec%e#$ A#nominal ce >9ha%? an# orice >an0 9ha%ever? ma0 be inclu#e# here if %he corres5on#in! inanima%e 5ronouns are %rea%e# as homon0mous forms$ See #iscussion belo9 un#er 2$2$+$ The encli%ic #efini%e ar%icle -L 9oul# belon! here unless 9e consi#er %he 5rocli%ic form cel 9hich ma0 occur 9i%h YNeZ %o be an allomor5h of %he #efini%e ar%icle (see * B/$ 3.2. No6.nal F1n/t.onal Ele6ents t8at alloD N+ell.5s.s Uhen a55earin! 9i%hou% over% nouns cer%ain NF7s have s5ecial >5ronominal? (or >au!men%e#?/ forms (see also cha5%er +./3 %he in#efini%e ar%icle un >a(n/ one? an# %he 5lural 5ar%i%ive unii >some? 5ronominal unul% unii an# i%s com5oun#s vreun >some an0 (non-s5ecific/?% 5ronominal vreunul niciun >no? 5ronominal niciunul %he al%erna%ive alt >o%her?% 5ronominal altul %he #emons%ra%ive acest% acel% 5ronominal acesta% acela% familiar sta% la (for a #iscussion of %he use of 5ronominal forms see * B/ %he in%erro!a%ive-rela%ive 5ronoun care >9hich? an# i%s com5oun#s oricare >an0 9hoever? fiecare >each? have s5ecial 5ronominal forms onl0 in %he obli@ue3 cruia% creia% crora$ some NF7s have s5ecial 5ronominal forms onl0 in %he 5lural obli@ue3 %his is %he case of NF7s #is5la0in! %he 5lural obli@ue en#in! - or (an0 #e%erminer 9i%h %his en#in! 9ill have %he 5ronominal form -ora/3 %he universals toi >all? an# amndoi >bo%h? an# %he @uan%i%a%ives muli >man0? ci (>ho9 man0?/ orici (>an0 number?/ ati (>so/%ha% man0?/3 tuturora% amndurora% multora% ctora% orictora% attora$ This onl0 ha55ens 9hen -or is 9or#-final$ Cf$ ctorva 5renominal as 9ell as 5ronominal (%here is no -ctorava/ All %he o%her NF7s have %he same form 9hen combinin! 9i%h over% nouns an# 9i%h a 5ro-N em5%0 ca%e!or03 car#inals (doi >%9o? trei >%hree? e%c$/ %he @uan%i%a%ive #e%erminers civa >some a fe9? puin% puini (>li%%le? >fe9?/ destul (>enou!h?/ %he s%ron! forms of %he #efini%e ar%icle cel% cea e%c$ (9hich ma0 also a55ear 9i%h over% nouns in cons%ruc%ions 9i%h car#inalsI see * B/ %he #irec% case (i$e$ nomina%ive-accusa%ive/ of care an# i%s com5oun#s$ Gn %he @ues%ion 9he%her ce >9ha%? an# orice >an0(%hin!/? also belon! here see %he #iscussion un#er 2$2$+$ In mos% cases %he absence of a noun can be anal0Ae# as noun elli5sis$ A con%en% for %he missin! noun has %o be recovere# from %he lin!uis%ic or e;%ra-lin!uis%ic con%e;% (in %he follo9in! e;am5les %he em5%0 (i$e$ non-realiAe#/ noun 9ill be mar-e# b0 YNeZ/3
(2./ a$ AAi am ci%i% %rei ca5i%ole$ Ieri am mai ci%i% 3o1: [Ne]$
C2
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories %o#a0 have$+ rea# %hree cha5%ers 0es%er#a0 have$+ more rea# %9o [Ne] [ capitole >cha5%ers? >To#a0 I?ve rea# %hree cha5%ers$ qes%er#a0 I rea# %9o? b$ AM vrea Mi eu /Kte2a [Ne]$ Uoul#$+SG 9an% also I a fe9/some >I 9oul# li-e some %oo? u%%ere# in fron% of a ca-e-#is5la0 [Ne] ma0 be pr+ituri >ca-es?
The recovere# con%en% ma0 inclu#e besi#e %he noun com5lemen%s or mo#ifiers of %he noun$ The number of %he nominal an%ece#en% ma0 be #ifferen% (see (2</b/3
(2</ a$ Am EnvLRa% mai mul%e 5oeAii #e 7minescu #ar nu mai M%iu #ecW% 3o1: [Ne] have$+ learne# more man0 5oems b0 7minescu bu% no% more -no9$+SG onl0 %9o >I?ve learne# several 5oems b0 7minescu bu% I can onl0 remember %9o? [Ne] [ poe(ii de Eminescu ?5oems b0 7minescu? b$ CW%e in%er5re%Lri bune ale aces%ei sona%e cunoM%iK P Nu cunosc n./.1na [Ne] ho9-man0 5erformin!s !oo# al0FSG %his$G7N sona%a -no9$1SG no% -no9$+SG none >Oo9 man0 !oo# 5erformin!s of %his sona%a #o 0o -no9K P I #on?% -no9 an0$ [Ne] [ interpretare bun a acestei sonate ?!oo# 5erformin! of %his sona%a?
'u% %he eli#e# cons%i%uen% #oes no% necessaril0 inclu#e all %he NP-in%ernal ma%erial$ :o#ifiers an# com5lemen%s of an em5%0 (eli#e#/ noun ma0 be over%l0 e;5resse#3
(2B/ a$ o %ra#ucere a Ilia#ei Mi 3o1: [ Ne] ale O3.see. a %ransla%ion of Ilia#-%he$G7N an# %9o al0FPL G#0sse0-%he$G7N >a %ransla%ion of Ilia# an# %9o of %he G#0sse0? [Ne] [ traducere ?%ransla%ion? b$ Du5L aceas%L #escriere a 5re!L%irilor urmeaAL [ 1na [ Ne] tot aCa 3e af%er %his #escri5%ion al0FSG 5re5ara%ions-%he$G7N follo9s one all so of a6:n1nA.t: a l15telo0] #e%aile# al0FSG fi!h%s-%he$G7N >This #escri5%ion of %he 5re5ara%ions is follo9e# b0 an e@uall0 #e%aile# #escri5%ion of %he fi!h%s? [Ne] [ descriere ?#escri5%ion?
The eli#e# ma%erial mus% con%ain %he noun an# mus% form a cons%i%uen%$ Thus (2C/b is e;clu#e# because %he eli#e# ma%erial sticle de vin #oes no% form a cons%i%uen% P %he a#6ec%ive alb a55ears insi#e %he PP de vin an# is no% eli#e#3 (2C/ a$ Avem #e6a %rei [s%icle #e vin] $ Ne mai %rebuie 3o1: [ Ne] have$+PL alrea#0 %hree bo%%les of 9ine us$CL$DAT s%ill nee#s %9o >Ue alrea#0 have %hree bo%%les of re# 9ine$ Ue nee# %9o more?$ b$ Avem #e6a %rei [s%icle [#e vin roMu]] $ X Ne mai %rebuie 3o1: [Ne] alb have$+PL alrea#0 %hree bo%%les of 9ine re# us$CL$DAT s%ill nee#s %9o 9hi%e
In %he absence of a con%e;%ual an%ece#en% [Ne] ma0 receive a con%en% b0 #efaul% !enerall0 Hhuman ((4=/a-b #/ an# 9i%h a s5ecial !en#er form (feminine 5lural/ -anima%e or non-s5ecifie# for animac0 ((4=/c e/3
(4=/ a$ F.e/a0e EMi ve#e numai in%eresul lui$ each R7FL$DAT sees onl0 in%eres%-%he his >7ver0bo#0 sees onl0 his o9n in%eres%?
C4
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories b$ ToA. cau%L fericirea$ all$:PL see- ha55iness-%he >7ver0bo#0 see-s ha55iness$? c$ Toate se vor 5reface En cenuML$ all$FPL R7FL 9ill$2PL %urn in ashes >7ver0%hin! (all %hin!s/ 9ill %urn in%o ashes$? #$ :-au cLu%a% 61lA.$ me$CL$ACC -have$2PL searche# man0$ :PL >:an0 5eo5le have as-e# for me$? e$ A a#us 61lte$ has brou!h% man0$ FPL >Oe brou!h% man0 %hin!s$?
The in%er5re%a%ional 5ossibili%ies no%e# above are i#en%ical for NF7s 9i%h au!men%e# forms an# for NF7s 9hich #o no% have s5ecial forms in %he absence of an over% N$ The au!men%e# forms in mos% cases are buil% 9i%h an elemen% -a 9hich ma0 be anal0Ae# ei%her as an incor5ora%e# 5ro-N (a 5ro-N surfacin! as P a/ (see (4+/c/ or as a s5ecial form of %he NF7 in %he con%e;% rYNeZ (see (4+/#/3
(4+/ a$ a/est co5il %his chil# b$ a/esta %his-one c$ [[Dacest][Na]] #$ [[Dacesta][Ne]]
In %9o cases P un >a(n/ one? an# i%s com5oun#s vreun >some an0? niciun >no? an# alt >(an/o%her? P %he 5ronominal form loo-s li-e a #efini%e #eclension (i$e$ affi;a%ion 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle PL/3
(41/ a$ 1n co5il a chil# a_$ 1n1l [Ne] a-ul >one? b$ alt: 5roblemL o%her 5roblem >ano%her 5roblem? b_$ alta [Ne] o%her-a >ano%her one?
This #oesn?% mean %ha% a #efini%e D is reall0 5resen% in %his case3 %he meanin! is clearl0 in#efini%e an# %he forms of %he obli@ue case are #ifferen% from %hose of %he #efini%e #eclension in %he masculine sin!ular an# in %he 5lural (%he obli@ue en#in!s of %he #efini%e #eclension are masc$s! -lui% f$s!$ -ei% m$f$5l$ -lorI %he au!men%e# #eclension of un an# alt have %he obli@ue en#in!s m$s!$ -ui f$s!$ -ei% m$f$5l$ -or %o 9hich -a is a##e# as can be seen in %he %able belo9/3
C,
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories (42/ #irec% obli@ue #irec% obli@ue m$s!$ al% al%ui un unui f$s!$ al%L al%ei o unei Prenominal m$5l$ alRi al%or unii/niM%e unor f$5l$ al%e al%or unii/niM%e unor m$s!$ al%1l al%uia un1l unuia Au!men%e# f$s!$ m$5l$ al%a alRi. al%eia al%ora una uni. uneia unora f$5l$ al%ele al%ora unele unora
The meanin! is no% necessaril0 5ar%i%ive ei%her (so in s5i%e of %he su5erficial similari%0 %he a55aren% #efini%e mar-ers #o no% e;5ress 5ar%i%ivi%0 li-e in French l.un% l.autre/3
(44/ a$ Ce rochie frumoasLd P Am Mi eu 1na aMa$ 9ha% #ress(F/ nice have$+SG also I one-a li-e-%ha% >Uha% a nice #ressd P I %oo have one li-e %ha%$? b$ S-a %ermina% filmulK Las? cL 5un eu alt1l. R7FL-has finishe# film(N/-%he le% %ha% 5u%$+SG I o%her-ul >The film is overK Don?% 9orr0 I?ll 5la0 ano%her one$?
Ue ma0 no%ice %ha% %he #efini%e inflec%ion is use# for cases 9here %he a##i%ion of - a 9oul# have ma#e %he %ermina%ions in#is%in!uishable (masc$ Xun-a [ fem$ un-a/ (in %he case of #emons%ra%ives %he forms are s%ill #is%in!uishable #ue %o s%em al%erna%ions3 masc$ acesta% acela% fem$ aceasta% aceea/$ 'u% %his s%ill #oesn?% e;5lain 9h0 s5ecial 5ronominal forms 9ere nee#e# for %his case since o%her NF7s sho9 no formal #ifference in cases of nominal elli5sis3 mult% muli >much man0? (i%s onl0 s5ecial 5ronominal form is %he obli@ue 5lural multora/ %he #irec% form of care e%c$ In line 9i%h %hese observa%ions 9e ma0 anal0Ae Pul an# Pa as 5ro-Ns (see (4,// %ha% are inflec%e# for !en#er an# number (com5are %he invariable P a %ha% combines 9i%h #emons%ra%ive #e%erminers 9hich are %hemselves inflec%e# for !en#er an# number/ or as s5ecial forms of %hese NF7s use# in %he con%e;% r[Ne] (see (4.//3
(4,/ (4./ a$ [[Dun][Nul]] b$ [[Dalt][Na]] [Dunul][Ne]
Tra#i%ionall0 NF7s in %his con%e;% 9ere calle# >5ronouns? 9hile in 5renominal 5osi%ion %he0 9ere calle# >5ronominal a#6ec%ives?$ Oo9ever %he anal0sis in %erms of [Ne] is su5erior on %he follo9in! !roun#s3 firs% of all an# mos% im5or%an% i% %rea%s as uni@ue le;ical en%ries i%ems 9hich 9ere consi#ere# ambivalen% in %he %ra#i%ional %heor0$ The %ra#i%ional vie9 canno% e;5lain 9h0 all %hese 9or#s sho9 %his #ual behaviour (a#6ec%ives an# 5ronouns/ an# 9i%h such a re!ulari%0 no% onl0 in a sin!le lan!ua!e bu% also across lan!ua!es$ Secon# a s%ruc%ure con%ainin! [Ne] is %he sim5les% re5resen%a%ion of %he seman%ics of %hese cons%ruc%ions3 as 9e have seen as in o%her cases of elli5sis a nominal con%en% for %he missin! NP is con%e;%uall0 recovere# (see (2./-(2B// an# onl0 in %he absence of %his 5ossibili%0 a con%en% b0 #efaul% is inferre# (see (4=//I [Ne] #oes no% s%an# for an en%i%0 as in %he case of 5ersonal 5ronouns bu% for a nominal con%en% so i% is be%%er calle# a 5ro-N$ A %hir# ar!umen% is %ha% in some lan!ua!es %his 5ro-N ma0 be over%$ 7n!lish uses in some cases %he form one 9here Romanian has [Ne]3
(4</ a$ fiecare casL ever0 house Romanian 7n!lish
C.
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories b$ fiecare [Ne] ever0 one c$ al%L 5roblemL ano%her 5roblem #$ al%a [Ne] ano%her one Romanian 7n!lish Romanian 7n!lish Romanian 7n!lish
Four%h [Ne] ma0 be foun# in#e5en#en%l0 of an0 (over%/ NFIs in Romanian (for #e%ails see * 2$4/3
(4B/ a$ Ai !Lsi% romane #e :alrau;K have$1SG foun# novels b0 :alrau; >Oave 0ou foun# novels b0 :alrau;K? b$ Nu am cum5Lra% numai [Ne] #e Gi#e$ no have$+ bou!h% onl0 of Gi#e >No I bou!h% onl0 (novels/ b0 Gi#e?
In '?s re5li@ue i% is clear %ha% 9e #o no% have a 5ro-DP ana5hor3 ' #oes no% s5ea- abou% %he same referen% as A$ Uha% %he %9o DPs have in common is 5ar% of %heir #escri5%ive con%en% namel0 %he noun romane >novels?$ If -a an# -L (-ul e%c$/ of %he au!men%e# inflec%ion are anal0Ae# as a 5ro-N or as allomor5hs use# in %he con%e;% of an em5%0 N 9e e;5ec% %hem %o a55ear 9hen several NF7s are 5resen% onl0 on %he F7 a#6acen% %o %he N 5osi%ion i$e$ %he las% one$ This e;5ec%a%ion is borne ou% e;ce5% for #emons%ra%ives 9hich al9a0s have - a in %he absence of an over% N even if %he0 are no% a#6acen% %o %he N 5osi%ion (see (4C/e/3
(4C/ a$ mul%or bLrbaRi s mul%ora man0$ PL$G'L men man0$ PL$G'L-a b$ mul%or al%or bLrbaRi s mul%or al%or a man0$ PL$G'L o%her$PL$G'L men man0$ PL$G'L o%her$PL$G'L-a c$ %u%uror elevilor s %u%urora all$PL$G'L 5u5ils all$PL$G'L-a #$ %u%uror aces%or elevi s %u%uror aces%or a all$PL$G'L %hese$G'L 5u5ils all$PL$G'L %hese$PL$G'L-a e$ aces%e #ouL case s aces%ea #ouL %hese %9o houses %hese-a %9o
The #e%erminer unii >some? 9hich is al9a0s 5ar%i%ive in a#nominal 5osi%ion is no% res%ric%e# %o %his %05e of in%er5re%a%ion in 5hrases 9i%hou% an over% noun bu% ra%her becomes %he 5lural coun%er5ar% of %he in#efini%e ar%icle un)ul/$ Tha%?s 9h0 in %he follo9in! e;am5le ((,=/a/ 9here a 5ar%i%ive in%er5re%a%ion is unli-e0 9e canno% in%ro#uce %he missin! noun an# -ee5 %he same meanin! ((,=/b/$ If 9e 9an% %o 5reserve %he meanin! 9e have %o re5lace unii 9i%h %he non-5ar%i%ive #e%erminer nite ((,=/c/3
(,=/ a$ Am cum5Lra% %ran#afiri roA iar :ihai a cum5Lra% 1n.. !albeni have$+ bou!h% roses 5in- an# :ihai has bou!h% some 0ello9 >I/Ue bou!h% 5in- roses an# :ihai bou!h% 0ello9 (ones/? b$ mAm cum5Lra% %ran#afiri roA iar :ihai a cum5Lra% 1n.. %ran#afiri !albeni$ have$+ bou!h% roses 5in- an# :ihai has bou!h% some roses 0ello9 c$ Am cum5Lra% %ran#afiri roA iar :ihai a cum5Lra% n.Cte %ran#afiri !albeni$ have$+ bou!h% roses 5in- an# :ihai has bou!h% s?m roses 0ello9 >I/Ue bou!h% 5in- roses an# :ihai bou!h% some 0ello9 (ones/?
C<
As 9e have no%ice# in 2$+ %he non-5ar%i%ive e;is%en%ial in#efini%e nite canno% a55ear 9i%hou% an over% noun$ So unii func%ions as a H[Ne] form no% onl0 for unii bu% also for nite$ A 5ossible e;5lana%ion is %ha% bo%h uses of unii s%em from a fea%ure >Hcon%e;%ual-recover0? (as 9e 9ill su!!es% belo9 for care/$ This ma0 be recover0 of a #efini%e referen%ial an%ece#en% in %he 5ar%i%ive use bu% of a nominal an%ece#en% for N elli5sis$ 'u% 9e mus% no%e %ha% unii ma0 also be in%er5re%e# 9i%hou% recover0 of a nominal con%en% from %he con%e;% (9i%hou% N elli5sis/ meanin! >some 5eo5le?$ So i% a55ears %ha% i% is a ra%her !eneraliAe# form for %he in#efini%e #e%erminer in %he con%e;% H[Ne]$ 3.3. P0o+DPs E50ono1nsF Cer%ain #e%erminer-li-e elemen%s e$!$ nimeni% nimic >nobo#0 no%hin!? never a55ear 9i%h an over% noun 3
(,+/ N-am a#us n./.o@Ln.6./ car%e no%-have$+ brou!h% no / no%hin! boo-
Such elemen%s 9ill be calle# pronouns or pro-D/s$ In %his case %he 5resence of a nominal elemen% as a sis%er of De% i%self is #eba%able$ These elemen%s ma0 ins%ea# be anal0Ae# ei%her as intransitive determiners (#e%erminers 9i%h no nominal com5lemen%/ or as fused !eads% incor5ora%in! a nominal elemen% (%he incor5ora%ion ma0 be 5re-s0n%ac%ic in 9hich case a cons%i%uen% of %he form DHN 9hich is lis%e# in %he Le;icon en%ers %he #eriva%ion as suchI al%erna%ivel0 NHD mi!h% be %he resul% of hea#-%o-hea# movemen% of N %o D/$ In #iscussin! %his class 9e 9ill #is%in!uish be%9een in#efini%e 5ronouns an# 5ersonal 5ronouns$ 3.3.1 In3ef.n.te 50ono1ns I% is in%eres%in! %o com5are in#efini%e 5ronouns (9hich canno% be follo9e# b0 an over% noun/ 9i%h %he corres5on#in! 5renominal #e%erminers (see %he %able in (,1//3
(,1/ e;is%en%ial in%erro!a%ive Ne!a%ive al%erna%ive free-choice Prenominal #e%erminer Hle;ical N H5ro-N un >a? unul >one? care >9hich? ce >9ha%? niciun >no? al% >(an/o%her? oricare >an0? care >9hich? niciunul >no one? al%ul >ano%her one? Pronoun Hanima%e -anima%e cinevaIcareva ceva >somebo#0? >some%hin!? cine >9ho? ce >9ha%? nimeni >nobo#0? al%cineva >somebo#0 else? oricine >an0bo#0? nimic >no%hin!? al%ceva >some%hin! else? orice >an0%hin!?
orice oricare >an0(one/?
The %9o series of elemen%s con%ain %he same o5era%ors bu% #iffer re!ar#in! %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he non-over% (or im5lici%/ nominal elemen%3 9hen use# 9i%hou% a noun 5renominal #e%erminers allo9 a con%e;%ual recover0 of %he #escri5%ive con%en% (see %he 5revious sec%ion/ 9hereas in#efini%e 5ronouns never #o so3
CB
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories (,2/ a$ N-am a#us n./.1na. no%-have$+ brou!h% no$ADG: >I/Ue #i#n?% brin! an0 (one/$? 7;$ of con%e;%ual recover03 [Ne] [ carte >boo-? b$ N-am a#us n.6./. no%-have$+ brou!h% no%hin! >I/Ue brou!h% no%hin!? No con%e;%ual recover0
If %he 5ossibili%0 of con%e;%ual recover0 is a !eneral 5ro5er%0 of an em5%0 N (no%a%e# Y NeZ/ as 9e have seen in * 2$1 %hese con%ras%s sho9 %ha% in#efini%e 5ronouns #on?% con%ain an em5%0 N$ The fuse# e;is%en%ials 5rece#e# b0 %he al%erna%ive alt (labelle# >al%erna%ive 5ronouns in %able (,1// are %rea%e# as com5oun#s b0 %he 9ri%%en norm3 altcineva >somebo#0 else? altceva >some%hin! else?$ Since %he or#er be%9een e;is%en%ials an# al%erna%ives is !enerall0 %he o55osi%e (un altul >ano%her one?/ 9e ma0 a#o5% %he su!!es%ion of %he norm an# %rea% %hese forms as com5oun#s fuse#-hea# al%erna%ives$ I% shoul# be observe# %ha% %he in%erro!a%ive ce >9ha%? an# i%s com5oun# orice >an0%hin! 9ha%ever? 9i%hou% a noun behave as 5ronouns (%he0 #on?% allo9 con%e;%ual recover0 of a #escri5%ive con%en%/ bu% %he0 ma0 also be use# as 5renominal #e%erminers$ Ue ma0 %rea% %hese 5renominal forms as homon0mous forms since %he0 #o no% have %he inanima%e fea%ure of %heir 5ronominal coun%er5ar%s ce >9ha%? orice >an0%hin!?$ Thus 9e canno% #erive (,4/b from (,4/a3
(,4/ a$ VorbeM%e cu o0./e 5rofesor d s5ea-$1SG 9i%h orice 5rofessor >Tal- %o an0 5rofessor d? b$ XVorbeM%e cu o0./e [Ne]d s5ea-$1SG 9i%h orice (in%en#e# meanin!3 >%al- %o an0oned?/
Oo9ever %he formal i#en%i%0 be%9een %he inanima%e in%erro!a%ive 5ronoun an# %he (non-Dlin-e#/ in%erro!a%ive #e%erminer is a 5ro5er%0 foun# in o%her lan!ua!es (e;$ en!l$ &!at i%$ que alb$ I/$ Since %he inanima%e 5ronoun is also use# for %he u%%ermos% !enerici%0 embracin! bo%h anima%es an# inanima%es 9e coul# sa0 %ha% %he forms ce an# orice are in fac% un#ers5ecifie# con%ainin! onl0 %he fea%ures YDZ Y9hZ an# YDZ Yfree-choiceZ res5ec%ivel0$ Their 5ronominal meanin! 9oul# resul% from %he concurrence of %he more s5ecifie# %erms (ori*cine (Hanima%e/ an# (ori*care (H5ar%i%ive/$ Since %he 5ar%i%ive fea%ure of care an# oricare re@uires con%e;%ual recover0 ce an# orice 9oul# be use# onl0 for cases in 9hich %here is no such con%e;%ual recover0 an# %he em5%0 N receives a value b0 #efaul%$ Dn#er such an anal0sis ce an# orice 9oul# belon! %o %he %05e of #e%erminers allo9in! N elli5sis (2$1$ above/$ 'u% no%ice %ha% even 9hen no 5ar%i%ivi%0 (i$e$ selec%ion from a #efini%e !rou5/ is involve# ce canno% be use# 9i%h N elli5sis3
(,,/ Are niM%e cLrRi #ar nu M%iu ce cLrRi / X/e / (#e/ care has s?m boo-s bu% no% -no9$+SG 9ha% boo-s / 9ha% / (of/ 9hich
Gne coul# ar!ue %ha% %he fea%ure of care 9hich #e%ermines %ha% i% is %he onl0 in%erro!a%ive allo9in! 5ro-N is no% sim5l0 5ar%i%ive bu% ra%her some%hin! li-e >Hcon%e;%ual recover0?3 %his ma0 refer ei%her %o a #efini%e !rou5 as in %he 5ar%i%ive use also foun# a#nominall0 or %o a nominal con%en% in cases of 5ro-N$ No%e moreover %ha% in %he absence of %he over% noun in
CC
or#er %o @ues%ion %he %05e of boo-s %he e;5lici% @uali%0 &!- e;5ression de care li%$ >of 9hich (sor%/? ([ >9ha% sor% of?/ mus% be use# o%her9ise %he @ues%ion as-s %o s5ecif0 %he boo-s$ (Gn #e%erminers 5rece#e# b0 de 9i%h a @uali%0 meanin! see * 1 above$/ Oere 9e 9ill no% choose be%9een %hese %9o 5ossible anal0ses of %he forms ce an# orice$ The fac% %ha% in#efini%e 5ronouns allo9 res%ric%ive mo#ifiers (e;em5lifie# in (,.// coul# be %a-en as an ar!umen% for %he 5resence of a nominal elemen% since res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion is !enerall0 consi#ere# %o be e;5resse# insi#e %he 5ro6ec%ion 9hich is %he com5lemen% of %he #e%erminer$ Ue ma0 analiAe %his nominal elemen% as an incor5ora%e# nonana5horic !ramma%ical N 9i%h %he !eneral fea%ures H/- human$
(,./ a$ Am En%reba% 5e /.ne2a 5rice5u% la as%a$ have$+ as-e# DG: somebo#0 s-illful a% %his >I/Ue as-e# somebo#0 !oo# a% %his? b$ Vreau /e2a #ulce$ 9an%$+SG some%hin! s9ee% >I 9an% some%hin! s9ee%?
3.3.2. Pe0sonal 50ono1ns In %he case of 5ersonal 5ronouns %here are several ar!umen%s a!ains% %he 5resence of %he nominal elemen%$ Firs% unli-e in#efini%es %he0 #on?% a#mi% res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion (com5are (,./a %o (,<//3
(,</ L-am En%reba% 5e el (X5rice5u% la as%a/ him$CL$ACC-have$+ as-e# DG: him s-illful a% %his
:oreover 9hile bo%h #emons%ra%ives an# 5ersonal 5ronouns are use# %o refer %o salien% #iscourse referen%s (!iven ei%her in %he #iscourse or in %he e;%ra-lin!uis%ic con%e;%/ 5ersonal 5ronouns bu% no% #emons%ra%ives ma0 be boun# b0 a c-comman#in! an%ece#en% (see cha5%er , * +$B$1/3
(,B/ :irceai cre#e cL eli / Xa/esta. es%e cel mai bun$ :ircea %hin-s %ha% he / %his-one is %he more !oo# ?:ircea %hin-s %ha% he/%his one is %he bes%$?
Since DPs 9i%h over% NPs can never be boun# (see (,C// %he im5ossibili%0 of bein! boun# ma0 be rela%e# %o %he e;is%ence of a NP cons%i%uen% insi#e acesta >%his?$ This is su55or%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% #emons%ra%ives ma0 a55ear 9i%h an over% noun (%he0 are a#nominal #e%erminers allo9in! N elli5sis %he %05e 2$1$ above unli-e 5ersonal 5ronouns/ (see (.=//3
(,C/ (.=/ X:irceai cre#e cL in#ivi#uli e #eM%e5% :ircea %hin-s %ha% !u0-%he is smar% a$ aces% bLia% %his bo0 b$ Xel bLia% he bo0
Thus if %he bloc-in! of %he boun#-variable rea#in! is e;5laine# b0 %he 5resence of a nominal elemen% i% follo9s %ha% 5ersonal 5ronouns #on?% have a nominal elemen%$ Gn %he o%her han# %here are also ar!umen%s in favor of %he anal0sis of 5ersonal 5ronouns as DHN$ Firs% of all in some lan!ua!es (bu% no% in Romanian/ some 5ersonal 5ronouns can %a-e an NP-com5lemen%3 +==
(.+/
a$ Ue lin!uis%s b$ Noi lin!uis%i c$ Nous lin!uis%es
7n!lish I%alian French
To e;5ress (.+/ Romanian mus% use a #efini%e DP in an >a55osi%ion?-li-e s%ruc%ure (see cha5%er , * +$4/3 (i/ Noi lin!viM%ii 9e lin!uis%s-%he
As for in#efini%e 5ronouns %he N-elemen% of 5ersonal 5ronouns 9oul# re5resen% %he #escri5%ive con%en% an# %he D-elemen% an o5era%or$ In #iscussin! 9ha% %hese %9o ma0 be 9e mus% #is%in!uish be%9een +s% an# 1n# 5erson sin!ular an# %he o%hers3 9e 9oul# never nee# an0 #escri5%ive con%en% in or#er %o i#en%if0 %he s5ea-er an# %he a##ressee - ho9ever 9e ma0 %hinof %he 5ossibili%0 %o use a #escri5%ion in or#er %o #is%in!uish amon! several 5ossible a##ressees as in you over t!ered -$ Gn %he con%rar0 %he 5lural forms of %he +s% an# 1n# 5erson inclu#e %he s5ea-er an# %he a##ressee res5ec%ivel0 in a !rou5 hence %he0 ma0 be en#o9e# 9i%h a #escri5%ive con%en% in%ro#ucin! %he !rou5$ This e;5lains 9h0 %he0 allo9 NPcom5lemen%s in some lan!ua!es as 9e have seen in (.+/$ In %he case of %he %hir# 5erson %he #escri5%ive con%en% coul# be re5resen%e# b0 %he !en#er fea%ures 9hile %he number coul# be !enera%e# in Num %he level in%erme#ia%e be%9een N an# D$ In#ee# %hir# 5erson 5ronouns have been anal0Ae# b0 some !rammarians as definite articleJpro-3$ This 9oul# elimina%e an a55aren% e;ce5%ion in %he behaviour of #e%erminers3 9hile mos% #e%erminers ma0 a55ear 9i%h a 5ro-N %he #efini%e ar%icle canno% #o so unless %he DP con%ains a res%ric%ive mo#ifier3
(.1/ Romanian a$ `mi 5lace /el #e acolo$ CL$+SG$DAT li-es %he of %here b$ X`mi 5lace /el$ CL$+SG$DAT li-es %he c$ `mi 5lace f.e/a0e$ CL$+SG$DAT li-es each #$ `mi 5lace a/ela$ CL$+SG$DAT li-es %ha%$ADG: e$ `mi 5lace 1na$ CL$+SG$DAT li-es a$ADG: f$ `mi 5lac 3o1:$ CL$+SG$DAT li-e$2PL %9o 7n!lish I li-e t8e one over %here$ XI li-e %he one$ I li-e ever0one$ I li-e %ha% one$ I li-e one$ I li-e %9o$
Rom$ una an# 7n!l$ one in (.1/e are anal0Ae# as %he in#efini%e ar%icle H [Ne]
Accor#in! %o %his anal0sis %he im5ossibili%0 of (.1/b 9oul# be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% definite articleJpro-3 is realiAe# as a 5ersonal 5ronoun b0 incor5ora%ion$ 'u% %hen an e;5lana%ion is nee#e# for %he lac- of incor5ora%ion in (.1/a$ The !en#er fea%ures of 5ro-N 9oul# e;5lain %he behaviour of 5ersonal 5ronouns in lan!ua!es 9i%h !ramma%ical !en#er (Romanian bein! one of %hem/$ In %hese lan!ua!es !en#er is no% al9a0s seman%icall0 mo%iva%e# bu% for some nouns i% is a (5urel0 formal/ le;ical 5ro5er%0 9hich as such mus% be !enera%e# on %he noun$ As 9e ma0 see in (.2/ 5ersonal 5ronouns referrin! %o inanima%e en%i%ies inheri% %he !en#er of %he (%e;%ual or con%e;%ual/ nominal an%ece#en%$ Since in %hese cases !en#er is no% a seman%ic fea%ure 9hich coul# in#e5en#en%l0 es%ablish reference bu% a le;ical fea%ure of nouns %he 5resence of unmo%iva%e#
+=+
!en#er on 5ronouns coul# be e;5laine# b0 %he e;is%ence of a 5ro-N elemen% 9hich 9oul# co50 %he !en#er fea%ure of i%s an%ece#en%3
(.2/ a$ Am 5us 5alton1l. 5e scaun$ Pes%e el. am 5us umbrela$ have$+ 5u% coa%(N/-%he$SG on chair over 2:SG have$+ 5u% umbrella-%he >I 5u% %he coa% on %he chair$ Gn %o5 of i% I 5u% %he umbrella? b$ Am 5us /:6aCa 5e scaun$ Pes%e ea. am 5us umbrela$ have$+ 5u% shir%(F/-%he$ SG on chair over 2FSG have$+ 5u% umbrella-%he >I 5u% %he shir% on %he chair$ Gver i% I 5u% %he umbrella$?
The same si%ua%ion is foun# 9hen number is le;ical3

(.4/ Am 5us 5antalon.. noi$ I-am 5rimi% ca#ou sWmbL%L$ have$+ 5u% %rousers(:/-%he$PL ne9 2:PL$ACC-have$+ receive# 5resen% Sa%ur#a0 >I 5u% on %he ne9 %rousers$ I !o% %hem as a 5resen% on Sa%ur#a0$?
Ano%her ar!umen% in favour of %he anal0sis of 5ersonal 5ronouns as def0 art0 Hpro-3 is %he fac% %ha% some%imes %he0 #on?% refer %o %he same en%i%0 as %heir an%ece#en% bu% onl0 un#er%a-e %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he an%ece#en% (such 5ronouns are calle# >5ronouns of laAiness?/3
(.,/ Dnii oameni EMi 5ier# a2e0ea la cLrRi alRii o chel%uie 5e bLu%urL$ some 5eo5le R7FL$DAT loose for%une-%he a% car#s o%hers i% s5en# on #rin-in! >Some 5eo5le loose %heir for%une a% car#s o%hers s5en# i% on #rin-in!? it[>%heir for%une?3 >Some 5eo5lei loose %heiri for%une a% car#s o%hers6 s5en# t!eir+ fortune on #rin-in!?
These 5ronouns are also calle# >5a0chec- 5ronouns? af%er %he e;am5le b0 9hich %he0 9ere firs% in%ro#uce# in%o #iscussion in %he lin!uis%ic li%era%ure3 (i/ The man 9ho !ave 8.s 5a9/8e/> %o his 9ife 9as 9iser %han %he man 9ho !ave .t %o his mis%ress?
The rela%ion be%9een 2r# 5erson 5ronouns an# %he #efini%e ar%icle is also e;5resse# in mor5holo!0 in some lan!ua!es3 for ins%ance in mos% Romance lan!ua!es %he #efini%e ar%icle an# %he 2r# 5erson 5ronoun have %he same ori!in la%$ ille hence in some cases 9e s%ill fin# a formal i#en%i%0 be%9een %he %9o (mainl0 be%9een accusa%ive cli%ics an# %he ar%icle3 French masc$ s!$ le% fem$ s!$ la% 5l$ lesI in Romanian 9e fin# in %he masculine sin!ular %he same elemen% l 9i%h various allomor5hs in %he masculine 5lural i also 9i%h several allomor5hs in %he feminine 5lural le onl0 in %he feminine sin!ular %he forms #iver!e3 o for %he 5ronoun a for %he ar%icleI %he nomina%ive an# s%ron! accusa%ive forms sho9 an e- follo9e# b0 en#in!s i#en%ical %o %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle3 el% ei% ea% ele vs$ "l% -a% -i% -le/$ There are also lan!ua!es 9here 2r# 5erson 5ronouns ma0 al9a0s be use# 9i%h a noun al%hou!h no% as a #efini%e ar%icle bu% ra%her as a #emons%ra%ive - such is %he case of La%in is (9hich onl0 in %he case of Ns mo#ifie# b0 rela%ive clauses behaves as an ar%icle/$ In %he follo9in! 9e 9on?% %rea% 5ersonal 5ronouns refle;ives an# reci5rocals 9hich are #iscusse# in cha5%er ,$ Ue have seen %ha% %he +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5lural in%ro#uce a #escri5%ive con%en% >belon!in! %o a !rou5 inclu#in! %he s5ea-er/a##ressee? 9hich can combine 9i%h o%her #escri5%ive con%en% in %he DP s5ecif0in! %his !rou5$ So 9e e;5ec% %he fea%ures +5l an# 15l %o a55ear in#e5en#en%l0 of %he #e%erminer bein! even boun# b0 o%her #e%erminers$ This is in#ee# %he case in Romanian$ In#efini%e #e%erminers (inclu#in! @uan%i%a%ives func%ionin! as D/ es5eciall0 9hen a55earin! 9i%hou% an over% noun can %ri!!er firs% or secon# 5erson 5lural a!reemen% on %he verb or a firs%/secon# 5erson 5lural cli%ic3 +=1
(../
a$ Un.. /f.e/a0e vrem sL a6un!em mai re5e#e$ some$:PL/ each 9an%$+PL SD'N arrive$+PL more fas% >Some/each of of us 9an% %o arrive sooner$? b$ Ne-a lLsa% 5e /KA.2a sL aM%e5%Lm$ us$CL$ACC-has le% DG: a-fe9 SD'N 9ai%$+PL >Oe le% some/a fe9 of us 9ai%in!$? c$ M1lto0a ne 5lace #ansul man0$ DAT$ADG: us$CL$DAT li-es #ance-%he >:an0 of us li-e #ancin!? #$ Ca0e vreRi sL veniRi cu mineK 9hich 9an%$1PL SD'N come$1PL 9i%h me >Uhich of 0ou 9an%s %o come 9i%h meK?
This seems %o su!!es% %he e;is%ence of an em5%0 noun mar-e# +5l or 15l$ I% shoul# be no%e# %ha% %he same a!reemen% 5a%%erns ma0 a55ear even 9hen %here is an over% noun e;5resse# in %he collo@uial re!is%er bu% %his is much more res%ric%e# (see (.</c-# com5are# %o (..//3
(.</ a$ Do1: fa6.l.. am fos% afec%a%e #e calami%a%e %9o families have$+PL been affec%e# b0 #isas%er >Ue %9o families have been affec%e# b0 %he #isas%er? b$ Sun%em 61lA. 5ens.ona0. En aceas%L RarL are$+PL man0 5ensioners in %his coun%r0 >There are a lo% of us 5ensioners in %his coun%r0? c$ XCa0e st13enA. vreRi sL veniRi cu mineK 9hich s%u#en%s 9an%$1PL SD'N come$1PL 9i%h me #$ XM1lto0 5ens.ona0. ne 5lace #ansul man0$ DAT 5ensioners us$CL$DAT li-es #ance-%he
This su!!es%s %ha% %he fea%ures +5l an# 15l ma0 a55ear on %he >in#e;? of %he DP (%he fea%ure bun#le 9hich #e%ermines e;%ernal a!reemen%/ 9i%hou% bein! e;5resse# ei%her in N or in D$ Uhile %he e;ac% locus of %heir !enera%ion is no% clear i% is im5or%an% %o no%ice %ha% %he0 are no% !enera%e# un#er D (D is occu5ie# in %hese e;am5les b0 @uan%i%a%ives such as dou >%9o? or muli >man0? !ivin! rise %o an in#efini%e in%er5re%a%ionI %he 5erson fea%ure 5ossibl0 a%%aches %o %he DP insi#e a tbi! DP? an# moves from %his 5osi%ion %o %he inflec%ional #omain of %he clause !e%%in! realiAe# as sub6ec% a!reemen% on %he verb or as cli%ics/$ In#efini%e 5ronouns 9hich never %a-e nominal com5lemen%s never allo9 %his %05e of a!reemen%$ Com5are %he ne!a%ive 5ronoun nimeni in (.B/a-b 9i%h %he ne!a%ive #e%erminer niciun in (.B/# ((.B/c sho9s %ha% nimeni is a 5ronoun (.B/e sho9s %ha% niciun is a #e%erminer %ha% selec%s an over% or cover% N/3
(.B/ a$ N.6en. #in%re noi nu a /Xam a#ormi%$ nobo#0 amon! us no% has / have$+PL fallen-aslee5 >None of us has fallen aslee5$? b$ N.6en. nu a /Xam a#ormi% nobo#0 no% has/ have$+PL fallen-aslee5 c$ XN.6en. bLia% nu a a#ormi% nobo#0 bo0 no% has fallen-aslee5 #$ N./.1n1l (#in%re noi/ nu a /am a#ormi% none$ADG: (amon! us/ no% has /have$+PL fallen-aslee5 e$ N./.1n bLia% nu a a#ormi% no bo0 no% has fallen-aslee5
+=2
3.3.3. T8e G4en.t.2al an3 o03.nal a0t./leH al Al is a #e%erminer-li-e elemen% %ha% is a necessar0 in!re#ien% of !eni%ive DPs an# of or#inals3
(.C/ a$ o 5oar%L a oraMului a !a%e(F/ al$FSG ci%0-%he$G7N >a !a%e of %he ci%0? b$ :i-au 5lLcu% ale Ro#icLi me$CL$DAT-have$2PL li-e# al$FPL Ro#ica$G7N >I li-e# Ro#ica?s? (a con%en% for %he N-hea# is con%e;%uall0 recovere#/ c$ al #oilea rLAboi mon#ial al0:SG %9o-lea 9ar 9orl#9i#e >%he secon# Uorl# Uar? #$ rLAboiul al #oilea 9ar-%he al0:SG %9o-lea >%he secon# 9ar? e$ A%unci a in%ra% al #oilea %hen has en%ere# al0:SG %9o-lea >Then %he secon# one en%ere#?
Al is #ifferen% from %he in#efini%e 5ronouns in 2$2$+3 9hile %hese 5ronouns have a #escri5%ive con%en% s5ecifie# for animac0 (or 5ersonhoo#/ an# #on?% re@uire con%e;%ual i#en%ifica%ion of a nominal elemen% in %he case of al %he nominal elemen% is !enerall0 con%e;%uall0 i#en%ifie# behavin! as 5ro-N$ Gnl0 in %he absence of a con%e;%ual an%ece#en% a #escri5%ive con%en% is inferre# on %he base of i%s -fea%ures3 ai lui Eod >al0:PL G7N 5rince?3 anima%e >5rince?s men (frien#s su55or%ers/? ale mele >al0FPL m0?3 inanima%e >m0 s%uff?$ So 9e ma0 conclu#e %ha% al con%ains a 5ro-N$ No%e also %ha% al has a #efini%e meanin! onl0 9hen i% is no% embe##e# in ano%her DP in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion3 in (.C/a 9e see %ha% %he 5hrase alH!eni%ive can func%ion as %he com5lemen% of an in#efini%e DP in (.C/# 9e see %ha% or#inals ma0 a55ear af%er %he noun suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle in 9hich case %he #efini%eness meanin! is obviousl0 e;5resse# b0 %he ar%icle$ Gn %he o%her han# (.C/c sho9s %ha% if %he or#inal is 5renominal i% ma0 mar- %he DP as #efini%e 5resumabl0 #ue %o %he H#ef fea%ure 9hich is in %his case ac%ive in al$ 'ecause of %hese res%ric%ions on %he #efini%e meanin! an# of %he #is%ribu%ional res%ric%ions (al has %o be sis%er of a !eni%ive or of an or#inal/ al canno% be consi#ere# as an allomor5h of %he #efini%e ar%icle in %he con%e;% of a 5ro-N elemen%$ Therefore 9e %rea% i% as a #ifferen% le;eme ma#e u5 b0 a D an# a 5ro-N elemen%$ Ois%oricall0 i% 9as a 5rocli%ic form of %he #efini%e ar%icle (comin! from la%$ ille/ bu% no9a#a0s i% is re5lace# in %his func%ion b0 cel$ For more on al see cha5%er .0 3.$. Note on no6.nal ell.5s.s .n ba0e no1ns In %he sec%ion 2$1 9e have sho9n %ha% mos% NF7s allo9 elli5sis of %he noun$ Ue have also no%ice# %ha% nominal elli5sis is also 5ossible in bare nouns 9here no over% NF7 is 5resen%$ As 9e have sho9n in sec%ion + ar!umen%al bare 5lural an# mass nouns ma0 be anal0Ae# ei%her as DPs 9i%h a null D or as NumPs (see also cha5%er 1/$ Thus 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% i% is %he null D or Num %ha% licenses %he em5%0 noun$ No%e %ha% elli5sis is 5ossible even if %he 5hrase #oesn?% con%ain an0 over% ma%erial3
(<=/ a$ A3 Nu mai avem flori$ '3 LasL cL a#uce :ihai (Q/ no% s%ill have$+PL flo9ers le%$I:PV$1SG %ha% brin!s :ihai A3>Ue have no more flo9ers lef%? '3>Don?% 9orr0 :ihai 9ill brin! (some/?
+=4
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories b$ La5%ele meu s-a %ermina%$ Di%L-%e 5oa%e a mai rLmas (Q/ la %ine En fri!i#er mil--%he m0 R7FL-has finishe# loo-$I:PV-R7FL ma0be has s%ill lef% a% 0ou in fri#!e >:0 mil- is over$ Loo- 5erha5s %here?s s%ill some lef% in 0our fri#!e?
7lli5sis also allo9s various %05es of over% ma%erial3 a#6ec%ives PP mo#ifiers (@uasi-/ ar!umen%al PPs (9e see an au%hor PP in (<+/c/ rela%ive clauses3
(<+/ A#6ec%ives3 a$ Am lua% %ran#afiri roA iar :ihai a lua% [Ne] !albeni$ have$+ %a-en roses(:/ 5in- an# :ihai has %a-en 0ello9$ :PL >I bou!h% 5in- roses an# :ihai bou!h% 0ello9$? PP-mo#ifiers3 b$ La noi sun% Mi case #e 5ia%rL$ La voi sun% numai [Ne] #e cLrLmi#L a% us are also houses of s%one a% 0ou are onl0 of bric>Ue also have s%one-ma#e houses 0ou onl0 have bric- houses$? (8uasi/-ar!umen%al PPs3 c$ 7l cWn%L numai sona%e #e 'ee%hoven$ 7u cWn% Mi [Ne] #e Cho5in he 5la0s onl0 sona%as b0 'ee%hoven I 5la0 also b0 Cho5in >Oe 5la0s onl0 sona%as b0 'ee%hoven$ I also 5la0 sona%as b0 Cho5in? Rela%ive clauses3 #$ A$ Ai cum5Lra% #es%ule cLmLMiK have$1SG bou!h% enou!h shir%s >Di# 0ou bu0 enou!h shir%sK? '$ Da #ar n-am !Lsi% [Ne] care sL le vinL %u%uror$ 0es bu% no%-have$+ foun# 9hich SD'N CL$DAT sui%$2PL all$DAT >qes bu% I #i#n?% fin# (an0/ 9hich 9oul# sui% all$?
Geni%ives a55ear in %his con%e;% onl0 in%ro#uce# b0 de (%he s%ruc%ure de-al see cha5%er . * 4/$ In (<1/ 9e see %ha% in %he absence of an over% hea# noun or #e%erminer %he 5hrases deHalHGeni%ive behave li-e bare 5lural an# mass nouns P %he0 have an in#efini%e in%er5re%a%ion an# #is5la0 %he s0n%ac%ic cons%rain%s 9hich charac%eriAe bare 5lurals an# mass nouns (canno% a55ear before %he verb e;ce5% as a con%ras%ive focus or con%ras%ive %o5ic i$e$ #isloca%e# in %he lef% 5eri5her0/$ This in#ica%es %ha% in %his cons%ruc%ion 9e have %o #eal 9i%h a N-elli5sis or 5ro-N !overne# b0 a null D or Num3
(<1/ a$ Au veni% 3e+a. l1. have$2PL come de-al$:PL his >Rela%ives/frien#s of his came? b$ m De+a. l1. au veni% de-al0:PL his have$2PL come c$ XA veni% 3e+a l1. has come de-al$FSG$ his YYD/Num QZYNP YNQZ YDP #e-ai luiZZZ
(unless con%ras%ive/
(<1/_
Some verbs allo9 in %he ob6ec% 5osi%ion (inclu#in! #ee5 ob6ec%s of unaccusa%ives cf$ (<2/b-c %o (<2/#/ a cons%ruc%ion 9hich loo-s li-e elli5sis of a mass noun in %he con%e;% of a 5ar%i%ive com5lemen% ((<2/a-#/ sho9in! a bare noun #is%ribu%ion (cf$ (.2/e/$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %his cons%ruc%ion seems %o be 5ossible onl0 for affec%e# ob6ec%s 9hich su!!es%s %ha% 5ar%i%ive 5hrases are selec%e# b0 %he verb$
(<2/ a$ Am arunca% [Ne] #in 5Wine$ have$+ %hro9n of brea#
+=,
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories >I/Ue %hre9 a9a0 some of %he brea#? b$ A mai rLmas [Ne] #in 5Wine has s%ill lef% of brea# >There is s%ill some of %he brea# lef%? c$ Au veni% [Ne] #in invi%aRi$ have$2PL come of !ues%s >Some of %he !ues%s have come? #$ XDorm [Ne] #in co5ii slee5$2PL of chil#ren e$ X [Ne] #in 5Wine a fos% arunca%L /a cLAu% 5e 6os of brea# has been %hro9n /has fallen #o9n f$ KKAm vLAu% #in filmele lui /#in 5iese have$+ seen of films-%he his /of #ramas !$ XA#mir #in 5ic%urile lui a#mire$+SG of 5ain%in!s-%he his
The combina%ion [D/Nume][Ne] has a more res%ric%e# #is%ribu%ion %han %ha% of bare 5lural an# mass nouns$ For ins%ance i% is im5ossible af%er 5re5osi%ions unless %he NP con%ains an a#6ec%ive (in 9hich case i% is 5ossible onl0 %o some e;%en%/3
(<4/ a$ Am veni% cu %ran#afiri roA iar :ihai a veni% cu [Ne] !albeni$ have$+ come 9i%h roses(:/ 5in- an# :ihai has come 9i%h 0ello9$ :PL >I came 9i%h 5in- roses an# :ihai 9i%h 0ello9$? b$ XNoi locuim En case #e 5ia%rL$ Voi locuiRi En [Ne] #e cLrLmi#L /En albe 9e live in houses of s%one 0ou( PL/ live in of bric/in 9hi%e >Ue live in s%one-ma#e houses 0ou live in bric- houses$? c$ X7l se #esfa%L numai cu sona%e #e 'ee%hoven$ 7u mL #esfL% Mi cu [Ne] #e Cho5in he R7FL en6o0s onl0 9i%h sona%as b0 'ee%hoven I R7FL en6o0 also 9i%h b0 Cho5in >Oe amuses himself onl0 9i%h sona%as b0 'ee%hoven$ I also amuse m0self 9i%h sona%as b0 Cho5in? #$ A3 Ai veni% cu #es%ule cLmLMiK have$1SG come 9i%h enou!h shir%s >Di# 0ou brin! enou!h shir%s K? '3XDa #ar n-am veni% cu [Ne] care sL le vinL %u%uror$ 0es bu% no%-have$+ come 9i%h 9hich SD'N CL$DAT sui%$2PL all$DAT >qes bu% I #i#n?% brin! shir%s %ha% 9oul# sui% %hem all$?
This im5ossibili%0 coul# be #ue %o %he cli%ic-li-e charac%er of 5re5osi%ions 9hich nee# a com5lemen% 9i%h an over% hea#$ In con%e;%s 9here [D/NumH5l][Ne] canno% be use# %he com5le; hea# NumH5ro-N unii% unele sho9s u5$ As 9e have seen in %his case unii is no% %he same i%em as %he 5renominal #e%erminer unii (i% is no% obli!a%oril0 5ar%i%ive/ (see (,=/ above re5ea%e# here/3
(<,/ a$ Am cum5Lra% %ran#afiri roA iar :ihai a cum5Lra% 1n.. !albeni have$+ bou!h% roses(:/ 5in- an# :ihai has bou!h% some$ :PL 0ello9 >I/Ue have bou!h% 5in- roses an# :ihai bou!h% some 0ello9 ones? b$ Am veni% cu %ran#afiri roA iar :ihai a veni% cu 1n.. !albeni have$+ come 9i%h roses(:/ 5in- an# :ihai has come 9i%h some$ :PL 0ello9 >I/Ue have come 9i%h 5in- roses an# :ihai came 9i%h some 0ello9 ones?
+=.
$. Mo3.f.e0s an3 /o65le6ents l./ense3 b9 no6.nal f1n/t.onal ele6ents= 580asal NFEs an3 t8e .ss1e of 5a0t.t.2e PPs
Func%ional 9or#s are %05icall0 hea#s i$e$ VT elemen%s (9or#s ra%her %han 5hrases/$ Oo9ever as 9e have sai# some NF7s ma0 have #e5en#en%s of %heir o9n$ In some cases %here are reasons %o %rea% %hese #e5en#en%s as combinin! 9i%h %he F7 before %he F7 combines 9i%h %he NP (i$e$ as formin! a cons%i%uen% 9i%h %he F7/$ Such cons%i%uen%s 9ill be anal0Ae# as occu50in! a s5ecifier 5osi%ion in %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ions 9hich #omina%e %he NP$ $.1. A550o<.6at.on 6o3.f.e0s an3 ot8e0 6o3.f.e0s l./ense3 b9 I1ant.f.e0s Car#inals universals (inclu#in! %he #is%ribu%ive universal fiecare >each ever0? an# %he freechoice i%ems orice >an0-9ha%? >9ha%ever?% oricare >an0-9hich? >9hichever no ma%%er 9hich an0?/ an# ne!a%ives a#mi% a55ro;ima%ion mo#ifiers$ Ue ma0 analiAe %hese mo#ifiers as a%%ache# %o %he cons%i%uen% DHNP (see (<./_/ so i% is no% necessar0 %o %rea% %hese #e%erminers as s5ecifiers3
(<./ a$ a5roa5e %rei ani almos% %hree 0ears b$ a5roa5e %oRi 5or%ocalii almos% all oran!e-%rees-%he c$ a5roa5e orice Ai almos% an0 #a0 #$ a5roa5e nicio 5lLcere almos% no 5leasure [DP a5roa5e [DP nicio 5lLcere]]
(<./_
The #is%ribu%ive universal fiecare >each ever0? licenses %he ri!h% a#6unc% PP n parte (li%$ >in 5ar%?/ 9hich em5hasiAes %he #is%ribu%ive meanin! (>se5ara%el0?/$ $.2. P80asal /a03.nals Car#inals besi#es a#mi%%in! a 9i#er ran!e of mo#ifiers (cam >aroun#? e'act >e;ac%l0? doar >onl0? mcar >a% leas%? vreo >aroun#?/ can also en%er com5le; cons%ruc%ions in 9hich %he0 a55ear af%er 5re5osi%ions ((<</a-#/ or com5ara%ives ((<</e/ or mo#ifie# b0 a s5ecial a#verbial su5erla%ive (s5ecial b0 no% con%ainin! %he com5ara%ive #e!ree hea#3 cel mult cel puin li%$ >%he much? >%he fe9?3 >a% mos%? >a% leas%? vs$ cel mai mult li%$ >%he more much?3 >%he mos%?/ ((<</f/3
(<</ a$ En 6ur #e cinci aroun# of five b$ En%re %rei Mi Aece be%9een %hree an# %en c$ En%re unul Mi %rei 5rofesori be%9een one an# %hree %eachers #$ ClL#irea are sub Ma5%e e%a6e buil#in!-%he has un#er seven floors >The buil#in! has less %han seven floors? e$ mai mul% #e #ouLAeci more much of %9en%0 >more %han %9en%0?
+=<
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories f$ cel mul% Mais5reAece %he much si;%een >a% mos% si;%een?
These cons%ruc%ions (a5ar% from (<</f/ behave as bein! >%9o-hea#e#? havin! an in%ernal hea# an# a #ifferen% e;%ernal hea#3 insi#e %he0 loo- li-e cons%ruc%ions hea#e# b0 5re5osi%ions or #e!ree 9or#s bu% %he0 have %he #is%ribu%ion of numeral #e%erminers$ As sho9n b0 (<</c i% is %he las% 9or# 9hich behaves as %he e;%ernal hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion (%he noun is in %he 5lural a!reein! 9i%h %he secon# numeral trei an# no% in %he sin!ular as %he firs% numeral/$ No%ice also %ha% %he firs% numeral in %his com5le; cons%ruc%ions behaves as if combinin! 9i%h a 5ro-N (i% has %he 5ronominal form unul an# no% %he 5renominal form un/$ Given %his behaviour %he s%rin!s Pre5HCar# De!HCar# ma0 be anal0Ae# as formin! a cons%i%uen% %ha% occu5ies %he s5ecifier 5osi%ion of %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ion 9hich hos%s car#inals (9hich 9e labele# 8uan%1 in * 1 above/$ As 9e sai# in sec%ion + 9e assume %ha% 9hen %he s5ecifier of a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion is fille# i%s hea# ma0 remain em5%0 (see also * , for issues concernin! @uan%i%a%ive func%ional elemen%s/3 (<B/ Y8uan%1P YEn%re unul Mi %reiZY8uan%1_ 8uan%1o YNP 5rofesori ZZZ$
$.3. S/ala0 I1ant.tat.2es Some @uan%i%0 F7s allo9 %he same #e!ree mo#ifica%ion as !ra#able a#6ec%ives (%he0 5ro6ec% a #e!ree s%ruc%ure see cha5%er < *4/3
(<C/ a$ foar%e mul%e !ro5i ver0 man0 holes b$ Ilia#a are mai 5uRine versuri #ecW% :ahabhara%a Ilia# has more fe9 verses %han :ahabhara%a >The Ilia# has fe9er verses %han %he :ahabhara%a?
The @uan%i%a%ive att >so/as/%ha% much/man0? is a #e!ree hea# 9i%h a !eneral e@ua%ive meanin! >havin! %he same number/@uan%i%0 as ;? 9hich receives #ifferen% in%er5re%a%ions #e5en#in! on %he con%e;%3 (i/ if ; is !iven in %he #iscourse or in %he con%e;% i% has an ana5horic-#eic%ic rea#in!I (ii/ if ; is in%ro#uce# b0 a com5lemen% i% has an e@ua%ive rea#in!I (iii/ if ; is free i% has an e;clama%ive rea#in!$ The e@ua%ive meanin! is s%ren!%hene# b0 %he 5re5ose# mo#ifier tot3
(B=/ Are (%o%/ a%W%ea #efec%e cW%e cali%LRi$ has (tot/ so-man0$ FPL faul%s(F/ ho9-man0$ FPL @uali%ies(F/ >Oe has 6us% as man0 faul%s as @uali%ies?
Since %he #e!ree mo#ifica%ion charac%eriAes a#6ec%ives an# a#verbs 9e 9ill call %hese @uan%i%a%ive F7s ad+ectival quantitatives labelin! %hem 8A$ Ue consi#er %ha% 8As occu50 %he s5ecifier 5osi%ion of %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ion #e#ica%e# %o scalar @uan%i%a%ives (8uan% + see * 1 above/$ $.$. Pa0t.t.2e PPs Par%i%ive PPs are in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ions dintre s5ecialiAe# for 5lurals an# din 9hich combines bo%h 9i%h 5lurals an# mass nouns (>of amon!?/3
+=B
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories (B+/ a$ Am ci%i% mul%e #in%re / #in cLrRile recoman#a%e #e 5rofesor have$+ rea# man0 dintre $ din boo-s-%he recommen#e# b0 %eacher >I rea# man0 of %he boo-s recommen#e# b0 %he %eacher? b$ Am bLu% 5uRin X#in%re / #in vin have$+ #run- li%%le dintre $ din 9ine >I #ran- li%%le of %he 9ine?
The 5ar%i%ive PP refers %o a se% ou% of 9hich %he #e%erminer selec%s a subse% (%he 9hole DP #eno%in! a subse% of %he 5ar%i%ive DP/$ Uhen combine# 9i%h @uan%ifica%ional #e%erminers such as %he #is%ribu%ive universal fiecare >each? %he free-choice i%em oricare (9hich also has a universal rea#in! see 2$2$,/ or %he ne!a%ive niciun >no? 5ar%i%ive com5lemen%s e;5ress %he se% over 9hich %he #e%erminer @uan%ifies$ The 5resence of a 5ar%i%ive PP #oes no% #e5en# on %he noun$ Ins%ea# i% a55ears %o be sensi%ive %o %he #e%erminer$ Tha%?s 9h0 5ar%i%ive PPs have been some%imes consi#ere# %o be secon# com5lemen%s of %he #e%erminers$ Thus 9hile in#efini%e an# @uan%ifica%ional #e%erminers allo9 5ar%i%ive PPs #efini%e #e%erminers allo9 %hem onl0 on ver0 res%ric%e# con#i%ions3 ei%her %he #e%erminer is %he #is%al #emons%ra%ive acel >%ha%? 5rovi#e# %ha% i% combines 9i%h a res%ric%ive rela%ive clause (cf$ (B1/a %o (B1/b/ or i% is an or#inal usuall0 follo9e# b0 car#inals (see (B1/c-#/ or %he 5hrase con%ains a su5erla%ive in 9hich case %he 5ar%i%ive is %he so-calle# >com5lemen% of %he su5erla%ive? ((B1/e/3
(B1/ a$ Aceia #in%re voi care M%iu o 5oeAie sL ri#ice mWna$ %hose$ADG: of 0ou(PL/ 9hich -no9$2PL a 5oem SD'N raise$2PL han#-%he >Those of 0ou 9ho -no9 a 5oem shoul# raise %heir han#s? b$ XAceia #in%re voi nerLb#L%ori sL ri#ice mWna %hose$ADG: of 0ou(PL/ im5a%ien% SD'N raise$2PL han#-%he c$ Primii (%rei/ #in%re voi sL ri#ice mWna firs%-%he$:PL (%hree/ of 0ou(PL/ SD'N raise$2PL %he-han# #$ DrmL%orii 5a%ru #in%re voi vor fi 5rimiRi 5es%e o orL$ ne;%-%he$:PL four of 0ou( PL/ 9ill be receive# af%er an hour ?The ne;% four of 0ou 9ill be receive# in an hour$? e$ Cei mai buni #in%re voi vor fi 5remiaRi$ %he$:PL more !oo#$PL of 0ou$PL 9ill be a9ar#e#-a-5riAe >The bes% of 0ou 9ill receive a 5riAe$?
The #e%erminer insi#e %he 5ar%i%ive PP is also cons%raine#3 #ue %o %he seman%ics of %he cons%ruc%ion %he 5ar%i%ive com5lemen% is al9a0s #efini%e$ The onl0 e;ce5%ion is %he cons%ruc%ion 9here bo%h DPs are in%ro#uce# b0 car#inals in 9hich case %he 9hole DP has a >#is%ribu%e#? in%er5re%a%ion3 unul din (ece >one (ou%/ of %en? trei din o mie >%hree (ou%/ of one %housan#$? In some lan!ua!es (e$! 7n!lish French/ a fur%her cons%rain% bears on %he nouns in a 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion3 %he0 canno% be #ifferen% (see (B2/#/ an# normall0 an over% noun a55ears ei%her in %he ma%ri; DP or insi#e %he 5ar%i%ive com5lemen% bu% no% in bo%h$ This cons%rain% is !ramma%ical (s0n%ac%ic/ ra%her %han seman%ic as 5roven b0 %he rela%ive unacce5%abili%0 of (B2/# 9hich is 5erfec%l0 in%er5re%able$ In Romanian %his cons%rain% is less s%ron! man0 5eo5le acce5%in! e;em5les such as (B2/c$ This #ifference seems %o be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% in Romanian 5ar%i%ive PPs are al9a0s e;5resse# b0 a full 5re5osi%ion (dintre$din >amon!?/ 9hile in 7n!lish 5ar%i%ive com5lemen%s in%ro#uce# b0 %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion of are #is%in!uishe# from 5ar%i%ive a#6unc%s 9hich ma0 a55ear ou%si#e %he DP an# are in%ro#uce# b0 %he >full? (meanin!ful/ 5re5osi%ion amon (see (B2/e-f/$ No%e %ha% %he noun i#en%i%0 cons%rain% #oes no% a55l0 for 5ar%i%ive a#6unc%s (see (B2/e-f/3
+=C
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories (B2/ a$ :ul%e romane #in%re cele a#use #e %ine mL in%ereseaAL man0 novels(F/ of %he$FPL brou!h% b0 0ou me in%eres% >:an0 novels of %hose 0ou brou!h% in%eres% me? b$ :ul%e #in%re romanele a#use #e %ine mL in%ereseaAL man0 of novels-%he brou!h% b0 0ou me in%eres% ?:an0 of %he novels brou!h% b0 0ou in%eres% me? c$ K(u/ :ul%e romane #in%re cLrRile a#use #e %ine mL in%ereseaAL man0 novels of boo-s-%he brou!h% b0 0ou me in%eres% #$ X:an0 novels of %he boo-s 0ou brou!h% in%eres% me? e$ Amon! %he boo-s 0ou brou!h% man0 novels in%eres% me f$ :an0 novels amon! %he boo-s 0ou brou!h% in%eres% me
Par%i%ive PPs ma0 also a55ear ou%si#e DPs usuall0 se5ara%e# b0 comma from %he res% of %he sen%ence si%%in! in a 5eri5heral 5osi%ion (normall0 %o %he lef%/$ In %his case %he0 are less cons%raine#$ The %9o nouns ma0 be #ifferen% an# %here is no res%ric%ion on %he #e%erminers of %he DP e;5ressin! >%he 5ar%?3
(B4/ Din%re cLrRile %ale mi-au 5lLcu% cel mai mul% aces%e romane / romanele amon! boo-s-%he 0ours me$ DAT-have$2PL li-e %he more much %hese novels / novels-%he ?Amon! 0our boo-s I li-e# mos% %hese novels/%he novels?
These 5ro5er%ies sho9 %ha% %hese PPs are no% 5ar%i%ive PPs move# ou%si#e %he DP bu% a #ifferen% %05e of cons%i%uen% al%hou!h %he0 have a similar seman%ic im5or%$ The lac- of s0n%ac%ic cons%rain%s 5lea#s for an a#6unc% s%a%us$ Therefore 9e 9ill call %hem 5ar%i%ive a#6unc%s$ In o%her lan!ua!es 5ar%i%ive a#6unc%s are formall0 #is%in!uishe# from 5ar%i%ive com5lemen%s b0 bein! in%ro#uce# b0 a le;ical (ra%her s5ecialiAe#/ 5re5osi%ion (7n!lish amon French parmi I%alian tra% fra/ 9hile 5ar%i%ive com5lemen%s are in%ro#uce# b0 a !eneral a#nominal mar-er P %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion of% French de% I%alian di or %he !eni%ive case in lan!ua!es 9i%h rich case mor5holo!0 such as La%in$ In Romanian as %he e;am5les above sho9 %he 5re5osi%ions are %he same for DP-in%ernal 5ar%i%ive PPs an# 5ar%i%ive a#6unc%s P dintre an# din$ The func%ional 5re5osi%ion de is no lon!er use# %o in%ro#uce 5ar%i%ive PPs bu% i% ha# %his func%ion in earlier s%a!es of %he lan!ua!e (9e fin# %his use in VVI %h-VVII%h cen%ur0 %e;%s/$ Ue ma0 assume %ha% 5ar%i%ive PPs are al9a0s a#6unc%s in Romanian or %ha% %he 5re5osi%ion din$dintre can also in%ro#uce 5ar%i%ive com5lemen%s$ The 5osi%ion %ha% 5ar%i%ive PPs occu50 insi#e %he DP ma0 be #e#uce# loo-in! a% %he e;am5les (B1/$ Ue can see %ha% %he0 a55ear insi#e %he com5lemen% of D (%he0 ma0 a55ear lo9er %han a rela%ive clause or an a#6ec%ival or#inal/ bu% hi!her %han 5renominal a#6ec%ives$ Dn#er %he h05o%hesis %ha% %here are in%erme#ia%e func%ional la0ers be%9een D an# N 5ar%i%ive com5lemen%s 9oul# be a%%ach %o one of %hose la0ers 5resumabl0 %o Number !iven %ha% %he0 e;5ress a 5ro5er%0 of 5lurali%ies or @uan%i%ies (%he 5ro5er%0 of bein! s%ric%l0 inclu#e# in a se% or @uan%i%0/$
I% has been sho9n %ha% mos% cons%rain%s on %he #e%erminers 9hich allo9 5ar%i%ive PPs follo9 from seman%ics3 a 5ar%i%ive com5lemen% such as dintre crile tale >of 0our boo-s? #eno%es a se% forme# b0 all subse%s of crile tale >0our boo-s? e;clu#in! %he 9hole se% (%he su5remum/$ Since %his se% #oes no% con%ain a ma;imal elemen% (a se% in 9hich all %he o%her se%s are inclu#e#/ i% canno% combine 9i%h %he iota o5era%or 9hich selec%s %he ma;imal elemen% from a se% of 5lurali%es$ Therefore #efini%e #e%erminers 9hich in%ro#uce %he iota o5era%or are e;clu#e#$ Oo9ever if a mo#ifier a%%ache# hi!her %han %he 5ar%i%ive PP res%ric%s %he #eno%a%ion of %he 5hrase %o a se% con%ainin! a sin!le in#ivi#ual or se% of in#ivi#uals %hen %here 9ill be no 5roblem in usin! #efini%e #e%erminers$ Ue see %his in (B1/a an# c-e 9here %he rela%ive clause %he or#inal an# %he su5erla%ive res5ec%ivel0 (for ins%ance amon! all %he subse%s of voi >0ou? a uni@ue subse% ma0 be #is%in!uishe# usin! an or#erin! rela%ion 9hich is in%ro#uce#
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b0 %he or#inals prim >firs%? or urmtor >follo9in!?/$ 'u% 9h0 is %hen (B1/b e;clu#e#K Oere a #ifferen% cons%rain% is res5onsible 9hich is no% seman%ic (as 5roven b0 %he 9ell-forme#ness of (B1/a/ bu% ra%her s0n%ac%ic3 a#6ec%ives canno% a%%ach hi!her %han a 5ar%i%ive com5lemen% 9hile full rela%ive clauses can$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %here are some res%ric%ions in %he case of #efini%e #e%erminers 9hich canno% be e;5laine# onl0 b0 seman%ics3 al%hou!h %he res%ric%ion 5rovi#e# b0 a rela%ive clause allo9s 5hrases con%ainin! 5ar%i%ives %o combine 9i%h #efini%e #e%erminers no% all #efini%e #e%erminers are acce5%able in %his case bu% onl0 %he #is%al #e%erminer acela3 (B,/ Aceia / XCei /XAceM%ia #in%re voi care M%iu o 5oeAie %hose$:PL$ADG: / %he$:PL / %hese$:PL$ADG: of 0ou(PL/ 9hich -no9$2PL a 5oem sL ri#ice mWna$ SD'N raise$2PL han#-%he >Those/XThe ones/XThese of 0ou 9ho -no9 a 5oem shoul# raise %heir han#s?
Ue conclu#e %ha% 5ar%i%ive PPs are no% in fac% s0n%ac%icall0 #e5en#en% on %he #e%erminer so %he0 are no% secon# com5lemen%s of some #e%erminers$ The0 are 5robabl0 a%%ache# %o a nominal func%ional la0er in%erme#ia%e be%9een D an# %he NP$ $.%. Co65le6ents of eI1al.t9 an3 3.ffe0en/e Al%erna%ive an# i#en%i%0 #e%erminers license com5lemen%s in %he form of com5ara%ive 5hrases (dect >%han? for %he al%erna%ive an# ca )i* for %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer/$ For #e%ails see * <$
%. -1ant.tat.2e e<50ess.ons
Loo-in! a% %he func%ional ca%e!ories 9hich some%imes func%ion as Ds an# some%imes follo9 Ds (%05e III in %he classifica%ion in * 1/ 9e ma0 no%ice %ha% e;ce5% for #emons%ra%ives an# al%erna%ives all of %hem are @uan%i%0 e;5ressions3
(B./ a$ (aceM%i/ #oi /mulRi /cWRiva co5aci (%hese/ %9o /man0/a-fe9 %rees b$ mul% /cW%va %im5 much/some %ime c$ aces% 5uRin aur %his li%%le !ol#
Since @uan%i%0 5hrases can be #omina%e# b0 De%?s %he0 are !enera%e# in a lo9er func%ional 5ro6ec%ion$ Ue have seen in sec%ion 1 %ha% #e5en#in! on %he 5osi%ion %he0 occu50 9i%h res5ec% %o %he al%erna%ive 9e ma0 #is%in!uish %9o %05es of @uan%i%0 e;5ressions3 scalar @uan%i%0 e;5ressions labelle# 8A (quantitative ad+ectives/ (mult% muli >much$ man0? puin% puini >fe9? destul% destui >enou!h?/ an# non-scalar @uan%i%0 e;5ressions (car#inals an# civa >a fe9?/ 9hich res5ec%ivel0 5rece#e an# follo9 %he al%erna%ive$ In sec%ion 1 9e have in%ro#uce# %he labels 8uan%+P an# 8uan%1P for %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ions %o 9hich %hese %05es of @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions res5ec%ivel0 a%%ach$ I% is also 5ossible %o consi#er %ha% one of %hese minor func%ional 5ro6ec%ions (5resumabl0 8uan%1 %he lo9er one/ is %he 5ro6ec%ion in%ro#ucin! number NumP$ Ue can %hus #erive %he rela%ive or#er of Ds an# @uan%i%ive e;5ressions #escribe# in sec%ion 1 (un#er %05e II$1$2/3
(B</ a$ [DP [Dcei] [8uan%1P/NumP [Car#P 5es%e Aece] [8uan%1/Num_ 8uan%1=/Num=] [NP bucL%ari]]]] %he over %en coo-s b$ [DP [Doricare] [8uan%1P/NumP[Car#P %rei] [8uan%1_/Num_8uan%1=/Num= [NP ru#e]]]] an0 %hree rela%ives
The shor%er label 8P has been use# for some%hin! com5le%el0 #ifferen% namel0 >@uan%ifier 5hrase?$ The
+++

%erm >@uan%i%a%ive? or >@uan%i%0 e;5ression? mus% be #is%in!uishe# from %he %erm >@uan%ifier?$ >8uan%ifier? is a seman%ic no%ion referrin! %o lin!uis%ic elemen%s %ransla%able as lo!ical @uan%ifiers such as , 9hich #esi!na%e rela%ions be%9een %9o se%s$ For e;am5le %he D oricare is a @uan%ifier$ 8uan%ifiers are al9a0s Ds$ 8uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions are no% @uan%ifiers3 %he0 sim5l0 s5ecif0 %he number of a 5lurali%0 or %he amoun% of a @uan%i%0 In %he anal0sis in 9hich Number 5ro6ec%s a hea# #e5en#in! on %he s0n%ac%ic im5lemen%a%ion one chooses %o a#o5% %he N raises %o Num %o receive %he number mor5holo!0 or chec-s %he H5l fea%ure b0 A!ree$ For convenience 9e haven?% re5resen%e# movemen% in %he anal0ses un#er (B</ an# (C=/$
The fac% %ha% @uan%i%0 e;5ressions can combine 9i%h Ds can be e;5laine# as follo9s3 in %he case of co-occurrence %he s%an#ar# role of #e%erminers e;5ressin! (in/#efini%u#e or @uan%ifica%ion is 5la0e# b0 %he firs% #e%erminer 9hich is a %rue D$ The ar!umen% of %his #e%erminer is a 5lurali%0 of a%omic en%i%ies (in %he case of 5lurals/ or a @uan%i%0 of ma%%er (in %he case of mass nouns/ an# @uan%i%0 e;5ressions refer %o %he number of %ha% 5lurali%0 or %he amoun% of %ha% @uan%i%0$ In#ee# @uan%i%a%ives combine 9i%h 5lurals an# mass nouns %o %he e;clusion of coun% sin!ulars3
(BB/ Xmul% /XcW%va om much / some man
Uhen @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions a55ear in con%e;%s charac%eris%ic of DPs bu% are no% 5rece#e# b0 o%her #e%erminers 9e ma0 assume %ha% %he0 have raise# from S5ec8uan%P/S5ecNumP %o S5ecDP ma-in! %he D-level visible3
(BC/ a$ KK Co5ii sun% afarL chi#ren are ou%si#e b$ Doi co5ii sun% afarL %9o chil#ren are ou%si#e
(C=/ Car#P
DP D_ D= #oi Hin#ef Car#P 8uan%1/Num_ 8uan%1=/ Num= NP %#oi H5l co5ii 8uan%1P/NumP
%.1. A37e/t.2al I1ant.tat.2es Amon! @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions firs% 9e have %o #is%in!uish be%9een car#inals an# @uan%i%a%ives e;5ressin! in#efini%e @uan%i%0 of mass amoun%s$ Uhile %he former are res%ric%e# %o nominal 5ro6ec%ions %he la%%er have a 9i#er #is%ribu%ion bein! able %o mo#if0 a @uan%i%0 ++1
ar!umen% im5lici% in verbal 5re#ica%es (an im5lici%/co!na%e ob6ec% %he %ime %he #is%ance/ ((C+/a-c/ in #e!ree hea#s (%he #ifferen%ial/ (C+/#/ some 5re5osi%ions an# a#verbs ((C+/e/3
(C+/ a$ :unceM%e 61lt 9or-s much >Oe 9or-s a lo%? b$ Doarme 51A.n slee5s li%%le >Oe slee5s li%%le? c$ Am mers atKtad have$+PL 9al-e# so-much >Ue 9al-e# so muchd? #$ /e2a mai Enal% some more hi!h >some9ha% hi!her? e$ 61lt 5es%e aM%e5%Lri much above e;5ec%a%ions
The inflec%e# @uan%i%a%ives mult% muli >much man0? puin% puini >li%%le fe9? destul% destui >enou!h? sho9 in %his case an uninflec%e# form i#en%ical %o %he masculine sin!ular$ Tra#i%ionall0 %hese 5hrases 9ere anal0Ae# as a#verbs$ In#ee# Romanian unli-e 7n!lish an# o%her Romance lan!ua!es #oesn?% have an a#verbial suffi; bu% uses %he uninflec%e# form of %he a#6ec%ive %o buil# a#verbs$ Oo9ever in %he case of @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions even lan!ua!es 9hich have an a#verbial suffi; #on?% use i% (see %he e@uivalen% of (C+/a-b in French an# 7n!lish/3
(C+_/ a$ French3 Il %ravaille beaucou5$ 7n!lish3 Oe 9or-s much b$ French3 Il #or% 5eu$ 7n!lish3 Oe slee5s li%%le
'esi#es %heir #is%ribu%ion is no% limi%e# %o VP-5osi%ions as (C+/#-e sho9 so %he %erm >a#verb? is no% a55ro5ria%e an09a0$ So 9e 9ill %rea% %hem as %he same le;ical i%ems 8APs (>a#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ives?/ 9i%h %he 5eculiar 5ro5er%0 of havin! a!reemen% forms 9henever %he0 occur 9i%h nouns$ Ue consi#er %ha% %he >a#6ec%ival? fea%ure ma0 also e;5lain %heir a#verbial use !iven %he fac% %ha% Romanian a#6ec%ives ma0 be use# as a#verbs$ A#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ives ma0 also occur 5os%nominall0 in 9hich case %he0 behave li-e or#inar0 @uali%0 a#6ec%ives as 9e can see from %he fac% %ha% %he0 ma0 be coor#ina%e# 9i%h a#6ec%ives$
(C1/ a$ Co5acul are frunAe 51A.ne. %ree-%he has leaves(F/ fe9$FPL >The %ree has (onl0/ fe9 leaves? b$ Am 5e%recu% ani 61lA. Mi 40e. En Enchisoare$ have$+ s5en% 0ears(:/ man0$ :PL an# har#$:PL in 6ail >I s5en% man0 %ou!h 0ears in 6ail$?
In %his 5osi%ion @uan%i%a%ives #on?% acce5% a 5ar%i%ive rea#in! (a >5ar%i%ive? rea#in! ob%ains 9hen >De% NP? can be 5ara5hrase# b0 >De% of %he NP?I see cha5%er 4 * 2$1$+ for #e%ails/ $ This su55or%s %he assum5%ion %ha% 5ar%i%ivi%0 is a fea%ure realiAe# in %he func%ional la0ers of %he DP (5ossibl0 a% %he D-level 9hen no over% 5ar%i%ive com5lemen% is 5resen%/ so %ha% %he @uan%i%a%ive mus% occu50 %he D-level in or#er %o ac@uire a 5ar%i%ive rea#in!$
++2
%.2. Ca03.nals Car#inal numerals in Romanian have some mor5holo!ical 5ro5er%ies 9i%h im5or% %o %heir s0n%a;$ Firs% %he0 have 5oor or no inflec%ion3 doi >%9o? an# i%s com5oun#s have a feminine dou 9hich #oes no% sho9 %he re!ular feminine en#in! - e$ The o%her car#inals sho9 no !en#er a!reemen% e;ce5% for com5oun#s of un >one? for 9hich a!reemen% is o5%ional (trei(eci i una(F/$unu de (ile >%hir%0-%hree #a0s?/ (on %he s5ecial s%a%us of un >one? see ,$. belo9/$ There are no forms for %he obli@ue$ Since %he encli%ic #efini%e ar%icle can onl0 a%%ach %o a -mor5heme (a55earin! ei%her on nouns or on a#6ec%ives/ 9e e;5lain %he lac- of a #efini%e inflec%ion for car#inals b0 %he lac- of (full/ a!reemen%$ To e;5ress #efini%eness a 5rocli%ic form of %he ar%icle mus% be inser%e# (see * B/ as sho9n in (C1/a$ Com5are (C1/b 9here %he in#efini%e @uan%i%a%ive has full a!reemen% an# as such ma0 %a-e %he encli%ic #efini%e ar%icle3
(C1/ a$ cele #ouL Aile 5e%recu%e Em5reunL %he$FPL %9o$F #a0s(F/ s5en% %o!e%her b$ mul%ele Aile 5e%recu%e Em5reunL man0-%he$FPL #a0s s5en% %o!e%her
All car#inals s%ar%in! 9i%h eleven are com5oun#e#I %hose be%9een ++-+C loo- li-e le;ical com5oun#s havin! some9ha% o5a@ue forms3 unspre(ece% doispre(ece% treispre(ece% paispre(ece% cincispre(ece% aispre(ece% aptespre(ece% optspre(ece% nouspre(ece forme# 9i%h an elemen% spre (9hich P 9hen use# as a 5re5osi%ion - mean% >over? bu% no9a#a0s has onl0 %he meanin! >%o9ar#s?/I %he firs% elemen%s of %he com5oun# some%imes have s5ecial forms #is%inc% from %hose of %he corres5on#in! car#inal3 paispre(ece >four%een? bu% patru >four? aispre(ece >si;%een? bu% ase >si;?$ In collo@uial (fas%/ s5eech %hese forms are of%en re#uce# (%he final s%rin! -spre(ece is re#uce# %o -pe/3 unpe% doipe% treipe% paipe% cinpe% aipe% aptipe% opt)i*pe% noupe$ Car#inals s%ar%in! from >%9en%0? loo- li-e com5le; s0n%ac%ic cons%i%uen%s3 %he0 con%ain nouns mo#ifie# b0 car#inals sho9in! 5lural forms a!reein! 9i%h an in#efini%e #e%erminer or a car#inal ( (ece% 5l$ (eci >%en %ens? (feminine/ sut 5l$ sute >hun#re# hun#re#s? (feminine/ mie% mii >%housan# %housan#s? (feminine/ milion% milioane >million millions? an# miliard% miliarde >billion billions?/ an# %he con6unc%ion i >an#? (accor#in! %o %he norm com5oun#s of (ece >%en? are 9ri%%en in one 9or#$ Ue 5resen%e# here %he 5ar%s se5ara%e# for sa-e of clari%0 of e;5osi%ion/3
(C2/ a$ Aece / #ouL Aeci /%rei Aeci %en %9o$F %ens(F/ %hree %ens(F/ >%en? >%9en%0? >%hir%0? b$ o su%L / #ouL su%e / %rei su%e a$F hun#re#(F/ %9o$F hun#re#s(F/ %hree hun#re#s(F/ c$ 5a%ru Aeci Mi %rei four %ens an# %hree >for%0 %hree?
Oo9ever al%hou!h %hese car#inals have %he in%ernal s%ruc%ure of 5hrases DPs or coor#ina%e# DPs %he0 behave ra%her as com5oun#s$ For ins%ance %he or#er of %he con6unc%s canno% be reverse#3
(C4/ X%rei Mi 5a%ru Aeci %hree an# four %ens
++4
:oreover i% can be sho9n %ha% %he0 are no% hea#s of DP bu% s5ecifiers of 8uan%P/NumP as all %he o%her car#inals$ Gne %hin! %ha% seems %o !o a!ains% %his is %ha% all %hese forms e;ce5% %hose 9hich en# in %he con6unc%ion i follo9e# b0 car#inals be%9een + an# +C re@uire %ha% %he NP be in%ro#uce# b0 %he #umm0 5re5osi%ion func%ionin! as a case mar-er de >of?3
(C,/ #ouL Aeci X(#e/ 5ereRi %9o$F %ens(F/ of 9alls
'u% in %his s%ruc%ure unli-e in s%ruc%ures 9here de in%ro#uces a mo#ifier or a com5lemen% of %he noun %he -fea%ures of %he en%ire !rou5 sho9n bo%h on %he #e%erminer an# on %he a!reein! verb are %hose of %he noun an# no% %hose of %he car#inal3
(C./ AceM%i /XAces%e #ouL Aeci #e 5ereRi sun% vo5siRi /Xvo5si%e #e curWn# %hese$:PL/ %hese$FPL %9o$F %ens(F/ of 9alls(:/ are 5ain%e#$:PL/X5ain%e#$FPL of soon >These %9en%0 9alls are freshl0 5ain%e#?
:oreover %he numeral al%hou!h havin! -fea%ures usuall0 #oes no% hos% %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle so %he s%ron! (5rocli%ic/ form of %he ar%icle is inser%e# in or#er %o e;5ress #efini%eness3 Thus (C</b is more common %han (C</aI (C</a is a case of a nominaliAe# car#inal 9hich 9ill be e;amine# fur%her belo9 (see * ,$2/$
(C</ a$ (K/ Su%a #e 5oliRiM%i n-a reuMi% sL facL faRL #erbe#eilor$ hun#re#(F/-%he of 5olicemen no%-has succee#e# SD'N ma-e face hooli!ans-%he$DAT b$ Cei o su%L #e 5oliRiM%i n-au reuMi% sL facL faRL %he$:PL a$FSG hun#re#(F/ of 5olicemen no%-have succee#e# SD'N ma-e face #erbe#eilor hooli!ans-%he$DAT >The hun#re# 5olicemen #i#n?% succee# %o hol# a!ains% %he hooli!ans$?
In (Ca/one hun#re#? canno% be %he nominal hea# of %he DP3 a #efini%e ar%icle canno% co-occur 9i%h an in#efini%e ar%icle in %he e;%en#e# 5ro6ec%ion of %he same nounI moreover %he #efini%e an# in#efini%e ar%icles bear #ifferen% -fea%ures$ So 9e have a clear in#ica%ion %ha% com5le; numerals form a 5hrase 9hich behaves li-e a sin!le car#inal insi#e %he DP occu50in! a s5ecifier 5osi%ion$ Uha% is %hen %he e;5lana%ion for %he inser%ion of deK Gne 5ossibili%0 is %ha% i% is inser%e# for case reasons$ The a!reemen% misma%ch be%9een %he car#inal an# %he noun sho9s %ha% in %hese s%ruc%ures 9e have %9o nominal cons%i%uen%s3 %he car#inal al%hou!h a55earin! in a s5ecifier 5osi%ion (as sho9n b0 %he a!reemen% of %he #e%erminers 9i%h %he le;ical hea# as in (C</b/ s%ill has a N-fea%ure behavin! as a func%ional noun$ 7ver0 nominal elemen% mus% be s%ruc%urall0 license# b0 Case an# %9o nominals canno% be license# in %he same s%ruc%ural 5osi%ion$ Thus %he case mar-er de is inser%e# in or#er %o le!i%ima%e %he secon# nominal com5onen% of %he DP %he one con%ainin! i%s le;ical hea#$ Ano%her 5ossibili%0 is %ha% de is inser%e# in @uan%i%a%ive cons%ruc%ions as an >an%i-a!reemen% mar-er? 9here %he s5ecifier has inheren% -fea%ures an# #oes no% a!ree 9i%h %he hea#$ A similar use of de P as hea# of a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion 9hose s5ecifier is fille# P can be foun# 9i%h a#6ec%ives (see cha5%er < * 4$4$1 for de hea#in! %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ion De!P/$ Car#inals ma0 also occur 5os%5ose# %o 5ersonal 5ronouns3
(CB/ a$ ei %rei %he0 %hree
++,
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories b$ noi #ouLAeci 9e %9en%0
If 9e anal0Ae 5ronouns as 5ro-DPs %he0 9ill no% con%ain an0 8uan%P/NumP level so 9e 9ill have %o assume %ha% %he car#inal here is ri!h%-a#6oine# %o %he DP$ If an em5%0 N is 5resen% in 5ronouns ei%her as a null i%em or as an i%em move# from N %o D via incor5ora%ion i% becomes 5ossible %o consi#er %ha% in %hese e;am5les car#inals occu50 %heir normal 5osi%ion in S5ec8uan%P/NumP$ %.3. No6.nal.Be3 /a03.nals= I1ant.t9 no1ns an3 ot8e0 f1n/t.onal no1ns As 9e have seen in (C</a %he car#inals (ece >%en? sut >hun#re#?% mie >%housan#? ma0 also en%er a #ifferen% cons%ruc%ion in 9hich %he0 func%ion as @uan%i%0 nouns$ In %his case %he0 %a-e a!reein! #e%erminers even %he suffi;al ar%icle ((CC/a-b/ an# have bare 5lural uses ((CC/c/$
(CC/ a$ a%W%ea su%e #e co5ii so-much$FPL hun#re#s(F/ of chil#ren(:/ b$ su%ele #e co5ii hun#re#s(F/-%he of chil#ren(:/ c$ su%e #e co5ii hun#re#s(F/ of chil#ren(:/
Ue consi#er %ha% in %hese cases %he car#inal is %he nominal hea# of %he DP3 (+==/ DP D NumP Num N S -le H5l su%e #e NP SP NumP co5ii
Ue 9ill call car#inals in %his s%ruc%ure nominali(ed cardinals$ No%e ho9ever %ha% nominaliAe# car#inals are no% com5le%el0 5arallel %o le;ical nouns3 5re#ica%es #on?% s-selec% %hem bu% %heir nominal com5lemen%I DP-e;%ernal a!reemen% is !enerall0 es%ablishe# 9i%h %he com5lemen% ((+=+/a/I %he !eni%ive 5lural is mar-e# b0 a 9hen no #e%erminer is 5resen% 9hich is %05ical for car#inals an# no% for le;ical nouns (com5are (+=+/b %o (+=+/c3
(+=+/ a$ Fecile #e co5aci #e 5e #rum erau #esfrunAiRi /X#esfrunAi%e %ens(F/-%he of %rees(:/ of on roa# 9ere leafless$:PL/ leafless$FPL >The %ens of %rees alon! %he roa# 9ere leafless$? b$ cLrRile a Aeci #e co5ii boo-s-%he a %ens of chil#ren ]%he boo-s of %ens of chil#ren]
++.
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories c$ cLrRile #e co5ii / unor co5ii / Xa co5ii boo-s-%he de chil#ren / some$G7N chil#ren / a chil#ren ](%he/ chil#ren boo-s/some chil#ren]s boo-s/X%he boo-s of chil#ren]
This 5eculiar behavior can be ca5%ure# b0 sa0in! %ha% nominaliAe# car#inals are no% le;ical nouns bu% functional or rammaticali(ed nouns$ I% shoul# %hus be s%resse# %ha% %he #ifferen% s0n%ac%ic s%a%us a%%ribu%e# here %o >!enuine? car#inals an# >nominaliAe#? car#inals is base# on %heir #is%inc% formal 5ro5er%ies3 5resence or lac- of a!reemen% 9i%h #e%erminers (im/5ossibili%0 of 5lural forms$ Their selec%ional 5ro5er%ies are i#en%ical an# as such %he0 canno% be use# as cri%eria for s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure$ There e;is% o%her more or less !ramma%icaliAe# nouns 9hich can a55ear 9i%h a le;ical NP-com5lemen% in%ro#uce# b0 de$ Amon! %hem are various @uan%i%a%ives (un pic de >a bi% of? o mulime de >a cro9# of man0?/ bu% 9e can also fin# @uali%a%ive or sor%al 9or#s3 fel >sor%? (un fel de >a sor% of? ce fel de >9ha% sor% of? orice fel de >an0 sor% of? altfel de >a #ifferen% %05e of?I in a fuse# form base# on %he #emons%ra%ive ast-3 astfel de >such?/ en >-in#? soi >sor% -in#?$ For all of %hese %he e;%ernal a!reemen% 9i%h %he com5lemen% noun is %he rule3
(+=1/ Ce fel #e oameni 5o% / K5oa%e %rLi aiciK 9ha% sor% of 5eo5le can$2PL/ can$2SG live here >Uha% sor% of 5eo5le can live hereK?
So de is no% onl0 s5ecialiAe# for @uan%i%0 con%e;%s$ The !eneraliAa%ion 9hich hol#s also for e@uivalen%s of de in o%her lan!ua!es (en!l$ of fr$ s5$ de i%$ di e%c$/ is %ha% de is inser%e# in a con%e;% NrN$ The elemen% before de is no% necessaril0 a (le;ical/ noun bu% has some N 5ro5er%ies for ins%ance -fea%ures$ Ue sa9 %ha% numerals inflec%e# for number ( (ece >%en? sut >hun#re#? mie >%housan#? e%c$/ s%ill bear %his N fea%ure in Romanian$ In o%her Romance lan!ua!es %hese numerals have com5le%el0 los% %he N-fea%ure !eneraliAin! %he 5a%%ern foun# 9i%h basic numerals (+-+C in Romanian/$ Si!nifican%l0 %he0 also sho9 5oorer -fea%ures mor5holo!0 %han %heir Romanian coun%er5ar%s3
(+=2/ a$ #ue cen%o (X#i/ ra!aAAe %9o hun#re#(:/ ( of/ !irls(F/ b$ %res mil (X#e/ nivas %hree %housan# ( of/ !irls(F/ I%alian S5anish
A common 5ro5er%0 of s%ruc%ures in (HN/ de (HN/ 9hen %he firs% elemen% is a @uan%i%a%ive is %ha% 9hen %he secon# 5ar% is lef%-#isloca%e# de no lon!er a55ears (for %his %05e of lef%#isloca%ion see %he follo9in! sec%ion * ./3
(+=4/ a$ Fe%e au veni% %reiAeci$ !irls have come %hir%0 b$ XDe fe%e au veni% %reiAeci of !irls have come %hir%0 c$ XFe%e au veni% %reiAeci #e$ !irls have come %hir%0 of
Uhen %he firs% N is in#is5u%abl0 le;ical an# de is a com5lemen% in%ro#ucin! 5re5osi%ion de canno% be #ro55e#$ Com5are (+=,/a 9here %he firs% N is a @uan%i%0 noun 5resumabl0 func%ional %o (+=,/b3
(+=,/ a$ (X#e/ vin am bLu% un 5ic
++<
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories of 9ine have$+ #run- a bi% b$ X(#e/ Rembran#% am vLAu% cW%eva %ablouri of Rembran#% have$+ seen a fe9 5ic%ures
This su!!es%s %ha% de foun# in @uan%i%a%ive cons%ruc%ions is no% a %rue 5re5osi%ion$ I% coul# be %he realiAa%ion of %he 8uan% hea# 9i%h %he @uan%i%a%ive e;5ression si%%in! in i%s s5ecifier$ This 9oul# allo9 e;%rac%ion of %he NP follo9in! i% unli-e 5re5osi%ions 9hich are islan#s for e;%rac%ion in Romanian$ Ue ma0 assume %ha% 9hen %he 5hrase follo9in! de is move# de (more 5recisel0 %he V= cons%i%uen% 9hich is normall0 5hone%icall0 realiAe# as de/ remains 9i%h an em5%0 sis%er an# since i% is a 9ea- elemen% cli%iciAin! on i%s com5lemen% i% 9oul# no% be realiAe# 9hen %his com5lemen% is em5%0$ I% is a 9ell--no9n 5ro5er%0 of cli%ics %ha% %he0 canno% cli%iciAe %o em5%0 ca%e!ories$ I% %hus a55ears %ha% onl0 com5lemen%s of func%ional nouns e;5ressin! @uan%i%0 as 9ell as of a number of @uan%ifica%ional #e%erminers (as 9e 9ill see in %he follo9in! sec%ion * ./ allo9 %his %05e of #isloca%ion$ This in#ica%es %ha% @uan%i%0 nouns rel0 on a s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure %ha% is #ifferen% from %ha% of com5lemen%-%a-in! le;ical nouns$ Gramma%icaliAe# nouns e;5ressin! @uan%i%0 9hich 9e 9ill call quantity nouns sho9 an in%erme#ia%e behaviour be%9een com5le; car#inals an# or#inar0 nouns %a-in! a deHNP com5lemen%$ This can be seen b0 con%ras%in! @uan%i%0 nouns 9i%h roup nouns (or collectives/$ 5ulime is usuall0 a @uan%i%0 noun bu% ma0 also func%ion as a !rou5 noun (meanin! >cro9#?/$ Krmad is normall0 a @uan%i%0 noun 9hen a55lie# %o anima%es (as a concre%e noun i% means >hea5?/ an# droaie is a @uan%i%0 noun ever09here (all %hree are use# %o e;5ress a bi! number/$ There also e;is% @uan%i%0 nouns s5ecialiAe# for mass nouns3 un pic% un strop >a li%%le? e%c$ Nouns li-e rup >!rou5? an# mos% collec%ives are !rou5 nouns ra%her %han @uan%i%0 nouns$ The follo9in! 5ro5er%ies #is%in!uish @uan%i%0 nouns from !rou5 nouns an# sho9 %ha% %he0 behave li-e com5oun# car#inals of %he %05e dou (eci de 3 >%9o %ens of N?3 (i/ 8uan%i%0 nouns 9hich %a-e 5lurals re@uire 5lural a!reemen% on %he verb !rou5 nouns normall0 #e%ermine %he a!reemen% %hemselves3
(+=./ a$ G !rLma#L #e elevi au /KKa cLAu% la e;amen a lo% of 5u5ils have / has fallen a% e;am >A lo% of 5u5ils faile# %he e;am$? b$ Dn !ru5 #e elevi m-a / KKm-au viAi%a% ieri a !rou5 of 5u5ils me-has/ me-have visi%e# 0es%er#a0 >A !rou5 of 5u5ils visi%e# me 0es%er#a0?
(ii/ The #e%erminer of @uan%i%0 nouns canno% be inflec%e# for %he obli@ue case so %he func%ional 5re5osi%ions/case mar-ers la for #a%ive an# a for !eni%ive mus% be inser%e#$ This 5henomenon also encoun%ere# 9i%h com5oun# car#inals ma0 be e;5laine# if 9e assume %ha% %his #e%erminer is no% %he D of %he ma%ri; DP so %ha% %he @uan%i%0 noun occu5ies a s5ecifier 5osi%ion (S5ec8uan%P/ (in (+=</a %he na%ural rea#in! of %he sen%ence e;clu#es %he use of mulime as a !rou5 noun/3
(+=</ a$ XAm #a% no%e bune unei mulRimi #e elevi have$+ !iven mar-s !oo# a$DAT lo% of 5u5ils b$ Am #a% no%e bune la o mulRime #e elevi have$+ !iven mar-s !oo# la a lo% of 5u5ils >I !ave !oo# mar-s %o a lo% of 5u5ils? c$ KKAm #a% no%e bune unei su%e #e elevi have$+ !iven mar-s !oo# a$DAT hun#re# of 5u5ils #$ Am #a% no%e bune la o su%L #e elevi$
++B
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories have$+ !iven mar-s !oo# la a hun#re# of 5u5ils >I !ave !oo# mar-s %o a hun#re# 5u5ils? e$ Xa#Lu!area unui 5ic #e AahLr a##in!-%he a$G7N bi% of su!ar f$ a#Lu!area a un 5ic #e AahLr a##in!-%he a a bi% of su!ar
(iii/ Lef%-#isloca%ion 9hich 9e have alrea#0 seen for @uan%i%0 nouns ((+=,// is im5ossible 9i%h !rou5 nouns3
(+=B/ a$ Fe%e am En%Wlni% o mulRime !irls have$+ me% a lo% b$ XFe%e am En%Wlni% un !ru5 !irls have$+ me% a !rou5
(iv/ 8uan%i%0 nouns #o no% have 5lural forms 9hereas !rou5 nouns #o3
(+=C/ a$ XDin uAinL ieMeau !rLmeAi #e munci%ori from fac%or0 !e%-ou%$I:PF$2PL hea5s of 9or-ers b$ Din uAinL ieMeau !ru5uri #e munci%ori from fac%or0 !e%-ou%$ I:PF$2PL !rou5s of 9or-ers
(v/ 8uan%i%0 nouns a% leas% some of %hem allo9 a#verbial uses 9hich as 9e have seen charac%eriAe @uan%i%0 e;5ressions$ This is ano%her in#ica%ion %ha% %he0 have los% %heir nominal s%a%us e;ce5% for mor5holo!0 bein! reanal0se# as @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions3
(++=/ a$ un 5ic mai mare a bi% more bi! >a bi% bi!!er? b$ A #ormi% o !rLma#L has sle5% a hea5 >Oe sle5% a lo%?
Gn %he o%her han# @uan%i%0 nouns are #is%in!uishe# from com5oun# car#inals b0 allo9in! a!reein! #e%erminers - i$e$ o%her #e%erminers %han %he in#efini%e ar%icle 9hich a!ree 9i%h %he @uan%i%0 noun an# func%ion as #e%erminers of %he en%ire DP$ In %his case %he0 ma0 also have case mor5holo!0$ This sho9s %ha% in %his case @uan%i%0 nouns are no% s5ecifiers (li-e in (+=</b/ bu% nominal hea#s %a-in! %he le;ical noun as a com5lemen% (%he s%ruc%ure in (+==//3
(+++/ a$ #roaia as%a #e co5ii lo%(F/-%he %his$F of chil#ren b$ #roaiei Ls%eia #e co5ii lo%(F/-%he$DAT %his$F$DAT of chil#ren
NominaliAe# car#inals al%hou!h e;5ressin! @uan%i%0 an# no% !rou5s are #is%in!uishe# from @uan%i%0 nouns b0 havin! 5lural (see (+=+//$ The0 also allo9 a!reein! #e%erminers unli-e non-nominaliAe# car#inals$ So %he0 are more similar %o le;ical nouns %han @uan%i%0 nouns$
Frac%ional numerals behave li-e nominaliAe# car#inals ((++1//$ Their nominal s%a%us is also sho9n b0 mor5holo!03 %he0 are #erive# from car#inals b0 means of an abs%rac% nominal suffi; ((++2//3 (++1/ (cele/ #ouL %re.6. #e AahLr %he$FPL %9o$F %hir#s(F/ of su!ar
++C

(++2/ Mase s Mes.6e si; si;%h (frac%ional/ Enal% s EnLlR.6e hi!h hi!hness
Car#inals ma0 also func%ion as re!ular nouns in various uses3 in ma%hema%ics as names of numbers 9i%h mar-s numbers of buil#in!s in car# !ames$ In %his case %he0 have no% onl0 %he s0n%a; bu% also %he mor5holo!0 of re!ular nouns (see %he #efini%e #eclension in (++4/a/3 (++4/ a$ Treiul e numLrul meu norocos %hree-%he is number-%he m0 luc-0 >Three is m0 luc-0 number? b$ :i-a #a% un 5a%ru me$CL$DAT-has !iven a four >(The %eacher/ !ave me a four? c$ ji-am #a% un 5a%ru ne!ru 0ou$CL$DAT-have$+ !iven a four blac>I !ave 0ou a blac- four?
%.$. -1ant.t9 e<50ess.ons alDa9s o//159.n4 t8e D la9e0 ED+I1ant.tat.2esF Ue have seen in sec%ion 1 %ha% no% all @uan%i%0 e;5ressions ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 a #e%erminer3 some @uan%i%a%ives are of %05e I al9a0s occu50in! %he D 5osi%ion3 ct% ci >ho9 much/man0? orict% orici >an0 number/amoun% of? att% ati >so/%ha%/as much/man0?$ Ue un#ers%an# %his behaviour b0 loo-in! a% %heir meanin! an# even a% %heir form3 %heir seman%ics con%ains a @uan%ifier com5onen% alon!si#e %he @uan%i%a%ive fea%ure (see (++,// an# %heir form also sho9s com5osi%ion of D-elemen%s (a- ana5horic ori- free-choice Q in%erro!a%ive-rela%ive see * += for #e%ails/ 9i%h %he same )c*t 9hich ma0 be %a-en %o re5resen% %he @uan%i%0 fea%ure$ The onl0 member of %his 5ara#i!m 9hich ma0 a55ear in a 5os%-D 5osi%ion bein! of %05e III (5os%-D 9hich ma0 also func%ion as a D/ is ctva% civa >some?$ (Ue shoul# ho9ever no%ice %ha% a %rans5aren% mor5holo!0 charac%eriAes onl0 a 5ar% of D-@uan%i%a%ivesI o%hers are non%rans5aren%3 niel% cevaI %he la%%er sho9s com5osi%ion 9i%h ce bu% ce is no% @uan%i%a%ive in o%her con%e;%s e;ce5% for oarece 9hich is a un%05ical @uan%i%a%ive b0 %he fac% %ha% is res%ric%e# %o nominal 5ro6ec%ions/3
(++,/ cW% 3 K; ;[%he number/amoun% of N(um/P oricW%3 ; ;[%he number/amoun% of N(um/P cW%va3 ; ;[%he number/amoun% of N(um/P a%W%3 ; ;[%he number/amoun% of N(um/P (; ei%her con%e;%uall0 i#en%ifie# b0 ana5hor or #ei;is or in%ro#uce# b0 an e@ua%ive/
These @uan%i%a%ives have in common 9i%h a#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ives %he fac% %ha% %he0 can a55ear ou%si#e %he DP3 %he0 a55ear 9i%h verbs ((++./a/ bu% 9i%h #e!ree 9or#s %he0 mus% be in%ro#uce# b0 a 5re5osi%ion behavin! li-e nominals ((++./b/ (onl0 ct has a s5ecial s%ruc%ure in 9hich i% a%%aches before %he #e!ree hea# mai >more? 9i%hou% a 5re5osi%ion ((++./c// an# 9i%h a#6ec%ives an# a#verbs %he0 ma0 func%ion as #e!ree 9or#s in 9hich case %he0 re@uire %he inser%ion of de before %he a#6ec%ive 5resumabl0 #ue %o %heir N fea%ure ((++./#/3
(++./ a$ CW% a vorbi%K ho9-much has s5o-en >Oo9 lon! #i# he s5o-eK? b$ cu a%W% mai bine 9i%h so-much more !oo# >so much be%%er?
+1=
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories c$ cW% mai #e5ar%e ho9-much more far >%he fur%hes% 5ossible? #$ a%W% #e #eM%e5% so-much of in%elli!en% >so/as in%elli!en%? e$ niRel mai #e5ar%e a-li%%le more far >a li%%le bi% fur%her?
Ue conclu#e %ha% %hese 5hrases are no% sim5le D-hea#s3 %05icall0 func%ional hea#s selec% onl0 one %05e of le;ical ca%e!or0 (for e;am5le Ds such as %he ar%icles #emons%ra%ives non@uan%i%a%ive in#efini%es selec% onl0 (N/ au;iliaries selec% onl0 (V/ e%c$/$ The 9i#er #is%ribu%ion of @uan%i%a%ive 5hrases is #ue %o %heir H@uan% fea%ure$ Such e;5ressions can be uniformil0 %rea%e# as 8APs 9hich 9hen a55earin! in S5ecDP ma-e %he D-level visible$ Gne &!- 9or# namel0 ce ma0 a55ear in %he S5ec 5osi%ion of %he @uan%i%0 hea# de$ I% is %hen in%er5re%e# as an e;clama%ive @uan%i%a%ive3
(++</ Ce #e oameni au veni%d 9ha% of 5eo5le have come >Oo9 man0 5eo5le came d?
%.%. -1ant.t9 e<50ess.ons .n 50e3./at.2e 5os.t.on All @uan%i%0 e;5ressions (car#inals a#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions D-@uan%i%a%ives/ have in common %he 5ossibili%0 of a55earin! in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion (normall0 5os%-co5ular bu% e;ce5%ionall0 also in secon#ar0 5re#ica%ions see (++B/b/3
(++B/ a$ 7ram Aece / mulRi / a%WRia 9ere$+PL %en / man0/ so-man0 ]Ue 9ere %e/man0/%ha% man0] b$ Am 5leca% Aece Mi ne-am En%ors #oar %rei have$+PL lef% %en an# R7FL-have$+PL re%urne# onl0 %hree
]Ue 9ere %en 9hen 9e lef% an# onl0 %hree 9hen 9e re%urne#] In %his case %he 5resence of an em5%0 N is @ui%e #oub%ful3 no nominal con%en% nee#s %o be recovere# an# in %he case of secon#ar0 5re#ica%ion ((++B/b/ %he 5resence of an over% noun is no% full0 !ramma%ical (e$!$ KAm plecat (ece persoane >have$+PL lef% %en 5ersons?/$ %.&. Note on t8e Do03 un Ga= oneH Tra#i%ionall0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle (un% o/ is anal0Ae# as a car#inal 9hen i% is s%resse# hi!hli!h%in! %he number (for ins%ance 9hen i% is use# in ans9erin! @ues%ions abou% car#inali%0 or 9hen i% bears a con%ras%ive focus of correc%ion con%ras%in! 9i%h a car#inal/$ Oo9ever 9e #o no% %rea% un$o as a car#inal bu% 9e inclu#e i% in %he class of #e%erminers because i% can never be 5rece#e# b0 #e%erminers3
(++C/ a$ cele #ouL cLrRi %he %9o boo-s b$ Xcea o car%e / Xuna car%e %he one boo- / one-%he boo-
+1+
In or#er %o e;5ress (++C/b Romanian ma0 use %he a#6ec%ive sin ur >onl0?$ The im5ossibili%0 of (++C/b is no% #ue %o seman%ics3 in o%her lan!ua!es 9or#s for >un? ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 #e%erminers P e$!$ La%in or 7n!lish3
(+1=/ a$ ille unus filius %ha% one son b$ %he one Go# La%in 7n!lish
&. Co66on 50o5e0t.es of I1ant.tat.2es an3 so6e .n3ef.n.te 3ete06.ne0s

(i/ Sensi%ivi%0 %o number As alrea#0 men%ione# (see * +/ some #e%erminers are sensi%ive %o %he number of %heir nominal com5lemen%$ This 5ro5er%0 charac%eriAes no% onl0 @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions bu% also mos% in#efini%e an# @uan%ifica%ional Ds$ Gnl0 #efini%e #e%erminers al%erna%ives an# 9h- #e%erminers are no% sensi%ive %o number$ Amon! #e%erminers sensi%ive %o number 9e ma0 #is%in!uish %he follo9in! selec%ional classes3 (+/ H coun% sin!ulars 9i%h res%ric%ions on %he 5lural3 %he in#efini%es un >a(n/?% vreun >a an0 some? niciun >no? #o no% %a-e 5lural in %he #irec% caseI %he0 are com5a%ible 9i%h %he 5lural onl0 in %he obli@ue (e$!$ unor$vreunor prieteni >of/%o some frien#s?/ or 9hen no over% noun is 5resen%3 niciunii% vreunii (for %he #ifference be%9een unii 9i%hou% an over% N 9hich is a 5lural form of %he in#efini%e ar%icle an# a#nominal unii 9hich is a 5ar%i%ive #e%erminer see 2$1 above/I %he #is%ribu%ive universal fiecare >each ever0? ma0 %a-e besi#es coun% sin!ulars 5lurals in%ro#uce# b0 car#inalsI (1/ H 5lurals3 car#inals %he in#efini%es unii >(5ar%i%ive/ some? diveri >various? (2/ H mass3 niel >a li%%le? atta >so/as/%ha% much? (4/ Hmass an# 5lurals3 nite >some s?m? %he @uan%i%a%ives ct% ci >ho9 much/man0? ceva% ctva% civa >some a fe9? mult% muli >much man0? puin% puini >li%%le fe9? att% ati >%ha%/as much/man0? destul% destui >enou!h? (,/ Hcoun% sin!ulars an# 5lurals3 %he in%erro!a%ive-rela%ives ce >9ha%?% care >9hich?I oricare% orice >an0? 9hile !enerall0 %a-e %he sin!ular also allo9 %he 5lural (ii/ Lef%-#isloca%ion A 5ro5er%0 9hich !enerall0 charac%eriAes @uan%i%a%ives bu% no% e;clusivel0 (see (+1+/b-c an# (+=4/a (+=,/a (+=B/a/ is %he fac% %ha% %he0 allo9 lef%-#isloca%ion of %heir nominal com5lemen% (a bare 5lural or mass noun/3
(+1+/ a$ C:0A. am !Lsi% Be/e @61lte @/Kte2a boo-s have$+ foun# %en /man0 /a fe9 >I foun# %en/man0/a fe9 boo-s / As for boo-s I foun# %en/man0/a fe9? b$ Jo/10. M%iu altele !ames -no9$+SG o%hers$ADG: >I -no9 o%her !ames / As for !ames I -no9 o%hers? c$ Pe0.. n-am lua% n./.1na$ brushes no%-have$+ %a-en none$ADG: >I #i#n?% %a-e an0 brushes / As for brushes I #i#n?% %a-e an0?
'esi#es @uan%i%a%ives %his 5ro5er%0 is foun# 9i%h %he in#efini%e #e%erminers unul >one? niciunul >no no one? vreunul >some an0? an# 9i%h %he al%erna%ive alt >o%her?$ A remar-able 5ro5er%0 of s%ruc%ures 9i%h lef%-#isloca%e# NPs is %he rela%ive in#e5en#ence of %he se5ara%e# elemen%s$ Thus %he s%ruc%ure is no% #is%in!uishe# from %he
+11
s%ruc%ure 9i%hou% #isloca%ion onl0 b0 a reor#erin!3 %he NF7 lef% in 5lace sho9s %he >au!men%e#? or 5re-YNeZ forms if i% has an0 ((+11//I if a NF7 #oesn?% allo9 Y NeZ i% canno% a55ear in %his s%ruc%ure even if i% has a @uan%i%a%ive meanin! of %he same %05e 9i%h %ha% of @uan%i%a%ives %ha% allo9 %his s%ruc%ure (+12/I %he #umm0-5re5osi%ion de 9hich in%ervenes in some cases be%9een %he @uan%i%a%ive an# %he NP is missin! in #isloca%e# s%ruc%ures as 9e alrea#0 no%ice# (see (+=4/ above an# (+14// 9hich is ano%her in#ica%ion %ha% %he NF7 lef% in 5lace behaves as 9hen follo9e# b0 Y NeZ since in %ha% case %oo de is no% 5resen% ((+14/c/I even %he number of %he NP ma0 be #ifferen% from %ha% of %he #e%erminer (9hen %he #e%erminer is sin!ular/ a si%ua%ion %ha% is of course e;clu#e# 9hen %he #e%erminer 5rece#es %he noun (see (+1+/c above an# (+1,//$
(+11/ a$ Am cum5Lra% alte 3.s/10.$ have$+ bou!h% o%her recor#s >I bou!h% o%her recor#s? b$ D.s/10. am cum5Lra% altele$ recor#s have$+ bou!h% o%her$ADG: c$ Am cum5Lra% altele YNeZ$ have$+ bou!h% o%her$ADG: >I bou!h% o%hers$? a$ C:0A. am lua% Ln.Cte / /Kte2a$ boo-s have$+ %a-en s?m / a fe9 >As for boo-s I %oo- some? b$ LN.Cte YNeZ/ CKte2a YNeZ sun% 5e raf%$ s]m a fe9 are on shelf >Some are on %he shelf? a$ AM%e5%Lm 3o1:Be/. 3e .n2.taA. 9ai%$+PL %9en%0 of !ues%s >Ue are 9ai%in! for %9en%0 !ues%s? b$ In2.taA. aM%e5%Lm 3o1:Be/. !ues%s 9ai%$+PL %9en%0 >As for !ues% 9e are 9ai%in! for %9en%0? c$ AM%e5%Lm 3o1:Be/. YNeZ 9ai%$+PL %9en%0 >Ue?re 9ai%in! for %9en%0? a$ Am 5ier#u% n16a. o /a0te have$+ los% onl0 a boo>I los% onl0 one boo-? b$ C:0A. am 5ier#u% n16a. 1na$ boo-s have$+ los% onl0 one$ADG: >As for boo-s I los% onl0 one?
(+12/
(+14/
(+1,/
'ase# on %hese fac%s 9e coul# conclu#e %ha% %hese s%ruc%ures are base# on YNeZ an# no% on movemen%$ So %his 9oul#n?% be an ins%ance of #isloca%ion bu% ra%her of a base-!enera%e# %o5ic N(um/P an# a [Ne] i#en%ifie# via %he usual mechanisms$ Oo9ever %he cons%ruc%ion also has some 5ro5er%ies charac%eris%ic of movemen%$ The s%ruc%ure is limi%e# %o ob6ec%s an# 5os%verbal sub6ec%s in a##i%ion %o sho9in! %he s%an#ar# islan# cons%rain%s3
(+1./ a$ B:.eA. cWn%L 3oa0 t0e. bo0s sin! onl0 %hree >As for bo0s onl0 %hree are sin!in!? b$ KK B:.eA. 3oa0 t0e. cWn%L bo0s onl0 %hree sin! c$ XM1Bee am in%ra% En Be/e.
+12
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories museums have$+ en%ere# in %en #$ XA0t./ole M%iu 5e cineva care a %rimis t0e. ar%icles -no9$+SG DG: somebo#0 9ho has sen% %hree >(As for/ ar%icles I -no9 somebo#0 9ho has sen% %hree?
The un!ramma%icali%0 of (+1./b-c can be e;5laine# b0 %he im5ossibili%0 of e;%rac%in! from a 5reverbal sub6ec% or a PP$ :oreover %he %o5ic mus% be lin-e# %o a YNeZ i% canno% be associa%e# %o an over% noun3
(+1</ XFete am vLAu% 5e :aria Mi Cris%ina !irls have$+ seen DG: :aria an# Cris%ina In%en#e# meanin!3 >As for !irls I sa9 :aria an# Cris%ina?
So 9e conclu#e %ha% %hese cases sho9 a 5ar%icular %05e of chain af%er all$ This cons%ruc%ion loo-s li-e a cli%ic-#oublin! s%ruc%ure 9here %he #oublin! 5ronominal is a 5ro-N ins%ea# of a 5ro-DP (a 5ersonal 5ronoun/$ Ue 9ill no% #eci#e here 9he%her %he #e5en#enc0 involve# in %hese cons%ruc%ions is %o be re5resen%e# via s0n%ac%ic movemen% or 9i%hou% movemen% (for ins%ance via an A!ree mechanism/$
I% is in%eres%in! %o no%ice %ha% %he same 5henomenon namel0 %he in#e5en#ence of %he #isloca%e# elemen%s 9i%h %he %race of %he lef%-#isloca%e# NP behavin! as YNeZ is foun# in o%her lan!ua!es 9hich have NP lef%-#isloca%ion such as Oun!arian an# German
If ar!umen%al bare nouns are anal0Ae# as con%ainin! a null D (see cha5%er 1/ %hen %he %o5icaliAa%ion 5a%%ern in (+1B/ ma0 involve %he same %05e of #isloca%ion3
(+1B/ a$ Prosoa5e avem$ %o9els have$+PL b$ Vin EncL mai es%e 9ine s%ill more is >There is s%ill 9ine?
As 9e have sho9n in ,$2 %his cons%ruc%ion also a55ears 9i%h @uan%i%0 nouns3
(+1C/ a$ Doc%ori am vLAu% o 61lA.6e$ #oc%ors have$+ seen a lo% >I sa9 a lo% of #oc%ors$? b$ Am vLAu% o 61lA.6e YNeZ have$+ seen a lo% >I sa9 a lo%? c$ KK Doc%ori am vorbi% cu o 61lA.6e #oc%ors have$+ s5o-en 9i%h a lo%
If NP lef% #isloca%ion #oesn?% #e5en# on %he s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he #e%erminer o%her %han %he allo9ance of YNeZ 9e have %o e;5lain 9h0 i% is limi%e# %o onl0 some #e%erminers$ The ans9er ma0 be foun# in seman%ics3 im5l0in! %o5icaliAa%ion of %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP (realiAe# as a N(um/P/ i% is allo9e# onl0 9hen no #efini%e se% is available for %o5icaliAa%ion$ Tha% is 9h0 #e%erminers 9hich are al9a0s 5ar%i%ive (in %he sense %ha% %he0 im5l0 a !iven se%/ such as %he #is%ribu%ive universal are no% allo9e#3 (+2=/ (XCan#i#aRi/ am
e;amina% (5e/ fiecare can#i#a%es have$+ e;amine# (DG:/ each
+14
(iii/ The 5ossibili%0 of havin! a55ro;ima%ion mo#ifiers charac%eriAes as 9e have seen in sec%ion 4 @uan%i%a%ives as 9ell as universal an# ne!a%ive @uan%ifiers ( toi >all? fiecare >ever0 each? oricare% orice >(free-choice/ an0? niciun >no?/ (see e;am5les (<./ re5ea%e# belo9/$
(+2+/ a$ a5roa5e %rei ani almos% %hree 0ears b$ a5roa5e %oRi 5or%ocalii almos% all oran!e-%rees-%he c$ a5roa5e orice Ai almos% an0 #a0 #$ a5roa5e nicio 5lLcere almos% no 5leasure
These similari%ies be%9een @uan%i%a%ives an# some in#efini%e an# @uan%ifica%ional #e%erminers le# some researches %o 5u% %hem in %he same class (a ca%e!or0 9hich 9as labele# 8P/$ Ue consi#er %ha% %he0 shoul# no% be %rea%e# on a 5ar because of %he im5or%an% #is%ribu%ional #ifference 5resen%e# in %he 5revious sec%ion (* ,/3 onl0 @uan%i%a%ives can a55ear in con%e;%s o%her %han noun 5ro6ec%ions$ The %heor0 of func%ional 5ro6ec%ions re@uires %hus %o a%%ribu%e %hem a s5ecial s%a%us$ In a##i%ion onl0 %he0 ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 o%her #e%erminers (see * 1/$ Gn %he o%her han# 9or#s such as fiecare >each ever0? alt)ul* >ano%her (one/? nite >some? are res%ric%e# %o nominal 5ro6ec%ions behavin! normall0 from %he 5oin% of vie9 of %he %heor0 of func%ional 5ro6ec%ions$ :os% if no% all of %he similari%ies 5resen%e# here (%he combina%ion 9i%h a55ro;ima%ion mo#ifiers %he sensi%ivi%0 %o number an# 5erha5s even %he lef%-#isloca%ion 5ro5er%0/ have a seman%ic e;5lana%ion$
(. T8e alte0nat.2e an3 t8e .3ent.t9 3ete06.ne0

(.1. T8e alte0nat.2e Amon! %he NF7s 9hich ma0 follo9 #e%erminers (%05e III in * 1/ %he al%erna%ive ( alt/ cons%i%u%es a s5ecial case$ Firs% i% is an e;ce5%ion in %his class3 all %he o%her i%ems in i% P e;ce5% for %he #emons%ra%ives (an# 5erha5s %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer if i% reall0 belon!s here vi#e infra/ P are @uan%i%a%ives as 9e have seen$ Secon#l0 i%s 5osi%ion 9i%h re!ar# %o @uan%i%a%ives is variable #e5en#in! on %he %05e of %he @uan%i%a%ive3 i% follo9s scalar @uan%i%a%ives bu% 5rece#es all o%her @uan%i%a%ives3
(+21/ a$ (mul%e/ al%e (Kmul%e/ En%Wm5lLri man0 o%her man0 even%s b$ (aces%e/ (X%rei/cW%eva/ al%e (%rei/cW%eva/ En%Wm5lLri %hese %hree/a-fe9 o%her %hree/a-fe9 even%s
Thir# unli-e in lan!ua!es such as 7n!lish an# French alt ma0 func%ion as a D a55earin! 9i%hou% ano%her #e%erminer$ In %his case i% func%ions as an in#efini%e #e%erminer3
(+22/ al%L 5oves%e X(an/o%her s%or0 X(une/ au%re his%oire Romanian 7n!lish French
Oo9ever i% ma0 also be 5rece#e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle$ The meanin! #ifferences be%9een
+1,
altHNP an# unJaltHNP are har# %o !ras5$ In %he 5lural alt canno% be 5rece#e# b0 in#efini%e #e%erminers (X nite ali oameni >some o%her 5eo5le? Xunor alte (ile >some$G'L o%her #a0s?/$ As a D i% sho9s %he case inflec%ion %05ical for Ds$ I%s >au!men%e#? inflec%ion (i$e$ %he forms use# in %he con%e;% HYNeZ/ as 9ell as %ha% of %he in#efini%e un >a one? an# i%s com5oun#s sho9 %he 5eculiari%0 of havin! forms of %he #efini%e #eclension in %he #irec% case (see * 2 for #iscussion/$ Ano%her common 5ro5er%0 of un an# alt is %ha% %he0 ma0 use %he feminine sin!ular au!men%e# form 9i%h a neu%er in%er5re%a%ion ( una >one %hin!? alta >ano%her %hin!?/$ This use is !enerall0 res%ric%e# %o cases of 5arallelism an# %o i#ioms3
(+24/ a$ Una es%e sL M%ii sL foloseM%i 5ro!rame fLcu%e #e alRii alta es%e sL one$FSG is SD'N -no9$1SG SD'N use$1SG 5ro!rams ma#e b0 o%hers o%her$FSG is SD'N M%ii sL scrii %u unul$ -no9$1SG SD'N 9ri%e$1SG 0ou one$ADG: >To -no9 ho9 %o use 5ro!rams ma#e b0 o%hers is one %hin! %o be able %o 9ri%e one 0ourself %ha%?s a #ifferen% %hin!$? b$ Vorbeau #e 1na #e alta s5ea-$I:PF$2PL of one$FSG of o%her$FSG >The0 9ere %al-in! abou% all sor%s of %hin!s$? c$ As%a e 1na la mWnL$ A5oi/`n 5lus$$$ %his is one$FSG a% han#$ Then/in a##i%ion >T%ha%?s one %hin!$ :oreover ^?
This 5henomenon is also encoun%ere# 9i%h #emons%ra%ives (see B$1/$ Alt ma0 func%ion as a 5re#ica%e in 9hich case %he au!men%e# forms mus% be use#3
(+2,/ Casa as%a e alta /Xal%L$ house-%he %his is o%her$ADG:/ o%her >This house is ano%her one$?
This ma0 in#ica%e %ha% alt alone canno% be use# as a 5re#ica%e bu% mus% be follo9e# b0 an N (bein! a func%ional nominal elemen%/ an# %he en%ire cons%ruc%ion altHNP ma0 %hen func%ion as a 5re#ica%e$ Oo9ever i% is also 5ossible %o consi#er %ha% alt has !eneraliAe# %he au!men%e# inflec%ion 9hen i% is an a#6ec%ive P 9e 9oul# %hen consi#er %hese form %o be >s%ron! forms? of sor%s$ In#ee# 9hen i% is follo9e# b0 a com5lemen% of #ifference alt ma0 also a55ear in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion li-e an a#6ec%ive an# %hen i% has %he au!men%e# forms ((+2./a/I no%e %ha% an a55osi%ive s%ruc%ure is unli-el0 since an over% N is im5ossible af%er alt ((+2./b/ an# %he meanin! is res%ric%ive3
(+2./ a$ Vom 5romova cunoaM%erea limbilor s%rLine altele #ecW% en!leAa$ 9ill$+PL 5romo%e -no9le#!e-%he lan!ua!es-%he$G7N forei!n o%her$ADG: %han 7n!lish-%he >Uill 5romo%e %he -no9le#!e of forei!n lan!ua!es o%her %han 7n!lish$? b$ XVom 5romova cunoaM%erea limbilor s%rLine alte limbi #ecW% 9ill$+PL 5romo%e -no9le#!e-%he lan!ua!es-%he$G7N forei!n o%her lan!ua!es %han en!leAa 7n!lish-%he
Ui%h %he #efini%e #e%erminers %he al%erna%ive sho9s com5oun# forms3 cel >%he? H alt s cellalt st )acest* >%his? H alt s stlalt% la >%ha%? H alt s llalt% lalalt% llalt (e;ce5% cellalt all %hese forms are sub-s%an#ar#/$ In#efini%e 5ro-DPs (%05e (ii/ in * 1/ ma0 be 5refi;e# b0 alt3 altcineva% altceva
+1.
>somebo#0/some%hin! else?$ Ue s5ea- here of com5oun#in! because %his alt- is uninflec%e# ((+2<// an# #oes no% a55ear in i%s e;5ec%e# 5osi%ion %ha% is af%er D ((+2B//3
(+2</ #irec%3 al%cineva alt-somebo#0 obli@ue3 al%(Xui/cuiva alt(G'L/-somebo#0$ G'L a$ al%cineva alt-somebo#0 b$ oricare/niciun al% om an0 /no o%her man c$ oricare/niciun al%ul an0 /no o%her$ADG:
(+2B/
Oo9ever !iven %he fac% %ha% alt ma0 occu50 %he D 5osi%ion 9e ma0 anal0Ae %hese forms as fuse# forms DHN 9here %he !ramma%ical N bearin! %he fea%ure H/- anima%e is realiAe# as -cineva or -ceva$ In#ee# %he forms altcineva an# altceva ma0 a55ear af%er in#efini%e 5ronouns (%ransla%able in 7n!lish as >else?/3
(+2C/ a$ nimic al%ceva no%hin! alt-some%hin! >no%hin! else? b$ orice al%ceva 9ha%ever alt-some%hin! >an0%hin! else? c$ ce al%ceva 9ha% alt-some%hin! >9ha% else? #$ nimeni al%cineva nobo#0 alt-somebo#0 >nobo#0 else?
Since 5ronouns never %a-e an over% noun 9e ma0 anal0Ae %hese cons%ruc%ions as con%ainin! %9o DPs$ Al%erna%ivel0 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% in %his case 5ronouns are sim5l0 Ds an# %heir N 5ar% is realiAe# in %he forms -ceva (for inanima%e N/ an# -cineva (for Hhuman N/ fuse# 9i%h %he al%erna%ive$ Anima%e in#efini%e 5ro-DPs ma0 also be follo9e# b0 alt% 9hich receives %hen %he au!men%e# inflec%ion3
(+4=/ nimeni al%ul nobo#0 o%her$ADG:
Uhen i% is no% use# as a D bu% ra%her a#6ec%ivall0 meanin! >#ifferen%? alt ma0 be mo#ifie# b0 (in%ensifier an#/ a55ro;ima%ion 5hrases such as cu totul >9holl0? an# aproape >almos%?3
(+4+/ a$ Aceas%a es%e o /1 tot1l alt: ches%iune %his is a 9holl0 o%her ma%%er >This is a 9holl0# #ifferen% ma%%er$? b$ Ce s-a schimba% e a50oa5e alt1ld 9ha% R7FL-has chan!e# is almos% o%her$ADG: >Oo9 much he has chan!e# he is almos% a #ifferen% 5ersond?
As in o%her lan!ua!es %he al%erna%ive is use# %o form %he reci5rocal 5ronoun in a cons%ruc%ion +1<
9here i% is associa%e# 9i%h %he in#efini%e unul >one?3

(+41/ S%ri!L 1n.. la alA.. shou%-2PL ones$ADG: %o o%hers$ADG: >The0 are shou%in! %o one ano%her?
Ue ma0 no%ice here %ha% %his cons%ruc%ion is base# on %he so-calle# >in%ernal rea#in!? of %he al%erna%ive 9hich 9ill be 5resen%e# belo9 in %he 5ara!ra5h >Com5lemen%s of e@uali%0 an# #ifference? (see #iscussion above (+,1//$ (.2. T8e .3ent.t9 3ete06.ne0 The nominal func%ional elemen% e;5ressin! i#en%i%0 is acelai >%he same?$ For some s5ea-ers %his i%em canno% be 5rece#e# b0 #e%erminers so %ha% i% is a D 9hile for o%hers i% ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle un (see (+42/ %a-en from %he In%erne%/ an# (more mar!inall0/ b0 shor% #emons%ra%ives P %hus i% a55ears %o be of %05e III in * 1$
(+42/ u Can#i#aRii nu 5o% susRine o a/eeaC. #isci5linL la 5robe #iferi%e can#i#a%es-%he no% can sus%ain a same #isci5line a% %es%s #ifferen% >Can#i#a%es canno% choose %he same #isci5line for #ifferen% %es%s$?
Dnli-e %he i#en%i%0 a#6ec%ives of 7n!lish an# French acelai never %a-es a #efini%e ar%icle bu% func%ions i%self as a D3
(+44/ Am a6uns En a/elaC. loc have$+ arrive# in same 5lace >I/Ue arrive# in %he same 5lace?
The associa%ion of acelai 9i%h a D-fea%ure is e;5ec%e# !iven i%s meanin!3 i% e;5resses i#en%i%0 9i%h a 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# #iscourse referen%$ Li-e alt i% ma0 also a55ear as a 5re#ica%e3
(+4,/ FeRele #e la bar sun% mereu a/eleaC.$ faces-%he from 5ub are al9a0s same >The faces from %he 5ub are al9a0s %he same?
Gf%en in %he 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion %he 5hrase unul i acelai >one an# %he same? is use# %o 5re#ica%e i#en%i%0 abou% a !rou5 (a con6unc%ion of DPs or even a 5lural DP/$
(+4./ a$ Au%orul aces%ei cLrRi Mi e#i%orul sun% 1n1l C. a/elaC. au%hor-%he %his$G7N booan# e#i%or-%he are one$ADG: an# same >The au%hor of %his booan# %he 5ublishin! e#i%or are one an# %he same? b$ Filmele #e care vorbim sun% 1n1l C. a/eleaC. movies-%he abou% 9hich s5ea-$+PL are one$ADG: an# same >The movies 9e are %al-in! abou% are one an# %he same?
This com5le; e;5ression ma0 a55ear more rarel0 in ar!umen%al 5osi%ions 9i%h an over% noun func%ionin! as a #e%erminer3
(+4</ Una C. a/eeaC. 5ersoanL a re!iAa% Mi a finanRa% aces% film one$ADG: an# same 5erson has #irec%e# an# has finance# %his movie >The same 5erson #irec%e# an# finance# %his movie$?
+1B
Acelai has a 5eculiar mor5holo!03 i% is a com5oun# of acela %he lon! form of %he #is%al #emons%ra%ive an# an invariable 5ar%icle -i$ The inflec%ion a55ears on %he #emons%ra%ive elemen% before -i (aceeai FSG aceleai FPL aceluiai :SG$G'LI8D7 e%c$/ (.3. Co65le6ents of eI1al.t9 an3 3.ffe0en/e Al%erna%ives an# %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer in%ro#uce an a##i%ional ar!umen% %he ar!umen% of %he com5onen% of %heir meanin! >#ifferen% from ;? or >i#en%ical %o ;?$ In Romanian as in man0 o%her lan!ua!es inclu#in! 7n!lish %his ar!umen% if i% is realiAe# %a-es %he form of a com5ara%ive 5hrase in%ro#uce# for al%erna%ives b0 dect >%han? %he mar-er of ine@uali%0 an# for %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer b0 ca or ca i >as? %he mar-er of e@uali%0$ This is ano%her fac% %ha% #is%in!uishes al%erna%ives an# %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer from %heir a#6ec%ival (near/ s0non0ms diferit >#ifferen%? an# identic >i#en%ical? besi#es %heir 5ro5er%ies charac%eris%ic for #e%erminers$
(+4B/ a$ ii alt/.ne2a 3e/Kt el ar 5u%ea face aceas%L %reabL$ an# alt-somebo#0 %han him 9oul# can #o %his 6ob >Somebo#0 o%her %han him coul# also #o %his 6ob$? b$ 7 a/elaC. f.l6 /a cel 5e care l-am vLAu% is same movie as %he DG: 9hich CL$ACC-have$+PL seen >I%?s %he same movie as %he one 9e sa9$?
Thus 9e ma0 no%ice %ha% lan!ua!e ma0 use %he same means %o e;5ress e@uali%0 an# #ifference of #e!ree an# i#en%i%0 an# #ifference be%9een en%i%ies$ In bo%h cases %he ar!umen% P %he en%i%0 or %he #e!ree P ma0 be e;5resse# b0 rela%iviAa%ion (an o5era%or-movemen% or 9hmovemen% cons%ruc%ion/ an# %his rela%iviAe# clause ma0 con%ain eli#e# ma%erial base# on a 5arallelism 9i%h %he ma%ri; clause$ Some%imes #eli%ion is obli!a%or0 (here in %he c an# # e;am5les/3
(+4C/ a$ Am vLAu% acelaMi film ca cel 5e care l-am vLAu% sWmbL%L have$+PL seen same movie as (%he DG: 9hich CL$ACC-have$+PL seen/ Sa%ur#a0 >Ue sa9 %he same movie as on Sa%ur#a0? b$ Ai a#us al%e 5ahare #ecW% cele 5e care Ri-am s5us eu sL have$1SG brou!h% o%her !lasses %han (%he DG: 9hich/ 0ou$CL$DAT-have$+ %ol# I (SD'N le a#uci CL$ACC brin!/ >qou brou!h% o%her !lasses %han I %ol# 0ou? c$ 7 la fel #e scum5 ca G5i es%e %i #e scum5 En cen%ru is as-much of e;5ensive as ( is of e;5ensive/ in cen%er >I%?s as e;5ensive as in %he cen%er? #$ Paharele as%ea sun% mai mari #eYcW%Z i Emi 5lac mie 5ahare %i #e !lasses-%he %hese are more bi! of-Yho9-muchZ i me$CL$DAT li-e me$DAT (!lasses %i of mari bi!/ >These !lasses are bi!!er %han I li-e?
A s5ecial 5ro5er%0 of ca is %ha% i% forces elli5sis of %he verb (com5are (+4C/c %o (+4C/a/$ Ui%h an over% verb onl0 ct >ho9-much? (9hich 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ion de !ives %he form dect >%han?/ an# cum >as ho9? can be use#$
The realiAa%ion of %his ar!umen% is bloc-e# 9i%h #efini%e al%erna%ives (cellalt an# %he subs%an#ar# forms stlalt% llalt e%c$/3 %his is because in %his case %he ar!umen% is alrea#0 +1C
realiAe# via %he ana5horic com5onen% of %he #efini%e al%erna%ive3 >#ifferen% from i%/%hem?3
(+,=/ XceilalRi #ecW% cei 5e care Ei cunoscuseMi %he-o%hers %han %he$:PL DG: 9hich CL$ACC -no9$PLPF$1SG
Follo9in! a common 5a%%ern of s0mme%rical 5re#ica%es acelai a#mi%s %he follo9in! %9o cons%ruc%ions in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion3 i% ma0 be 5re#ica%e# abou% a !rou5 or i% ma0 be 5re#ica%e# abou% one of %he ar!umen%s an# %a-e a secon# ar!umen% in%ro#uce# b0 cu >9i%h?3
(+,+/ a$ PoAele as%ea Mi cele 5e care mi le-ai arL%a% rWn#ul 5ho%os-%he %hese an# %he DG: 9hich me$CL$DAT CL$ACC-have$1SG sho9n %urn-%he %recu% sun% a/eleaC. 5as% are same >These 5ic%ures an# %he one 0ou sho9e# me las% %ime are %he same$? b$ PoAele aces%ea sun% a/eleaC. cu cele 5e care mi le-ai 5ho%os-%he %hese are same 9i%h %he DG: 9hich me$CL$DAT %hem$CL$ACC-have$1SG arL%a% rWn#ul %recu%$ sho9n %urn-%he 5as% >These 5ho%os are %he same as %hose 9hich 0ou sho9e# me las% %ime$?
Uhen %he sen%ence e;5resses a 5lurali%0 of even%s/si%ua%ions i#en%i%0 an# al%erna%ive #e%erminers ma0 be use# 9i%hou% 5resu55osin! an a##i%ional ar!umen%3 %he0 ma0 e;5ress a rela%ion no% be%9een %he referen% of %he DP an# ano%her referen% bu% be%9een %he values %he DP has for each even%3 for e;am5le le%?s sa0 %ha% %he even%s are e + e1 ^ en an# %he DP has a variable rea#in! associa%in! a #ifferen% 5ar%ici5an% %o each even%3 ; + ;1 ^ ;n$ Then %he i#en%i%0 or #ifference rela%ions ma0 hol# be%9een %hese 5ar%ici5an%s3 ; +[;1[^[;n or for an0 ;i ;6 ;i w ;6$ This is %he so-calle# >in%ernal rea#in!? of 9or#s for i#en%i%0 an# #ifference$ For %he #ifference rela%ion %his rea#in! is also foun# 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive diferit >#ifferen%?$
(+,1/ a$ Lucia Mi Sonia au a/elaC. 5rofesor Dis%ribu%ive Lucia an# Sonia have same %eacher >Lucia an# Sonia have %he same %eacher? b$ Profesorul 5re#L En fiecare an alt curs$ %eacher-%he %eaches in ever0 0ear o%her lec%ure >The %eacher !ives #ifferen% lec%ures ever0 0ear? c$ Dumi%ru 5oar%L En%o%#eauna a/eeaC. cLmaML$ A#verbial @uan%ifica%ion Dumi%ru 9ears al9a0s same shir% >Dumi%ru al9a0s 9ears %he same shir%? #$ A/elaC. om a 5ic%a% %ablourile Mi a 5roiec%a% mobilele Con6unc%ion of even%s same 5erson has 5ain%e# canvas-%he an# has #esi!ne# furni%ure-%he >The same 5erson 5ain%e# %he canvas an# #esi!ne# %he furni%ure$?
Li-e com5ara%ive com5lemen%s of #e!ree 9or#s %he com5ara%ive com5lemen%s of i#en%i%0 an# #ifference al9a0s follo9 %he noun (see (+4B/-(+4C//$
A !eneral rule can be formula%e# for all %hese cases for Romanian an# o%her rela%e# hea#-ini%ial lan!ua!es 3 9hen a func%ional i%em 5lace# as such %o %he lef% of %he le;ical hea# or a lef%-han# a#6unc% %a-es an a##i%ional 5o%en%iall0 heav0 com5lemen% %his com5lemen% mus% un#er!o ri!h% e;%ra5osi%ion or #irec%l0 a%%ach %o %he ri!h% of %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ion so %ha% i% a55ears on %he ri!h% of %he le;ical 5ro6ec%ion$
). Def.n.te 3ete06.ne0s
+2=
).1. T8e 3ef.n.te a0t./le The #efini%e ar%icle has %he 5eculiari%0 of a55earin! ei%her as an in#e5en#en% 9or# or as a suffi;$ The suffi;al form a55ears 9hen %he D 5osi%ion is follo9e# ei%her b0 a le;ical noun or b0 an a#6ec%ival 5hrase an# is a%%ache# as an inflec%ion %o %he noun or %o %he a#6ec%ive res5ec%ivel0$ The noun mus% be s%ric%l0 DP-ini%ial 9hile %he a#6ec%ive ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 #e!ree e;5ressions an# o%her mo#ifiers e;ce5% for %he #e!ree hea# mai3
(+,2/ a$ co5il1l frumos chil#-%he beau%iful b$ frumos1l co5il beau%iful-%he chil# c$ a%W% #e frumoasa fa%L such of beau%iful-%he !irl
:or5holo!icall0 %he ar%icle sho9s a hi!h #e!ree of fusion 9i%h i%s hos% loo-in! more li-e an inflec%ion %han li-e a cli%ic$ This is reflec%e# in %he follo9in! 5henomena (9hich ma0 be seen in %he %able belo9/3 (a/ %he form of %he ar%icle some%imes #e5en#s on %he inflec%ional %05e of %he hos%3 %he masculine sin!ular N$A$ is -l for consonan%al s%ems bu% -le for -e s%ems (see (+,4/a-c/ an# i% ma0 be ei%her -a or -l for - s%ems #e5en#in! on %he 9or# (see (+,4/#/I %he masculine sin!ular obli@ue is -lui for all masculines e;ce5% - s%ems 9hich have %he form -ei (re5lacin! %he s%em vo9el -/ (c5$ (+,4/a-c %o (+,4/#/I (b/ %he s%em is mo#ifie# 9hen %he ar%icle is a##e#3 - falls before -a (see (+,4/#-e/ an -u- is a##e# in %he consonan%al s%ems (see (+,4/a/I in %he s5o-en lan!ua!e %he masculine sin!ular N$A$ - l 5rece#e# b0 %his -u- as 9ell as b0 an uns%resse# -u- 9hich is 5ar% of %he noun?s s%em is normall0 no% 5ronounce# so %ha% - u ra%her %han -l func%ions as %he #efini%eness mar-er (see (+,4/a/I ho9ever - l is 5reserve# af%er -I %he masculine - s%ems chan!e %his vo9el in%o -e- before %he obli@ue sin!ular ar%icle -i (see (+,4/#/$ (+,4/
DIR7CT (NG:$ACC/ SG$ DIR7CT PL$ G'LI8D7 SG$ G'LI8D7 PL$
(a/ masc$ in cons$ an# in accen%e# vo9els (b/ -u-masc$ (c/ -e-masc$ (#/ --masc$ (e/ --fem$ (f/ -e-fem
moM-u-(l/ me%ro-u-(l/ mais%ru-(l/ cWine-le 5a5(L/-a bu% %a%L-l fa%(L/-a car%e-a
moMi-. maiM%ri-. cWini-. 5a5i-. %aRi-. fe%e-le cLrRi-le
moM-u-l1. me%ro-u-l1. mais%ru-l1. cWine-l1. 5a5(L/-e-. %a%-e-. / %a%L-l1. fe%e-. cLrRi-.
moMi-lo0 maiM%ri-lo0 cWini-lo0 5a5i-lo0 %aRi-lo0 fe%e-lo0 cLrRi-lo0
To %his 9e ma0 a## fac%s %ha% are no% reflec%e# in 9ri%in!3 9or#-final - i is 5ronounce# as a semivo9el bu% becomes full0 vocalic before -l- 9hile %he combina%ion -i-i- no%es in fac% a sin!le vo9el -i-$ Ue conclu#e %ha% 9e ma0 s5ea- of a s5ecial inflec%ion %he >#efini%e inflec%ion?$ An in#e5en#en% form cel 9hich is DP-ini%ial is inser%e# 9hen %he D 5osi%ion is follo9e# b0 car#inals em5%0 nouns an# %he com5ara%ive #e!ree hea# mai3
(+,,/ a$ cei #oi co5ii %he %9o chil#ren b$ cei mai frumoMi co5ii
+2+
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories %he more beau%iful chil#ren >%he mos% beau%iful chil#ren? c$ cei YNeZ frumoMi %he$:PL beau%iful$:PL >%he beau%iful ones? #$ s%u#iile #e Cho5in Mi cele YNeZ #e LisA% s%u#ies-%he of Cho5in an# %he$FPL of LisA% >%he s%u#ies of Cho5in an# of LisA%? e$ cei YNeZ care vor %he$:PL 9hich 9an%$2PL
T9o %05es of anal0sis have been 5ro5ose# for %he suffi;a%ion of %he #efini%e ar%icle3 a mor5holo!ical lo9erin! rule similar %o %he 7n!lish I-%o-V lo9erin! an# raisin! of %he noun or %he AP %o D or S5ecDP res5ec%ivel0$ Ue 9ill 5resen% bo%h anal0ses 9i%hou% #eci#in! be%9een %hem here$ The lo9erin! rule 9hich can accoun% for %he #is%ribu%ion of %he #efini%e fea%ure ma0 be formula%e# as follo9s3 (+,./ -L 9hich is !enera%e# un#er D lo9ers %o %he hea# of i%s com5lemen% if %his hea# con%ains or is a#6acen% %o an over% (full/-mor5hemeI o%her9ise %he s%ron! form cel is inser%e# in D$ The suffi;a%ion of %he #efini%e ar%icle is bloc-e# 9i%h car#inals because %he0 #on?% have a (full/-mor5heme as 9e have seen (see ,$1/$ De!ree 9or#s #on?% bloc- %he suffi;a%ion because %he0 form a sin!le cons%i%uen% 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive$ 5ai is s5ecial because in i%s case D %a-es as a com5lemen% %he De!P an# no% %he NP formin! %he su5erla%ive$ Insi#e %he De!Pcom5lemen% De! is %he hea# of %he com5lemen% of D an# since i% #oes no% have %he re@uire# -mor5heme i% bloc-s %he lo9erin! of YH#efZ$ As for 5renominal a#6ec%ives if %he0 are anal0Ae# as s5ecifiers of minor func%ional 5ro6ec%ions (see cha5%er < * 2$+/ %heir hea# F 9ill offer an a55ro5ria%e 5lace for lo9erin! !iven %ha% a#6ec%ives 9hich imme#ia%el0 5rece#e %his hea# en# in an over% full -mor5heme$ (+,</ a$ D YNP YN(P/ co5ilZ YAP frumosZZ s co5il-1l frumos
b$ D YFP YAP/De!P a%W% #e frumoasLZ YF_ F YN/NP fa%LZZZ s a%W% #e frumoas-a fa%L c$ D YNumP Y#oiZ YNP co5iiZZ s X#oi-. co5ii (#efec%ive -mor5heme/ s /e. #oi co5ii #$ D YDe!PYDe!maiZYAP frumoMiZZZsXmai-. frumoMi (no -mor5heme/ s /e. mai frumoMi e$ D YNP Y NP eZ YAP mariZZZ s X-. mari (no mor5heme a% all/ s /e. mari The fac% %ha% in su5erla%ives %he #e%erminer forms a cons%i%uen% 9i%h %he #e!ree 5hrase is sho9n b0 %he !eneral #is%ribu%ion of su5erla%ives3 %he ar%icle a55ears before %he #e!ree hea# mai in all 5osi%ions 5re#ica%ive as 9ell as 5os%nominal (for %he 5os%nominal 5osi%ion Romanian behaves li-e French an# unli-e I%alian or 7n!lish/I %he ar%icle canno% be se5ara%e# from %he #e!ree hea# mai b0 an0 9or# (9hile in French a car#inal ma0 in%ervene/3
(+,B/ a$ casele cele mai Enal%e houses-%he %he more hi!h >%he hi!hes% houses?
+21
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories b$ cei (X#oi/ mai EnalRi (#oi/ munRi %he %9o more hi!h %9o moun%ains >The %9o hi!hes% moun%ains?
For 5renominal su5erla%ives li-e in (+,B/b since cel forms a cons%i%uen% 9i%h %he su5erla%ive i% canno% be inser%e# un#er D so 9e assume %ha% %he en%ire su5erla%ive 5hrase is inser%e# in S5ecDP 9hich suffices %o mar- %he DP as #efini%e3
(+,C/ [DP[DPcei mai frumoMi] [D_[DH#ef][NPco5ii]]] %he more beau%iful chil#ren
The inser%ion in S5ecDP is #emons%ra%e# b0 e;am5les as (+,B/b (re5ea%e# belo9/3 no @uali%a%ive a#6ec%ive can 5rece#e a car#inal (cf$ (+.=// e;ce5% for %he su5erla%ive3
(+,B/ (+.=/ b$ cei (X#oi/ mai EnalRi (#oi/ munRi %he$:P %9o more hi!h %9o moun%ains(:/ >The %9o hi!hes% moun%ains? XEnalRii #oi munRi hi!h-%he$:PL %9o moun%ains(:/
Car#inals ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 or#inal a#6ec%ives such as prim >firs%? ultim >las%? 9hich 9e inclu#e# amon! func%ional elemen%s an# e;ce5%ionall0 b0 in%ensional a#6ec%ives 9hich %a-e sco5e above %hem3 (i/ Fos%ele %rei le!i sun% acum una former-%he %hree la9s are no9 one >Uha% use# %o be %hree la9s no9 are 6us% one?
The suffi;a%ion rule canno% ma-e reference %o %he follo&in morp!o-p!onolo ical &ord ins%ea# of %he hea# of D?s com5lemen% because a#6ec%ives suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 o%her 9or#s (#e!ree mo#ifiers/ an# even a55ear in a com5le; cons%ruc%ion De!ree 9or# H de H A as sho9n in (+,</b$ (See cha5%er < for %his cons%ruc%ion$/ The o%her 9a0 %o anal0Ae %he #is%ribu%ion of %he #efini%eness mar-er is %o #erive i% from movemen% of ei%her N or AP %o D or S5ecDP res5ec%ivel0$ :os% anal0ses 9hich embrace# %his h05o%hesis e;5laine# %he #ifference be%9een %he 5osi%ion of %he #efini%e noun (al9a0s %he firs%/ an# %ha% of %he #efini%e a#6ec%ive (5ossibl0 5rece#e# b0 #e!ree 9or#s/ b0 assumin! %ha% N moves as a hea# 9hile AP moves as a 5hrase$ In or#er %o e;5lain 9h0 if an a#6ec%ive is 5renominal i% is i% ra%her %han %he noun 9hich moves %his anal0sis mus% assume %ha% 5renominal a#6ec%ives are s%ruc%urall0 closer %o D %han %he N unli-e 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives$ This lea#s %o %he same 5ro5osal as in %he lo9erin! anal0sis above namel0 %ha% 5renominal a#6ec%ives are s5ecifiers of func%ional 5ro6ec%ions hi!her %han %he NP$ No%e %ha% %he rela%ive or#er of nouns an# a#6ec%ives is no% chan!e# b0 %he ar%icle?s suffi;a%ion$ The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %ha% 5re- an# 5os%-nominal a#6ec%ives -ee5 %heir rea#in!s in 5hrases 9i%h %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle3
(+.+/ a$ o casL mare a house bi! b$ casa mare house-%he bi! c$ o mare casL a bi! house #$ marea casL bi!-%he house Neu%ral res%ric%ive rea#in! of %he A ?? Affec%ive non-res%ric%ive rea#in! of %he A ??
+22
An ar!umen% in favor of an anal0sis b0 movemen% is %he behavior of 5os%-nominal #emons%ra%ives 9hich 9e 9ill 5resen% in %he follo9in! sub-sec%ion (see (+.2/ belo9/$ ).2. De6onst0at.2es Demons%ra%ives #is%in!uish %9o la0ers of 5ro;imi%03 %he 5ro;imal acest 5ronominal an# 5os%nominal acesta collo@uial sta an# %he #is%al acel% 5ronominal an# 5os%nominal acela collo@uial la$ The0 have %he 5eculiari%0 of a55earin! bo%h 5renominall0 in %he D 5osi%ion an# imme#ia%el0 follo9in! %he #efini%e noun in %his la%%er case havin! %he >au!men%e#? form$ Collo@uial s5eech mainl0 uses %he au!men%e# forms in %he shor% varian%s sta% la$ Their corres5on#in! 5renominal varian%s st an# l are re!ional or archaic$
(+.1/ a$ aces% bLrba% %his man b$ bLrba%ul aces%a /Ls%a man %his$ADG:/%his c$ Aces%a /Ls%a nu-mi 5lace %his$ADG: /%his no%-me$CL$DAT li-es >I #on?% li-e %his one?
Pos%nominal #emons%ra%ives mus% imme#ia%el0 follo9 %he #efini%e noun in%ervenin! be%9een %he noun an# com5lemen%s an# mo#ifiers 9hich are ver0 lo9 in %he s%ruc%ure such as classif0in! or rela%ional a#6ec%ives (see cha5%er < *1/ an# i#iom chun-s3
(+.2/ a$ s%u#iile aces%ea filoAofice (Xaces%ea/ s%u#ies-%he %hese$ADG: 5hiloso5hical %hese$ADG: >%hese 5hiloso5h0 s%u#ies? b$ faRa aceas%a #e masL (Xaceas%a/ face-%he %his$ADG: of %able %his$ADG: >%his %able-clo%h? c$ #is%ribuirea aceas%a a 5remiilor (Xaceas%a/ #e cL%re #irec%or #is%ribu%ion(F/-%he %his$ADG: al0FSG 5rices-%he$G7N %his$ADG: b0 hea#mas%er >%his #is%ribu%ion of %he 5rices b0 %he hea#mas%er?
Rela%ional or classif0in! a#6ec%ives an# i#iom chun-s are al9a0s imme#ia%el0 a%%ache# %o %he noun in Romanian as 9ell as cross-lin!uis%icall0$ Com5lemen%s as in (+.2/c are !enerall0 anal0Ae# as bein! in %he le;ical 5ro6ec%ion of %he noun$ So (+.2/ clearl0 sho9s #is5lacemen% effec%s resul%in! from movemen% of N %o D$ Since 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ives have au!men%e# forms i% has been su!!es%e# %ha% %he0 are in fac% a#6unc% DPs$ This is sus%aine# b0 %he fac% %ha% onl0 %he0 ma0 a55ear 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 9hich as 9e have seen are 5ro-DPs3
(+.4/ a$ XaceM%i voi %hese 0ou(PL/ b$ voi LM%ia 0ou %hese$ADG:
'u% %his anal0sis canno% e;5lain 9h0 %he #emons%ra%ive has %o follo9 imme#ia%el0 %he #efini%e noun se5ara%in! i% from com5lemen%s an# lo9-level mo#ifiers$ If no movemen% is involve# %he #emons%ra%ive 9oul# have %o be a#6oine# a% %he N level in e;am5les (+.2/I fur%hermore +24
a#6unc%s #on?% sho9 fi;e# 5osi%ions$ Ano%her 9a0 of e;5lainin! %he 5os%nominal 5osi%ion 9i%hou% movemen% is %o sa0 %ha% 5os%-nominal #emons%ra%ives are D-cli%ics lo9erin! %o!e%her 9i%h D$ 'u% i% is #ifficul% %o %rea% #i- an# %ri-s0llabic 9or#s as cli%ics$ I% is %rue %ha% in normal s5eech %he0 are no% s%resse# an# sho9 %he shor%er forms sta% la$ 'u% %he0 ma0 be con%ras%ivel0 s%resse#3
(+.,/ a$ Am s5us masa ASTA$ have$+ sai# %able-%he %his >I sai# TOIS %able? b$ Am 5us faRa ASTA #e masL have$+ 5u% face-%he %his of %able >I 5u% TOIS %able-clo%h?
Gn %he o%her han# %he anal0sis b0 movemen% mus% e;5lain 9h0 %he #emons%ra%ive sho9s au!men%e# forms in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion (see (+.1/-(+.2// 9h0 i% #oes no% bloc- raisin! %o D as car#inals #o ((+..// an# 9h0 #emons%ra%ives canno% a55ear af%er an a#6ec%ive suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle (see (+.<//3
(+../ a$ co5ilul aces%a chil#-%he %his$ADG: b$ Xco5iii #oi chil#ren-%he %9o XfrumoMii aceM%ia co5ii beau%iful-%he %hese$ADG: chil#ren
(+.</
I% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% %he 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive #oes no% bloc- N-movemen% because i% is !enera%e# in a s5ecifier 5osi%ion an# N-movemen% is hea#-movemen%$ Gn %he o%her han# a#6ec%ives bein! s5ecifiers raise %o D b0 5hrasal movemen% an# %his movemen% is bloc-e# b0 %he #emons%ra%ive s5ecifier in (+.</$ 'u% 9e have seen %ha% in fac% car#inals are s5ecifiers %oo since %he0 ma0 be 5hrasal (see * ,/$ So %his e;5lana%ion #oes no% accoun% for (+../b$ If a #emons%ra%ive is 5resen% %he raisin! of %he #efini%e noun 5as% %he car#inals becomes in fac% 5ossible3
(+.B/ a$ co5iii aceM%ia #oi chil#ren-%he %hese$ADG: %9o >%hese %9o chil#ren? b$ feRele alea #ouL #e masL faces-%he %hose$ADG: %9o of %able >%hose %9o %able-clo%hes?
This in#ica%es %ha% i% is no% %he car#inal per se 9hich bloc-s movemen% bu% ra%her %he #efini%e D selec%in! car#inals is cel an# no% -L$ In %his h05o%hesis cel an# -L are #ifferen% le;ical uni%s an# no% merel0 #ifferen% 5honolo!ical realiAa%ions of %he same i%em$
I% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% cel is a #efini%e D 9i%h s5ecific selec%ional 5ro5er%ies3 i% 9oul# selec% for a 5hrase mar-e# H8uan%ifica%ional$ No%e ho9ever %ha% no% all @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions %a-e cel (%he a#6ec%ival @uan%i%a%ives mult% muli >much man0? puin% puini >fe9? destul% destui >enou!h? #o no% %a-e cel/$ So 9e ma0 conclu#e %ha% cel onl0 selec%s for 8uan%1P De!P 9i%h De![mai an# N(um/P 9i%h an em5%0 N$
As for %he au!men%e# form of 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ives one 5ossibili%0 is %o sa0 %ha% %hese forms re5resen% s%ron! forms use# in %he s5ecifier 5osi%ionI -a coul# re5resen% a 5ro-N co+2,
in#e;e# 9i%h %he hea# noun or a s5ecial #ei;is mar-er$ I% has been in#ee# no%ice# %ha% a% leas% in li%erar0 Romanian 5renominal #emons%ra%ives %en# %o be use# 9i%h curren% #iscourse %o5ics 9hile 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ives are 5referre# for rhema%ic an# cons%ras%ive uses$ Presumabl0 a s%ron!er #ei;is is nee#e# in %his case an# %his is mar-e# b0 -a$ No%e %ha% al%hou!h %he ori!in of %his mar- is no% cer%ain his%orical lin!uis%s %en# %o believe %ha% i% re5resen%s a former #eic%ic a#verb %he La%in !ac (also foun# 9i%h a 5re5ose# #eic%ic 5ar%icle in I%alian qua >here? for ins%ance/$ In mo#ern-#a0 s5o-en Romanian %his in%er5re%a%ive #ifference be%9een 5renominal an# 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ives is almos% com5le%el0 los% bein! su5erse#e# b0 a #ifference in re!is%er3 5renominal forms are li%erar0 an# formal in %he collo@uial re!is%er %he 5os%nominal forms are !eneraliAe#$ A more si!nifican% fac% abou% 5os%-nominal #emons%ra%ives is %ha% %he0 sho9 %ha% %he D-level mus% be over%l0 realiAe# in Romanian$ For seman%ics a 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive 9oul# have been sufficien% %o si!nal #efini%eness$ Thus %he #efini%e ar%icle on %he noun res5on#s %o a formal s0n%ac%ic re@uiremen% namel0 %o over%l0 mar- %he fea%ures of D (9hich of course in 5hrases 9i%h #emons%ra%ive is #efini%e/$ In%ui%ivel0 s5ea-in! %he #efini%e or in#efini%e charac%er of %he DP mus% be e;5resse# no la%er %han on %he firs% (imme#ia%e/ cons%i%uen% of %he DP (%he hea# or %he s5ecifier of %he ma;imal nominal 5ro6ec%ion/$ The same 5henomenon a55ears 9i%h 5ro5er names es5eciall0 an%hro5on0ms$ Dse# alone in %heir s%an#ar# referen%ial rea#in! %he0 #on?% nee# an0 #e%erminer$ Oo9ever if %he0 are 5rece#e# b0 an a#6ec%ive even if %his a#6ec%ive is non-res%ric%ive (a normal si%ua%ion for 5renominal a#6ec%ives/ an# %he noun -ee5s i%s referen%ial rea#in! %he #efini%e ar%icle mus% be 5resen% (i% is suffi;e# on %he a#6ec%ive/ (see cha5%er +1/$
(+.C/ a$ 7nescu %ocmai #L#ea un concer% 7nescu 6us% !ive$I:PF a concer% >7nescu 9as 6us% !ivin! a concer%? b$ Ves%i%X(ul/ 7nescu %ocmai #L#ea un concer% famous-%he 7nescu 6us% !ive$I:PF a concer% >The famous 7nescu 9as 6us% !ivin! a concer%?
Ano%her 5eculiar 5ro5er%0 of #emons%ra%ives is %ha% in %he absence of a realiAe# N %he0 have au!men%e# forms even 9hen %he0 are follo9e# b0 car#inals ((+<=/b/$ G%her NF7s have %he au!men%e# form onl0 if %he0 are imme#ia%el0 follo9e# b0 [Ne] (see (+<=/c-e/$ Since %he over% N al9a0s follo9s %he car#inal ((+<=/a/ 9e 9oul# have e;5ec%e# %ha% %he au!men%e# inflec%ion shoul# no% a55ear on #emons%ra%ives 9hen %he0 are follo9e# b0 car#inals$
(+<=/ a$ aceM%i 5a%ru oameni all four 5eo5le b$ aceM%iKK(a/ 5a%ru %hese(ADG:/ four c$ alRi 5a%ru oameni o%her four 5eo5le #$ alRi(Xi/ 5a%ru o%her(ADG:/ four
The feminine sin!ular forms of 5ronominal #emons%ra%ives ma0 be use# as neu%er forms referrin! %o fac%s si%ua%ions 5ro5osi%ions or u%%erances (see (+<+/a/ or %o unca%e!oriAe# 5erce5%ual ob6ec%s (see (+<+/b/$ For ana5horical reference %o a 5ro5osi%ional ob6ec% %he 5ro;imal #emons%ra%ive is more fre@uen% because %he #iscourse an%ece#en% in %his sor% of ana5horic rela%ion is usuall0 ver0 close (in %he imme#ia%el0 5rece#in! sen%ence/$ The feminine forms in %his case #o no% reflec% a feminine !en#er fea%ure as sho9n b0 %he fac% %he0 %ri!!er
+2.
masculine sin!ular a!reemen% (see (+<+/a/3

(+<+/ a$ As%a e im5osibil %his$FSG$ADG: is im5ossible$:SG >This is im5ossible? b$ Ce e aiaK 9ha% is %ha%$FSG$ADG: >Uha%?s %ha%K?
The masculine sin!ular form of %he a#6ec%ive mos% li-el0 re5resen%s %he #efaul% !en#er form in %he sin!ular (a mor5holo!ical #efaul% use# 9hen %he a#6ec%ive #oes no% receive !en#er via a!reemen%/ as sho9n b0 %he fac% %ha% i% also a55ears 9hen %he sub6ec% is a clausal 5ro6ec%ion i$e$ an e;5ression 9i%hou% a !en#er fea%ure3
(+<1/ (A %e a#resa as%fel unui su5erior/ e nerecoman#abil$ %o R7FL a##ress$INF so a$DAT su5erior is una#visable >To %alli-e %ha% %o a su5erior is una#visable$?
Neu%er #emons%ra%ives are also #is%in!uishe# from %heir feminine homon0ms b0 %he fac% %ha% %he0 #o no% %a-e %he ob6ec% mar-er pe (see (+<2// an# are no% cli%ic-#ouble# 9hen fron%e# (see (+<4//$ The0 are %he onl0 #efini%e 5hrases 9hich are no% cli%ic-#ouble# 9hen fron%e#3
(+<2/ a$ Ia-o 5e- as%a [Ne] (9i%h [Ne] [ roc!ie >#ress?% banan >banana?% plrie >ha%? %a-e-CL$2FSG DG:-%his$FSG$ADG: e%c$ P a feminine noun/ >Ta-e %his oned? b$ Ia as%ad (9i%h no im5lie# nominal (no N-elli5sis// %a-e %his$FSG$ADG: >Ta-e %hisd? a$ GcaAia as%a o aM%e5%amd o55or%uni%0(F/-%he %his$FSG$ADG: CL$2FSG 9ai%$I:PF$+SG >Tha%?s %he o55or%uni%0 I 9as 9ai%in! ford? b$ As%a aM%e5%amd %his$FSG$ADG: 9ai%$I:PF$+SG >Tha%?s 9ha% I 9as 9ai%in! ford?
(+<4/
The absence of cli%ic-#oublin! 9i%h neu%er #emons%ra%ives ma0 be e;5laine# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he0 lac- !en#er if 9e assume %ha% accusa%ive 5ronominal cli%ics are al9a0s mar-e# for !en#er (%he0 have no #efaul% !en#er form/$ Ue conclu#e %ha% %he neu%er forms of %he #emons%ra%ives #on?% have an0 !en#er fea%ure$ The0 #o no% in%ro#uce a Y NeZ (%he0 never involve %he con%e;%ual recover0 of a nominal con%en%/ so %he0 are 5ro-DPs$ The feminine form is sim5l0 a mor5holo!ical 5eculiari%0 (an ins%ance of homon0m0/$ ).3. Def.n.te 580ases .n S5e/DP (i/ Ue have seen %ha% bo%h anal0ses of ar%icle suffi;a%ion P %he raisin! anal0sis an# %he lo9erin! anal0sis P nee# %o sa0 %ha% in some cases %he D-level mar-e# H#ef is realiAe# b0 a #efini%e 5hrase in i%s s5ecifier 5osi%ion3 su5erla%ives for %he PF-anal0sis an# su5erla%ives an# #efini%e a#6ec%ives for %he s0n%ac%ic anal0sis are cases of %his sor%$ (ii/ Ano%her ins%ance of a #efini%e 5hrase in S5ecDP is %ha% of 5renominal or#inals$ Gr#inals are forme# b0 a##in! %he ar%icle al (see 2$2$2 above/ %o %he car#inal suffi;e# b0 - lea (masculine/ or -a (feminine/$ Li-e %he o%her 5hrases in%ro#uce# b0 al (!eni%ive an# +2<
5ossessives see cha5%er ./% or#inals ma0 cons%i%u%e com5le%e #efini%e DPs b0 %hemselves bein! able %o a55ear in DP-con%e;%s ((+<,/a/$ Uhen a#nominal %he0 ma0 a55ear ei%her in %he firs% 5osi%ion of %he DP %hus mar-in! %he en%ire 5hrase as #efini%e ((+<,/b/ or af%er a #efini%e noun ((+<,/c/ or af%er a #e%erminer ei%her 5re-nominall0 ((+<,/#/ or 5os%-nominall0 ((+<,/e/3
(+<,/ a$ Al #oilea %ocmai a a6uns al0:SG %9o-lea 6us% has arrive# >The secon# one has 6us% arrive#? b$ al #oilea an al0:SG %9o-lea 0ear >%he secon# 0ear? c$ anul al #oilea 0ear-%he al0:SG %9o-lea >%he secon# 0ear? #$ aces% al #oilea an %his al0:SG %9o-lea 0ear >%his secon# 0ear? e$ o clasL a #oua a class al0FSG %9o-a >a secon# !ra#e?
The %9o 5osi%ions 9i%h re!ar# %o %he noun are correla%e# 9i%h a #ifference in meanin!$ In 5os%nominal 5osi%ion or#inals ma0 conve0 %he meanin! of classif0in! a#6ec%ives3 %ha% is %he0 ma0 e;5ress mo#ifica%ion of %he N-func%ion formin! a com5le; 5re#ica%e 9i%h %he noun an# no% or#er as an in#e5en#en% 5ro5er%0 of %he referen% of %he DP P for ins%ance (+<./e onl0 means >a secon# !ra#e?$ See also %he #ifference be%9een %he meanin!s of %he or#inal in %he %9o occurrences belo93
(+<./ a$ A #oua sona%L care va fi cWn%a%L es%e sona%a a #oua #e Grie!$ al0FSG %9o-a sona%a 9hich 9ill be sun! is sona%a-%he al0FSG %9o-a b0 Grie!$ >The secon# sona%a 9hich 9ill be 5erforme# is Grie!?s secon# sona%a? b$ A #oua salL 5e s%Wn!a es%e clasa a #oua$ al0FSG %9o-a room on lef% is class-%he al0FSG %9o-a >The secon# room on %he lef% is %he secon# !ra#e/form$?
In (+<./b (li-e in (+<,/e/ %he 5os%nominal or#inal refers %o %he secon# !ra#e of %he 5rimar0 c0cle 9hich is 5ar% of %he meanin! of %he nominal 5re#ica%e a55lie# %o %ha% !rou5 9hile %he 5renominal one sho9s s5a%ial or#er as a 5ro5er%0 of a room$ Pos%nominal or#inals almos% al9a0s follo9 a noun suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle$ Therefore %he 5os%nominal 5osi%ion of or#inals has been e;5laine# as a resul% of N-%o-D li-e for #emons%ra%ives$ No%ice ho9ever %ha% for some s5ecial meanin!s a 5os%nominal or#inal ma0 also a55ear in an in#efini%e DP as in (+<,/e 9here no movemen% %o D can be assume#$ :oreover 9e have seen %ha% %here are some sub%le meanin! #ifferences be%9een %he %9o 5osi%ions 9hich su!!es% %ha% 5os%nominal or#inals ma0 a% leas% some%imes occu50 %he 5osi%ion of rela%ional a#6ec%ives (see cha5%er < ** 1-2 on rela%ional a#6ec%ives/ an NP-in%ernal 5osi%ion$ In (+<,/# 9e see %ha% 5renominal or#inals ma0 be !enera%e# belo9 D$ For %he ini%ial 5osi%ion 9e ma0 assume ei%her movemen% from %his 5osi%ion %o S5ecDP or #irec% !enera%ion in S5ecDP$ In ei%her case i% is %he H#ef fea%ure of al %ha% allo9s inser%ion in%o S5ecDP an# %he mar-in! of %he en%ire DP as #efini%e 9i%hou% an over% D$ The or#inal ma0 also a55ear in ano%her cons%ruc%ion in 9hich al is 5rece#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion de an# b0 %he s%ron! #efini%e ar%icle cel3 cel de-al doilea >%he secon#?$ In %his case
+2B
cel is %he #efini%e #e%erminer of %he en%ire DP as can be seen b0 %he fac% %ha% unli-e al i% canno% be 5rece#e# b0 o%her #e%erminers3
(+<</ a$ un/ aces% al #oilea an a / %his al0:SG %9o-lea 0ear a/%his secon# 0ear? b$ (Xun/Xaces%/ cel #e-al #oilea an a / %his %he de-al0:SG %9o-lea 0ear
This s%ruc%ure is also mar!inal in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion an# i% #oesn?% allo9 %he classifica%or0 a#6ec%ive rea#in! 9hich 9e have seen above for >sim5le? or#inals$ Since a#6ec%ives ma0 a55ear 5os%nominall0 5rece#e# b0 cel (see cha5%er < *2$2/ %hese mar!inal cases #on?% con%ra#ic% %he anal0sis of cel as %he re!ular #efini%e ar%icle3
(+<B/ K venirea cea #e-a #oua comin!-%he %he de-al0FSG %9o-a
The s%a%us of de is no% clear in %hese s%ruc%ures$ I% #oesn?% seem %o be a mere a#6ec%iviAer since i% #oesn?% a55ear in cases such as (+<,/e (+<./$ Oo9ever i% serves or ra%her use# %o serve as an a#6ec%iviAer in cases such as3 vr de-al doilea >secon# cousin? 9hich are i#ioma%ic in %he con%em5orar0 lan!ua!e$ This s%ruc%ure is use# %o su55l0 %he obli@ue case 9hen %he or#inal is 5renominal an# %he DP is sim5l0 #efini%e (no #emons%ra%ive or o%her #e%erminer is 5resen%/3 al #oes no% have forms for obli@ue case so i% canno% a55ear in %he firs% 5osi%ion of %he DP 9here case is mar-e#3
(+<C/ a$ Xalui #oilea al$G'L secon# b$ celui #e-al #oilea %he$:SG$G'L de-al0:SG %9o-lea >of/%o %he secon#?
A s5ecial 5ro5er%0 of or#inals is %ha% %he0 #on?% have 5lural forms$ This is no% a 5ro5er%0 of al since al 9i%h %he !eni%ives has 5lural3
(+B=/ a$ Xai #oiia al$:PL %9o$:PL-a b$ ai fe%ei al$:PL !irl-%he$G7N
For >firs%? an# >las%? s5ecial forms are use#3 %he a#6ec%ives prim an# ultim$ The0 usuall0 bear %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle ((+B+/a-b/ bu% ma0 also be 5rece#e# b0 o%her #e%erminers ((+B+/c#/$ Oo9ever N-elli5sis is onl0 allo9e# 9hen %he0 bear %he #efini%e ar%icle ((+B+/e-f/3
+2C
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories (+B+/ a$ 5rima En%Wlnire firs%-%he mee%in! b$ ul%ima En%rebare las%-%he @ues%ion c$ o 5rimL 5roblemL a firs% 5roblem #$ aceas%L ul%imL En%rebare %his las% @ues%ion e$ SL #iscu%Lm 5roblemele$ Prima 5roblemL / o 5rimL 5roblemL es%e^ SD'N #iscuss$+PL 5roblems-%he firs%-%he 5roblem / a firs% 5roblem is >Le%?s #iscuss %he 5roblems$ The/a firs% 5roblem is^? f$ SL #iscu%Lm 5roblemele$ Prima / Xo 5rimL es%e^ SD'N #iscuss$+PL 5roblems-%he firs%-%he / a firs% is >Le%?s #iscuss %he 5roblems$ The/a firs% is^?
Dnli-e %he o%her or#inals (%he car#inal-base# or#inals/ %hese 9or#s have 5lural an# canno% a55ear 5os%nominall0 9i%h %he or#inal meanin! P ultim ma0 a55ear 5os%nominall0 9i%h a rela%e# @uali%0 meanin!3 >su5reme? 9hile 5os%-nominal prim means >5rime? (%he ma%hema%ical %erm/$ Uhen %he0 %a-e a 5lural %his ma0 also con%ain a car#inal ((+B1/b/$
(+B1/ a$ 5rimii co5aci firs%-%he %rees b$ ul%imele (#ouL/ veM%i las%-%he %9o ne9s c$ Xco5acii 5rimi %rees-%he firs% #$ XveM%ile ul%ime ne9s-%he las%
For >firs%? in %he classifica%or0 rea#in! %he 5os%nominal in#eclinable a#6ec%ive nti ma0 be use# ((+B2/a-b/$ This a#6ec%ive use# %o a55ear also 5renominall0 inflec%e# an# bearin! %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle an# allo9in! N-elli5sis$ In con%em5orar0 s%an#ar# lan!ua!e %his cons%ruc%ion is obsole%e ((+B2/c/3
(+B2/ a$ clasa En%Wi class-%he firs% >%he firs% !ra#e (in school/? b$ anul En%Wi 0ear-%he firs% >%he firs% 0ear (of %he facul%0/? c$ En%Wiul an firs%-%he 0ear
Gr#inals also have an in%erro!a%ive form buil% on %he @uan%i%a%ive in%erro!a%ive ct 9i%h %he or#inal suffi;es -elea (masculine/ -a (feminine/ an# in%ro#uce# li-e re!ular or#inals b0 %he ar%icle al3 al ctelea% a cta >9ha% (meanin!3 occu50in! 9hich 5osi%ion in an or#ere# #omain/?$ '0 5refi;in! %his form 9i%h %he free-choice ori- %he free-choice or#inal is forme#3 al orictelea% a oricta >no ma%%er 9hich (in an or#er/?$ (iii/ The las% ins%ance of a #efini%e 5hrase occu50in! S5ecDP is %ha% of 5renominal !eni%ives in%ro#uce# b0 al$ Geni%ives have a s%ruc%ure similar %o or#inals bu% %he0 #iffer b0 a55earin! onl0 e;ce5%ionall0 in S5ecDP (onl0 al crui >9hose? in s%an#ar# s5eech/$ For #e%ails see cha5%er .$
+4=
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories (+B4/ a$ a cLrui casL al$FSG 9hose house(F/ b$ casa frumoasL a cLruia house(F/-%he beau%iful al$FSG 9hose
To sum u5 %he follo9in! 5hrases 9hich ma0 cons%i%u%e #efini%e DPs b0 %hemselves ma0 also occu50 S5ecDP mar-in! %he DP as #efini%e3 Su5erla%ives3 (cea mai mare/ casL %he more bi! house >%he bi!!es% house? Gr#inals3 (a #oua/ casL al$FSG %9o$a house(F/
>%he secon# house?
Geni%ives3 (a cLrui/ casL al$FSG 9hose house(F/ >9hose house?
*. P0e+3ete06.ne0s
The universal @uan%ifiers toi >all? amndoi >bo%h? tot >%he 9hole? a55ear li-e in o%her lan!ua!es before a #efini%e DP more 5recisel0 before a DP mar-e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle (ei%her suffi;al P (+B,/a # P or s%ron! P (+B,/e/ %he #emons%ra%ive ((+B,/b/ %he #efini%e (com5oun#/ al%erna%ives ((+B,/c/3
(+B,/ a$ %oRi elevii all 5u5ils-%he b$ amWn#oi aceM%i au%ori bo%h %hese au%hors c$ %oa%e celelal%e 5robleme all %he-o%her 5roblems #$ %oa%L casa 9hole house-%he e$ %oRi cei Ma5%e 5rofesori all %he seven %eachers
The0 canno% combine 9i%h %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer3

(+B./ X:-am En%Wlni% cu %oa%e aceleaMi 5ersoane R7FL-have$+ me% 9i%h all same 5ersons >I me% all %he same 5ersons?
The sin!ular tot normall0 @uan%ifies on %he 5ar%s of %he referen% (as in (+B,/#/$ In some fi;e# e;5ressions P e$!$ tot omul >all man-%he? P i% ma0 also @uan%if0 over %he in#ivi#uals #eno%e# b0 %he NP havin! a universal #is%ribu%ive !eneric meanin! P >ever0 an0?$ This meanin! is also ob%aine# 9hen i% 5rece#es 5renominal or#inals3
(+B</ Tot al 3o.lea om va muri$ all al0:SG %9o$lea man 9ill #ie >7ver0 secon# 5erson 9ill #ie$?
+4+
The in%er5re%a%ion b0 @uan%ifica%ion on %he 5ar%s rea55ears 9hen %he or#inal is 5os%nominal3
(+BB/ %o% anul al #oilea all 0ear-%he al0:SG %9o$lea >%he 9hole secon# 0ear?
Ui%h 5renominal su5erla%ives 5re-D universals are some9ha% mar!inal %he 5os%nominal 5lacemen% of su5erla%ives bein! 5referre# in %his case3
(+B</ a$ K%oRi cei mai bL%rWni 5oli%icieni all %he more ol# 5oli%icians b$ K%oRi cei mai cunoscuRi au%ori all %he more -no9n au%hors c$ %oRi 5oli%icienii cei mai bL%rWni all 5oli%icians-%he %he more ol# >all %he el#es% 5oli%icians? #$ %oRi au%orii cei mai cunoscuRi all au%hors-%he %he more -no9n >all %he mos% famous au%hors?
Pre-Ds allo9 noun elli5sis P 9hich in %his case 9oul# 5resumabl0 involve a 9hole null DP3
(+BB/ a$ :-am vLAu% cu %oRi cole!ii R7FL-have$+SG seen 9i%h all$:PL collea!ues(:/-%he >I me% all m0 collea!ues? b$ :-am vLAu% cu %oRi [Ne] R7FL-have$+SG seen 9i%h all$:PL >I me% (%hem/ all?
Ue anal0se (+BB/b as con%ainin! a 5ro-N insi#e a #efini%e DP 9i%h a null D license# b0 %he universal$ No%ice %ha% an over% ar%icle is im5ossible no% onl0 in Romanian 9here %he ar%icle is suffi;al bu% also in lan!ua!es 9i%h 5rocli%ic ar%icle (e$!$ French I%alian3 avec tous )-les**$ The 5robable e;5lana%ion is %ha% %he #efini%e ar%icle is universall0 a 5honolo!ical cli%ic 9hich mus% fin# a hos% insi#e i%s com5lemen%$ In %he case of N-elli5sis 5re-Ds ma0 also be follo9e# b0 car#inals$ The0 #on?% bear %hen %he au!men%e# inflec%ion ((+BC/b/ 9hich sho9s %ha% [Ne] is af%er %he car#inal in %his cons%ruc%ion (so %he car#inal occu5ies i%s normal a#nominal 5osi%ion an# is no% ri!h%a#6oine#/3
(+BC/ a$ ToRi %rei au veni% #eo#a%L all$:PL %hree have come a%-once b$ %u%uror(Xa/ %rei all$G'L(ADG:/ %hree
7;ce5%ionall0 5hrases ma#e of a universal an# a car#inal ma0 a55ear in 5re-D 5osi%ion before a #efini%e noun$ This is !enerall0 foun# 9i%h sim5le ana5horic DPs$ Ui%h more com5le; DPs %he s%ruc%ure becomes mar!inal a sin!le 5re-D universal bein! 5referre#3
(+C=/ a$ %oRi %rei co5iii all$:PL %hree chil#ren(:/-%he b$ KK %oRi 5a%ru 5rofesorii noM%ri #e lin!vis%icL all$:PL four %eachers(:/-%he our of lin!uis%ics c$ %oRi cei 5a%ru 5rofesori ai noM%ri #e lin!vis%icL
+41
The S0n%a; of De%erminers an# o%her Func%ional Ca%e!ories all$:PL %he :PL four %eachers(:/-%he al$:PL our of lin!uis%ics
This 5osi%ion of %he car#inal is con%in!en% on %he 5resence of %he universal P o%her9ise car#inals canno% a55ear before a #efini%e noun (see (+C+//$ This in#ica%es %ha% %he car#inal forms a cons%i%uen% 9i%h %he universal$ This means %ha% a% leas% in %his case 5re-D universals are 5hrasal F7s occu50in! a s5ecifier 5osi%ion$
(+C+/ X%rei co5iii %hree chil#ren-%he
Ui%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 5re-Ds onl0 occur in 5os%5osi%ion3

(+C1/ a$ noi /ei %oRi 9e /%he0 all$:PL b$ X%oRi noi/ei all$:PL 9e/%he0
The 5os%5ose# forms ma0 be anal0Ae# as ri!h%-a#6oine# %o %he 5ro-DP$ In %his case %he0 have %he au!men%e# form in %he 5lural obli@ue (%he onl0 case 9here %he0 have a #is%inc% au!men%e# form/ 9hich can be in%er5re%e# as sim5l0 re5resen%in! a >s%ron!? form3
(+C2/ nouL %u%urora /X%u%uror /X%oRi us$DAT all$G'L$ADG:/ all$G'L / all
Since universals combine 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 9e e;5ec% %o fin# %hem 9i%h pro an# 9e fin# in#ee# a universal 9i%hou% an over% noun in %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion 9i%h a verb inflec%e# for %he firs% or secon# 5erson3
(+C4/ ToRi ne 6ucam cu min!ea all$:PL R7FL 5la0$I:PF$+PL 9i%h ball-%he >Ue all use# %o 5la0 9i%h %he ball$?
Oo9ever %he anal0sis of such e;em5les is no% com5le%el0 clear because of %he e;is%ence of %he 5henomenon of @uan%ifier floa%in!$ As in o%her lan!ua!es 5re-D universals ma0 >floa%? %ha% is a55ear se5ara%e# from %he DP %he0 @uan%if0 over in s5ecial 5osi%ions 9hich al9a0s follo9 i% an# are c-comman#e# b0 i% (cf$ (+C,/#/$ Since %his 5henomenon concerns no% onl0 5re-Ds bu% also %he D fiecare an# all %hese elemen%s @uan%if0 over a DP in %he 5hrase i% is -no9n un#er %he name of >@uan%ifier floa%in!?$
(+C,/ a$ Sol#aRii muriserL toA. sol#iers(:/-%he #ie$PLPF$2PL all$:PL >The sol#iers ha# all #ie#$? b$ Co5iii se Rineau toA. #e mWnL chil#ren(:/-%he R7FL hol#$I:PF$2PL all$:PL of han# >The chil#ren 9ere all hol#in! han#s$? c$ 7levii au fos% (toA./ ascul%aRi (toA./ #e cL%re 5rofesor 5u5ils(:/-%he have been (all$:PL/ lis%ene# (all$:PL/ b0 %eacher >The 5u5ils have all been e;amine# b0 %he %eacher? #$ XPLrerea elevilor a fos% a t1t10o0EaF @toA. ascul%a%L$ o5inion(F/-%he 5u5ils(:/-%he$G7N has been al0FSG all$G7N(ADG://all$:PL lis%ene# In%en#e# meanin!3 >%he o5inion of all %he 5u5ils 9as hear#?
+42
Since %he 5osi%ion %o 9hich @uan%ifiers floa% concern %he s0n%a; of %he sen%ence 9e 9ill %rea% %he 5henomenon of @uan%ifier floa%in! in %he secon# volume of %his Grammar$ As far as %he DP-s%ruc%ure is concerne# 9e ma0 no%e %ha% in Romanian as in o%her lan!ua!es %here are some in#ica%ions %ha% %he floa%e# @uan%ifier is no% al9a0s a 5re-D @uan%ifier s%ran#e# b0 fur%her movemen% from i%s DP3 %here are cases of DPs (more 5recisel0 coor#ina%e# sin!ular DPs an# collec%ives/ 9hich ma0 be associa%e# 9i%h floa%e# @uan%ifiers bu% #o no% allo9 a 5reD @uan%ifier$
(+C./ a$ :aria Ion Mi Ioana sun% toA. bolnavi :aria Ion an# Ioana are all$:PL ill b$ XToA. :aria Ion Mi Ioana sun% bolnavi all$:PL :aria Ion an# Ioana are ill c$ Fra%ele meu Mi fra%ele %Lu sun% a6Kn3o. niM%e i#ioRi bro%her-%he m0 an# bro%her-%he 0our are bo%h$ :PL s?m i#io%s >:0 bro%her an# 0our bro%her are bo%h i#io%s$? #$ XA6Kn3o. fra%ele meu Mi fra%ele %Lu sun% niM%e i#ioRi bo%h :PL bro%her-%he m0 an# bro%her-%he 0our are s?m i#io%s a$ Gru5ul #e la masa a Masea sun% toA. beRi$ !rou5-%he from %able-%he si;%h are all$:PL #run>The !rou5 from %able number si; are all #run-? b$ XToA. !ru5ul #e la masa a Masea sun% beRi all$:PL !rou5-%he from %able-%he si;%h are #run-
(+C</
The universal has a s5ecial 5ro-DP form (9hich #oesn?% con%ain a con%e;%uall0 i#en%ifiable 5ro-N/ in %he masculine sin!ular in%er5re%e# as a neu%er 5ronoun3 totul >%he 9hole ever0%hin!?$ This form has onl0 %he #irec% case an# sho9s %he #efini%e #eclension3
(+CB/ Tot1l e 5ier#u% all-%he is los% ever0%hin! is los%
Pre-D universals ma0 be use# 5re#ica%ivel03

(+CC/ Sun%em toA. are$+PL all$:PL >Ue are all here/5resen%?
1,. T8e s9ste6 of /o65o1n3 3ete06.ne0s= 50o+DPs an3 50o+lo/at.2e+ a32e0b.als

Ue 9ill %rea% here %he issue of com5oun# #e%erminers %o %he e;%en% %o 9hich %heir s%ruc%ure is relevan% for s0n%a;$ As man0 o%her lan!ua!es Romanian has series of #e%erminers 5ro-DPs an# loca%ive a#verbs #erive# in a %rans5aren% 9a0 from %he in%erro!a%ive-rela%ive s%em$ Their mor5hemes corres5on# %o fea%ures relevan% for s0n%a; as 9ell as seman%ics$ Accor#in! %o some mor5holo!ical %heories %he0 9oul# en%er %he s0n%ac%ic #eriva%ion as se5ara%e# i%ems an# %he com5le; forms 9oul# be %he resul% of hea#-mer!in! in s0n%a;$ In %hese 9or#s 9e ma0 #is%in!uish an o5era%or 5ar% an# a 5ar% rou!hl0 corres5on#in! %o %he #escri5%ive con%en%$ The ca%e!orial 5ro5er%ies are !iven b0 %he con%en% 5ar% %hus %he o5era%or mor5hemes are no% reall0 Ds bu% ra%her ca%e!oricall0 un#ers5ecifie#$ (i/ Con%en%-mor5hemes3 +44
ce3 un#ers5ecifie#I as 9e have seen in sec%ion 2 i% ma0 ac% as a #e%erminer bu% in %he absence of %he noun %he concurrence of %he o%her forms more s5ecifie# leaves i% %he meanin!s -anima%e an# -ana5horic YNeZ crea%in! %he a55earance of a neu%er 5ro-DPI also #ue %o i%s un#ers5ecifici%0 i% ma0 func%ion as a @uan%i%0 9or# bu% in fe9er con%e;%s %han ct% 9hich is e;5lici%el0 mar-e# for @uan%i%03 in %he bare form (use# for in%erro!a%ive-rela%ive v$ infra/ as a #e!ree hea# (ce mare >ho9 bi!?I see cha5%er < * 4/ o%her9ise res%ric%e# %o %he e;clama%ive use (ce doarme >ho9 much he slee5sd?/I in %he e;is%en%ial form as a @uan%i%a%ive (for @uan%i%a%ive ceva see * ,/$ cine3 >; a 5erson?$ Al9a0s of ca%e!or0 N i% !ives rise %o 5ro-DPs$ care3 H5ar%i%ive (>; A?/3 i% a55ears in #e%erminers ct3 @uan%i%0 9i%h %he lar!e #is%ribu%ion of @uan%i%0 5hrases 9hich as 9e have seen in sec%ion . is no% res%ric%e# %o nominal 5ro6ec%ionsI unde3 >; a 5lace?3 a#verbial (loca%ive PP/ #is%ribu%ion cnd3 >; a %ime?3 (%em5oral/ a#verbial #is%ribu%ion cum3 >; a manner?3 manner a#verbial #is%ribu%ion (ii/ G5era%or-mor5hemes3 Q3 in%erro!a%ive-rela%ive ori- (sel#om/ orii-3 free-choice -va3 e;is%en%ial (iii/ A %hir# con%en% mor5heme 9hich ma0 be a##e# %o %he combina%ion of %he con%en% mor5heme an# %he e;is%en%ial o5era%or is %he al%erna%ive alt- (see also * </$ Ue illus%ra%e %he 5ossible combina%ions in %he follo9in! %able3
(1==/ uns5ecifie# anima%e 5ar%i%ive @uan%i%0 5lace %ime manner in%erro!a%ive-rela%ive ce cine care cW% un#e cWn# cum e;is%en%ial ceva cineva careva cW%va un#eva cWn#va cumva free-choice orice oriMice oricine oricare oricW% oriun#e oricWn# oricum al%erna%ive al%ceva al%cineva al%un#eva al%cWn#va al%cumva
+4,
The Seman%ics of De%erminers
$. T8e Se6ant./s of Dete06.ne0s

DGNSA F$ FARSAS 1. Int0o31/t.on 2. Def.n.te Dete06.ne0s
1$+$ Defini%e vs$ in#efini%e DPs 1$1$ The #efini%e #e%erminer -ul 1$2$ The #emons%ra%ive #e%erminer 1$4$ Conclusion
3. In3ef.n.te Dete06.ne0s
2$+$ Dnmar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminers 2$1$ :ar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminers 2$2$ Conclusion
$. Con/l1s.on
+4.
1. Int0o31/t.on
This cha5%er is concerne# 9i%h %he ma6or %hemes of #e%erminer seman%ics vie9e# %hrou!h %he lens of Romanian #a%a$ The main challen!e in %his area is %o be able %o ca5%ure %he similari%ies an# #is%inc%ions across a 9i#e ran!e of #e%erminers$ The finer-!raine# #ifferen%ia%ion nee#e# !oes be0on# 9ha% %05e-%heor0 can #eal 9i%h (even if fle;ible/ an# %herefore 9e 9ill ma-e use of insi!h%s from #0namic seman%ics as embo#ie# in D(iscourse/ R(e5resen%a%ion/ T(heor0/ s-e%che# in Cha5%er + sec%ion .$1$4$ De%erminers #iffer alon! several 5ar%l0 in#e5en#en% #imensions$ A ma6or #ivision concerns @uan%ifica%ional force se5ara%in! #e%erminers 9i%h universal force ( fiecare/ from %hose 9i%h e;is%en%ial force (un% -ul% nite% civa% vreun/$ A cross - cu%%in! #is%inc%ion se5ara%es several subs5ecies of #e%erminers !rou5e# un#er labels such as >free choice? or >ne!a%ive in#efini%es? or >#emons%ra%ives?$ Demons%ra%ives an# ne!a%ive in#efini%es are varie%ies of e;is%en%ials %he former 9i%hin %he #efini%e !rou5 %o be #iscusse# in Sec%ion 1$2 an# %he la%%er 9i%hin %he in#efini%e ca%e!or0 %o be #iscusse# in Sec%ion 2$1$2$ The >free choice? #e%erminers in Romanian (#iscusse# in Sec%ion 2$1$4/ on %he o%her han# inclu#e %he universalflavore# orice/oricare as 9ell as a% leas% some uses of %he e;is%en%ial vreun$ Ta-in! @uan%ifica%ional force as %he basic #is%inc%ion an# leavin! %he ca%e!or0 of FC #e%erminers ou% of %he 5ic%ure 9e s%ar% from %he 5reliminar0 classifica%ion in Fi!ure +3
universal fiecare >ever0? tot >all?
e;is%en%ial #efini%e in#efini%e #em acest >%his? unmar-e# mar-e# un >a? #e5en#en% ne!a%ive s5ecific cte un niciun >no? un anume >a cer%ain?
unmar-e# -)u*l >%he?
Fi!ure +3 De%erminer %05olo!0 In Fi!ure + 9e e;em5lifie# each ar%icle %05e 9i%h i%s masculine sin!ular form bu% %he #iscussion 9ill cover 5lural #e%erminers as 9ell$ The basic common seman%ic func%ion of #e%erminers is %o in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% (or variable/ an# %o im5ose fur%her res%ric%ions on %he 9a0 %ha% variable is %o be !iven values$
The onl0 cases 9here #e%erminers #on?% have %his func%ion is in 5re#ica%ivel0 use# DPs e;em5lifie# in (i/3 (i/ :arcu e un 5rofesor e;celen%$ >:arcu is an e;cellen% 5rofessor$?
Ui%h res5ec% %o %he #ivision be%9een universal an# e;is%en%ial #e%erminers no%e %ha% %he DP in (+/a3
(+/ a$ Fiecare s%u#en% a 5leca%$ ever0 s%u#en% has lef% >7ver0 s%u#en% lef%$? b$ Y;3 STDD7NT(V/Z L7AV7(V/
+4<
has a universal flavor con%ribu%e# b0 %he un#erline# D in %he sense %ha% in or#er for (+/a %o ma-e a %rue claim %he 5ro5er%ies of each s%u#en% (9i%hin mos% li-el0 a con%e;%uall0 res%ric%e# se%/ are relevan%$ The %ransla%ion of (+/a in firs% or#er 5re#ica%e lo!ic 9i%h res%ric%e# @uan%ifiers is !iven in (+/b 9here %he #e%erminer fiecare is %ransla%e# as %he universal @uan%ifier an# 9here %he 5re#ica%es are small - ca5i%al versions of %he na%ural lan!ua!e e;5ressions %he0 %ransla%e$ Trea%in! fiecare as ca5%ures i%s #is%ribu%ive flavor3 %he in%er5re%a%ion of sen%ences con%ainin! %his #e%erminer involves evalua%in! %he 5re#ica%e rela%ive %o each elemen% of %he se% #eno%e# b0 %he sis%er of %he #e%erminer in#ivi#uall0 ra%her %han %a-en as a !rou5$ (Ue refer %o %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he sis%er of %he D as %he >#escri5%ive con%en%? of %he DP$/ Thus (1/ is in%er5re%e# as involvin! a series of lif%in! u5 %he 5iano even%s each even% involvin! a sin!le !irl$
(1/ Fiecare fa%L a ri#ica% 5ianul$ ever0 !irl has lif%e# 5iano-%he >7ver0 !irl lif%e# %he 5iano$?
The #e%erminer tot e;em5lifie# in (2/ is universal bu% no% #is%ribu%ive$

(2/ Toa%e fe%ele au ri#ica% 5ianul$ all !irls-%he have lif%e# 5iano-%he >All %he !irls lif%e# %he 5iano$?
For (2/ %o be %rue i% is enou!h for all %he !irls %o have 5ar%ici5a%e# in a 5iano-lif%in! even%$ The sen%ence is neu%ral 9i%h res5ec% %o 9he%her %here is one such even% 5er !irl or 9he%her one or several !rou5s of !irls 9ere involve#$ No%e %ha% %his #e%erminer %a-es a #efini%e !rou5 #eno%in! DP as ar!umen%$ Thus %he DP sis%er of tot is normall0 5lural as above bu% i% can also be sin!ular if !rou5 #eno%in!3
(4/ To% 5o5orul a 5ro%es%a%$ all 5eo5le-%he has 5ro%es%e# >The 9hole 5eo5le 5ro%es%e#$?
The o%her Ds in Fi!ure 1 are e;is%en%ial in %he sense %ha% 9ha% ma%%ers as far as %ru%h con#i%ions are concerne# is %he e;is%ence of an a55ro5ria%e en%i%0$ In (,/a for ins%ance 9here an unmar-e# in#efini%e is use# all %ha% is nee#e# in or#er for %he sen%ence %o be %rue is %he e;is%ence of an en%i%0 9i%h %he ri!h% 5ro5er%ies (in %his case an en%i%0 %ha% is a s%u#en% an# %ha% lef% earl0/$ The 5lural in (,/b is also e;is%en%ial in %he sense %ha% %he %ru%h of (,/b re@uires %he e;is%ence of a sum inclu#in! more %han one s%u#en% of 9hich i% can be claime# (collec%ivel0 or #is%ribu%ivel0/ %ha% %he0 lef% earl0$
The #is%ribu%ive rea#in! of a sen%ence li-e (,/b involves a universal-li-e in%er5re%a%ion in %ha% %he %ru%h of %he 5re#ica%e has %o be chec-e# rela%ive %o each member of %he !rou5 #eno%e# b0 %he sub6ec%$ Since %his %05e of #is%ribu%ivi%0 is 5ossible 9i%h an0 >e;is%en%ial? #e%erminer %ha% #eno%es a !rou5 9e 9ill assume %ha% %he >universal? seman%ics is no% %ie# %o %he seman%ics of %he #e%erminer in %hese cases bu% ra%her %o %he 9a0 a 5re#ica%e ma0 combine 9i%h a sum or !rou5 #eno%in! ar!umen%$
The %ransla%ion of (,/a in firs% or#er 5re#ica%e lo!ic is !iven in (,/c 9here %he #e%erminer con%ribu%es %he e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier an# %he variable i% bin#s$
(,/ a$ Dn s%u#en% a 5leca% #evreme$ a s%u#en% has lef% earl0 >A s%u#en% lef% earl0$?
+4B
The Seman%ics of De%erminers b$ CWRiva s%u#enRi/s%u#enRii au 5leca% #evreme$ several s%u#en%s/s%u#en%s-%he have lef% earl0 >Some s%u#en%s/%he s%u#en%s lef% earl0$? c$ Y;3 STDD7NT(;/Z L7AV7-7ARLq(;/
For 5lural e;is%en%ial #e%erminers all one nee#s is a s5ecial variable %ha% in#ica%es %ha% i%s value has %o be chosen amon! sums forme# from a%omic en%i%ies$ In or#er for %his 5ro5osal %o be im5lemen%e# one has %o assume %ha% %he #eno%a%ion #omain of Ycoun%Z i$e$ non-mass nouns consis%s of bo%h a%omic en%i%ies an# sums %hereof$ This means %ha% elemen%s in %he #eno%a%ion of %he noun are in#ivi#ua%e# in %erms of a%oms an# sums of a%oms$ Plural Ds in%ro#uce a variable 9hose value mus% be chosen amon! %he sums in %he #eno%a%ion #omain of %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP$ The res% of %he #e%erminers in Fi!ure + are essen%iall0 e;is%en%ials 9i%h e;%ra re@uiremen%s$ The #ifficul%0 is %o i#en%if0 %hese re@uiremen%s in such a 9a0 as %o correc%l0 charac%eriAe bo%h %he #is%ribu%ion an# %he in%er5re%a%ion of DPs hea#e# b0 %hese #e%erminers a %as- %ha% forms %he main concern of %his cha5%er$ A 5o%en%ial 5roblem for %he !eneraliAa%ion 6us% !iven is %he ne!a%ive in#efini%e niciun e;em5lifie# in (./3
(./ a$ Niciun s%u#en% nu a 5leca% #evreme$ N7G-a s%u#en% no% has lef% earl0 >No s%u#en% has lef% earl0$? b$ Nu e;is%L niciun cWine cu #ouL coAi$ no% e;is%s N7G-a #o! 9i%h %9o %ails >There are no #o!s 9i%h %9o %ails$? c$ (Y;3 STDD7NT(;/Z L7AV7-7ARLq(;//
3iciun >N7G-a? coul# in 5rinci5le be %rea%e# as a universal because in or#er for (./a %o be %rue i% mus% be %he case %ha% ever0 s%u#en% has %he 5ro5er%0 of no% havin! lef%$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %he claim (./a ma-es can also be 5ara5hrase# b0 a s%a%emen% %ha% con%ains an e;is%en%ial >9i%hin %he sco5e? of ne!a%ion3 i% is no% %he case %ha% %here is a s%u#en% 9ho lef% earl0 as %ransla%e# in (./c$ Dn#er %his anal0sis %he in#efini%e is an e;is%en%ial an# %he universal flavor is #ue %o i%s in%erac%ion 9i%h ne!a%ion$ Since in Romanian %his com5le; #e%erminer is ma#e u5 of a ne!a%ive mor5heme nici an# %he unmar-e# in#efini%e ar%icle un (in fac% i% 9as 9ri%%en in %9o 9or#s P nici un P accor#in! %o %he or%ho!ra5hic norm before 1==,/ %rea%in! niciun as an e;is%en%ial 9i%h %he e;%ra re@uiremen% of occurrin! 9i%hin %he sco5e of ne!a%ion is more a55ro5ria%e %han %rea%in! i% as a universal %ha% re@uires ne!a%ion in i%s sco5e$ No%e also %ha% i% is a55ro5ria%e %o use niciun in case one #enies %he e;is%ence of a 5ar%icular %05e of en%i%0 as in (./b a use %ha% is more easil0 un#ers%oo# un#er an e;is%en%ial %rea%men% of niciun %han un#er a universal one$ (Ue re%urn %o ne!a%ive e;is%en%ials in Sec%ion 2$1$2 belo9$/ Ue conclu#e %ha% %he #e%erminer fiecare is a #is%ribu%ive universal 9hile tot is a universal 9i%h no o%her con#i%ions im5ose# on i%$ The o%her #e%erminers in Fi!ure + are e;is%en%ial #ifferen%ia%e# b0 fur%her re@uiremen%s %he0 im5ose$ The res% of %his cha5%er focuses on %he #e%erminers foun# on %he ri!h% branch of Fi!ure + because %his is %he lar!es% an# mos% #iverse class$ Sec%ion 1 #iscusses #e%erminers 9i%hin %he #efini%e !rou5 9hile Sec%ion 2 #iscusses %he lar!e class of non-#efini%e (or in#efini%e/ #e%erminers$
+4C
2. Def.n.te Dete06.ne0s
2.1. Def.n.te 2s. .n3ef.n.te DPs The firs% #is%inc%ion on %he ri!h% branch in Fi!ure + be%9een #efini%e an# in#efini%e #e%erminers is 9i#el0 assume# in bo%h %he lin!uis%ic an# %he 5hiloso5hical li%era%ure$ Never%heless %he seman%ic 5ro5er%0 res5onsible for %he #ivision has 5roven @ui%e #ifficul% %o 5in #o9n$ 'efore #iscussin! i% %he follo9in! 5reliminar0 issues are a##resse#3 (i/ Is %he #is%inc%ion 5resu55osi%ional or no%K (ii/ Is %he #is%inc%ion s0mme%ric or no%K (iii/ For 9hich i%ems is %he #is%inc%ion relevan%K The firs% @ues%ion involves %he issue of 9he%her informa%ion concernin! (in/#efini%eness enco#e# in %hese #e%erminers belon!s %o %he asser%e# or %he 5resu55ose# 5ar% of %he sen%ence in 9hich %hese Ds occur$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e %a-e %he !enerall0 acce5%e# 5resu55osi%ional vie9 The secon# @ues%ion concerns %he issue of 9he%her %he #efini%e/in#efini%e con%ras% involves %9o 5ro5er%ies one for each si#e of %he #ivi#e (a s0mme%ric vie9/ or 9he%her 9e are #ealin! 9i%h a sin!le 5ro5er%0 9hich is share# b0 %he i%ems on one si#e an# absen% in %he i%ems on %he o%her si#e (an as0mme%ric vie9/$ The s0mme%ric vie9 9oul# have i% %ha% #efini%e #e%erminers are mar-e# for %he 5resence of some 5ro5er%0 %ha% ren#ers %hem #efini%e 9hile in#efini%e #e%erminers are mar-e# for %he 5resence of some 5ro5er%0 %ha% ren#ers %hem in#efini%e$ The as0mme%ric vie9 9oul# have i% %ha% %he members of one class are mar-e# for %he 5resence of some 5ro5er%0 / 9hile %he members of %he o%her are sim5l0 no% mar-e# for %ha% 5ro5er%0 an# in%er5re%e# as lac-in! i% because of a 5ra!ma%icall0 !roun#e# bloc-in! 5rocess$ Thin-in! of (in/#efini%eness as a fea%ure %his issue amoun%s %o %he @ues%ion of 9he%her %he fea%ure is e@ui5ollen% (a fea%ure 9i%h %9o e@ual values/ or 5riva%ive (a one-value# fea%ure/$ If 5riva%ive %he @ues%ion is 9hich si#e of %he #ivi#e is mar-e# b0 %he 5resence of a 5ro5er%0 an# 9hich si#e is unmar-e#$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e assume %ha% #efini%eness is 5riva%ive an# %ha% #efini%e Ds are mar-e# for #efini%eness 9hile in#efini%e Ds are unmar-e# for %his fea%ure$ The as0mme%ric vie9 is %he more 5arsimonious an# since %here is no evi#ence %o %he con%rar0 9e assume i% in 9ha% follo9s$ The %hir# @ues%ion concerns %he issue of ho9 #efini%eness #is%inc%ions 9i%hin %he D realm connec% 9i%h #efini%eness con%ras%s be0on# #e%erminers a% %he level of DPs$ An in%ui%ive !rou5in! of DP %05es 9i%h res5ec% %o #efini%eness is !iven in Fi!ure 13
#efini%e /roper 3ames% def0 pronouns% D/s &it! def0 determiners
in#efini%e D/s &it! indef0 determiners% indef0 pronouns Lare sin ulars and plurals
Fi!ure 13 Defini%e vs$ in#efini%e DPs This !rou5in! is 6us%ifie# in as much as %here are lin!uis%ic 5henomena %ha% %rea% %he DPs on one si#e #ifferen%l0 from %hose on %he o%her si#e$ An e;am5le of such a 5henomenon is Differen%ial Gb6ec% :ar-in! (DG:/ 9hereb0 a lan!ua!e mar-s a subclass of #irec% ob6ec%s in s5ecial 9a0s$ Ue see DG: a% 9or- in Romanian 9hich mar-s a s5ecial subclass of #irec% ob6ec%s b0 %9o in%erconnec%e# mor5ho-s0n%ac%ic means namel0 cli%ic #oublin! an# mar-in! 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ion pe0 Uor- on %he cross-lin!uis%ic 5ro5er%ies of DG: has sho9n %ha% i% is sensi%ive %o #efini%eness an# %ha% in %his res5ec% DPs form %he hierarch0 in (</ 9here Def$ DP inclu#es DPs hea#e# b0 a #efini%e or a #emons%ra%ive ar%icle$
+,=
The Seman%ics of De%erminers (</ Pro5er Name f Def$ Pronoun f Def$ DP f Par%i%ive DP f In#ef$ DP
The DP %05es on %he lef% are more li-el0 %o be DG: %ri!!ers %han %he DP %05es on %he ri!h% 9i%h in#ivi#ual lan!ua!es fi;in! cu%off 5oin%s a% various 5ar%icular run!s on %he scale$ The e;is%ence of lan!ua!es %ha% have %he cu% off 5oin% af%er %he %hir# run! in (</ 6us%ifies %he #ivision in Fi!ure 1$ The relevan% 5oin% for our 5ur5oses is %ha% %he correc% accoun% of %he #is%inc%ion be%9een #efini%e an# in#efini%e ar%icles #ra9n in Fi!ure + shoul# even%uall0 connec% %o %he more !eneral #is%inc%ion #ra9n in Fi!ure 1 bu% %his is an issue %ha% !oes be0on# %he limi%s of %he 5resen% cha5%er$ 2.2. T8e 3ef.n.te 3ete06.ne0 ul Turnin! no9 bac- %o %he D classifica%ion in Fi!ure + 9e consi#er firs% %he con%ras% be%9een %he or#inar0 #efini%e #e%erminer -ul >%he? an# %he or#inar0 in#efini%e #e%erminer un >a? focusin! on %he former$ The %9o mos% 5rominen% ans9ers 5ro5ose# %o %he @ues%ion of 9ha% #is%in!uishes %hem cen%er aroun# %9o no%ions uniqueness an# familiarity0 Accor#in! %o %he uni@ueness vie9 %he #efini%e ar%icle 5resu55oses %ha% %he DP i% hea#s refers uni@uel0 rela%ive %o %he con%e;% in 9hich i% is u%%ere#$ Dn#er %he assum5%ion %ha% %his informa%ion is enco#e# in a seman%ic fea%ure Y D7FZ associa%e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle %he accoun% amoun%s %o re@uirin! %ha% %he sis%er cons%i%uen% of a #efini%e D #eno%e a se% 5resu55ose# %o be sin!le%on in %he relevan% con%e;%$ Uhen i% comes %o e;%en#in! %he uni@ueness vie9 of %he #efini%e ar%icle %o #efini%e 5lurals such as studenii >s%u#en%s-%he? >t8e s%u#en%s. no%e firs% %ha% %he #efini%e 5lural ar%icle has in a##i%ion %o %he fea%ure YD7FZ a fea%ure YPLZ %ha% re@uires %he referen% i$e$ %he value of %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 D %o be chosen from amon! sums of a%omic en%i%ies$ In or#er %o !eneraliAe over sin!ular an# 5lural #efini%e ar%icles Y D7FZ is %a-en %o im5ose a ma;imali%0 ra%her %han a uni@ueness re@uiremen%3 %he referen% of %he #efini%e DP is 5resu55ose# %o be %he ma;imal en%i%0 9i%hin %he #eno%a%ion of %he sis%er of %he D rela%ive %o %he con%e;%$ If %he DP is 5lural i%s #eno%a%ion 9ill be %he lar!es% sum of relevan% en%i%ies in %he con%e;%I if %he DP is sin!ular %he onl0 9a0 an en%i%0 can be bo%h ma;imal an# a%omic in a con%e;% is for i% %o be uni@ue$ Dn#er %his vie9 %hen %he uni@ueness re@uiremen% on sin!ular #efini%e Ds is a 5ar%icular case of a more !eneral ma;imali%0 re@uiremen%$ The %erm >uni@ueness? is commonl0 use# %o cover bo%h no%ions$ Dni@ueness accoun%s of #efini%e #e%erminers #is%in!uish be%9een %hree %05es of uni@ueness3 (i/ seman%icall0 uni@ue DPs e;em5lifie# in (B/a 9hich have uni@ue reference in vir%ue of %he meanin! of %heir sis%er cons%i%uen%I (ii/ DPs 9hich have uni@ue reference in vir%ue of !eneral -no9le#!e of %he 9orl# e;em5lifie# in (B/b an# (iii/ con%e;%uall0 uni@ue DPs 9hich have uni@ue reference in vir%ue of %he 5ar%icular circums%ances of u%%erance as in (B/c 9hose felici%ous use assumes a con%e;% in 9hich %here is a sin!le blue boo-3
(B/ a$ fa%a cea mai Enal%L #in clasL !irl-%he %he more %all from class >%he %alles% !irl in %he class? b$ soarele le!ea %erRului e;clus asociaRia 5ensionarilor #in RomWnia sun-%he la9-%he mi##le-%he$G7N e;clu#e# associa%ion-%he re%ire#-%he$G7N from Romania >%he sun %he la9 of %he e;clu#e# mi##le %he Romanian re%ire# 5ersons? associa%ion? c$ car%ea albas%rL boo--%he blue >%he blue boo-?
An al%erna%ive accoun% of #efini%e DPs hol#s %ha% %he crucial #ifference be%9een #efini%e an#
+,+
in#efini%e DPs concerns %he s%a%us of %heir referen% in %he #iscourse$ Dn#er %his vie9 -no9n as %he familiari%0 vie9 of #efini%eness %he YD7FZ fea%ure enco#es %he 5resu55osi%ion %ha% %he referen% of %he DP is con%e;%uall0 familiar i$e$ i% is alrea#0 5resen% in %he con%e;% a% %he %ime %he #efini%e is use# 9hile %he 6ob of in#efini%e DPs is %o in%ro#uce a novel referen%$ The #is%inc%ion is e;em5lifie# in (C/3
(C/ Iancu s-a En%Wlni% cu 1n 5oli%ician Mi un Aiaris%$ Poli%ician1l nu Mi-a Iancu R7FL-has me% 9i%h a 5oli%ician an# a 6ournalis% 5oli%ician-%he no% R7FL-has #ivul!a% numele reveale# name-%he >Iancu me% a 5oli%ician an# a 6ournalis%$ The 5oli%ician #i#n?% reveal his name$?
Dn#er %he as0mme%ric accoun% of %he #efini%e/in#efini%e #is%inc%ion #efini%e ar%icles are mar-e# for %he familiari%0 re@uiremen% 9i%h %he Y D7FZ fea%ure 9hile in#efini%e ar%icles remain unmar-e# an# are in%er5re%e# as novel sim5l0 because of %he lac- of #efini%eness mar-in!$
A 5ossible an# a%%rac%ive anal0sis %ha% has no% been a%%em5%e# ho9ever is a mi;e# accoun% accor#in! %o 9hich %he #efini%e ar%icle is mar-e# for uni@ueness/ma;imali%0 9hile %he in#efini%e ar%icle is mar-e# for novel%0$
In%ui%ive %hou!h i% is %he familiari%0 accoun% runs in%o several 5roblems$ Firs% consi#er e;am5les involvin! 5ossessive #efini%e DPs as in (+=/
(+=/ Din%r-o #a%L a a5Lru% un s%u#en% cu sor a lui$ of-a %ime has a55eare# a s%u#en% 9i%h sis%er-%he his >Su##enl0 a s%u#en% 9i%h his sis%er a55eare#$?
9here nei%her %he s%u#en% nor his sis%er can be %rea%e# as involvin! familiar reference an# 0e% %he la%%er is #efini%e$ This 5roblem can be avoi#e# b0 havin! recourse %o a 5rocess -no9n as presupposition accommodation$ The cen%ral i#ea is %ha% in cer%ain cases %he use of 5resu55osi%ion carr0in! i%ems is felici%ous even in con%e;%s %ha% #o no% sa%isf0 %he 5resu55osi%ion because %he informa%ion nee#e# %o sa%isf0 %he 5resu55osi%ion can be accommo#a%e# i$e$ %he hearer can be assume# %o enrich %he in5u% con%e;% b0 a##in! 5recisel0 %he informa%ion %ha% is nee#e# in or#er %o sa%isf0 %he 5resu55osi%ion$ Thus even %hou!h %he in5u% con%e;% in (+=/ con%ains no referen% for %he s%u#en% or his sis%er b0 %he %ime %he 5ossessive DP is use# %here is a referen% for %he s%u#en% an# %he hearer can accommo#a%e %he 5resu55osi%ion of %he DP b0 enrichin! %he con%e;% 9i%h %he informa%ion %ha% %he s%u#en% has a sis%er informa%ion 9hich sa%isfies %he 5resu55osi%ion of %he #efini%e 5ossessive DP$ (The 5roblem raise# b0 #efini%e 5ossessives for %he uni@ueness vie9 9ill be #iscusse# shor%l0$/ In or#er %o allo9 %he no%ion of 5resu55osi%ion an# %hus familiari%0 of #efini%e DPs %o have some force in %he 5resence of 5resu55osi%ion accommo#a%ion %he la%%er has %o be res%ric%e#$ G%her9ise one 9oul# 9ron!l0 5re#ic% %ha% #efini%e DPs an# o%her e;5ressions involvin! 5resu55osi%ions 9oul# be fine in an0 con%e;% since accommo#a%ion 9oul# be able %o rescue all con%e;%s in 9hich %he 5resu55osi%ion is no% me%$ This is obviousl0 no% so$ 7;am5le (++/ for ins%ance can onl0 be use# in con%e;%s 9here a s%u#en% has been 5reviousl0 %al-e# abou% 9hich means %ha% accommo#a%in! a #iscourse referen% for a s%u#en% is no% freel0 available$
(++/ Din%r-o #a%L a a5Lru% s%u#en%ul$ of-a %ime has a55eare# s%u#en%-%he >Su##enl0 %he s%u#en% a55eare#$?
+,1
A successful s%ra%e!0 of cons%rainin! 5resu55osi%ion accommo#a%ion involves limi%in! i% %o >bri#!in!? or >associa%ive? cases i$e$ cases 9here %he accommo#a%e# ma%erial is connec%e# %o alrea#0 familiar informa%ion an# is base# on 9orl# -no9le#!e %ha% ma-es %he 5resence of %he a##e# informa%ion non-sur5risin!$ In our case %he in%ro#uc%ion of a s%u#en% in (+=/ allo9s %he accommo#a%ion of his sis%er$ Ano%her classical >bri#!in!? case is !iven in (+1/
(+1/ Ieri ne-am #us la res%auran%$ Chelnerul ne-a %ra%a% cu o 0es%er#a0 R7FL-have$+PL 9en% %o res%auran% 9ai%er-%he us$ACC-has %rea%e# 9i%h a 5oli%eRe e;a!era%L$ 5oli%eness e;a!!era%e# >qes%er#a0 9e 9en% %o a res%auran%$ The 9ai%er %rea%e# us 9i%h e;a!!era%e# 5oli%eness$?
9here #efini%e reference %o %he 9ai%er is 5ossible base# on !eneral -no9le#!e involvin! 5eo5le !oin! %o a res%auran% an# bein! a%%en#e# %o in #efaul% cases b0 a uni@ue 9ai%er$ 7;am5le (++/ on %he o%her han# is no% a55ro5ria%e in con%e;%s in 9hich %he referen% of studentul >%he s%u#en%? is no% familiar because %he con#i%ions re@uire# b0 bri#!in! accommo#a%ion are no% me%$ Dnfor%una%el0 for %he familiari%0 %heor0 ho9ever %here are cases 9here #efini%e DPs are use# 9i%h novel reference even in %he absence of con%e;%ual informa%ion %ha% 9oul# allo9 bri#!in! accommo#a%ion$ Seman%icall0 uni@ue DPs as 9ell as DPs %ha% have uni@ue reference !iven !eneral 9orl# -no9le#!e (e;em5lifie# in (B/a-b/ can be use# even in con%e;%s %ha% canno% be %rea%e# as assumin! %he e;is%ence of %he referen%s of %hese DPs nor can %he0 be seen as bein! accommo#a%e# usin! bri#!in!$ Ue e;em5lif0 in (+2/3
(+2/ :anole a #ansa% cu fa%a cea mai Enal%L #in clasL$ :anole has #ance# 9i%h !irl-%he %he more %all in class >:anole #ance# 9i%h %he %alles% !irl in %he class$?
This sen%ence can be use# >ou% of %he blue? 9i%hou% 5revious men%ion of %he %alles% !irl in %he class an# in %he absence of an0 o%her informa%ion %ha% 9oul# allo9 a bri#!in! accommo#a%ion of such a !irl b0 associa%ion 9i%h ano%her referen%$ Ano%her class of s0s%ema%icall0 novel #efini%e DP %ha% resis%s a familiari%0 %rea%men% even if enriche# 9i%h bri#!in! accommo#a%ion is ma#e u5 b0 heavil0 res%ric%e# DPs e;em5lifie# in (+4/3
(+4/ I5o%eAa cL :aria a 5leca% nu i- a %recu% 5rin ca5 h05o%hesis-%he %ha% :aria has lef% no% CL$2SG$DAT-has 5asse# %hrou!h hea# nimLnui$ nobo#0$DAT >The h05o%hesis %ha% :aria ha# lef% #i#n?% cross an0bo#0?s min#$?
Dsin! an in#efini%e form ins%ea# of a #efini%e here 9oul# no% be a55ro5ria%e even %hou!h %he h05o%hesis in @ues%ion ma0 9ell be bran# ne9 in #iscourse3
(+,/ KO i5o%eAL cL :aria a 5leca% nu i- a %recu% 5rin ca5 nimLnui$ a h05o%hesis %ha% :aria has lef% no% his$DAT-has 5asse# %hrou!h hea# nobo#0$ DAT >KA h05o%hesis %ha% :aria ha# lef% #i#n?% cross an0bo#0?s min#$?
No%e %ha% %he uni@ueness a55roach %o #efini%e DPs coul# accoun% for %he use of %he #efini%e form here since %he #eno%a%ion of %he #escri5%ive con%en% is a seman%icall0 uni@ue h05o%hesis$ Finall0 a fur%her 5roblem for %he familiari%0 %heor0 of #efini%eness is 5ose# b0 %he fac% +,2
%ha% in con%ras%ive environmen%s e;em5lifie# in (+./ %he #efini%e DP conve0s uni@ueness ra%her %han familiari%0$ (Ca5i%als in#ica%e con%ras%ive s%ress$/
(+./ as%a nu a fos% DN mo%iv ci :GTIVDL 5en%ru care am 5leca% #e la Pi%%sbur!h$ %his no% has been a reason bu% reason-%he for 9hich have$+ lef% from Pi%%sbur!h >This 9asn?% a reason bu% %he reason I lef% Pi%%sbur!h?$
This e;am5le is in%er5re%e# as conve0in! %he informa%ion %ha% %he referen% of sta >%his. is %he uni@ue reason %he s5ea-er lef% Pi%%sbur!h$ Given %he use of %he #efini%e ar%icle in novel DPs %ha% refer uni@uel0 9e conclu#e %ha% uni@ueness is a necessar0 com5onen% of %he accoun% of %he use an# in%er5re%a%ion of #efini%e ar%icles$ No%e ho9ever %ha% in or#er for uni@ueness %heories %o 9or- one shoul# rel0 heavil0 on %he con%e;% for su55l0in! a salien% uni@ue referen% %ha% fi%s %he #escri5%ive con%en% of man0 #efini%e DPs in or#inar0 #iscourse$ The crucial role of con%e;%ual salience for a uni@ueness a55roach %o #efini%eness is sho9n b0 cases 9here #efini%e DPs are felici%ous even in con%e;%s 9here uni@ueness is no% sa%isfie# as lon! as %here is a uni@ue salient referen% %ha% fi%s %he #escri5%ion$ Thus in a #iscussion abou% a crisis hi%%in! %he universi%ies of %he coun%r0 %he 5resi#en% of Ues%ern Dniversi%0 in Timisoara can u%%er (+</
(+</ Dniversi%a%ea va lua %oa%e mLsurile necesare 5en%ru a evi%a conce#ieri$ universi%0-%he 9ill %a-e all measures-%he necessar0 for %o avoi# la0offs >The universi%0 9ill %a-e all necessar0 measures %o avoi# la0offs$?
9here %he #efini%e sub6ec% refers %o %he uni@ue salien% universi%0 in con%e;% namel0 Ues%ern Dniversi%0$ In an a%%em5% %o combine %he a#van%a!es of bo%h %he familiari%0 an# %he uni@ueness a55roaches various versions of #0namic uni@ueness %heories of %he #efini%e ar%icle have been 5ro5ose# in %he li%era%ure$ A common %hrea# %ha% uni%es %hem is %he vie9 %ha% %he con%e;% rela%ive %o 9hich %he #efini%e DP is in%er5re%e# is 5resu55ose# %o 5rovi#e a uni@ue salien% referen% for %he DP in @ues%ion$ The #0namic uni@ueness cons%rain% can be sa%isfie# seman%icall0 or on %he basis of !eneral 9orl# -no9le#!e combine# if necessar0 9i%h salience an# con%e;%ual consi#era%ions an# rescue# 9i%h %he hel5 of a res%ric%e# vie9 of accommo#a%ion$ Accommo#a%ion allo9s %he in%ro#uc%ion of #iscourse referen%s in %he con%e;% in or#er %o sa%isf0 %he o%her9ise unsa%isfie# 5resu55osi%ion of lin!uis%ic e;5ressions bu% onl0 9hen %he referen% in @ues%ion is a55ro5ria%el0 connec%e# %o an alrea#0 5resen% #iscourse referen%$ D0namic uni@ueness has been recas% in %erms of a !eneral no%ion of determined reference %ha% re@uires %he choice of value for variables in%ro#uce# b0 #efini%e e;5ressions %o be fi;e# %o a sin!le ma;imal en%i%0 rela%ive %o %he in5u% con%e;%$ :ore %echnicall0 s5ea-in! all ou%5u% assi!nmen% func%ions %ha% sa%isf0 %he e;5ression rela%ive %o %he in5u% con%e;% of %he #efini%e DP have %o !ive %he same value %o %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 a #efini%e DP$ Trea%in! #efini%e ar%icles as si!nalin! #e%ermine# reference in %his 9a0 has %he a#van%a!e of allo9in! a unifie# vie9 of #efini%eness across DP %05es men%ione# in Fi!ure 1$ Pro5er names an# #efini%e 5ronouns as 9ell as DP 9hose D is #efini%e sa%isf0 #0namic uni@ueness albei% in #ifferen% 9a0s$ In %he case of DPs 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle uni@ueness is sa%isfie# rela%ive %o %he in5u% con%e;% an# %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DPI in %he case of 5ro5er names #0namic uni@ueness is sa%isfie# !iven %he ver0 na%ure of %he DP 9hich re@uires a s5ecial connec%ion be%9een %he name an# i%s referen% 9hile in %he case of #efini%e 5ronouns #0namic uni@ueness mus% be sa%isfie# rela%ive %o %he 5revious lin!uis%ic con%e;% an# %he seman%ic im5or% of %he mor5holo!ical fea%ures of %he 5ronoun$
The con#i%ions of use of #efini%e 5ronouns are -no9n %o be more res%ric%e# %han %hose of #efini%e DPs$
+,4

No%e %ha% %he >bri#!in!? case illus%ra%e# in (+1/ for ins%ance #oes no% allo9 %he use of a #efini%e 5ronoun ins%ea# of %he #efini%e DP c!elnerul >%he 9ai%er?$ No%e also %ha% #efini%e DPs can be use# if %he e;is%ence of %heir referen% is inferre# from %he con%e;% bu% #efini%e 5ronouns canno% as in (i/ #ue %o 'arbara Par%ee$ (i/ I #ro55e# %en marbles on %he floor an# %rie# %o 5ic- %hem u5 bu% onl0 foun# nine$ gThe %en%h /XI% h mus% have rolle# un#er %he sofa$
Finall0 no%e %ha% since #e%ermine# reference re@uires uni@ueness rela%ive %o %he imme#ia%e in5u% con%e;% for %he #efini%e DP i% allo9s for cases 9here %he referen% of a #efini%e DP varies in con%e;% (an# %herefore is no% uni@ue/ as lon! as %he uni@ueness cons%rain% is sa%isfie# rela%ive %o %he en%i%0 %he #efini%e DP is #e5en#en% on$ Thus un#er %he assum5%ion %ha% each 5ar%ici5an% in an e;5erimen% 9as !iven an a55le an# a %oma%o one can refer %o t!e apple as in (+B/
(+B/ Fiecare 5ar%ici5an% a mWnca% En%Wi mLr 1l$ ever0 5ar%ici5an% has ea%en firs% a55le-%he > 7ach 5ar%ici5an% a%e %he a55le firs%$?
!iven %ha% for each 5ar%ici5an% %here is a con%e;%uall0 uni@ue a55le$ The variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he #efini%e D here is evalua%e# relevan% %o each 5ar%ici5an% in %urn an# a% %he %ime of evalua%ion %he value for i% is #e%ermine# %o be %he uni@ue a55le %ha% each 5ar%ici5an% in %he e;5erimen% 9as !iven$ SummariAin! %he #iscussion so far %hen %he #efini%e ar%icle can be seen as re@uirin! %he referen% of %he DP %o be #e%ermine# i$e$ uni@ue 9i%h res5ec% %o %he con%e;% rela%ive %o 9hich %he DP is in%er5re%e#$ This re@uiremen% can be sa%isfie# in a varie%0 of 9a0s 9i%h con%e;% an# salience of%en 5la0in! a crucial role$ In case con%e;% is crucial in sa%isf0in! #e%ermine# reference %he DP sa%isfies %he familiari%0 re@uiremen% as 9ell$ De%ermine# reverence has %o be seen as %he fun#amen%al re@uiremen% ho9ever !iven %ha% %he #efini%e ar%icle is use# 9i%h DPs 9i%h seman%icall0 uni@ue bu% unfamiliar reference$ In more concre%e %erms %hen -ul >%he? an# %he o%her elemen%s in i%s mor5holo!ical 5ara#i!m have %he fea%ure YD7FZ 9hich si!nals %he %05e of #0namic uni@ue reference charac%eriAe# above accor#in! %o 9hich %he in5u% con%e;% mus% 5rovi#e a uni@ue can#i#a%e as value (or referen%/ for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he D 9here con%e;%ual salience can be use# %o narro9 #o9n %he 5ossible value 5ool$ As men%ione# alrea#0 un#er %he as0mme%ric vie9 of (in/#efini%eness a#o5%e# here in#efini%es are unmar-e# for %he YD7FZ fea%ure an# assume# %o have non-#e%ermine# reference b0 com5e%i%ion 9i%h %he #efini%e form as men%ione# above$ :ore concre%el0 sim5le #efini%e an# in#efini%e ar%icles form %he scale e-ul >%he?% un >a?f 9here %he #efini%e form is more informa%ive %han %he in#efini%e (because of i%s e;%ra 5resu55osi%ion/$ The use of %he less informa%ive in#efini%e form 5ra!ma%icall0 im5lica%es %ha% %he use of %he more informa%ive #efini%e 9as no% 9arran%e# an# %hus %he in#efini%e even %hou!h no% e;5lici%l0 mar-e# for non#e%ermine# reference 9ill be in%er5re%e# as such$ Dn#er %his vie9 %he #efini%e ar%icle (%he mar-e# i%em/ bloc-s %he in#efini%e ar%icle (%he unmar-e# i%em/ from bein! use# in si%ua%ions %ha% 9arran% %he use of %he more informa%ive mar-e# i%em$
This %05e of bloc-in! effec% has been invo-e# in #iscussions of a lar!e varie%0 of !ramma%ical 5henomena since %he 9or- of %he Ancien% Sans-ri% !rammarian Panini an# has been rein%ro#uce# in %he lin!uis%ic li%era%ure in %he 9or- of L$ Oorn$
Ue %urn no9 %o some s%ubborn 5roblems for an0 -in# of uni@ueness anal0sis of #efini%e +,,
#escri5%ions 5roblems %ha% arise in bo%h Romanian an# 7n!lish$ The0 fall in%o several ca%e!ories$ Firs% consi#er %he #efini%e DPs e;em5lifie# in (+C/3
(+C/ a$ :aria a lua% au%obuA1l :aria has %a-en bus-%he >:aria %oo- %he bus$? b$ :aria a ci%i% Aiar1l$ :aria has rea# ne9s5a5er-%he >:aria rea# %he ne9s5a5er$?
The 5roblem here is %ha% nei%her buses nor ne9s5a5ers are assume# %o be ei%her uni@ue or familiar in !eneral or in %he con%e;% rela%ive %o 9hich %hese e;am5les are in%er5re%e#$ These DPs %urn ou% ho9ever %o be onl0 a55aren% coun%ere;am5les since one can %rea% %hem as referrin! %o uni@ue %05es$ In (+C/a autobu(ul >%he bus? is in%er5re%e# as referrin! %o a uni@ue means of %rans5or%a%ion 9hile (iarul >%he ne9s5a5er? in (+C/b is in%er5re%e# as referrin! %o a uni@ue means of !e%%in! %he ne9s$ This %05e of #efini%es has been in%ro#uce# in %he li%era%ure b0 G$ Carlson un#er %he name of >9ea- #efini%es?$ Ue #iscuss belo9 %9o fur%her 5roblema%ic cases$ Firs% recall %he e;am5le in (+=/ 9here a #efini%e DP sora lui is use# even %hou!h %here is no assum5%ion %ha% s%u#en%s in !eneral or %he 5ar%icular s%u#en% 6us% in%ro#uce# have a sin!le sis%er$ This case can be solve# b0 usin! %he %05e of bri#!in! accommo#a%ion nee#e# for (+1/$ The in%ro#uc%ion of a #iscourse referen% for a student allo9s %he bri#!in! accommo#a%ion of a con%e;%uall0 uni@ue referen% for his sis%er 9hich ensures %ha% %he DP sora lui >his sis%er? 9ill have #e%ermine# reference$ A more #ifficul% case is %ha% of #efini%e DPs %ha% re@uire accommo#a%ion bu% 9here %here is a con%e;%ual en%ailmen% of non-uniqueness$ Such DPs are of%en %hou!h no% al9a0s e;5lici%l0 mar-e# as >5ossesse#? in a 5ossessive rela%ion as belo93
(1=/ a$ :aria a vLAu% o 5a%L 5e co5er% a cLrRii/ 5ere%ele casei$ :aria has seen a s5o% on cover-%he boo--%he$ G7N/9all-%he house-%he$G7N >:aria sa9 a s5o% on %he cover of %he boo-/%he 9all of %he house$? b$ :aria sa #us la 5limbare 5e mal 1l rWului$ :aria R7FL$ has !one a% 9alon ban--%he river-%he$ G7N >:aria 9en% 9al-in! on %he ban- of t8e river$?
The 5roblem is of course %ha% boo-s have %9o covers houses have four 9alls an# rivers have %9o ban-s$ No%e %ha% %he fac% %ha% %he 5ossessor is #efini%e here is no% %he crucial fac%or since %he #efini%e 5ossesse# DP can occur 9i%h an in#efini%e 5ossessor as 9ell as sho9n in (1+/3
(1+/ :aria a vLAu% o 5a%L 5e co5er%a 1ne. cLrRi$ :aria has seen a s5o% on cover-%he a$G7N boo-$G7N >:aria sa9 a s5o% on %he cover of a boo-$?
:oreover bein! over%l0 mar-e# as %he 5ossesse# i%em in a 5ossessor rela%ion is no% crucial ei%her since 9e have #efini%es in e;am5les li-e (11/3
(11/ a$ Paul a #eschis !eam1l$ Paul has o5ene# 9in#o9-%he >Paul o5ene# %he 9in#o9$? b$ :aria a vLAu% o 5a%L 5e 5ere%e$ :aria has seen a s5o% on 9all >:aria sa9 a s5o% on %he 9all$?
+,.
There is no #efini%e ar%icle on %he noun perete >9all? here because of a !eneral rule %ha% forbi#s #efini%e ar%icles on unmo#ifie# nominals %ha% are ob6ec%s of 5re5osi%ions$ The onl0 e;ce5%ion is nominals %ha% are ob6ec%s of %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h?$
Gbviousl0 %he 9in#o9 Paul o5ene# an# %he 9all 9i%h %he s5o% on i% 9ere %hose of %he room Paul/:aria 9ere in a% %he %ime bu% %his is no% o5enl0 mar-e# in (11/$ An# 0e% a #efini%e form is use# even %hou!h i% is no% assume# before or af%er %he u%%erance of %hese e;am5les %ha% %he room in @ues%ion ha# onl0 one 9in#o9 or onl0 one 9all$ An e;am5le similar %o %hese in %ha% a #efini%e is use# in %he 5resence of a con%e;%ual non-uni@ueness en%ailmen% on %he accommo#a%e# referen% is (12/ 9here reference %o an inalienable bo#0 5ar% is involve#3
(12/ Pe Daniela o #oare #e!e%1l$ Daniela her$ACC hur%s fin!er-%he >Daniela?s fin!er hur%s$?
DG:
Romanian uses a sim5le #efini%e here 9hile o%her lan!ua!es such as 7n!lish for ins%ance use 5ossesse# #efini%e DPs in such e;am5les$ Ne;% no%e %ha% al%hou!h 9e have a #efini%e form in %he 5resence of non-uni@ue reference i% ma%%ers %ha% %he number of 5o%en%ial referen%s is con%e;%uall0 limi%e#$ This is sho9n b0 %he con%ras% be%9een %he e;am5les in (1=/ an# %hose in (14/3
(14/ a$ :aria a vLAu% o 5a%L 5e 5a!ina cLrRii /!eam1l blocului$ :aria has seen a s5o% on 5a!e-%he boo--%he$ G7N 9in#o9-%he buil#in!-%he$G7N >:aria sa9 a s5o% on %he leaf of %he boo-/%he 9in#o9 of %he buil#in!$? b$ :aria a vLAu% un flu%ure 5e frunAa co5acului$ :aria has seen a bu%%erfl0 on leaf-%he %ree-%he$ G7N >:aria sa9 a bu%%erfl0 on %he leaf of %he %ree$?
In %he absence of s5ecial con%e;% (14/ unli-e (1=/ is in%er5re%e# as involvin! a boo- 9i%h a sin!le 5a!e an a5ar%men% buil#in! 9i%h a sin!le 9in#o9 an# a %ree 9i%h a sin!le leaf$ The 5roblem in (14/ is %ha% %he number of 5o%en%ial referen%s for %he #efini%e is con%e;%uall0 unlimi%e#$ A final relevan% observa%ion is %ha% %here is a sense in 9hich al%hou!h %he referen% of %he #efini%e DPs in @ues%ion is no% uni@ue in (1=/ - (12/ 9hich 5ar%icular referen% is chosen from %he con%e;%uall0 limi%e# number of choices available in con%e;% is a ma%%er of in#ifference$ In all %he !oo# e;am5les above one referen% from a limi%e# se% of choices 5rovi#e# b0 %he con%e;% is involve# an# i% is a ma%%er of in#ifference 9hich i%em is in fac% chosen$ Recall %ha% #e%ermine# reference as 9e formula%e# i% re@uires %he in5u% con%e;% %o 5rovi#e a uni@ue referen% for %he #efini%e DP$ In %he cases 9here non-uni@ueness is en%aile# an# #efini%e reference is s%ill 5ossible %he con%e;% 5rovi#es several 5ossible values bu% %he 5ossible choices involve# are %rea%e# as no% bein! cruciall0 #ifferen%$ In or#er %o %rea% %he 5roblema%ic cases in (1=/ - (12/ 9e have %o loosen %he no%ion of >#e%ermine# reference? %o cases 9here %he con%e;% 5rovi#e a res%ric%e# se% of values an# %he #ifference be%9een %hem is imma%erial$ The !eneral u5sho% of %he #iscussion is %ha% #e%ermine# reference (a55ro5ria%el0 loosene#/ is %he crucial fac%or involve# in %he charac%eriAa%ion of %he sim5le Romanian #efini%e ar%icle -ul$ Ue no9 %urn %o #emons%ra%ive #e%erminers 9hich 9e ar!ue are #efini%e in %he sense 6us% #iscusse# bu% im5ose a fur%her re@uiremen% on %heir referen%$
+,<
2.3. De6onst0at.2e 3ete06.ne0s Ue #iscuss here %he in%er5re%ive 5ro5er%ies of #emons%ra%ive Ds such as aceast carte$cartea aceasta >%his boo-? e;em5lifie# in (1,/3
(1,/ Y5oin%in! %o a boo-Z :aria a ci%i% aceas%L car%e /car%e a a/easta/asta$ :aria has rea# %his boo-/ boo--%he %his /%his >:aria rea# %his boo-$?
The name of %his class of #e%erminers an# %heir %05ical use e;em5lifie# in (1,/ su!!es%s a #eic%ic anal0sis 9hereb0 %he #emons%ra%ive ar%icle si!nals %ha% %he referen% of i%s DP is %o be i#en%ifie# base# on imme#ia%e con%e;%ual informa%ion %05icall0 5rovi#e# b0 a !es%ure$ Dn#er %his vie9 %he referen% of #emons%ra%ive DPs is %he uni@ue en%i%0 in %he 5h0sical con%e;% of #iscourse i#en%ifie# b0 %he e;5lici% or im5lici% 5oin%in! !es%ure$ No%e %ha% #emons%ra%ive DPs un#er %his anal0sis are a s5ecial mar-e# %05e of #efini%e DPs3 %he0 mee% %he con%e;%ual uni@ueness re@uiremen% albei% %he0 #o so in a s5ecial 9a0 since %heir referen% mus% be 5resen% in %he 5h0sical #iscourse an# mus% be 5oin%e# a%$ This is a 9elcome resul% !iven %he 5ossibili%0 of #emons%ra%ives %o co-occur 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle in e;am5les such as cartea aceasta >%his boo-?$ No%e also %ha% or#inar0 #efini%e DPs #o no% have such #eic%ic uses$ Deic%ic uses of #emons%ra%ives are 5ar%icularl0 a55ro5ria%e in con%e;%s 9here %heir #escri5%ive con%en% alone 9oul# no% be enou!h %o i#en%if0 %he referen% because i% #eno%es a non-sin!le%on se%$ A %05ical use of (1,/ is a con%e;% 9here %he s5ea-er 5oin%s %o one of several boo-s$ In %his con%e;% %he corres5on#in! #efini%e DP cartea >%he boo-? is no% a55ro5ria%e as %he #iscussion in %he 5revious sec%ion has ma#e clear$ Ui%hin %he class of #emons%ra%ive #e%erminers %here is a #is%inc%ion be%9een %he 5ara#i!m of acesta (an# i%s collo@uial form sta/ an# %ha% of acela (an# i%s collo@uial version la/3 %he former is use# %o si!nal 5ro;imi%0 an# %he la%%er #is%ance$ The 5ro;imal acesta is %he unmar-e# member of %he 5air in %he sense %ha% i% is use# 9hen #is%ance is imma%erial$ Ue %herefore assume %he e;is%ence of a #is%al fea%ure YDISTZ mar-in! %hese #emons%ra%ives an# leave %he 5ro;imal !rou5 unmar-e#$ The seman%ic charac%eriAa%ion !iven above has %o be com5lica%e# ho9ever since besi#es %he #eic%ic use e;em5lifie# above #emons%ra%ive DPs are foun# in e;am5les 9here %he referen% of %he #emons%ra%ive is 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# b0 an in#efini%e in a 9a0 %ha% ren#ers %hem close %o re!ular #efini%e DPs as e;em5lifie# in (1./ an# (1</3
(1./ (1</ :aria a vorbi% cu un cole!$ A/el /ole4 a vorbi% cu Paul$ :aria has s5o-en 9i%h a collea!ue %ha% collea!ue has s5o-en 9i%h Paul >:aria s5o-e 9i%h a collea!ue$ Tha% collea!ue s5o-e 9i%h Paul$? DacL un ins5ec%or !LseM%e !eamuri s5ar%e a/ele 4ea610. %rebuie re5ara%e$ if an ins5ec%or fin#s 9in#o9s bro-en %hose 9in#o9s mus% fi;e# >If an ins5ec%or fin#s bro-en 9in#o9s %hose 9in#o9s mus% be fi;e#$?
The referen% of %he #emons%ra%ive in (1./-(1</ is no% 5h0sicall0 5resen% in con%e;% an# no 5oin%in! !es%ure can be use# %o i#en%if0 i%$ This is an ana5horic ra%her %han a #eic%ic use of %he #emons%ra%ive because i%s use is license# b0 a 5reviousl0 use# lin!uis%ic e;5ression (in %his case un cole an# eamuri sparte/$ The use of %he #emons%ra%ive in (1</ is of 5ar%icular in%eres% since no% onl0 is i% ana5horic ra%her %han #eic%ic bu% i% is also foun# un#er %he seman%ic sco5e of %he con#i%ional o5era%or$ In such ana5horic uses (i$e$ 9hen %he #emons%ra%ive 5ic-s u5 i%s reference from a DP %ha% has occurre# in 5revious #iscourse/ %he reference of %he #emons%ra%ive follo9s %he charac%eris%ics of %he reference of i%s an%ece#en% DP$ In (1</ %he #emons%ra%ive %a-es sco5e +,B
un#er %he con#i%ional because i%s an%ece#en% ( eamuri sparte >bro-en 9in#o9s?/ is also in%er5re%e# un#er %he sco5e of %he con#i%ional$ In (1./ an# (1</ %he con%ras% be%9een or#inar0 #efini%es an# #emons%ra%ives is minimal3 a #efini%e DP such as cole ul >%he collea!ue? / eamurile >%he 9in#o9s? coul# subs%i%u%e for %he #emons%ra%ive in %hese e;am5les$ The con%ras% be%9een or#inar0 #efini%e DPs an# #emons%ra%ives resurfaces ho9ever in %he case of uni@uel0 referrin! DPs 9hose uni@ueness inference is su55or%e# b0 !eneral 9orl# -no9le#!e or b0 %he seman%ic con%en% of %he #escri5%ive con%en% as e;em5lifie# in (1B/3
(1B/ soarele / maces% soare sun-%he/ %his sun >%he sun/m%his sun? s%u#en%ul cel mai bun / maces% s%u#en% cel mai bun s%u#en%-%he %he more !oo# %his s%u#en% %he more !oo# >%he bes% s%u#en%/m%his bes% s%u#en%?
In or#er %o accoun% for %he fac%s #iscusse# above 9e firs% no%e %ha% common %o %he #efini%e an# %he #emons%ra%ive #e%erminer is %ha% %he0 si!nal #e%ermine# reference$ The crucial #ifference concerns %he 9a0 in 9hich %his cons%rain% is achieve# in %he case of #emons%ra%ives$ Demons%ra%ive #e%erminers enco#e a s5ecial re@uiremen% rela%ive %o or#inar0 #efini%e #e%erminers$ The e;%ra cons%rain% %he0 im5ose is %ha% %heir referen% be foun# in a non-#efaul% salien% subcon%e;% of %he in5u% con%e;%$ This res%ric%ion can be formaliAe# b0 assumin! %ha% %he #escri5%ive con%en% of DPs con%ains a si%ua%ion variable 9hich in or#inar0 cases is boun# b0 %he in5u% con%e;%$ The si%ua%ion variable of %he #escri5%ive con%en% of a #emons%ra%ive DP has %o be boun# b0 a salien% subcon%e;%$ Ue assume %ha% %his re@uiremen% is enco#e# in %he fea%ure YD7:Z 5resen% on #emons%ra%ive #e%erminers$ No%e no9 %ha% %he 5oin%in! !es%ure associa%e# 9i%h #eic%ic #emons%ra%ives ma-es a subcon%e;% of %he 5h0sical con%e;% salien%$ Demons%ra%ives use# ana5horicall0 ma-e salien% %ha% subcon%e;% of %heir lin!uis%ic con%e;% in 9hich %he uni@ue referen% is foun#$ Since #emons%ra%ive ar%icles si!nal a sub%05e of #e%ermine# reference %he0 are 5re#ic%e# %o be seman%icall0 com5a%ible 9i%h %he occurrence of a #efini%e ar%icle$ The0 are also correc%l0 5re#ic%e# no% %o be felici%ous 9i%h DPs 9hose #e%ermine# reference con#i%ion is me% because of !eneral 9orl# -no9le#!e or %he meanin! of %heir #escri5%ive con%en% as in (1B/ because in such cases %he uni@ueness cons%rain% on %he reference of %hese DPs is me% in %he lar!es% con%e;% an# %hus %here is no nee# %o re#uce %he con%e;% %o a salien% sub5ar% in or#er %o mee% i%$ 2.$. Con/l1s.on So far 9e have concen%ra%e# on %he #efini%e si#e of %he #efini%e/in#efini%e #ivi#e in Fi!ure 1 ar!uin! %ha% #efini%e #e%erminers are mar-e# rela%ive %o %heir in#efini%e coun%er5ar%s 9i%h %he fea%ure YD7FZ %ha% si!nals #e%ermine# reference$ The class of #efini%e #e%erminers fur%her sub#ivi#es as in Fi!ure 2$
#efini%es YD7FZ
unmar-e# YD7FZ -ul
#emons%ra%ive YD7F D7:Z #is%al YD7F D7: DISTZ acel
unmar-e#YD7F D7:Z acest
Fi!ure 23 Defini%e #e%erminer %05olo!0 The %rea%men% of #efini%e #e%erminers 5resen%e# here allo9s us %o ca5%ure 9ha% is common %o
+,C
%he 9hole class namel0 #e%ermine# reference un#ers%oo# as #0namic uni@ueness/ma;imali%0 sub6ec% %o a res%ric%e# vie9 of accommo#a%ion$ I% also allo9s us %o e;5lain 9ha% #is%in!uishes %he various members of %he class$ Thus #emons%ra%ive #e%erminers are fur%her res%ric%e# %o choosin! %heir referen% from a salien% subcon%e;% an# 9i%hin %his !rou5 %he #is%al #e%erminers are fur%her mar-e# for si!nalin! #is%ance of %he referen% rela%ive %o %he s5ea-er$ The com5a%ibili%0 of #efini%e ar%icles an# #emons%ra%ives is e;5laine# as 9ell since #emons%ra%ives are a s5ecial -in# of #efini%es$ The a55roach also allo9s one %o #ra9 connec%ions be%9een DPs 9i%h #efini%e #e%erminers an# 5ro5er names an# #efini%e 5ronouns$
3. In3ef.n.te 3ete06.ne0s
In %his sec%ion 9e %urn %o %he in#efini%e branch of %he %ree in Fi!ure + aimin! %o un#ers%an# 9ha% 5ro5er%ies charac%eriAe %he class as a 9hole an# 9ha% #is%in!uishes %he various sub%05es from one ano%her$ Recall %ha% in#efini%e #e%erminers are assume# %o be unmar-e# for #e%ermine# reference$ DPs hea#e# b0 %hem are in%er5re%e# as havin! con%e;%uall0 non-uni@ue reference because if #e%ermine# reference 9ere involve# a #efini%e form 9oul# be use#$ In DRT %erms in#efini%e #e%erminers in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% 9hose value is no% uni@uel0 #e%ermine# rela%ive %o %he in5u% con%e;%I i$e$ i%s value varies across %he se% of assi!nmen%s %ha% sa%isf0 %he ou%5u% con%e;%$ Novel referen%s %o be chosen from a non-sin!le%on #omain are %he 5ro%o%05ical case for in#efini%e ar%icle use$ This sec%ion 9ill firs% #iscuss %he charac%eris%ics of %he unmar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminer un an# i%s 5lural coun%er5ar%s civa an# nite$ I% %hen %urns %o %he %as- of charac%eriAin! %he relevan% seman%ic fea%ures %ha% #is%in!uish %he o%her in#efini%e #e%erminers from %he unmar-e# case an# from one ano%her$ 3.1. Un6a0>e3 .n3ef.n.te 3ete06.ne0s Ui%hin %he class of in#efini%e #e%erminers un an# i%s 5lural coun%er5ar%s civa an# nite are unmar-e# for all %he o%her referen%ial fea%ures #is%in!uishin! sub%05es of in#efini%es$ The #is%inc%ion be%9een %he sin!ular un an# %he 5lural nite$civa in (1C/ is %ha% %he la%%er is mar-e# for bein! 5lural i$e$ re@uirin! i%s referen% %o be a sum 9hile un is sin!ular$
(1C/ a$ :arcu a vLAu% un film$ :arcu has seen a movie >:arcu sa9 a movie$? b$ :arcu a vLAu% niM%e / cW%eva filme$ :arcu has seen some several movies >:arcu sa9 some/several movies$?
In or#er for (1C/b %o be %rue :arcu shoul# have seen more %han one movie 9hile (1C/a sim5l0 re@uires him %o have seen a% leas% one$ Follo9in! a 5olic0 of usin! onl0 necessar0 fea%ures civa an# nite are %a-en %o be mar-e# 9i%h %he fea%ure YPLZ 9hile un s%a0s unmar-e# for number$ The fea%ure YPLZ re@uires %he referen% in%ro#uce# b0 %he #e%erminer %o be a sum in case %he hea# noun is a coun% noun$ The referen% of %he in#efini%e ar%icle is in%er5re%e# as havin! a%omic ra%her %han sum reference in vir%ue of %he mechanism of 5ra!ma%ic bloc-in! men%ione# above3 if %he s5ea-er 9ishe# %o si!nal sum reference she 9oul# have use# %he 5lural form$ Uhile bo%h nite an# civa si!nal sum reference 9i%h Ycoun%Z nouns %he0 #iffer even 9i%hin %his realm in %ha% civa can be 5ar%i%ive 9hile nite canno%$ As 9e 9ill #iscuss in more #e%ail in Sec%ion 2$1$+ 5ar%i%ives re@uire %he value of %heir #iscourse referen% %o be chosen from a con%e;%uall0 available se%$ Par%i%ive reference can be im5lici% or e;5lici%l0 mar-e# 9i%h a 5re5osi%ional 5hrase hea#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion din)tre* >of? 9hose DP #eno%es %he se% from +.=
9hich %he referen% of %he 5ar%i%ive is %o be chosen$ As sho9n in (2=/ civa allo9s such reference 9hile nite #oes no%$
(2=/ a$ :anole a vLAu% un !ru5 mare #e oameni 5e s%ra#L$ CWRiva /XniM%e #in%re ei 5ur%au :anole has seen a !rou5 lar!e of 5eo5le on s%ree% several some of %hem carr0$ I:PF s%ea!uri$ fla!s >:anole sa9 a lar!e !rou5 of 5eo5le on %he s%ree%$ Several/some of %hem 9ere carr0in! fla!s$? b$ :anole a vLAu% un !ru5 mare #e oameni 5e s%ra#L$ CWRiva /XniM%e oameni 5ur%au :anole has seen a !rou5 lar!e of 5eo5le on s%ree% several some 5eo5le carr0$ I:PF s%ea!uri$ fla!s >:anole sa9 a lar!e !rou5 of 5eo5le on %he s%ree%$ Several/Some 5eo5le 9ere carr0in! fla!s$?
The version 9i%h nite in (2=/b is fine onl0 un#er a non-5ar%i%ive in%er5re%a%ion in 9hich case %he 5eo5le carr0in! fla!s are no% su55ose# %o be amon! %hose in %he !rou5 5reviousl0 men%ione#$ A fur%her #ifference be%9een %hese %9o #e%erminers is %ha% nite can occur 9i%h mass nouns #eno%in! an in#efini%e @uan%i%0 9hile civa canno%3
(2+/ Am nevoie #e nite /Xciva la5%e$ have nee# of some several mil>I nee# some/Xseveral mil-$?
The crucial #is%inc%ion be%9een mass an# coun% nouns is %ha% %he #omain of mass nouns is no% in#ivi#ua%e# in%o a%oms an# sums bu% ra%her is lef% homo!eneous$ Gne can #is%in!uish sub5ar%s of homo!eneous @uan%i%ies 9i%hin %heir #eno%a%ion 9i%hou% ho9ever !e%%in! %o a%oms an# sums as in %he case of coun% nouns$ Ue 9ill assume %ha% coun% nouns involve in#ivi#ua%e# reference 9hile mass nouns involve non-in#ivi#ua%e# reference$ Ue can %hen #is%in!uish be%9een civa >several? an# nite >some? b0 %a-in! %he former %o be mar-e# for in#ivi#ua%e# reference 9i%h %he fea%ure YINDZ in a##i%ion %o bein! YPLZ 9hile %he la%%er is no% %hus mar-e#$ The fea%ure YPLZ re@uires reference %o a non-minimal @uan%i%0 9he%her in#ivi#ua%e# or no%$ Uhen i% occurs on a coun% noun %his re@uiremen% amoun%s %o sum referenceI 9hen i% occurs on a mass noun %he re@uiremen% amoun%s %o reference %o some @uan%i%0 of %he #eno%a%ion of %he mass noun no ma%%er ho9 small$ The fea%ure Y INDZ on %he o%her han# canno% co-occur 9i%h coun% nouns an# %hus civa canno% co-occur 9i%h mass nouns$ Finall0 9e assume %ha% 5ar%i%ivi%0 involves in#ivi#ua%ion 9hich e;5lains 9h0 nite canno% be 5ar%i%ive$ Uhen i% comes %o @uan%i%0 reference fur%her cons%rain%s ma0 be im5ose# 9i%h res5ec% %o %he siAe of %he @uan%i%0 involve#$ The #e%erminers muli$puini >man0/fe9? are use# %o e;5lici%l0 mar- %he siAe of %he @uan%i%0 as lar!e/small rela%ive %o some con%e;%uall0 es%ablishe# s%an#ar#$
(21/ (22/ :ioara a 5rimi% mul%e/5uRine ca#ouri #e Aiua ei$ :ioara has receive# man0 fe9 !if%s of bir%h#a0-%he her >:ioara receive# man0/fe9 !if%s for her bir%h#a0$? GrL#iniRele #in oraM au #is%ribui% mul%e/5uRine ca#ouri anul Ls%a$ -in#er!ar%ens-%he from ci%0 have #is%ribu%e# man0 fe9 !if%s 0ear-%he %his >The -in#er!ar%ens in %he ci%0 #is%ribu%e# man0/fe9 !if%s %his 0ear$?
+.+
The role of %he con%e;%ual s%an#ar# is evi#en% here since 9ha% coun%s as man0 !if%s for :ioara?s bir%h#a0 9oul# coun% as fe9 !if%s rela%ive %o 9ha% -in#er!ar%ens in a ci%0 mi!h% be e;5ec%e# %o #is%ribu%e$ The no%ion of @uan%i%0 involve# here is insensi%ive %o %he in#ivi#ua%e#/non-in#ivi#ua%e# #is%inc%ion$ These #e%erminers are com5a%ible no% onl0 9i%h sum reference e;em5lifie# above bu% also 9i%h mass nouns as seen belo93
(24/ Am nevoie #e mul%/ 5uRin la5%e$ have$+SG nee# of much li%%le mil>I nee# much/li%%le mil-$?
Ne;% no%e %ha% Romanian has a fur%her >un#e%ermine#? @uan%i%0 #e%erminer ceva >some? mos% of%en use# 9i%h non-in#ivi#ua%e# reference as in (2,/3
(2,/ :anole are nevoie #e ceva la5%e$ :anole has nee# of some mil>:anole nee#s some mil-$?
Oere %he @uan%i%0 is lef% uns5ecifie# an# %he #omain is unin#ivi#ua%e#$ This #e%erminer is no% res%ric%e# %o unin#ivi#ua%e# #omains ho9ever as sho9n in (2./3
(2./ :anole cau%L ceva oameni 5en%ru un 5roiec% #e cons%rucRie$ :anole loo-s some 5eo5le for a 5ro6ec% of cons%ruc%ion >:anole is loo-in! for some 5eo5le for a cons%ruc%ion 5ro6ec%$?
Crucial for %he #e%erminer use of ceva is %ha% %he @uan%i%0 be un#e%ermine#$ In %he e;am5le above i%s use si!nals %ha% :anole is in#ifferen% %o %he @uan%i%0 of 5eo5le he fin#s an# b0 e;%ension %o 9ho %he0 are$ Finall0 as 9e see in %he e;am5les above %he mor5holo!ical 5lural nominal fea%ure (realiAe# on %he hea# noun as 9ell as on a!reein! Ds an# a#6ec%ives/ realiAes %he combina%ion of %he seman%ic fea%ures YPLZ an# YINDZ since onl0 DPs %ha% refer %o sums carr0 i%$ Thus Ycoun%Z nouns such as copil >chil#? or carte >boo-? have mor5holo!icall0 5lural forms as in nite$ceva copii >some chil#ren? civa copii >several chil#ren? bu% YmassZ nouns canno% be inflec%e# for number3 nite lapte >some mil-? has no 5lural form$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e %urn bac- %o %he sin!ular in#efini%e ar%icle un 9hich is %he leas% mar-e# #e%erminer in %he lan!ua!e im5osin! no s5ecial seman%ic re@uiremen%s on %he #iscourse referen% i% in%ro#uces$ This seman%ic free#om is res5onsible for %he uni@ue in%er5re%ive versa%ili%0 en6o0e# b0 DPs hea#e# b0 i% rela%ive %o universal DPs #efini%e DPs or DPs hea#e# b0 %he mo%le0 !rou5 of mar-e# in#efini%e ar%icles 9hich 9e #iscuss in Sec%ion 2$1$ 3.1.1. S/o5al f0ee3o6 As men%ione# above in %he lin!uis%ic an# 5hiloso5hical li%era%ure unmar-e# in#efini%e have been %ra#i%ionall0 %rea%e# as e;is%en%ial @uan%ifiers 9hile >universal? #e%erminers have been %rea%e# as universal @uan%ifiers as e;em5lifie# in (2</ 9here %he @uan%ifier an# i%s res%ric%or are enclose# in s@uare brac-e%s$
(2</ a$ :aria a ci%i% un ar%icol$ >:aria has rea# a 5a5er? b$ :aria a ci%i% fiecare ar%icol$ >:aria has rea# ever0 5a5er? Y;3 ARTICL7(;/Z R7AD(m ;/ Y;3 ARTICL7(;/Z R7AD(m ;/
+.1
In#efini%e DPs have a%%rac%e# s5ecial a%%en%ion because %he0 con%ras% 9i%h universal DPs in several une;5ec%e# 9a0s$ In %his subsec%ion 9e #iscuss one of %he mos% s%u#ie# such con%ras% namel0 %ha% concernin! %he seman%ic sco5e of in#efini%es rela%ive %o universals ne!a%ion an# o%her seman%ic sco5e bearin! elemen%s in a sen%ence$ A lin!uis%ic e;5ression is sai# %o be in %he seman%ic sco5e of a lin!uis%ic e;5ression if an# onl0 if %he in%er5re%a%ion of is affec%e# b0 %he in%er5re%a%ion of $ To illus%ra%e consi#er %he sen%ence in (2B/3
(2B/ Fiecare s%u#en% a ci%i% un roman #e Tols%oi$ 7ver0 s%u#en% has rea# a novel of Tols%o0 >7ver0 s%u#en% rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0$?
In %his sen%ence %he in#efini%e un roman de :olstoi ma0 be in%er5re%e# 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of %he universal fiecare student in 9hich case %he novels ma0 co-var0 9i%h s%u#en%s$ The in#efini%e is %hen sai# %o have narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o %he universal$ Dn#er %his narro9 sco5e rea#in! of %he in#efini%e (2B/ is 6u#!e# as %rue in a si%ua%ion in 9hich %he se% of s%u#en%s is ma#e u5 of :arcu Ro#ica an# :arcela an# :arcu rea# Anna Aarenina an# Ro#ica an# :arcela rea# Mar and /eace$ The sen%ence ma0 also be in%er5re%e# 9i%h %he in#efini%e havin! 9i#e sco5e rela%ive %o %he universal in 9hich case i%s in%er5re%a%ion mus% be in#e5en#en% of %he universal$ Dn#er %his 9i#e sco5e rea#in! of %he in#efini%e %here mus% be a Tols%o0 novel such %ha% ever0 s%u#en% rea# %ha% novel$ In %he si%ua%ion !iven above %he sen%ence is false un#er %he 9i#e sco5e in%er5re%a%ion of %he in#efini%e$ A si%ua%ion in 9hich i% is %rue 9oul# be one 9here one novel sa0 Mar and /eace sho9s u5 on %he lis% of boo-s rea# b0 each relevan% s%u#en%$ Cruciall0 here %he choice of value for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e mus% be cons%an% rela%ive %o %he choices of value for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he universal$ A common 9a0 %o re5resen% %he sco5al ambi!ui%0 in (2B/ is %o re#uce i% %o a s0n%ac%ic ambi!ui%0 b0 assumin! %ha% 9henever a @uan%ifier is 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of ano%her i% is also 9i%hin i%s s0n%ac%ic sco5e$ The %9o rea#in!s of (2B/ %hen are re5resen%e# in firs% or#er 5re#ica%e lo!ic as in (2C/3
(2C/ a$ Y;3 STDD7NT(;/Z (Y03 TGLSTGq-NGV7L(0/Z R7AD(; 0// b$ Y03 TGLSTGq-NGV7L(0/Z (Y;3 STDD7NT(;/Z R7AD(; 0//
In (2C/a %he e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier occurs 9i%hin %he nuclear sco5e formula of %he universal$ This re5resen%s %he case 9here %he e;is%en%ial is 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of %he universal$ The %ru%h con#i%ions of %his formula man#a%e %ha% for each value of ' chosen from %he se% of s%u#en%s %here shoul# be a value for y chosen from %he se% of Tols%o0 novels such %ha% %he s%u#en% rea# %he novel$ Values for y are allo9e# %o var0 rela%ive %o values for ' i$e$ y ma0 covar0 9i%h '$ In (2C/b %he universal occurs 9i%hin %he nuclear sco5e formula of %he e;is%en%ial$ This re5resen%s %he case 9here %he e;is%en%ial is seman%icall0 ou%si#e %he sco5e of %he universal$ The 9i#e sco5e rea#in! of %he e;is%en%ial rela%ive %o %he universal (re5resen%e# in (2C/a/ is calle# inverse sco5e because %he seman%ic sco5e rela%ions are %he o55osi%e of 9ha% one 9oul# !e% base# on %he 9or# or#er in %he sen%ence$ The %ru%h con#i%ions of %his formula re@uire fin#in! a value for y amon! %he se% of Tols%o0 novels such %ha% each value for ' chosen amon! %he s%u#en%s is such %ha% %ha% s%u#en% rea# %ha% novel$ In %his case %he choice of value for y is in#e5en#en% or fi;e# rela%ive %o %he choice of value for ' an# y is sai# no% %o be allo9e# %o co-var0 9i%h '$ In earl0 %rea%men%s of %he s0n%a;/seman%ics in%erface i% 9as assume# %ha% %he sco5al
+.2
ambi!ui%0 e;hibi%e# b0 sen%ences li-e (2B/ is resolve# in %he s0n%a; of %hese e;5ressions 9here %he DPs move (cover%l0 since %his movemen% is no% visible in %he surface s%rin!/ %o s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions %ha% #e%ermine %heir seman%ic sco5e$ The 9i#e sco5e rea#in! of %he in#efini%e rela%ive %o %he universal 9as %he resul% of %he in#efini%e movin! in s0n%a; %o a hi!her 5osi%ion %han %he universal$ In %his accoun% %he narro9 sco5e rea#in! is %he resul% of a s0n%ac%ic confi!ura%ion in 9hich %he in#efini%e moves %o a lo9er 5osi%ion rela%ive %o %he universal$ This vie9 9as challen!e# b0 %he realiAa%ion %ha% an in#efini%e DP can %a-e inverse sco5e over a universal DP 9i%hou% re!ar# %o %he com5le;i%ies of %he s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure %ha% se5ara%es %hem$ Thus consi#er %he case in (4=/3
(4=/ Fiecare 5rofesor a vorbi% cu fiecare s%u#en% care a ci%i% 1n 0o6an 3e Tolsto.$ ever0 5rofessor has s5o-en 9i%h ever0 s%u#en% 9hich has rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 >7ver0 5rofessor %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0$?
Oere %he in#efini%e un roman de :olstoi >a novel b0 Tols%o0? is embe##e# in a rela%ive clause mo#if0in! %he universal fiecare student >ever0 s%u#en%?$ This universal DP is in %he same clause 9i%h ano%her namel0 fiecare profesor >ever0 5rofessor?$ The sen%ence is %hree-9a0 ambi!uous 9i%h res5ec% %o sco5e as #e%aile# in (4+/3
(4+/ a$ 3arro&est scope for %he in#efini%e3 ever0 5rofessor is sai# %o have %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# some novel of Tols%o0?s$ As lon! as %here 9as a novel of Tols%o0?s %ha% %he s%u#en% rea# %he 5rofessor %al-e# %o her$ b$ >ntermediate scope for %he in#efini%e3 ever0 5rofessor chose a Tols%o0 novel an# %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# %ha% novel$ For ins%ance Professor Ionescu %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# Mar and /eace Professor Po5escu %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# Anna Aarenina an# Professor Diaconescu %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# Nad+i 5urad0 c$ Midest scope for %he in#efini%e3 %here is a novel b0 Tols%o0 (sa0 Mar and /eace/ an# ever0 5rofessor %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# %ha% novel$
The %hree firs% or#er lo!ic formulas %ha% corres5on# %o %hese %hree rea#in!s are !iven in (41/3
(41/ Y;3 PRGF(V/Z (Y03 STDD7NT(0/ ) YA3 NGV7L-'q-T(A/Z R7AD(0 A/Z TALS7D-TG(; 0// b$ >ntermediate scope3 Y;3 PRGF(V/Z (YA3 NGV7L-'q-T(A/Z (Y03 STDD7NT(0/ ) R7AD(0 A/Z TALS7D-TG(; 0// c$ Midest scope3 YA3 NGV7L-'q-T(A/Z (Y;3 PRGF(V/Z (Y03 STDD7NT(0/ ) R7AD(0 A/Z TALS7D-TG(; 0// a$ 3arro&est scope3
In (41/a %he secon# universal is in %he nuclear sco5e of %he firs% an# %he e;is%en%ial is in %he res%ric%or of %he secon# universal$ As a resul% %he e;is%en%ial is 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of bo%h universals$ Oere %hen %he choice of novel b0 Tols%o0 (i$e %he value of (/ is free %o co-var0 9i%h bo%h s%u#en%s an# 5rofessors$ The crucial #ifference be%9een (41/a an# (41/b is %ha% in (41/b %he secon# universal is in %he nuclear sco5e of %he e;is%en%ial$ No9 novels can co-var0 9i%h 5rofessors bu% rela%ive %o a 5ar%icular 5rofessor %he relevan% novel #oes no% co-var0 9i%h %he s%u#en%s$ In or#er %o verif0 %his formula once 0ou choose a value for ' (%he 5rofessor/ 0ou also have %o choose a value for ( (%he novel/ an# %hen for each 5rofessor verif0 9he%her he/she %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# %he novel 0ou have chosen for %ha% 5rofessor$ Oere %hen ( co-varies 9i%h ' bu% rela%ive %o a !iven value for ' i% #oes no% co-var0 9i%h y$ Finall0 in (41/c %he e;is%en%ial is ou%si#e %he sco5e of bo%h universals$ The %9o universals are 9i%hin %he nuclear sco5e of %he e;is%en%ial (9i%h %he secon# universal bein! in %he nuclear sco5e of %he firs%/$ In or#er for %his formula %o be %rue one has %o choose a value for ( (%he novel/ an#
+.4
verif0 9he%her ever0 5rofessor %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# %ha% novel$ The value of ( no9 is fi;e# rela%ive %o bo%h ' an# y$ The free#om of in%er5re%a%ion e;hibi%e# b0 %he e;is%en%ial in e;am5les li-e (4=/ raises %9o %9in 5roblems$ Firs% un#er %he assum5%ion %ha% s0n%ac%ic sco5e #ic%a%es seman%ic sco5e in or#er %o !e% %he in%erme#ia%e an# 9i#e sco5e in%er5re%a%ions of %he e;is%en%ial 9e have %o assume %ha% %he e;is%en%ial DP moves ou%si#e %he rela%ive clause %o a 5osi%ion in %he s0n%ac%ic %ree %ha% is hi!her %han bo%h universals$ This is 5roblema%ic because i%ems 9i%hin a rela%ive clause are no% normall0 allo9e# %o move ou%si#e %ha% clause b0 over% s0n%ac%ic movemen% i$e$ rela%ive clauses are sai# %o be >islan#s? rela%ive %o movemen%$$ The >islan#? s%a%us of rela%ive clauses is e;em5lifie# in (42/3
(42/ a$XCare roman a vorbi% fiecare 5rofesor cu fiecare s%u#en% care l-a ci%i%K 9hich novel has %al-e# ever0 5rofessor 9i%h ever0 s%u#en% 9ho CL$ACC-has rea#K? b$XDe cine a ci%i% :arcela o car%e care 5omeneaK of 9ho has rea# :arcela a boo- %ha% men%ione#
The firs% 5roblem %hen is %ha% %he seman%ic sco5e of %he e;is%en%ial is insensi%ive %o 9ell-no9n limi%s on over% s0n%ac%ic movemen%$ A movemen%-base# a55roach 9oul# have %o assume %ha% %he cover% s0n%ac%ic movemen% %ha% #e%ermines seman%ic sco5e is #ifferen% from over% movemen% in crucial res5ec%s$ The secon# 5roblem is %ha% %he inverse sco5e 5o%en%ial of universals #iffers shar5l0 from %ha% of e;is%en%ials in %ha% i% is severel0 limi%e#$ Thus %he inverse sco5e of universals is limi%e# %o i%ems 9i%hin %heir o9n clause$ To sho9 %his 9e sho9 firs% %ha% universals ma0 have inverse sco5e over a clause-ma%e e;is%en%ial$ Thus (44/a is ambi!uous be%9een a #irec% sco5e in%er5re%a%ion (9i%h %he i%aliciAe# e;is%en%ial ou%si#e %he sco5e of %he universal/ an# an inverse sco5e in%er5re%a%ion in 9hich %he sco5e rela%ion is reverse#$
(44/ a$ Un 6e6b01 al 5a0t.31l1. nost01 a viAi%a% f.e/a0e 0e4.1ne a A:0..$ a member G7N 5ar%0-%he$G7N our has visi%e# ever0 re!ion G7N coun%r0-%he$G7N >A member of our 5ar%0 visi%e# ever0 re!ion of %he coun%r0$? b$ Y;3 PARTq-:7:'7R(;/Z (Y03 R7GIGN(0/Z (VISIT(; 0// c$ Y03 R7GIGN(0/Z (Y;3 PARTq-:7:'7R(;/Z (VISIT(; 0//
Dn#er %he #irec% sco5e in%er5re%a%ion (44/ !iven in (44/b %he sen%ence claims %ha% one can fin# one member of our 5ar%0 9ho visi%e# each re!ion of our coun%r0$ Dn#er %his in%er5re%a%ion %here is no co-varia%ion 5ossible be%9een re!ions an# 5ar%0 members$ Dn#er %he inverse sco5e in%er5re%a%ion !iven in (44/c %he sen%ence claims %ha% for ever0 re!ion of %he coun%r0 %here is a 5ar%0 member %ha% visi%e# i%$ Oere %hen %here is 5ossible co-varia%ion be%9een re!ions an# 5ar%0 members$ '0 con%ras% (4,/a is no lon!er ambi!uous 9i%h res5ec% %o %he rela%ive sco5e of %he %9o @uan%ifiers$
(4,/ a$ Un 6e6b01 al 5a0t.31l1. nost01 a #eclara% cL :arin a viAi%a% f.e/a0e a member G7N 5ar%0-%he$G7N our has #eclare# %ha% :arin has visi%e# ever0 0e4.1ne a A:0..$ re!ion G7N coun%r0-%he$G7N >A member of our 5ar%0 #eclare# %ha% :arin visi%e# ever0 re!ion of %he coun%r0$? b$ Y;3 PARTq-:7:'7R(;/Z (D7CLAR7D(; (Y03 R7GIGN(0/Z (VISIT(; 0// c$ Y03 R7GIGN(0/Z (Y;3 PARTq-:7:'7R(;/Z D7CLAR7D (V (VISIT(; 0//
This sen%ence can onl0 be in%er5re%e# as sa0in! %ha% %here is a member of our 5ar%0 such %ha%
+.,
he/she claime# %ha% :arin visi%e# ever0 re!ion of %he coun%r0$ This in%er5re%a%ion is !iven in (4,/b 9here i% is assume# %ha% 9hole formulas can be ar!umen%s of 5re#ica%es such as D7CLAR7$ Since %he e;is%en%ial is ou%si#e %he sco5e of %he universal here %here is no covaria%ion 5ossible be%9een ' an# y$ The missin! in%er5re%a%ion is %he one !iven in (4,/c 9here %he universal has been move# %o a 5osi%ion hi!her %han %he e;is%en%ial$ This rea#in! 9oul# allo9 co-varia%ion be%9een 5ar%0 members an# re!ions$ 'u% %he sen%ence in (4,/a canno% be in%er5re%e# as #escribin! a si%ua%ion 9here Ionescu #eclare# %ha% :arin visi%e# 'ana% Po5escu #eclare# %ha% :arin visi%e# Trans0lvania an# so on$ The onl0 5ossible in%er5re%a%ion of (4,/a is one %ha% involves a sin!le 5ar%0 member ma-in! a sin!le claim abou% :arin visi%in! ever0 re!ion of %he coun%r0$ The fac% %ha% %he in#efini%e here canno% co-var0 9i%h %he universal means %ha% %he universal mus% be 9i%hin i%s sco5e i$e$ %he universal canno% have inverse sco5e over %he i%aliciAe# e;is%en%ial$ The fac% %ha% (4,/a #oes no% allo9 an inverse sco5e in%er5re%a%ion for %he universal rela%ive %o %he in#efini%e sho9s %ha% %he inverse sco5e of %he universal is limi%e# %o i%s o9n clause$ The con%ras% be%9een in#efini%es an# universals 9i%h res5ec% %o inverse sco5e 5o%en%ial is ma#e evi#en% in (4./ 9here %he rela%ive 5osi%ion of %he %9o relevan% @uan%ifiers has been reverse# an# as a resul% sco5e ambi!ui%0 is a!ain 5ossible3
(4./ F.e/a0e 6e6b01 al 5a0t.31l1. nost01 a #eclara% cL :arin a viAi%a% o 0e4.1ne ever0 member G7N 5ar%0-%he$G7N our has #eclare# %ha% :arin has visi%e# a re!ion a A:0..$ G7N coun%r0-%he$G7N >7ver0 member of our 5ar%0 #eclare# %ha% :arin visi%e# a re!ion of %he coun%r0$?
The in#efini%e in (4./ can be in%er5re%e# as havin! #irec% sco5e in 9hich case %here is covaria%ion 5ossible be%9een members of our 5ar%0 an# re!ions of %he coun%r0$ Cruciall0 for 5resen% 5ur5oses i% can also be in%er5re%e# 9i%h %he in#efini%e havin! inverse sco5e over %he universal in 9hich case %here mus% be one re!ion of %he coun%r0 (sa0 'ana%/ such %ha% ever0 member of our 5ar%0 claime# %ha% :arin visi%e# i%$ In (4,/ %hen 9e see %ha% %he inverse sco5e 5o%en%ial of universals is limi%e# %o %heir clauseI in (44/ an# (4./ 9e see %ha% %he inverse sco5e of e;is%en%ials is free$ The %9o #ilemmas 9e have are3 (i/ ho9 %o accoun% for %he free#om of inverse sco5e e;hibi%e# b0 e;is%en%ial DPsK (ii/ ho9 %o accoun% for %he con%ras% be%9een %he free e;is%en%ials an# %he ver0 limi%e# universalsK An earl0 a%%em5% %o solve bo%h 5roblems a% once 9as %o claim %ha% in#efini%e ar%icles are in fac% ambi!uous be%9een an e;is%en%ial in%er5re%a%ion (alon! %he lines assume# here/ an# a referen%ial (or s5ecific/ in%er5re%a%ion$ This vie9 ca5i%aliAes on %he observa%ion %ha% in#e5en#en%l0 of sco5e issues an in#efini%e in a sim5le e;am5le such as (4</ allo9s %9o in%er5re%a%ions3
(4</ Dn s%u#en% #in cursul meu a %riMa% la e;amen$ a s%u#en% of class-%he m0 has chea%e# a% e;am >A s%u#en% in m0 class chea%e# on %he e;am$?
Dn#er %he e;is%en%ial in%er5re%a%ion %he sen%ence sim5l0 claims %he e;is%ence of a chea%er$ Dn#er %he referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion %he s5ea-er has a 5ar%icular s%u#en% in min# abou% 9hom she claims %ha% he chea%e#$ Dn#er %he la%%er in%er5re%a%ion %he in#efini%e is %rea%e# as havin! i%s reference fi;e# ver0 much li-e a #emons%ra%ive e;ce5% rela%ive %o %he s5ea-er?s inner vie9 of %he 9orl#$ The crucial 5ro5er%0 of such s5ecific in#efini%es %he accoun% !oes is %ha% %he0 involve fi;in! %he value of %he variable %he0 in%ro#uce %o a 5ar%icular en%i%0 in %he s5ea-er?s min# an# %his value mus% %hen s%a0 fi;e# in %he same 9a0 in 9hich %he value of 5ro5er names or #eic%ic #emons%ra%ives is fi;e# rela%ive %o o%her elemen%s in %he sen%ence or #iscourse$ This +..
%05e of s5ecifici%0 for in#efini%es is -no9n un#er %he name of e5is%emic s5ecifici%0 an# refers %o %he si%ua%ion 9here %he s5ea-er has a 5ar%icular value in min# for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e$ Uhen referen%ial %hen in#efini%es are %ransla%e# in 5re#ica%e lo!ic as %erms (ra%her %han @uan%ifica%ional e;5ressions/ 9hose value is fi;e# #irec%l0 b0 %he con%e;%$ Gnce %his ambi!ui%0 vie9 of or#inar0 in#efini%e ar%icles is acce5%e# bo%h #ilemmas a55ear %o be solve#$ Dn#er %he e;is%en%ial in%er5re%a%ion 9e can %a-e in#efini%es an# universals %o behave in %he same manner an# %a-e %hem %o have %heir inverse sco5e limi%e# %o %heir s0n%ac%ic clause boun#aries$ The a55aren% e;ce5%ional sco5al behavior of in#efini%es is an illusion crea%e# b0 %he availabili%0 of %he referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion$ The accoun% 5re#ic%s %ha% 9henever in#efini%es a55ear %o have inverse sco5e be0on# %heir clause boun#ar0 (as in (4./ for ins%ance/ 9e are #ealin! 9i%h a referen%ial in#efini%e ra%her %han a @uan%ifica%ional one$ Referen%ial in#efini%es 6us% li-e 5ro5er names or #eic%ic e;5ressions are no% @uan%ifica%ional an# have %heir reference fi;e# b0 con%e;%$ The0 sim5l0 a55ear %o have 9i#es% sco5e because varia%ion in value is rule# ou% b0 %he 9a0 %he0 are in%er5re%e#$ Dniversals on %he o%her han# canno% have %his referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion 9hich e;5lains 9h0 %he0 con%ras% 9i%h in#efini%es$ There are several 5roblems 9i%h %his o%her9ise a%%rac%ive solu%ion$ Firs% i% assumes an ambi!ui%0 e;hibi%e# b0 or#inar0 in#efini%e ar%icles %ha% is s0s%ema%ic in %he sense %ha% i% is cross-lin!uis%icall0 cons%an%$ Ue have %o 5osi% ambi!uous in#efini%e ar%icles in a lar!e number of lan!ua!es since %he sco5e fac%s #iscusse# above are %o be foun# in all lan!ua!es %ha% have ar%icle s0s%ems similar %o Romanian an# 7n!lish$ :oreover %his ambi!ui%0 has %o be e;%en#e# %o car#inal numerals (un#er %heir !rou5 in%er5re%a%ion/ since %he inverse sco5e 5o%en%ial of DPs hea#e# b0 such numerals 5arallels %ha% of or#inar0 in#efini%es as sho9n in (4B/3
(4B/ F.e/a0e 6e6b01 al 40151l1. nost01 a #eclara% cL t0e. 0e4.1n. ale ever0 member G7N !rou5-%he$G7N our has #eclare# %ha% %hree re!ions G7N A:0.. au #a% falimen%$ coun%r0-%he$G7N have !iven ban-ru5% >7ver0 member of our !rou5 #eclare# %ha% %hree re!ions of %he coun%r0 are ban-ru5%$?
The #is%ribu%ive in%er5re%a%ion of %he numeral-hea#e# DP accor#in! %o 9hich %he %hree re!ions are no%
%rea%e# sim5l0 as a !rou5 bu% ra%her as a !rou5 9hose members are sub6ec% %o universal @uan%ifica%ion %he inverse sco5e rea#in! is no lon!er available$ Dn#er %his >#is%ribu%ive? rea#in! trei re iuni ale rii is in%er5re%e# as >for each of %hree re!ions of %he coun%r0?$
Secon# %he ambi!ui%0 s%a%us of %he %9o rea#in!s of %he in#efini%e in (4</ has been calle# in%o @ues%ion$ Uhile ever0bo#0 a!rees %ha% %he %9o sha#es of meanin! e;is% i% is b0 no means clear %ha% %he e5is%emicall0 s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion shoul# be %rea%e# as seman%icall0 #ifferen% from %he e;is%en%ial in%er5re%a%ion$ Those 9ho ar!ue %ha% %he #ifference is no% seman%ic bu% ra%her 5ra!ma%ic in na%ure res% %heir ar!umen% on %he fac% %ha% someone 9ho u%%ers (4</ 9ill have been 6u#!e# %o have sai# some%hin! %rue in si%ua%ions 9here %here is a chea%er even if %he chea%er %urns ou% %o be #ifferen% from %he 5erson %he s5ea-er of (4</ ha# in min#$ In %his case 9e 6u#!e %he s5ea-er?s !roun#s for claimin! (4</ %o have been 9ron! bu% %he claim i%self is 6u#!e# as correc%$ This 5oin%s %o a 5ra!ma%ic %rea%men% of %he e5is%emicall0 s5ecific/nons5ecific #is%inc%ion in 9hich case %he in#efini%e has %o be assume# %o be seman%icall0 an e;is%en%ial un#er bo%h rea#in!s$ The mos% 5o9erful ar!umen% a!ains% %he referen%ial/@uan%ifica%ional ambi!ui%0 solu%ion %o %he sco5al #ilemmas 5ose# b0 in#efini%es comes from %he observa%ion %ha% acce5%in! %his ambi!ui%0 anal0sis #oes no% in fac% solve %he %9o 5roblems 9e se% ou% %o solve namel0 %he free#om of sco5e of in#efini%es an# %he con%ras% be%9een in#efini%es an# universals 9i%h res5ec% %o inverse sco5e 5o%en%ial$ The 5roblem resi#es in %he e;is%ence of %he in%erme#ia%e rea#in! of (4=/ !iven in (4+/b$ No%e %ha% un#er %his in%erme#ia%e rea#in! %he
+.<
in#efini%e has sco5e ou%si#e a clause (in (4=/ %he clause is in fac% a s0n%ac%ic islan#/ an# 0e% cruciall0 i% canno% be in%er5re%e# as referen%ial because in %his rea#in! %here is co-varia%ion be%9een %he in#efini%e an# %he firs% universal$ The in#efini%e in %his in%erme#ia%e rea#in! canno% be referen%ial because referen%ial in#efini%es 6us% li-e 5ro5er names an# #eic%ic #emons%ra%ives have %heir value fi;e# b0 %he con%e;% an# %hus canno% be sub6ec% %o an0 sor% of co-varia%ion$ The anal0sis %ha% a%%em5%s %o e;5lain %he s5ecial sco5al 5ro5er%ies of in#efini%es b0 5osi%in! a referen%ial/@uan%ifica%ion ambi!ui%0 5re#ic%s %ha% an0 %ime in#efini%es e;hibi% sco5al behavior %ha% #ifferen%ia%es %hem from universals %he0 are %o be %rea%e# as referen%ial$ The e;is%ence of in%erme#ia%e rea#in!s of %he %05e e;em5lifie# in (4=/ un#er %he rea#in! in (4+/b 5rovi#es a coun%ere;am5le %o %his 5re#ic%ion since %he in#efini%e has s5ecial 9i#e sco5e an# 0e% canno% be in%er5re%e# as referen%ial$ There have been more recen% 5ro5osals in %he s5iri% of %he referen%ial/@uan%ifica%ional ambi!ui%0 accoun% %ha% use #ifferen% %echnical %ools an# 9hich a%%em5% %o circumven% %he 5roblems 6us% #iscusse#$ Gne such %ool is %ha% of choice func%ions func%ions %ha% %a-e a se% as ar!umen% an# re%urn an elemen% of %ha% se% as value$ Gnce such func%ions are allo9e# as 5ossible #eno%a%ions for e;5ressions in na%ural lan!ua!e in#efini%es can be %rea%e# as ambi!uous be%9een a choice func%ional rea#in! an# an e;is%en%ial rea#in!$ Dn#er %he la%%er %he0 are 5re#ic%e# %o sco5e 6us% li-e universals$ Their 5ro5er%ies un#er %he choice func%ional rea#in! #e5en# on fur%her assum5%ions one ma-es abou% %hese func%ions an# abou% ho9 %he0 are boun#$ Gne 5ossibili%0 %ha% has been e;5lore# is %o assume %ha% choice func%ional variables are boun# b0 e;is%en%ial @uan%ifiers inser%e# freel0 a% an0 level of %he s0n%ac%ic %ree$ The sco5al free#om of in#efini%es %hen is e;5laine# b0 %he free 9a0 in 9hich choice func%ions are boun#$ The #ra9bac- of %his vie9 is %ha% i%s ans9er %o %he ori!inal @ues%ion is no% ver0 enli!h%enin!$ Recall %ha% 9e are in%eres%e# in fin#in! ou% 9h0 %he sco5e of in#efini%es is #ifferen% from %ha% of universals$ The ans9er !iven b0 %his >free? choice func%ional %rea%men% of in#efini%es is %ha% in#efini%es can be in%er5re%e# as choice func%ions an# %he sco5al 5ro5er%ies of choice func%ions are #ifferen% from %he sco5al 5ro5er%ies of all o%her e;5ressions$ Uha% remains %o be e;5laine# is ver0 close %o %he ini%ial @ues%ion namel0 9h0 %he sco5al 5ro5er%ies of choice func%ions is #ifferen% from %he sco5al 5ro5er%ies of o%her variables$ An e;%ra %ool has been in%ro#uce# bu% %he e;5lana%or0 !ain is no% im5ressive$ An al%erna%ive a55roach is %o assume %ha% choice func%ions are con%e;%uall0 su55lie# so %ha% each con%e;% comes 9i%h a uni@ue choice func%ion$ Choice func%ional in#efini%es #o no% involve an0 e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ionI ra%her %heir value is fi;e# b0 %his con%e;%uall0 !iven choice func%ion$ This accoun% is closes% %o %he ini%ial referen%ial accoun% #iscusse# above an# i% shares 9i%h i% %he 5roblem of #ealin! 9i%h in%erme#ia%e sco5e rea#in!s since a sin!le choice func%ion !ives a sin!le value for a 5ar%icular in#efini%e in a 5ar%icular con%e;% #isallo9in! an0 sor% of value varia%ion$ Gne can !e% aroun# %his 5roblem b0 assumin! %ha% choice func%ional in#efini%es ma0 have im5lici% variables associa%e# 9i%h %hem 9hich cause %he ar!umen% of %he uni@ue choice func%ion %o var0 an# %hereb0 allo9in! varia%ion of %he value of %he choice func%ion as 9ell$ Choice func%ions %hen are func%ions from in#ivi#uals an# se%s %o elemen%s of %he relevan% se% an# if %he in#ivi#ual ar!umen% varies so #oes %he value of %he choice func%ion$ In or#er %o ma-e %his accoun% convincin! %hese e;%ra variables have %o be in#e5en#en%l0 mo%iva%e# a %as- %ha% has no% 0e% been achieve#$
A##i%ional 5roblems arise for %his vie9 if one consi#ers %he in%er5re%a%ion of in#efini%es 9i%hin %he sco5e of ne!a%ion$
Ue no9 %urn %o a #ifferen% solu%ion 9hich #e5ar%s from 5revious a55roaches in %ha% i% no lon!er assumes %ha% s0n%ac%ic confi!ura%ion #ic%a%es seman%ic sco5e$ Gnce %his assum5%ion is !iven u5 i% is 5ossible %o accoun% for %he 9hole ran!e of #a%a 9i%hou% in%ro#ucin! an0 s5ecial
+.B
%echnical machiner0 for in#efini%es$ Dn#er %his vie9 %he seman%ic sco5e of in#efini%es is %rea%e# as a seman%ic ma%%er involvin! %he 9a0 %he variable in%ro#uce# is %o be assi!ne# values rela%ive %o o%her 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# variables$ Such 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# variables 5rovi#e a##i%ional 5arame%ers of evalua%ion$ Uhen an e;is%en%iall0 boun# variable is evalua%e# one can choose %o have i%s values fi'ed i$e$ %hese values 9ill %hen be in#e5en#en% of 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# variables or one can allo9 %he value of %he e;is%en%iall0 boun# variable %o co-vary rela%ive %o some or all %hose 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# variables 9hose values have %o var0 over %heir #omain because of %he @uan%ifier %ha% bin#s %hem$ If %he former choice is %a-en %he e;is%en%ial (an# %he in#efini%e %ha% in%ro#uces i%/ 9ill have 9i#es% sco5e$ If %he la%%er choice is %a-en %he e;is%en%ial 9ill be in %he seman%ic sco5e of 9ha%ever variable(s/ i% is allo9e# %o co-var0 9i%h$ Couchin! such an accoun% in %he lan!ua!e of in#e5en#ence-frien#l0 lo!ic allo9s one %o 5rovi#e i% 9i%h a soli# lo!ical basis$ To e;em5lif0 9e %urn bac- %o %he e;am5le in (4=/ re5ea%e# in (4C/3
(4C/ Fiecare 5rofesor a vorbi% cu fiecare s%u#en% care a ci%i% 1n 0o6an 3e Tolsto.$ ever0 5rofessor has s5o-en 9i%h ever0 s%u#en% 9hich has rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0 >7ver0 5rofessor %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0$?
Dn#er %he >in#e5en#ence frien#l0? accoun% s-e%che# above %he %hree 5ossible in%er5re%a%ions of %his sen%ence are base# on %hree 5ossible 9a0s of in%er5re%in! a formula %ha% has %he s0n%a; of (41/a re5ea%e# as (,=/a3
(,=/ a$ (Y;3 PRGF(V/Z (Y03 STDD7NT(0/ ) YA3 NGV7L-'q-T(A/Z R7AD(0 A/Z TALS7D-TG(; 0// b$ (Y;3 PRGF(V/Z (Y03 STDD7NT(0/ ) Yg;hA3 NGV7L-'q-T(A/Z R7AD(0 A/Z TALS7D-TG(; 0// c$ (Y;3 PRGF(V/Z (Y03 STDD7NT(0/ ) Yg; 0hA3 NGV7L-'q-T(A/Z R7AD(0 A/Z TALS7D-TG(; 0//
The variables available as 5arame%ers for ( are ' an# y$ 'o%h ' an# y are boun# b0 universal @uan%ifiers 9hich force %hem %o ran!e over %he elemen%s of %heir #escri5%ive con%en% i$e$ ' is !iven as values each elemen% of %he se% of 5rofessors in %urn an# y is also !iven as values each elemen% of a 5ar%icular se% of s%u#en%s in %urn$ No9 one can !e% %he 9i#es% sco5e in%er5re%a%ion for %he in#efini%e if one chooses no% %o allo9 ( %o var0 rela%ive %o ei%her of %he %9o 5ossibili%ies allo9e# b0 i%s con%e;%$ In %his case %hen %he value of ( has %o s%a0 fi;e# rela%ive %o %he var0in! values of ' an# y$ Al%erna%ivel0 one can allo9 ( %o var0 rela%ive %o ' bu% no% y 9hich resul%s in %he in%erme#ia%e rea#in!$ Finall0 one can also allo9 varia%ion rela%ive %o bo%h ' an# y resul%in! in %he narro9es% sco5e rea#in!$ For 5ers5icui%0?s sa-e 9e can su5erscri5% %he @uan%ifier 9i%h %hose variables %ha% %he variable i% bin#s is allo9e# %o co-var0 9i%h$ The formula in (,=/a %hen re5resen%s %he 9i#es% sco5e rea#in! 9here ( is in#e5en#en% of bo%h ' an# yI (,=/b is %he re5resen%a%ion of %he in%erme#ia%e rea#in! 9here ( co-varies 9i%h ' bu% no% 9i%h yI (,=/c re5resen%s %he narro9es% sco5e rea#in! 9here ( co-varies 9i%h bo%h ' an# y$ The a#van%a!es of %his accoun% over i%s com5e%i%ors are %ha% i% assumes no ambi!ui%0 in in#efini%es an# i% #oes no% rel0 on s5ecial %ools in%ro#uce# 6us% for #ealin! 9i%h %he in%er5re%a%ion of %hese e;5ressions$ In a##i%ion i% accoun%s for %he e;is%ence of in%erme#ia%e rea#in!s 9i%hou% havin! %o ma-e e;%ra s%i5ula%ions$ Nus% li-e %he choice func%ional accoun%s %his solu%ion loca%es %he #ifference be%9een in#efini%es an# universals in %he un#is5u%e# #ifference be%9een %he in%er5re%a%ion of variables boun# b0 an e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier an# %hose boun# b0 a universal @uan%ifier$ The %05e of #e5en#ence e;is%en%ials are susce5%ible %o is no% available for universals because universals involve a #ifferen% evalua%ion 5roce#ure one %ha% re@uires %he variable %he0 bin# %o be !iven as value each elemen% of %he se% #eno%e# b0 %he #escri5%ive con%en%$ The common %heme %ha% emer!es from %he 9or- on @uan%ifier sco5e is %ha% or#inar0
+.C
in#efini%es involve an in%er5re%a%ion mechanism %ha% is #ifferen% from (an# sim5ler %han/ %he in%er5re%a%ion of universals$ For in#efini%es all 9e nee# is fin#in! a value for %he relevan% variable such %ha% i% mee%s %he various con#i%ions im5ose# on i%$ For universals on %he o%her han# one has %o !ive %he relevan% variable a se@uence of values one for each elemen% in %he se% #eno%e# b0 %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP an# %hen one has %o evalua%e %he formula in %he nuclear sco5e rela%ive %o each such value in %urn$ In %he case of in#efini%es %he value one chooses can be fi;e# rela%ive %o all o%her 5arame%ers or i% ma0 be allo9e# %o co-var0 9i%h 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# variables 9hose o9n values var0$ The essence of seman%ic sco5e un#er %his accoun% is 5recisel0 %he @ues%ion of 9he%her variables in%ro#uce# b0 in#efini%es have fi;e# or variable values$ Finall0 a @ues%ion %ha% arises is 9he%her %he sco5in! 5ro5er%ies 6us% #iscusse# are s5ecific %o in#efini%es or 9he%her #efini%es e;hibi% %hem as 9ell$ The >in#e5en#ence frien#l0? a55roach lea#s us %o e;5ec% %ha% e;is%en%ial #e%erminers 9ill sco5e freel0 unless %he0 involve some s5ecial re@uiremen% %ha% is incom5a%ible 9i%h cer%ain sco5e confi!ura%ions$ Ue %urn no9 %o unmar-e# #efini%es an# sho9 %ha% %heir sco5al 5ro5er%ies are %he same as %hose of or#inar0 in#efini%es$ 7;am5les 9here #efini%es have 9i#es% sco5e in#e5en#en%l0 of ho9 #ee5l0 embe##e# %he0 are s0n%ac%icall0 are @ui%e eas0 %o fin#$ Thus ou% of con%e;% %he #efini%e in (,+/ is in%er5re%e# as havin! 9i#es% sco5e rela%ive %o %he universal3
(,+/ Fiecare 5rofesor a vorbi% cu fiecare s%u#en% care a ci%i% 0o6an1l 3e Tolsto.$ ever0 5rofessor has s5o-en 9i%h ever0 s%u#en% 9hich has rea# novel-%he b0 Tols%o0 >7ver0 5rofessor %al-e# %o ever0 s%u#en% 9ho rea# %he novel b0 Tols%o0$?
This is no% sur5risin! !iven 9ha% 9as sai# in Sec%ion + since %he value of %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he #efini%e has %o be uni@uel0 #e%ermine# rela%ive %o %he con%e;% of i%s in%er5re%a%ion an# %he easies% 9a0 %o achieve %his re@uiremen% is %o assume %ha% %he con%e;% 5rovi#es a uni@ue en%i%0 %ha% fi%s %he #escri5%ion 5rovi#e# b0 %he DP$ Uha% 9e e;5ec% no9 is %ha% once %he con%e;% is such %ha% %he uni@ue reference is me% rela%ive %o each value of %he variable boun# b0 %he universal co-varia%ion an# %herefore narro9 sco5e is 5ossible for #efini%es in a manner 5arallel %o %ha% of in#efini%es$ (See our #iscussion of (+</ above$/ Fur%her e;am5les of co-var0in! #efini%es are !iven in (,1/ 9here %he use of %he #efini%e form is 6us%ifie# via accommo#a%ion$
(,1/ a$ YFiecare co5ilZi vorbeM%e cu tat:l l1..$ ever0 chil# s5ea-s 9i%h fa%her-%he his >7ver0 chil# is %al-in! %o his fa%her$? b$ Nu cunosc /a5.tala n./.1n1. stat af0./an. no% -no9$+SG ca5i%al-%he no$G7N s%a%e African >I #on?% -no9 %he ca5i%al of an0 African s%a%e? c$ Vreau sL vL# /a3o1l 5e /a0e 6. l+a a31s 9an%$+SG SD'N see$+SG 5resen%-%he DG: 9hich me$DAT CL$ACC -has brou!h% f.e/a0e st13ent$ each s%u#en% >I 9an% %o see %he 5resen% %ha% each s%u#en% brou!h% me$?
Ue conclu#e %ha% %he issues concernin! sco5e #iscusse# here base# on in#efini%es are relevan% %o e;is%en%ial DPs in !eneral 9he%her #efini%e or in#efini%e$ Ue have #iscusse# %hem un#er %he rubric of in#efini%es because of %he 5rominence 5la0e# b0 in#efini%e DPs in %his #iscussion in %he li%era%ure$ Ue 9ill see in Sec%ion 2$1 %ha% %he sco5al 5ro5er%ies of s5ecial in#efini%es ma0 be limi%e# b0 s5ecial re@uiremen%s %ha% %he0 are sub6ec% %o$
+<=
3.1.2. S5e/.f./ an3 non+s5e/.f./ .n3ef.n.tes DPs an3 Da9s of 6a0>.n4 t8e6 The issue of s5ecifici%0 has alrea#0 been men%ione# 9i%h res5ec% %o (4</ re5ea%e# here as (,2/3
(,2/ Dn s%u#en% #in cursul meu a %riMa% la e;amen$ a s%u#en% of class-%he m0 has chea%e# a% e;am >A s%u#en% in m0 class chea%e# on %he e;am$?
Dn#er %he e5is%emicall0 s5ecific rea#in! of %he in#efini%e %he s5ea-er is assume# %o -no9 %he i#en%i%0 of %he s%u#en% 9hile un#er %he e5is%emicall0 non-s5ecific rea#in! she is no%$ Dn#er %he former rea#in! %hen %he s5ea-er has a 5ar%icular en%i%0 in min# as value for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e 9hile un#er %he la%%er all she -no9s is %ha% such a s%u#en% e;is%s$ This #ifference can 5la0 a role in mor5ho-s0n%a;$ For Romanian i% has been ar!ue# %ha% #ifferen%ial ob6ec% mar-in! 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ion pe is sensi%ive %o %his #is%inc%ion$ Thus %he pe mar-e# in#efini%e in (,4/a is more na%urall0 in%er5re%e# as e5is%emicall0 s5ecific %han i%s nonpe mar-e# coun%er5ar% in (,4/b$
(,4/ a$ :anole l-a %rimis 5e un s%u#en% sL vorbeascL cu #ecanul$ :anole CL$ACC-has sen% DG: a s%u#en% SD'N %al-$2 9i%h #ean-%he b$ :anole a %rimis un s%u#en% sL vorbeascL cu #ecanul$ :anole has sen% a s%u#en% SD'N %al-$2 9i%h #ean-%he >:anole sen% a s%u#en% %o s5ea- 9i%h %he #ean$?
75is%emic s5ecifici%0 involves %he rela%ionshi5 be%9een %he in#efini%e an# %he s5ea-er?s mo#el of reali%0$ For e5is%emicall0 s5ecific rea#in!s %here is a 5ar%icular value %ha% %he s5ea-er associa%es 9i%h %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e a value %ha% s%a0s cons%an% across all %he al%erna%ives %ha% %he s5ea-er consi#ers 5ossible 9a0s in 9hich %he 9orl# can %urn ou% %o be$ In %he case of e5is%emicall0 non-s5ecific rea#in!s no such connec%ion e;is%s$ From %he 5oin% of vie9 of %he #iscourse ho9ever %he in#efini%e sim5l0 in%ro#uces an e;is%en%iall0 boun# variable in bo%h cases an# %herefore %he claim %he s5ea-er ma-es b0 usin! (,2/ in a #iscourse is %he same un#er bo%h rea#in!s$ The sen%ence is 6u#!e# as %rue if a chea%er e;is%s in#e5en#en%l0 of 9ho he/she %urns ou% %o be$ If a lan!ua!e has a 9a0 of mar-in! e5is%emic s5ecifici%0 as in (,4/a %he s5ea-er ma-es an e;is%en%ial claim (%rue or false #e5en#in! on 9he%her some verif0in! value for %he relevan% variable is foun#/ an# fur%her in#ica%es %ha% she has a 5ar%icular verif0in! value in min#$ The sen%ence 9i%h a mar-e# e5is%emicall0 s5ecific in#efini%e is %rue if %here is a chea%er an# if %he s5ea-er has a 5ar%icular in#ivi#ual in min# as %he verif0in! value for %he e;is%en%iall0 boun# variable$
The 5erson %ha% has %o have a 5ar%icular verif0in! value in min# for an in#efini%e %o be e5is%emicall0 s5ecific nee# no% necessaril0 be %he s5ea-er$ In case #o;as%ic or e5is%emic 5re#ica%es are use# %he relevan% in#ivi#ual can be %he sub6ec% of %hese 5re#ica%es as e;em5lifie# belo93 (i/ :anole cre#e cL San#a l-a %rimis 5e un su#en% sL vorbeascL cu #ecanul$ :anole %hin-s %ha% San#a CL$ACC-has sen% DG: a s%u#en% SD'N %al-$2 9i%h #ean-%he >:anole %hin-s %ha% San#a sen% a s%u#en% %o s5ea- %o %he #ean$? Oere %he e5is%emicall0 s5ecific rea#in! of %he in#efini%e un student >a s%u#en%? can be su55or%e# b0 :anole (ra%her %han %he s5ea-er/ havin! a 5ar%icular in#ivi#ual in min# as a verif0in! value for %he relevan% variable$
A rela%e# %hou!h #is%inc% vie9 of s5ecifici%0 involves %he sco5e of %he in#efini%e rela%ive %o o%her sco5e bearin! e;5ressions$ Sco5all0 s5ecific in#efini%es are %hose %ha% are seman%icall0 ou%si#e %he sco5e of relevan% o5era%ors or @uan%ifiers 9hile sco5all0 non-s5ecific in#efini%es +<+
are seman%icall0 9i%hin %he sco5e of o%her lin!uis%ic e;5ressions$ For sco5all0 non-s5ecific in#efini%es %he finer #e%ails of %heir in%er5re%a%ion #e5en#s on 9ha% elemen% %he0 are seman%icall0 in %he sco5e of$ In %he narro9 an# in%erme#ia%e rea#in! of %he in#efini%e in (4C/ 9e ha# e;am5les of in#efini%es 9i%hin %he sco5e of a universal @uan%ifier 9hich in seman%ic %erms mean% %ha% %he values !iven %o %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e are allo9e# %o co-var0 9i%h %he values !iven %o %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he universal$ In (,,/ 9e have an e;am5le of an in#efini%e %ha% can be in%er5re%e# as sco5all0 s5ecific or non-s5ecific rela%ive %o %he verb a vrea >9an%?3
(,,/ :ioara vrea sL vorbeascL cu un s%u#en%$ :ioara 9an%s SD'N %al-$2 9i%h a s%u#en% >:ioara 9an%s %o s5ea- %o a s%u#en%$?
Dn#er %he sco5all0 s5ecific rea#in! (,,/ claims %ha% %here is a s%u#en% such %ha% :ioara 9an%s %o s5ea- %o him 9hile un#er %he sco5all0 non-s5ecific rea#in! (,,/ claims %ha% :ioara 9an%s i% %o be %he cases %ha% %here is some s%u#en% (or o%her/ %ha% she s5ea-s %o$ Assumin! as before %ha% 9e are 9or-in! 9i%h a hi!her or#er lo!ic 9here formulas can be ar!umen%s of 5re#ica%es %he %9o rea#in!s are e;5resse# as in (4B/3
(,./ a$ Y;3 STDD7NT(V/Z UANT(m (SP7AS(m ;// b$ UANT(m (Y;3 STDD7NT(V/Z SP7AS(m ;// (sco5all0 s5ecific/ (sco5all0 non-s5ecific/
The s5ecial seman%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he verb a vrea >9an%? ma-e i% %he case %ha% sco5al nons5ecifici%0 in %his case overla5s 9i%h e5is%emic non-s5ecifici%0$ If all :ioara cares abou% is %ha% she s5ea-s 9i%h some s%u#en% or o%her i% canno% be %he case %ha% %he s5ea-er (or :ioara/ has a 5ar%icular s%u#en% in min# as value for '$ No%e ho9ever %ha% sco5al non-s5ecifici%0 in %he case of narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o universal @uan%ifiers #oes no% amoun% %o e5is%emic nons5ecifici%0 as (,</ sho9s 9here %he s5ea-er !oes on %o i#en%if0 %he relevan% values of %he sco5all0 non-s5ecific in#efini%e3
(,</ Fiecare s%u#en% a ci%i% un roman #e Tols%oi$ :ioara a ci%i% O(boi i pace :anole ever0 s%u#en% has rea# a novel b0 Tols%oi :ioara has rea# Uar an# 5eace :anole a ci%i% Anna Aarenina si Pe%ru a ci%i% O(boi i pace$ has rea# Anna Sarenina an# Pe%ru has rea# Uar an# 5eace >7ver0 s%u#en% rea# a novel b0 Tols%o0$ :ioara rea# Mar and /eace :anole rea# Anna Aarenina an# Pe%ru rea# Mar and /eace0?
No%e also %ha% %he sco5all0 s5ecific rea#in! of (,,/ #oes no% en%ail an e5is%emicall0 s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion of %he in#efini%e$ I% ma0 be %he case %ha% %he s5ea-er -no9s %ha% %here is a 5ar%icular s%u#en% :ioara 9an%s %o %al- %o bu% she has no i#ea 9ho %ha% 5erson is$ Sco5al non-s5ecifici%0 9i%h res5ec% %o verbs li-e a vrea >9an%? a dori >9ish? trebuie >mus%? correla%es 9i%h %9o mor5ho-s0n%ac%ic mar-ers$ Firs% un#er %he sco5all0 non-s5ecific rea#in! %he DP can be mo#ifie# b0 a sub6unc%ive rela%ive clause 9hile un#er %he sco5all0 s5ecific rea#in! i% canno%$ Thus (,B/ onl0 has %he sco5all0 non-s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion3
(,B/ :ioara vrea sL an!a6eAe o secre%arL care sL M%ie en!leAa$ :ioara 9an%s SD'N hire$2 a secre%ar0 9ho SD'N -no9s 7n!lish-%he >:ioara 9an%s %o hire a secre%ar0 9ho -no9s 7n!lish$?
Secon# pe mar-in! is is 5referre# 9i%h sco5all0 s5ecific DPs an# %hus %he in#efini%e in (,C/ is 5referabl0 in%er5re%e# as sco5all0 s5ecific3
+<1
(,C/
:ioara vrea sL an!a6eAe 5e un s%u#en% #in #e5ar%amen%ul nos%ru$ :ioara 9an%s SD'N hire$2 DG: a s%u#en% from #e5ar%men%-%he our >:ioara 9an%s %o hire a s%u#en% from our #e5ar%men%$?
So far 9e have seen %ha% e5is%emic an# sco5al (non/-s5ecifici%0 are in#e5en#en% 5ro5er%ies %ha% can ho9ever in%erac%$ There is a %hir# %05e of s5ecifici%0 %ha% has been #iscusse# in %he li%era%ure namel0 5ar%i%ive s5ecifici%0 e;em5lifie# in (.=/3
(.=/ Trei fe%e au in%ra% 5e uML$ O fat: era EmbrLca%L En alb iar celelal%e #ouL En %hree !irls have en%ere# on #oor a !irl 9as #resse# in 9hi%e an# %he-o%hers %9o in ne!ru$ blac>Three !irls came %hrou!h %he #oor$ A !irl 9as #resse# in 9hi%e an# %he o%her %9o in blac-$?
Oere %he in#efini%e o fat >a !irl? is mos% na%urall0 in%er5re%e# as >one of %he %hree !irls 9ho came in? 9hich ma-es i% seman%icall0 5ar%i%ive in %he sense alrea#0 men%ione# above3 %he referen% of %he DP mus% be chosen from a se% 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# in %he #iscourse in a manner analo!ous %o over% 5ar%i%ives such as una din fetele care au intrat pe us >one of %he !irls 9ho came %hrou!h %he #oor?/$ (Ue come bac- %o 5ar%i%ive in#efini%es in Sec%ion 2$1$+$/ No%e %ha% 5ar%i%ive s5ecifici%0 is #ifferen% from bo%h sco5al an# e5is%emic s5ecifici%0$ Thus e;am5le (.+/ can be in%er5re%e# as sco5all0 non-s5ecific an# 0e% 5ar%i%ive$ (The over% 5ar%i%ive in#efini%e is use# in or#er %o ma-e %he 5oin% as forcefull0 as 5ossible$/3
(.+/ :anole vrea sL vorbeascL cu una #in surorile lui Pe%ru in#iferen% care$ :anole 9an%s SD'N %al-$2 9i%h one of sis%ers-%he G'L Pe%ru re!ar#less 9hich >:anole 9an%s %o %al- %o one of Pe%ru?s sis%ers i% #oesn?% ma%%er 9hich$?
The con%inua%ion indiferent care >#oesn?% ma%%er 9hich? forces a narro9 sco5e rea#in! of %he 5ar%i%ive in#efini%e rela%ive %o %he verb a vrea >9an%?$ The fac% %ha% 5ar%i%ive s5ecifici%0 #oes no% en%ail e5is%emic s5ecifici%0 can be sho9n b0 %he e;is%ence of %he narro9 sco5e rea#in! of %he in#efini%e in (.+/ as 9ell as b0 %he fac% %ha% %he 5ar%i%ive rea#in! of %he in#efini%e in (.=/ #oes no% en%ail an e5is%emicall0 s5ecific rea#in!3 (.=/ can be con%inue# 9i%h 3u tiu care din ele era mbrcat n alb >I #on?% -no9 9hich one of %hem 9as #resse# in 9hi%e?$ To conclu#e %he %hree %05es of s5ecifici%0 #iscusse# above are #is%inc% 5henomena$ There is ho9ever an overarchin! 5ro5er%0 %ha% is relevan% %o all namel0 %he no%ion of stability of reference0 DPs %ha% are s5ecific in one sense or ano%her have reference %ha% is more s%able %han %hose %ha% are non-s5ecific$ Thus e5is%emicall0 s5ecific DPs are s%able rela%ive %o e5is%emicall0 non-s5ecific ones in %he sense %ha% %he i#en%i%0 of %he value of %he variable is fi;e# in %he min# of %he s5ea-er for e5is%emicall0 s5ecific DPs bu% no% for e5is%emicall0 nons5ecific ones$ In %he case of sco5al (non/-s5ecifici%0 %he reference of non-s5ecific DPs is allo9e# %o co-var0 9i%h %he value of %he variable boun# b0 %he o5era%or %he DP is in %he sco5e of 9hile in %he case of sco5al s5ecifici%0 %he reference of %he DP mus% s%a0 fi;e# rela%ive %o %he variable i% ou%sco5es$ Fur%her #is%inc%ions be%9een various %05es of sco5all0 non-s5ecific DPs can be #ra9n 9i%h res5ec% %o %he %05e of elemen% %he0 are in %he seman%ic sco5e of$ Thus bein! in %he seman%ic sco5e of a universal @uan%ifier over in#ivi#uals as in (,</ involves covaria%ion 9i%h an in#ivi#ual variable 9hile bein! in %he seman%ic sco5e of an a%%i%u#e 5re#ica%e li-e a vrea >9an%? as in (,B/ has much more #rama%ic conse@uences$ In %his case because of %he seman%ics of %he main verb %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he DP co-varies 9i%h 9orl#s %ha% %he sub6ec% ran-s hi!h$ There is no en%ailmen% of e;is%ence of a verif0in! value in %he 9orl# in
+<2
9hich %he 9hole sen%ence is %rue an# %here is no 9a0 of uni@uel0 s5ecif0in! %his value for each relevan% 9orl#$ In %he case of 5ar%i%ive in#efini%es %he #omain from 9hich %he variable is allo9e# %o be !iven values is narro9e# #o9n %o a #iscourse familiar se% an# %herefore %he 5ossibili%0 of value varia%ion is in%rinsicall0 limi%e# %o elemen%s of %his se%$ The 5arame%er of referen%ial s%abili%0 can be ma#e sense of in %he a55roach a#o5%e# here 9here %he 9a0 a variable is !iven values 9i%hin i%s lin!uis%ic environmen% or %he lar!er con%e;% is a crucial in%er5re%ive consi#era%ion$ Ue 9ill re%urn %o %he relevance of s%abili%0 of reference in *4$ 3.1.3. #ene0./ .n3ef.n.tes The final 5ro5er%0 of or#inar0 in#efini%es %o be #iscusse# here is %heir abili%0 %o ac@uire a !eneric-li-e in%er5re%a%ion in 5ar%icular lin!uis%ic con%e;%s$ An in#efini%e in %he an%ece#en% of a con#i%ional for ins%ance if in%er5re%e# as havin! narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o %he con#i%ional o5era%or a55ears %o ac@uire universal force3
(.1/ DacL o 5ersoanL e En A%ena (ea/ nu 5oa%e fi la Rho#os$ if a 5erson is in A%hens (she/ no% can be a% Rho#es >If a 5erson is in A%hens she canno% be in Rho#es$?
The in#efini%e is sai# %o have narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o %he con#i%ional un#er %he @ui%e na%ural in%er5re%a%ion in 9hich (.1/ is un#ers%oo# as claimin! %ha% for all 5eo5le if %he0 are in A%hens %he0 canno% be in Rho#es$ Oere %hen %he 5erson co-varies 9i%h %he cases consi#ere# an# in fac% %here are as man0 cases consi#ere# as %here are 5ersons since (.1/ ma-es a !eneral claim %ha% is su55ose# %o be %rue of all 5ersons$ The con#i%ional con%ribu%es a universal @uan%ifier %ha% a55ears %o bin# %he in#efini%e$ A rela%e# %05e of e;am5le is %ha% of >!eneric !eneraliAa%ions? e;em5lifie# in (.2/3
(.2/ Dn cWine nu miaunL$ a #o! no% meo9s >A #o! #oes no% meo9$?
Dn#er i%s mos% na%ural in%er5re%a%ion %his sen%ence is un#ers%oo# as s%a%in! a !eneral fac% abou% #o!s ra%her %han a fac% abou% a 5ar%icular #o!$ These %9o e;am5les %urn ou% %o e;em5lif0 a sin!le !eneral 5henomenon un#er %he assum5%ion %ha% in (.2/ %he in#efini%e is 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of a silen% !eneric o5era%or G7N 9hich @uan%ifies over #efaul% or !eneric si%ua%ions involvin! a #o!$ An earl0 accoun% of %hese fac%s ma#e %he ra#ical assum5%ion %ha% %he in#efini%e ar%icle #oes no% con%ribu%e an e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier bu% sim5l0 a free variable$ The e;is%en%ial in%er5re%a%ion %ha% 9e have encoun%ere# so far is %hen seen as arisin! b0 #efaul%$ In %he cases a% han# ho9ever %he universal @uan%ifier in%ro#uce# b0 %he con#i%ional as 9ell as %he G7N o5era%or in (.2/ bin# %he free variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e an# %hereb0 5reclu#e i%s #efaul% e;is%en%ial bin#in!$ The %ransla%ion of (.1/ an# (.2/ un#er %his assum5%ion is !iven in (.4/ an# (.,/3
(.4/ (.,/ Y;3 P7RSGN(;/ ) IN-ATO7NS(;/Z (IN-ROGD7S(;//
G7N
Y;3 DGG(;/Z ( :7GU(;//
In %hese formulas %he res%ric%or has been enclose# in s@uare brac-e%s an# %he nuclear sco5e in re!ular ones$ Uha% is s5ecial here is %ha% %he %9o @uan%ifiers an# G7N #o no% selec% a s5ecial variable for bin#in!$ The0 are assume# ins%ea# %o >unselec%ivel0? bin# an0 free variable in %heir res%ric%or or nuclear sco5e$ In our case %he onl0 such free variable is ; %he variable +<4
in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e$ The universal an# !eneric force of %he in#efini%es in (.1/ an# (.2/ %hen is conferre# %o %hem b0 @uan%ifiers e;%ernal %o %he DP i%self$ Oere 9e a#o5% a less ra#ical a55roach one 9here in#efini%es are assume# %o con%ribu%e an e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier in %hese e;am5les 6us% li-e else9here$ Uha% is s5ecial in %he e;am5les a% han# is %ha% %he universal @uan%ifier associa%e# 9i%h con#i%ionals an# %he im5lici% !eneric @uan%ifier in (.2/ bin# a si%ua%ion variable rela%ive %o 9hich %he in#efini%e is in%er5re%e#$ The 5ara5hrase of (.1/ un#er %his anal0sis is >f a situation s is suc! t!at t!ere is a person in s t!at is in At!ens% s is not a situation suc! t!at t!at person is in O!odes $ The 5ara5hrase of (.2/ is >n eneric situations s suc! t!at t!ere is a do in s% t!e s is suc! t!at t!at do does not meo&0 The formulas are !iven in (../ an# (.</ 9here s ran!es over si%ua%ions$
(../ (.</ s3 Y;3 P7RSGN-IN-s(;/ ) IN-ATO7NS-IN-s(;/Z (IN-ROGD7S-IN-s(;//
G7N
s Y;3 DGG-IN-s(;/Z ( :7GU-IN-s(;//
Oere %he e;is%en%ial occurs in %he nuclear sco5e of %he @uan%ifier %ha% bin#s %he si%ua%ion variable$
The formula in (../ raises %he 5roblem of >#on-e0 5ronoun? bin#in! i$e$ %he abili%0 of an e;is%en%ial in %he res%ric%or of a formula %o bin# a variable in %he nuclear sco5e of %ha% formula$ (In our case bin#s ; bo%h in %he res%ric%or an# %he nuclear sco5e$/ These cases are 9ell--no9n from e;am5les such as (i/3 (i/ 7ver0 farmer 9ho o9ns a #on-e0 bea%s i%$ If a farmer o9n a #on-e0 he bea%s i%$ There are various 9a0s of solvin! %his 5roblem %ha% are no% #irec%l0 relevan% %o 5resen% 5ur5oses an# %herefore 9ill no% be #iscusse# here$
7ach of %he solu%ions s-e%che# above involves a %echnical innova%ion since %he firs% assumes %ha% @uan%ifiers bin# unselec%ivel0 9hile %he secon# relies on %he in%ro#uc%ion of a variable ran!in! over a ne9 %05e of en%i%0 namel0 si%ua%ions$ 'o%h accoun% for %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he in#efini%e in %hese con%e;%s an# in bo%h %he in#efini%e is %rea%e# as havin! seman%icall0 narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o a universal or a !eneric @uan%ifier$ Ue a#o5% %he la%%er solu%ion because %he use of si%ua%ion variables fin#s am5le in#e5en#en% 6us%ifica%ion$ In (.2/ %he 5ro5er%0 of a 9hole -in# (%he -in# >#o!?/ is !iven b0 ma-in! reference %o arbi%rar0 in#ivi#uals %ha% realiAe i%$ Ano%her 9a0 of %al-in! abou% -in#s is %o #o so #irec%l0 b0 usin! a noun 5hrase %ha% refers %o %he 9hole -in#$ In Romanian %his is #one 9i%h a #efini%e DP in %he sin!ular or 5lural as sho9n in (.B/$
(.B/ a$ DrMii sun% rLs5Wn#iRi En 5L#urile #in aceas%L re!iune$ bears-%he are 9i#es5rea# in fores%s-%he from %his re!ion >'ears are 9i#es5rea# in %he fores%s of %his re!ion$? b$ Drsul e rLs5Wn#i% En 5L#urile #in aceas%L re!iune$ bear-%he is 9i#es5rea# in fores%s-%he from %his re!ion >The bear is 9i#es5rea# in %he fores%s of %his re!ion$? c$ DrMii sun% in%eli!enRi$ bears-%he are in%elli!en% >'ears are in%elli!en%$? #$ Drsul e mai in%eli!en% #ecW% vul5ea$ bear-%he is more in%elli!en% %han fo;-%he >The bear is more in%elli!en% %han %he fo;$?
In (.B/a-b %he a#6ec%ive rspndit >9i#es5rea#? is sai# %o be -in#-level because i% can be +<,
5re#ica%e# onl0 of -in#-level en%i%ies en%i%ies %ha% have in#ivi#uals as realiAa%ions$ In (.B/c-# %he a#6ec%ive is sai# %o be in#ivi#ual-level because i% charac%eriAes 9hole in#ivi#uals (ra%her %han a55l0in! %o s5a%io-%em5oral manifes%a%ions of in#ivi#uals %05ical of s%a!e-level 5re#ica%es such as obosit >%ire#?/$ In or#er %o ma-e formal sense of %hese observa%ions one has %o assume a more com5le; on%olo!0 %han 9e have #one so far$ Till no9 9e assume# %ha% in#ivi#ual variables 9hen %he0 are ar!umen%s of coun% nouns ran!e over in#ivi#uals or sums %hereof$ Ue no9 have %o enrich %his on%olo!0 allo9in! variables %o ran!e over #inds as 9ell as individuals$ A -in# is a s5ecial en%i%0 9hose realiAa%ions (or ins%an%ia%ions/ are in#ivi#uals$ Thus %he -in# >#o!? is an en%i%0 %ha% can be observe# in %he 9orl# via i%s in#ivi#ual realiAa%ion in#ivi#ual #o!s$ In#ivi#ual en%i%ies in %heir %urn are observe# in %he 9orl# via %heir s5a%io-%em5oral realiAa%ions calle# sta es %heir 5resence in 5ar%icular si%ua%ions anchore# in a 5ar%icular %ime a% a 5ar%icular 5lace$ Lan!ua!es #iffer 9i%h res5ec% %o 9he%her %he0 use #efini%e 5lural or in#efini%e (or bare/ 5lurals in e;am5les li-e (.B/$ Romanian is li-e o%her Romance lan!ua!es in usin! #efini%es here 9hile 7n!lish an# o%her Germanic lan!ua!es use in#efini%e forms as %he !losses sho9$ The use of %he #efini%e form is 6us%ifie# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he DP here refers %o %he uni@ue -in#level %ha% com5rises %he in#ivi#uals of %he relevan% -in# an# such reference is associa%e# 9i%h #efini%e DPs as ar!ue# above$ 3.2. Ma0>e3 .n3ef.n.te 3ete06.ne0s I% is no9 %ime %o %urn %o %he mo%le0 !rou5 of mar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminers$ These #e%erminers are li-e or#inar0 in#efini%es in %ha% %he0 lac- %he fea%ure Y D7FZ an# %hus #o no% re@uire #e%ermine# reference$ The0 are unli-e or#inar0 in#efini%es ho9ever in %ha% %he0 are mar-e# for o%her s5ecial fea%ures %ha% #is%in!uish %hem from %heir unmar-e# sis%er as 9ell as from one ano%her$ 3.2.1. Pa0t.t.2e DPs an3 5a0t.t.2e 3ete06.ne0s As has been men%ione# alrea#0 5ar%i%ivi%0 is charac%eriAe# seman%icall0 as reference %o one en%i%0 chosen from amon! a non-sin!le%on !rou5 of familiar en%i%ies a !rou5 9e call %he domain of %he 5ar%i%ive DP$ This !rou5 is necessaril0 non-sin!le%on in %ha% i% has %o have more %han one member$ Ue briefl0 e;amine here ho9 5ar%i%ivi%0 is e;5resse# in Romanian$ Firs% as alrea#0 men%ione# in Romanian li-e in man0 o%her lan!ua!es 5ar%i%ivi%0 can remain mor5ho-s0n%ac%icall0 unmar-e# as in %he bol#-face# in#efini%e in (.C/ 9hose referen% is un#ers%oo# as chosen from %he !rou5 of %hree !irls %ha% has 6us% been in%ro#uce#$
(.C/ Ion are %rei fe%e$ O fat: e la TimiMoara celelal%e #ouL sun% la Clu6$ Ion has %hree !irls a !irl is a% TimiMoara %he-o%hers %9o are a% Clu6 >Ion has %hree !irls$ A !irl is in TimiMoara %he o%her %9o are in Clu6$?
Seman%icall0 5ar%i%ive DPs are in#efini%e in %ha% %heir reference is un#e%ermine#3 an0 of %he elemen%s of %heir non-sin!le%on #omain is a 5o%en%ial referen%$ Par%i%ive DPs are ho9ever s5ecial in %ha% %heir reference is more res%ric%e# in 5rinci5le %han %ha% of %heir non-5ar%i%ive or#inar0 in#efini%e coun%er5ar%s because in %he case of %he 5ar%i%ives %he se% of 5ossible referen%s is circumscribe# %o elemen%s of %he con%e;%uall0 5resen% #omain$ Thus in (.C/ %he referen% of %he seman%icall0 5ar%i%ive DP o fat is an0 of %he 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# %hree !irls %ha% Ion has an# %herefore %he reference is un#e%ermine#$ I% is ho9ever res%ric%e# %o be one of %hese aforemen%ione# %hree !irls$ In (<=/ 9e e;em5lif0 %he mos% formall0 e;5lici% 5ar%i%ive %05e in Romanian3
(<=/ a$ Una 3.nEt0eF /:0t.le 3e 5e 6as: e O(boi i pace$
+<.
The Seman%ics of De%erminers a$FSG$ADG: of boo-s-%he on %able is Uar an# Peace >Gne of %he boo-s on %he %able is Mar and /eace$? b$ Un.. 3.nt0e st13enA.. l1. Ion sun% nemulRumi%i$ a$:PL$ADG: of s%u#en%s-%he G'L Ion are unha550 >Some of Ion?s s%u#en%s are unha550$?
This e;5lici% 5ar%i%ive form is ma#e u5 of %he >s%ron!? in#efini%e ar%icle unul$una 9hich in %he sin!ular is i#en%ical %o %he numeral one follo9e# b0 a PP 5hrase hea#e# b0 %he P din)tre* 9hose referen% is %he #omain of %he 5ar%i%ive an# 9hich mus% be #efini%e$ Uha% 9e call here %he s%ron! form of %he in#efini%e ar%icle is ma#e u5 mor5holo!icall0 from %he masculine sin!ular (i$e$ unmar-e#/ form of %he in#efini%e ar%icle un follo9e# b0 an >au!men%? 9hich in %he #irec% case is i#en%ical %o %he #efini%e ar%icle cli%ic an# in %he obli@ue case is - a (see cha5%er 2 sec%ion 2/$ Ue 9ill assume here %ha% %he nominal hea# of %he 5ar%i%ive is obli!a%oril0 em5%0 an# is ana5horicall0 rela%e# %o %he nominal hea# of %he DP in %he #omain 5hrase$ The #omain 5hrase can be lef% une;5resse# in a 5ar%i%ive DP in 9hich case i% is recoverable from %he imme#ia%el0 5rece#in! #iscourse as in (<+/3
(<+/ a$ Au in%ra% %rei fe%e$ Una era EmbrLca%L ele!an% celelal%e #ouL nu$ have$2PL en%ere# %hree !irls a$FSG$ADG: 9as #resse# ele!an%l0 %he-o%hers %9o no% >Three !irls came in$ Gne 9as #resse# ele!an%l0 %he o%her %9o 9eren?%$? b$ L-am vLAu% ieri 5e :anole cu 1na la res%auran%$ CL$ACC-have$+ seen 0es%er#a0 DG: :anole 9i%h a$FSG$ADG: a% res%auran% >I sa9 :anole 0es%er#a0 9i%h some 9oman a% a res%auran%$?
The un#e%ermine# referen% of una mus% be chosen from amon! %he %hree !irls 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce#$
The s%ron! in#efini%e ar%icle 9i%h an em5%0 hea# ma0 also be use# in a non-5ar%i%ive sense %o refer %o an elemen% of %he se% humans male if %he form is masculine an# female if %he form is feminine as e;em5lifie# in (i/3 (i/ L-am vLAu% ieri 5e :anole cu 1na la res%auran%$ CL$ACCxhave$+ seen 0es%er#a0 DG: :anole 9i%h a-%he$FSG a% res%auran% >I sa9 :anole 0es%er#a0 9i%h some 9oman a% a res%auran%$?
The 5lural form of %he s%ron! in#efini%e #e%erminer unii$unele ma0 occur 9i%h an over% nominal hea# an# no #omain 5hrase in %he #irec% case as in (<1/$ Ue call %his form >sim5le 5ar%i%ive? because %he #omain is no% e;5resse# b0 a PP bu% ra%her b0 a sim5le nominal$
(<1/ a$ Un.. 5a/.enA. au aler!ie la aces% me#icamen%$ a$:PL$ADG: 5a%ien%s have aller!0 a% %his me#icine >Some 5a%ien%s are aller!ic %o %his me#icine$? b$ `n salL erau a#unaRi s%u#enRi 5rofesori Mi a#minis%ra%ori$ Un.. st13enA. in room 9ere !a%here# s%u#en%s 5rofessors an# a#minis%ra%ors a$ :PL$ADG: s%u#en%s 5ur%au 5ancar#e alRii s%ea!uri$ carrie# si!ns o%her$:PL$ADG: fla!s >In %he hall %here 9ere !a%here# s%u#en%s 5rofessors an# a#minis%ra%ors$ Some s%u#en%s 9ere carr0in! si!ns o%hers fla!s$
Sim5le 5ar%i%ives are seman%icall0 5ar%i%ives in %ha% %he DP is un#ers%oo# as referrin! %o a s%ric% subse% of %he referen% of i%s nominal hea#$ In %he absence of con%e;%ual su55or% as in (<1/a %he nominal hea# refers %o %he ma;imal se% in i%s #eno%a%ion an# %he sen%ence is un#ers%oo# as a charac%eriAin! s%a%emen% abou% %ha% se%$ Thus (<1/a is a !eneral s%a%emen% abou% 5a%ien%s
+<<
s%a%in! %ha% a s%ric% subse% of %hem are aller!ic %o %he me#icine$ '0 con%ras% if an or#inar0 5lural in#efini%e is use# ins%ea# as in (<2/
(<2/ NiM%e 5acienRi au aler!ie la aces% me#icamen%$ some 5a%ien%s have aller!0 a% %his me#icine >Some 5a%ien%s are aller!ic %o %his me#icine$?
%he s%a%emen% is abou% a non-#e%ermine# !rou5 of 5a%ien%s$ Subs%i%u%in! %he full 5ar%i%ive DP unii dintre pacieni %o unii pacieni in (<1/a re@uires %he #omain pacieni %o be #efini%e i$e$ %he con%e;% mus% su55l0 a se% of 5a%ien%s an# %he full 5ar%i%ive DP refers %o a s%ric% subse% %hereof$ In (<1/b on %he o%her han# %he #omain is con%e;%uall0 res%ric%e# %o %he se% of s%u#en%s 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# an# %herefore in %his case %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he sim5le 5ar%i%ive unii studeni >some s%u#en%s? is i#en%ical %o %ha% of %he full 5ar%i%ive unii dintre studeni0 To ca5%ure %he sub%le bu% im5or%an% #ifference be%9een 5ar%i%ive DPs an# or#inar0 in#efini%es one shoul# ca5i%aliAe on %he role of %he #omain 5hrase in 5ar%i%ives vs$ or#inar0 (in/#efini%es$ In or#inar0 in#efini%es %he #omain 5hrase is %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP$ This 5hrase is in%er5re%e# as a 5re#ica%e on %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e$ In 5ar%i%ives DPs on %he o%her han# %he relevan% con#i%ion involves %he e;5lici% >elemen% of? rela%ion be%9een %9o in#e5en#en%l0 in%ro#uce# variables one variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5ar%i%ive in#efini%e an# boun# b0 an e;is%en%ial an# one in%ro#uce# b0 %he DP in %he #omain 5hrase$ Thus %he re5resen%a%ion of %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he e;5lici% 5ar%i%ive DP unul dintre studenii lui >on involves ' 1 y 9here ' is %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5ar%i%ive unul y is %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he #omain nominal an# 1 s%an#s for %he >s%ric%l0 5ar% of? rela%ion be%9een an en%i%0 an# a se% or !rou5 %ha% %he en%i%0 is a sub5ar% of 9i%h %he a##e# con#i%ion %ha% bo%h en%i%ies have %o be in#ivi#ua%e#$ Ue assume %ha% %he #e%erminer in over%l0 5ar%i%ive DPs such as unul dintre studenti >one of %he s%u#en%s? is mar-e# 9i%h a fea%ure Y PARTZ %ha% im5oses %he re@uiremen% %ha% %he value of %he variable i% in%ro#uces be chosen from %he con%e;%uall0 su55lie# se% or !rou5 #eno%e# b0 %he DP ob6ec% of %he 5re5osi%ion din)tre* >of?$ As seen in Sec%ion 2$+ above %he 5lural in#efini%e civa >several? is com5a%ible 9i%h 5ar%i%ive uses bu% %he non-in#ivi#ua%e# nite is no%$ Romanian has a !rou5 of >#is6oin% reference? s5ecial in#efini%e DPs 9hose #e%erminer is a form 9i%hin %he 5ara#i!m of (un/ alt or cellalt$ The former in%ro#uces a variable 9hose value mus% be #is6oin% from %he reference of a 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# variable 9hile %he la%%er in%ro#uces a variable 9hose reference is bo%h #is6oin% rela%ive %o an an%ece#en% an# ma;imal rela%ive %o %heir common #omain$ These #is6oin% reference DPs ma0 have a 5ar%i%ive use as e;em5lifie# in (<4/3
(<4/ Ion are %rei fe%e$ G fa%L e la TimiMoara (o/ al%L fa%L e la Clu6/celelal%e fe%e sun% la Clu6$ Ion has %hree !irls a !irl is a% TimiMoara a o%her !irl is a% Clu6/%he-o%hers !irls are a% Clu6 >Ion has %hree !irls$ A !irl is in TimiMoara ano%her !irl is in Clu6/%he o%her !irls are in Clu6$?
The referen% of )o* alt fat >ano%her !irl? mus% be #is6oin% from %ha% of %he an%ece#en% o fatI %he referen% of celelalte fete >%he o%her !irls? is #is6oin% rela%ive %o %he firs% in#efini%e bu% ma;imal rela%ive %o %heir common #omain namel0 Ion?s %hree !irls$
'ecause Ion is sai# %o have %hree !irls in (<4/ %he ma;imal #is6oin% DP mus% be 5lural %o cover %he %9o !irls remainin! af%er %he !irl in TimiMoara is sub%rac%e#$ Oa# Ion ha# %9o !irls onl0 %he ma;imal #is6oin% DP 9oul# have been sin!ular (cealalt fat e la ,lu+ >%he o%her !irl is in Clu6?$/
These forms can also be use# 9i%h null nominal hea#s as e;em5lifie# in (<,/3
+Ion has %hree !irls$ Gne is in TimiMoara ano%her in Clu6/%he o%hers in Clu6$?
Common %o %he #e%erminers #iscusse# in %his subsec%ion is %ha% %he0 in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% 9hose value is re@uire# %o be a sub5ar% of %he value of ano%her #iscourse referen% (%heir #omain/$ 3.2.2. De5en3ent .n3ef.n.tes? t8e /o+2a09.n4 3ete06.ne0 cte un In Romanian %he unmar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminer can be 5rece#e# b0 %he mor5heme cte 9hose effec% is %o %urn %he DP in%o a >#e5en#en% in#efini%e?$ The 5resence of %his mor5heme re@uires %he #iscourse referen% in%ro#uce# b0 %he DP %o co-var0 9i%h ano%her var0in! #iscourse referen%$ This means %ha% %here mus% be ano%her e;5ression in %he environmen% of %he #e5en#en% in#efini%e %ha% 5rovi#es a variable 9i%h var0in! values an# %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 cte un mus% have values %ha% co-var0 9i%h i% resul%in! in a s5ecial %05e of >i%era%ive? or evalua%ive 5lural reference$ The co-var0in! #e5en#en% DP %herefore mus% have narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o %he e;5ression %ha% in%ro#uces %he #iscourse referen% 9i%h 9hich i% co-varies$ To e;em5lif0 consi#er %he e;am5le in (<./ 9here %he cte in#efini%e mus% be in%er5re%e# no% onl0 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of %he universal bu% mus% in fac% co-var0 9i%h i%$
(<./ Fiecare co5il a ci%i% /Kte o car%e$ ever0 chil# has rea# DISTR a boo>7ver0 chil# rea# a boo-$?
In (<</a 9e see %ha% #e5en#en% in#efini%es ma0 co-var0 9i%h an im5lici% universal %ha% #is%ribu%es over %he elemen%s of a sum DP an# in (<</b 9e see %ha% i% ma0 co-var0 9i%h an a#verb of @uan%ifica%ion %ha% forces a 5lurac%ional in%er5re%a%ion of %he sen%ence in i%s sco5e$ 7;am5le (<The cri%ics 9ro%e abou% a 5la0 each$? b$ Din cWn# En cWn# /Kte un s%u#en% 5unea /Kte o En%rebare$ from 9hen in 9hen DISTR a s%u#en% as-$I:PF DISTR a @ues%ion >From %ime %o %ime a s%u#en% as-e# a @ues%ion$?
A DP mar-e# b0 cte is 5lural in %he sense %ha% in (<</a %here mus% be several 5la0s involve#I such DPs are sin!ular in %he sense %ha% %he sen%ence claims %here %o be one 5la0 5er cri%icI in (<evalua%ion 5lural?$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e call >licensin! variable? %he variable %ha% %he #e5en#en% DP co-varies 9i%h$ No%e %ha% %he licensin! variable ma0 be in#ivi#ual #eno%in! as in (<./ an# (<</a or si%ua%ion #eno%in! as in (<qou mus% rea# a boo-$?
The %05e of in%er5re%a%ional cons%rain% involve# in %he case of #e5en#en% in#efini%es can be
+<C
easil0 e;5resse# 9i%hin %he a55roach %o %he sco5e of or#inar0 in#efini%es #iscusse# a% %he en# of 2$+$+ above$ Recall %ha% %he essence of %ha% a55roach is %ha% in#efini%es have access %o 5reviousl0 in%ro#uce# var0in! variables an# %he0 are free %o choose 9he%her %o be in%er5re%e# as co-var0in! 9i%h %hem or no%$ Ue re5resen% co-varia%ion as su5erscri5%in! of %he e;is%en%ial variable 9i%h %he variable i% co-varies 9i%h$ Ue no9 can %rea% %he mor5holo!ical mar-in! b0 cte as con%ribu%in! a seman%ic fea%ure YCGZ %ha% re@uires %he e;is%en%iall0 boun# variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he in#efini%e %o be su5erscri5%e# 9i%h an in#ivi#ual or si%ua%ion-#eno%in! variable 9i%h 9hich i% has %o co-var0$ The re5resen%a%ion of (<./ %hen is as in (<C/3
(<C/ Y;3 /8.l3(;/Z (Yg;h03 boo>(0/Z 0ea3(; 0//
No%e %ha% %his accoun% correc%l0 5re#ic%s %ha% #e5en#en% in#efini%es 9ill no% be license# b0 ne!a%ion as sho9n in (B=/ because ne!a%ion #oes no% con%ribu%e an a55ro5ria%e variable for %he #e5en#en% in#efini%e %o co-var0 9i%h3
(B=/ X:aria nu a ci%i% cte o car%e #es5re Clu6$ :aria no% has rea# DISTR a boo- abou% Clu6
The e;is%ence of such #e5en#en% in#efini%es is a rela%ivel0 common cross-lin!uis%ic 5henomenon formall0 mar-e# ei%her b0 s5ecial e;%ra mor5holo!0 (as in Russian or Albanian/ on %he in#efini%e or b0 re#u5lica%in! %he in#efini%e #e%erminer (as in Oun!arian or :a0an lan!ua!es/$ These s5ecial in#efini%es un#erscore %he im5or%ance of %he seman%ic no%ion of covaria%ion of values be%9een %9o variables a no%ion %ha% %he a55roach %o in#efini%e sco5e assume# here %a-es as basic$ 3.2.3 T8e ne4at.2e .n3ef.n.te 3ete06.ne0 niciun Ano%her class of s5ecial in#efini%e #e%erminers men%ione# alrea#0 in Sec%ion + involves %he ne!a%ive mor5heme nici 5rece#in! %he in#efini%e ar%icle e;em5lifie# in (B+/3
(B+/ a$ N./.un s%u#en% nu a 5leca%$ N7G-a s%u#en% no% has lef% >No s%u#en% lef%$? b$ Nu a veni% n./.un s%u#en%$ no% has arrive# N7G-a s%u#en% >No s%u#en% arrive#$? c$ Paul nu a invi%a% n./.un s%u#en%$ Paul no% has invi%e# N7G-a s%u#en% >Paul hasn?% invi%e# an0 s%u#en%$?
The re@uiremen% im5ose# b0 %he 5resence of nici is %ha% %he in#efini%e DP mus% occur 9i%hin %he imme#ia%e sco5e of an a55ro5ria%e ne!a%ive elemen% (sen%en%ial ne!a%ion or %he ne!a%ive a#verb fr >9i%hou%?/$ Conse@uen%l0 nici mar-e# in#efini%es mus% be in%er5re%e# un#er %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion i$e$ %he0 are in%er5re%e# as e;is%en%ials 9i%hin %he sco5e of ne!a%ion$ Ue %herefore a## %o our se% of fea%ures %ha% ma0 occur on in#efini%es %he fea%ure YN7GZ con%ribu%e# b0 %he mor5heme nici si!nalin! %ha% %he in#efini%e has %o be in%er5re%e# 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion$ No%e %ha% %he 9a0 an e;is%en%ial is in%er5re%e# 9hen i% occurs 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion is mar-e#l0 #ifferen% from i%s in%er5re%a%ion else9here$ The verifica%ion 5roce#ure for a formula of %he !eneral form (Y;3P(;/Z8(;// involves verif0in! for ever0 i%em %ha% sa%isfies %he res%ric%or (i$e$ ever0 en%i%0 %ha% is P/ %ha% i% #oes no% sa%isf0 %he nuclear sco5e (i$e$ %ha% i% is no% 8/$ This is si!nifican%l0 #ifferen% from 9ha% ha55ens 9i%h e;is%en%ials ou%si#e %he sco5e of ne!a%ion 9here one sim5l0 has %o fin# +B=
some en%i%0 %ha% verifies %he res%ric%or an# %he nuclear sco5e$ I% is no% sur5risin! %herefore %ha% %here are lan!ua!es li-e Romanian 9hich over%l0 mar- in#efini%es %ha% are 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion$ The fea%ure YN7GZ %hen si!nals %ha% %he in#efini%e is 9i%hin %he sco5e of sen%en%ial ne!a%ion an# %herefore nici can be seen as a mor5holo!ical realiAa%ion of sen%en%ial ne!a%ion$ Romanian is a ne!a%ive concor# lan!ua!e in %ha% sen%en%ial ne!a%ion is realiAe# no% onl0 on %he in#efini%e bu% also on %he verb b0 %he ne!a%ive mor5heme nu$ The rela%ionshi5 be%9een sen%en%ial ne!a%ion an# nici mar-in! is ra%her com5le;$ Firs% sen%en%ial ne!a%ion is obli!a%or0$ If an in#efini%e sub6ec% is %o be in%er5re%e# un#er %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion i% has %o be mar-e# b0 nici bo%h in 5re- an# in 5os%-verbal 5osi%ion an# %herefore %he unmar-e# in#efini%es in (B1/ 9ill be in%er5re%e# ou%si#e %he sco5e of ne!a%ion3
(B1/ a$ Dn s%u#en% nu a 5leca%$ a s%u#en% no% has lef% >A s%u#en% #i#n?% leave$? b$ Nu a veni% un s%u#en%$ no% has arrive# a s%u#en% >A s%u#en% has no% arrive#$
In non-sub6ec% 5osi%ion ho9ever nici mar-in! is no% obli!a%or0 an# %herefore (B2/ is ambi!uous3 %he in#efini%e ma0 be in%er5re%e# ei%her 9i%hin or ou%si#e %he sco5e of ne!a%ion i$e$ %he claim (B2/ ma-es can ei%her be %ha% %here 9as no mis%a-e %ha% Paul foun# or %ha% %here 9as a mis%a-e %ha% he #i#n?% fin#3
(B2/ Paul nu a !Lsi% o !reMealL En lucrarea mea oricW% s- a s%rL#ui%$ Paul no% has foun# a mis%a-e in 5a5er-%he mine ho9ever R7FL has %rie# >Paul #i#n?% fin# a mis%a-e in m0 5a5er no ma%%er ho9 har# he %rie#$?
Ne!a%ive in#efini%es ma0 also occur in a#verbial clauses in%ro#uce# b0 fr >9i%hou%? as e;em5lifie# in (B4/3
(B4/ Paul a 5leca% fLrL sL (Xnu/ s5unL niciun cuvWn%$ Paul has lef% 9i%hou% SD'N no% sa0 N7G-a 9or# >Paul lef% 9i%hou% sa0in! an0%hin!$?
In such clauses sen%en%ial ne!a%ion is no% 5ossible bu% ne!a%ion is seman%icall0 5resen%3 5ar% of %he claim (B4/ ma-es is %ha% Paul #i# no% sa0 an0 9or# a% %he relevan% %ime$ The connec%ion be%9een fr >9i%hou%? clauses an# nici mar-e# in#efini%es is more com5le;$ Thus 9hile sub6ec%s in ne!a%ive clauses mus% be mar-e# b0 nici in fr >9i%hou%? clauses %he0 #o no% have %o3
(B,/ Ana a 5leca% fLrL sL o observe (nici/un 5rofesor$ Ana has lef% 9i%hou% SD'N her$ACC no%ice N7G a 5rofessor >Ana lef% 9i%hou% a 5rofessor no%icin!$?
Oere un profesor >a 5rofessor? can be in%er5re%e# as bein! ei%her 9i%hin %he sco5e of ne!a%ion (in 9hich case (B,/ claims %ha% no 5rofessor no%ice# Ana?s leavin!/ or ou%si#e i%s sco5e (in 9hich case %he claim is %ha% %here is a 5rofessor 9ho #i#n?% no%ice her leavin!/$ The former rea#in! can be enforce# b0 %he use of nici$ As 9e 9ill see in %he ne;% subsec%ion %he s5ecial in#efini%e vreun can be use# %o mar- %he occurrence of an in#efini%e 9i%hin %he sco5e of %he im5lici% seman%ic ne!a%ion in fr >9i%hou%? clauses$
+B+
In sum nici mar-e# DPs involve a YN7GZ fea%ure 9hose seman%ic role is sim5le3 i% si!nals %ha% %he in#efini%e mus% be in%er5re%e# 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion$ :or5hos0n%ac%ic com5le;i%ies arise 9hen one loo-s a% %he #e%ails of 9hen %his fea%ure ma0 or mus% be 5resen%$ The in%er5re%ive conse@uences of havin! an e;is%en%ial 9i%hin %he sco5e of ne!a%ion ma-e %he e;is%ence of a fea%ure such as YN7GZ unsur5risin!$ 3.2.$. F0ee /8o./e? vreun an3 ori- determiners In %his sec%ion 9e #iscuss %9o s5ecial #e%erminers3 (i/ %he ori-#e%erminers e;em5lifie# in (B./a-b an# %he com5le; in#efini%e vreun e;em5lifie# in (B./c$ The 5ar%i%ive form of vreun is e;em5lifie# in (B./#$
(B./ a$ PoRi lua o0./e mLr$ can$1SG %a-e ori-9ha% a55le >qou ma0 %a-e an0 a55le$? b$ PoRi lua o0./a0e mLr #in farfuria as%a$ can$1SG %a-e ori-9hich a55le from 5la%e-%he %his >qou ma0 %a-e an0 a55le from %his 5la%e$? c$ Ai 20eo car%e #es5re Clu6K Oave vre-a boo- abou% Clu6 >Do 0ou have an0 boo- abou% Clu6K? #$ DacL El veAi 5e 20e1n1l #in s%u#enRii lui Ion %riMWn# if him$ACC see$1SG DG: vre-a$ADG: of s%u#en%s-%he G'L Ion chea%in! s5une- mi$ %ell$I:PV$1SG-me$DAT >If 0ou see an0 of Ion?s s%u#en%s chea%in! %ell me$?
The #e%erminers 9i%hin %he ori series are ma#e u5 of %he ori mor5heme (rela%e# %o #is6unc%ion/ an# ei%her an in#efini%e in%erro!a%ive 5ronoun inflec%e# for H/- 5erson ( oricine$orice/ or %he 5ar%i%ive (or #-lin-e#/ in%erro!a%ive 5ronoun care >9hich? use# 9hen %he #omain of en%i%ies from 9hich values are %o be selec%e# is con%e;%uall0 available$ Ereun-in#efini%es are ma#e u5 of %he boun# mor5heme vre- follo9e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle %ha% a!rees 9i%h %he hea# noun in !en#er an# number$ The 5ar%i%ive form of vreun involves %he au!men% 6us% as in %he case of 5ar%i%ive in#efini%es$ In %his sec%ion 9e firs% see %ha% ori- an# vreun in#efini%es #o %he 9or- of so calle# >free choice? any in 7n!lish$ Ue 9ill %hen #iscuss some rela%e# uses of vreun in#efini%es %ha% fall ou%si#e %he free choice #omain$
The Romanian e@uivalen% of %he >6us% an0? use of any is 0e% ano%her mor5heme oarecare 5lace# af%er %he hea# noun3 (i/ 7l nu e 1n st13ent oa0e/a0e$ 7 fiul #ecanului$ he no% is a s%u#en% oare-9hich is son-%he #ean-%he$G7N >Oe is no% 6us% an0 s%u#en%$ Oe is %he #ean?s son$?
In man0 lan!ua!es inclu#in! Romanian %here are mar-e# #e%erminers calle# >free choice? (FC/ because %he0 si!nal %ha% %here are several al%erna%ive values for %he variable %he0 in%ro#uce 9hich coun% as bein! in some sense e@ual$ The mos% s%u#ie# such #e%erminer is 7n!lish any e;em5lifie# in (B</3
(B</ a$ qou ma0 %a-e an9 a55le$ b$ Do 0ou have an9 boo-s abou% Clu6K
The >free choice? label is use# because in (B</a %he use of any si!nals %ha% %he a##ressee is +B1
free %o choose %he a55le she %a-es i$e$ %ha% all %he relevan% a55les are e@ual 9i%h res5ec% %o %he 5ermission bein! !iven$ Similarl0 in (B</b %he use of any si!nals %ha% #ifferences amon! various boo-s abou% Clu6 are no% relevan% for %he s5ea-er?s 5ur5oses$ Oer @ues%ion concerns %he e;is%ence of some boo- abou% Clu6 i% #oes no% ma%%er 9hich$ The %9o uses of any e;em5lifie# in (B</ are covere# b0 #ifferen% #e%erminers in Romanian as seen in (B./$ Ue firs% #iscuss %heir common 5ro5er%ies an# %hen %urn %o #ifferen%ia%in! %hem$ Ue follo9 %he line in %he li%era%ure %ha% %rea%s FC #e%erminers as s5ecial in#efini%es i$e$ as in#efini%es %ha% im5ose s5ecial con#i%ions on %heir evalua%ion$ The s5ecial na%ure of FC #e%erminers is a55aren% in %ha% %heir #is%ribu%ion is cons%raine# b0 %9o !eneraliAa%ions$ Firs% %he0 ma0 no% occur in e5iso#ic sen%ences as e;em5lifie# in (BB/3
(BB/ XIeri Ioana a vorbi% cu orice s%u#en%$ 0es%er#a0 Ioana has s5o-en 9i%h ori-9ha% s%u#en%
DPs hea#e# b0 %hese Ds %hen mus% be 9i%hin %he sco5e of an o5era%or such as a mo#al as in (B</a-b %he in%erro!a%ive o5era%or as in (B</c a con#i%ional or ne!a%ion e;em5lifie# in (BC/3
(BC/ a$ DacL 5leacL 20e1n@o0./e s%u#en% mL voi su5Lra$ if leaves vre-a ori-9ha% s%u#en% R7FL 9ill$+SG u5se% >If an0 s%u#en% leaves I 9ill be an!r0$? b$ :anole a 5leca% fLrL sL 5unL 20eo En%rebare$ :anole has lef% 9i%hou% SD'N as-s vre-a @ues%ion >:anole lef% 9i%hou% as-in! an0 @ues%ion$?
There are %9o fur%her observa%ions %o be ma#e 9i%h res5ec% %o %he #is%ribu%ion of %hese FC i%ems$ Firs% %he ban on e5iso#ic sen%ences illus%ra%e# b0 (BB/ is lif%e# in case %he DP is a55ro5ria%el0 mo#ifie# a 5henomenon -no9n as sub%ri!!in! illus%ra%e# in (C=/3
(C=/ Ieri Ioana a vorbi% cu orice s%u#en% care s-a 5reAen%a% En biroul ei$ 0es%er#a0 Ioana has s5o-en 9i%h ori-9ha% s%u#en% 9ho R7FL-has 5resen%e# in office-%he her >qes%er#a0 Iona s5o-e 9i%h an0 s%u#en% 9ho sho9e# u5 in her office$?
Secon# %hou!h mo#als license %hese DPs universal mo#als #o no% as illus%ra%e# in (C+/3
(C+/ XTrebuie sL !uM%i o0./e mLr$ mus% SD'N %as%e$1SG ori-9ha% a55le
A!ain a55ro5ria%e mo#ifica%ion rescues %hese e;am5les as seen in (C1/3

(C1/ Trebuie sL !uM%i o0./e mLr 5e care Ri-l va oferi :aria mus% SD'N %as%e$1SG ori-9ha% a55le DG: 9hich 0ou$DAT-CL$ACC 9ill offer :aria >qou mus% %as%e an0 a55le %ha% :aria 9ill offer 0ou$?
In 9ha% follo9s 9e #iscuss %he follo9in! %hree rela%e# @ues%ions3 (i/ ho9 %o charac%eriAe %he in%er5re%a%ion of %hese s5ecial #e%erminers in such a 9a0 as %o ca5%ure 9ha% is uni@ue %o %hem as 9ell as 9ha% %he0 share 9i%h o%her #e%erminers (ii/ ho9 %o accoun% for %he !eneraliAa%ions %ha% !overn %heir #is%ribu%ion an# (iii/ ho9 %o #ifferen%ia%e be%9een ori-#e%erminers an# vreun0 Common %o %he FC i%ems in %he ori- an# vreun !rou5s in%ui%ivel0 is %ha% %heir value is %o be freel0 chosen from amon! %he i%ems %ha% fall 9i%hin %he #eno%a%ion of %heir #escri5%ive con%en%$ Ue ca5%ure %his b0 assumin! %ha% %heir in%er5re%a%ion involves a ma;imal se% P of +B2
mu%uall0 e;clusive un#ifferen%ia%e# al%erna%ives$ The no%ion of al%erna%ives use# here is %he same as %he D0namic Seman%ic no%ion of possibilities3 i% is a se% of assi!nmen% func%ion an# si%ua%ion 5airs f% s such %ha% f)'%s* (%he value %ha% f assi!ns %o ' in s/ sa%isfies %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP 9here ' is %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he FC #e%erminer$ (Ue %rea% here 9orl#s as ma;imal si%ua%ions$/ The al%erna%ives involve# are ma;imal in %ha% %he0 cover each en%i%0 in %he (5o%en%iall0 con%e;%uall0 res%ric%e#/ #omain of %he DP$ Thus for each relevan% a55le a %here 9ill be an al%erna%ive ef% sf in P% %he #eno%a%ion of orice mr in (C1/ 9here %he value of f)'%s* is a0 For sim5lici%0?s sa-e 9e 9ill %a-e P %o be a se% of in#ivi#ual-si%ua%ion 5airs 9here %he in#ivi#ual is %he value %ha% %he assi!nmen% func%ion assi!ns %o %he variable in s$ The mu%ual e;clusivi%0 re@uiremen% ensures %ha% each al%erna%ive in P is #ifferen% from all %he o%hers$ In or#er %o e;5ress %his re@uiremen% 9e use referen%ial in#ices on in#ivi#uals an# si%ua%ions an# assume %ha% non-i#en%i%0 of in#e; en%ails #is%inc%ness of value$ The se% of al%erna%ives P in %he #eno%a%ion of a FC DP is %he ma;imal se% of 5airs of en%i%ies an# si%ua%ions evi s6 f 9here %he en%i%0 sa%isfies %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP an# in a##i%ion %he mu%ual e;clusivi%0 re@uiremen% !iven in (C2/ enforces s%ric% co-varia%ion be%9een en%i%0 an# si%ua%ion for each 5air in %he se%$
(C2/ 5utual e'clusivity3 A se% of al%erna%ives F is mu%uall0 e;clusive iff for an0 %9o 5airs evi s6 f an# evi? s6? f in P i? w i an# 6? w 6$
7ach al%erna%ive in %he se% involves a #ifferen% in#ivi#ual an# a #ifferen% minimal si%ua%ion$ The al%erna%ives involve# are un#ifferen%ia%e# in %he sense %ha% each is a 5ossible verif0in! al%erna%ive for %he e;5ression in 9hich %he FC DP occurs$ In %he case of (B./a %hen orice mr >an0 a55le? #eno%es a se% of ma;imal al%erna%ives ma#e u5 of a minimal si%ua%ion an# an a55le in i% one such al%erna%ive 5er relevan% a55le$ The 9hole sen%ence sa0s %ha% for each such al%erna%ive %here is a lar!er si%ua%ion %ha% con%ains i% in 9hich 0ou %a-e %ha% a55le an# no o%her an# 9hich is 9i%hin %he realm of 5ermissible si%ua%ions$ In %he case of (B./c vreo carte despre ,lu+ >an0 boo- abou% Clu6? #eno%es a ma;imal se% of mu%uall0 e;clusive al%erna%ives involvin! #ifferen% minimal si%ua%ions an# #ifferen% boo-s abou% Clu6 in %hem one such al%erna%ive for each 5ossible boo-$ The @ues%ion o5era%or in%ro#uces a se% of 5ossible 5osi%ive an# ne!a%ive ans9ers an# %he use of %he free choice vreun ensures %ha% each si%ua%ion such %ha% %here is a boo- abou% Clu6 in i% %ha% %he a##ressee has falls 9i%hin %he 5osi%ive si#e$ In (BC/a %he vreun in#efini%e in%ro#uces s%u#en%-si%ua%ion 5airs one such 5air for each 5ossible s%u#en%$ The con#i%ional %hen sa0s %ha% each lar!er 5ossible si%ua%ion in 9hich %here is a s%u#en% %ha% leaves is such %ha% %he s5ea-er !e%s an!r0 in %ha% si%ua%ion$ In (BC/b %he FC vreun in#efini%e is com5e%in! 9i%h %he YN7GZ in#efini%e because %he seman%ic ne!a%ion in%ro#uce# b0 fr alrea#0 ensures %ha% an e;is%en%ial 9i%hin i%s sco5e 9ill be in%er5re%e# rela%ive %o a ma;imal se% of al%erna%ives each al%erna%ive involvin! one elemen% in %he se% #eno%e# b0 %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he in#efini%e$ FC any in 7n!lish an# i%s e@uivalen%s in Romanian are associa%e# 9i%h a >9i#enin!? effec%3 in%ui%ivel0 one feels %ha% %he #omain of %he DP is 9i#ene# 9hen a FC #e%erminer is use#$ This effec% is #ue %o %he ma;imal (or e;haus%ive/ na%ure of %he al%erna%ives in%ro#uce# b0 %he FC #e%erminer$ Thus %he use of a FC #e%erminer mar-e# for ma;imali%0 ins%ea# of an or#inar0 in#efini%e si!nals %he fac% %ha% each 5ossible value is %o be consi#ere#$ The fac% %ha% %here are 5ar%i%ive FC #e%erminers such as oricare sho9s %ha% %his 9i#enin! effec% canno% be %rea%e# as re@uirin! %he absence of con%e;%ual res%ric%ions$ FC #e%erminers are also associa%e# 9i%h a scalar effec%3 in case %he #omain of %he DP can be seen as bein! or#ere# alon! a li-elihoo# scale or a @uan%i%a%ive scale %he use of %he FC i%em in#ica%es %ha% even %he leas% li-el0 or %he smalles% i%em is %o be inclu#e# as a 5ossible +B4
value$ This effec% is #ue a!ain %o %he ma;imali%0 re@uiremen% on %he relevan% al%erna%ives a re@uiremen% %ha% ensures %ha% no 5ossible value is %o be overloo-e#$ Ue see %his scalar effec% a% 9or- in (C4/
(C4/ :L #eran6eaAL orice A!omo%$ me$ACC #is%urbs ori-9ha% noise >An0 noise #is%urbs me$?
9here small noises are less li-el0 %o be #is%urbin!$ The use of %he FC #e%erminer orice ensures %ha% all 5ossible noises (even %he smalles% ones/ 9ill be inclu#e# amon! values for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he FC #e%erminer$ :ore formall0 no9 9e assume %ha% FC #e%erminers in%ro#uce a variable 'P 9here %he P subscri5% enco#es %he re@uiremen% of brin!in! in %he ma;imal se% of mu%uall0 e;clusive un#ifferen%ia%e# 5ossibili%ies %ha% sa%isf0 %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP$ Fur%her #ifferences be%9een %he i%ems in %he ori series an# vreun follo9 from %he 9a0 in 9hich %hese al%erna%ives in%erac% 9i%h %he res% of %he sen%ence$ 'u% before 9e #iscuss %his #ifference no%e %ha% %he #is%ribu%ional res%ric%ions no%e# above follo9 from 9ha% has been sai# so far$ Firs% %he incom5a%ibili%0 be%9een an e5iso#ic sen%ence an# a FC DP follo9s from %he fac% %ha% an e5iso#ic sen%ence #eno%es a s5a%io-%em5orall0 boun#e# si%ua%ion 9hile a FC DP in%ro#uces a ma;imal se% of in#ivi#ual - si%ua%ion 5airs each of 9hich have %o verif0 %he e;5ression in 9hich %he DP occurs$ There is no 9a0 in 9hich a sin!le si%ua%ion such as one involvin! Ioana %al-in! %o some in#ivi#ual in (BB/ can be verifie# b0 a se% of #ifferen% s%u#en%-si%ua%ion 5airs$ The sub%ri!!in! effec% no%e# in (C=/ can be e;5laine# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he con%en% of %he DP i%self (orice student care s-a pre(entat n biroul ei >an0 s%u#en% 9ho sho9e# u5 in her office?/ 5rovi#es %he relevan% connec%ion be%9een a series of #ifferen% s%u#en%s an# a series of #ifferen% si%ua%ions in 9hich each of %hose s%u#en%s sho9e# u5 in Ioana?s office$ The main 5re#ica%ion in %his case no lon!er refers %o a sin!le even% of Ioana s5ea-in! %o a s%u#en% bu% ra%her %o a series of even%s each associa%e# 9i%h Ioana s5ea-in! 9i%h some s%u#en% 9ho sho9e# u5 in her office$ The mo#al #ifferen%ia%ion effec% no%e# in (C+/ follo9s from %he re@uiremen% %ha% %he al%erna%ives involve# be mu%uall0 e;clusive$ This means %ha% si%ua%ions %ha% verif0 %he sen%ence un#er one al%erna%ive #o no% verif0 i% un#er %he o%hers$ Thus in %he case of %he 5ermission mo#al 9hen I allo9 0ou %o %a-e an0 a55le form %his bas-e% I #eem 5ermissible a series of si%ua%ions3 si%ua%ion s; in 9hich 0ou %a-e a55le a; an# no o%her si%ua%ion s< in 9hich 0ou %a-e a55le a< an# no o%her an# so on for ever0 a55le in %his bas-e%$ The mu%ual e;clusivi%0 re@uiremen% ensures %ha% in each 5ermissible si%ua%ion onl0 one a55le is involve#$ No9 mo#al necessi%0 is incom5a%ible 9i%h mu%ual e;clusivi%03 if I 9ere %o or#er 0ou %o %as%e an0 a55le as in (C=/ ever0 si%ua%ion com5a%ible 9i%h m0 or#er 9oul# be one 9here 0ou %a-e a55le a; an# no o%her a55le an# ever0 si%ua%ion com5a%ible 9i%h m0 or#er 9oul# be one 9here 0ou %a-e a55le a< an# no o%her a55le an# so on$ This resul%s in incoherence since 9e are universall0 @uan%if0in! over %he same se% of si%ua%ions an# %herefore each of %hese si%ua%ions mus% be such %ha% 0ou %a-e each a55le in %hem$ A!ain a55ro5ria%e mo#ifica%ion of %he DP is 5re#ic%e# %o rescue %he sen%ence$ In (C1/ for ins%ance %he DP in%ro#uces a ma;imal se% of si%ua%ions each involvin! an a55le %ha% :aria 9ill offer %o %he a##ressee$ Necessi%0 is no9 5re#ica%e# rela%ive %o each such si%ua%ion$ In all #eon%icall0 acce5%able al%erna%ives each such si%ua%ion is 5ar% of a lar!er si%ua%ion 9here %he a##ressee %as%es %ha% a55le (an# no o%her/$ Ue conclu#e %hen %ha% in or#er %o be acce5%able %he lin!uis%ic environmen% of FC DPs mus% involve an o5era%or G %ha% bin#s si%ua%ions (or 9orl#s/ 9i%h 9hich %he al%erna%ives in%ro#uce# b0 %he FC DP are com5a%ible$ In %he absence of sub%ri!!in! %he o5era%or is su55lie# b0 %he sen%ence in 9hich %he DP occurs$
+B,
Turnin! no9 %o #ifferen%ia%in! be%9een %he i%ems in %he ori series an# vreun %he in%ui%ive con%ras% is %ha% %he former have universal force 9hile %he la%%er is e;is%en%ial$ There are various 9a0s of ca5%urin! %his #ifference$ Oere 9e assume %ha% ori-DPs have 9i#es% sco5e 9hich ensures %ha% %he e;5ression in %heir sco5e is evalua%e# rela%ive %o all %he al%erna%ives %he0 brin! in$ Ereun FC DPs on %he o%her han# have narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o %he o5era%or %ha% licenses %he FC i%em an# moreover con%ribu%e an e;is%en%ial o5era%or over %he al%erna%ives %he D brin!s in$ The lo!ical form of (C,/a is !iven in (C,/b3
(C,/ a$ Grice s%u#en% 5oa%e 5leca$ ori-9ha% s%u#en% can leave >An0 s%u#en% ma0 leave$? b$ Y;P3 STDD7NT(;P s/Z(Y9?3 se 9? ) 9? D9Z L7AV7?(;P 9?//
The P subscri5% on %he free variable ; mar-s i% as FC an# %hus ensures %ha% %he se% of ma;imal mu%uall0 e;haus%ive al%erna%ives of s%u#en%s in minimal si%ua%ions 9ill be consi#ere#$ The 5ermission mo#al is in%er5re%e# as an e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier over D9 %he se% of #eon%icall0 acce5%able 9orl#s rela%ive %o 9 %he 9orl# of evalua%ion$ The formula as a 9hole %hen is %rue in 9 iff for ever0 (relevan%/ s%u#en% an# minimal si%ua%ion con%ainin! %ha% s%u#en% %here is a 9? in %he se% of #eon%icall0 acce5%able 9orl#s in 9 9here %ha% s%u#en% leaves$ A FC DP ma0 be e;is%en%iall0 boun# if i% occurs 9i%hin %he sco5e of %he o5era%or %ha% licenses i%$ The lo!ical form of (C./a is !iven in (C./b3
(C./ a$ DacL 5leacL vreun s%u#en% va fi rLu if leaves vre-a s%u#en% 9ill be ba# >If a/an0 s%u#en% leaves i% 9ill be ba#$? b$ s3 YY;P3 s%u#en%(;P s?/ ) s? y sZ leave(;P s?/Z (Ys??3 s? y s??Z ba#(s??//
The con#i%ional here is %rea%e# as a universal bin#in! a si%ua%ion variable res%ric%e# b0 %he an%ece#en% an# 9hose nuclear sco5e is %he conse@uen%$ The res%ric%or of %he universal s con%ains %he FC DP vreun student 9hich in%ro#uces %he ma;imal se% of s%u#en%s - si%ua%ion 5airs 9here %he s%u#en% leaves boun# b0 an e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier$ The si%ua%ions s boun# b0 are si%ua%ions %ha% have as 5ar%s a s%u#en% 9ho leaves (one s%u#en% 5er si%ua%ion/ in such a 9a0 as %o e;haus% all %he s%u#en%s$ The nuclear sco5e of (%he conse@uen%/ re@uires each such si%ua%ion %o be e;%en#able %o a bi!!er si%ua%ion s& %ha% is ba#$ In sum 9ha% is common %o FC DPs is %ha% %he0 #eno%e a s5ecial %05e of se%s of al%erna%ives an# %herefore %he0 have %o co-occur 9i%h an o5era%or %ha% e;5an#s %he si%ua%ions %ha% are 5ar% of %hese al%erna%ives$ Uha% #ifferen%ia%es e;is%en%ial from universal FC DPs is %ha% >universal? FC DPs have 9i#e sco5e rela%ive %o %he licensin! o5era%or an# %herefore all %he al%erna%ives %he0 brin! have %o sa%isf0 %he formula %he DP is a 5ar% ofI e;is%en%ial FC DPs on %he o%her han# are boun# b0 an e;is%en%ial @uan%ifier an# have narro9 sco5e rela%ive %o %he licensin! o5era%or$ In 7n!lish one i%em any is use# for bo%h cases 9hile in Romanian %he ori series are use# for %he 9i#e sco5e (universal/ case an# vreun is use# for %he narro9 sco5e e;is%en%ial$ Ue assume %hen %ha% FC i%ems come 9i%h a YFCZ fea%ure %ha% si!nals %he in%ro#uc%ion of %he se% of ma;imal an# mu%uall0 e;clusive in#ivi#ual si%ua%ion 5airs %ha% sa%isf0 %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he DP$ The classifica%ion of FC #e%erminers in Romanian %ha% 9e arrive a% is !iven in Fi!ure 4$ Oere YPARTZ means %ha% %he values of %he variable are %o be chosen from amon! a con%e;%uall0 available se%$
YFCZ 7;is%en%ial Dniversal
+B.
YPARTZ Dnmar-e# vreunul vreun
YPARTZ oricare
Dnmar-e# orice
Fi!ure 43 FC #e%erminers in Romanian Ue no9 %urn %o some occurrences of vreun DPs %ha% are e;is%en%ial bu% are no% FC in %he sense #iscusse# above$ Firs% consi#er %he use of vreun in#efini%es in fre@uen%a%ive im5erfec%ives e;em5lifie# belo93
(C</ Din cWn# En cWn# %renul se o5rea En vreo hal%L Mi cW%e un nave%is% from 9hen in 9hen %rain-%he R7FL s%o55e#$I:PF in vre-a s%a%ion an# DISTR a commu%er #eschi#ea un ochi$ o5ene#$I:PF an e0e >From %ime %o %ime %he %rain 9oul# s%o5 in some s%a%ion an# a commu%er 9oul# o5en an e0e$?
The choice of vreun over an or#inar0 in#efini%e here s%resses %he ran#om na%ure of %he 5airin! of occasions of %he %rain s%o55in! an# %he s%a%ion$ The vreun in#efini%e canno% ho9ever be a FC DP because of %he clash be%9een %he o5en-en#e# na%ure of al%erna%ives involve# in FC an# %he res%ric%e# se% of si%ua%ions %ha% are involve# here$ The sen%ence claims %ha% %here 9ere several occasions 9here %he %rain s%o55e# in some s%a%ion or o%her bu% #oes no% claim %ha% an0 s%a%ion is one 9here %he %rain coul# have s%o55e# in$ No%e also %ha% FC any is no% acce5%able in %he 7n!lish version of %his e;am5leI some 3 )or ot!er* is use# ins%ea# 9i%h %he same effec% as %he use of vreun$ Secon# consi#er %he use of vreun in (CB/3
(CB/ `n bal%a #in s5a%ele can%onului ceva 5lescLi scur% vreun 5eM%e sau in 5on#-%he from bac--%he s%a%ion-%he$G7N some%hin! s5lashe# briefl0 vre-a fish or vreo raRL$ vre-a #uc>In %he 5on# behin# %he s%a%ion some%hin! s5lashe# briefl0 some fish or some #uc-$?
The use of vreun here si!nals %he fac% %ha% %he s5ea-er is uncer%ain 9i%h res5ec% %o %he i#en%i%0 of >some%hin!?$ A!ain 9e canno% %a-e %his use of vreun %o be an ins%ance of a FC i%em since %here is no licensin! o5era%or$ 'u% %he use of %he #is6unc%ion !ives us %9o al%erna%ives an# %he associa%ion be%9een %hese al%erna%ives an# various 5ossible values for %he vreun mar-e# DPs is ran#om$ Common %o %he %9o cases 6us% #iscusse# is %he no%ion of ran#om associa%ion be%9een s%o5s an# s%a%ions an# be%9een al%erna%ives brou!h% in b0 %he #is6unc%ion an# 5ar%icular fish or 5ar%icular #uc-s$ Uha% uni%es such >ran#om choice? e;is%en%ials 9i%h FC DPs is %ha% bo%h %05es of DPs re@uire %he e;is%ence of a se% of al%erna%ives %ha% are un#ifferen%ia%e#$ In %he case of FC DPs %he al%erna%ives mus% be verif0in!$ In %he case of ran#om choice e;is%en%ials %he al%erna%ives are un#ifferen%ia%e# in %ha% %heir associa%ion 9i%h %he variable %he0 co-var0 9i%h is ran#om3 %here is no s5ecial connec%ion be%9een %he value of %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 vreun an# 9ha% i% co-varies 9i%h$ Common %o %he ran#om choice uses of vreun an# i%s uses %rea%e# as FC here is %he fac% %ha% %he0 involve co-varia%ion of %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 vreun 9i%h al%erna%ives an# moreover %ha% all uses of vreun involve e5is%emic uncer%ain%0 in %he sense %ha% %here mus% be e5is%emic al%erna%ives com5a%ible 9i%h 9ha% %he s5ea-er (or some o%her relevan% e5is%emic a!en%/ -no9s 9here no verif0in! value for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 vreun is %o be foun#$ There is a s%ron! overarchin! connec%ion be%9een vreun an# e5is%emic con%e;%s3 vreun is no% allo9e# ei%her 9i%hin #eon%ic or boule%ic o5era%ors as sho9n in (CC/ even in FC
+B<
environmen%s$
(CC/ a$ XAi voie sL !uM%i vreun mLr$ have$1SG 5ermission SD'N %as%e$1SG vre-a a55le b$ XVreau sL cum5Lr vreun a5ar%amen% En Clu6$ 9an%$+SG SD'N bu0$+SG vre-a a5ar%men% in Clu6
The e5is%emic na%ure of vreun in#efini%e is no% share# b0 %he >universal? FC ori-i%ems$ The la%%er are no% cons%raine# %o occur 9i%hin e5is%emic al%erna%ivesI %he ma0 occur 9i%hin %he sco5e of 5ermission mo#als as 9e have seen a% %he ou%se% an# %he0 ma0 occur 9i%hin %he sco5e of boule%ic 5re#ica%es as sho9n in (+==/3
(+==/ Vreau sL cum5Lr orice %ablou #e Schiele$ 9an%$+SG SD'N bu0$+SG ori-9ha% 5ain%in! of Schiele >I 9an% %o bu0 an0 5ain%in! b0 Schiele$?
Sen%ence (+==/ claims %ha% %he s5ea-er is rea#0 %o bu0 no ma%%er 9hich 5ain%in! b0 Schiele$ Finall0 no%e %ha% vreun in#efini%es in Romanian are similar %o some )3/ or ot!er* in#efini%es in 7n!lish bu% %he %9o are no% i#en%ical$ The re@uiremen% associa%e# 9i%h some )3/ or ot!er* in#efini%es is %ha% %he0 in%ro#uce an uni#en%ifie# variable i$e$ %he0 re@uire %ha% %he con%e;% %ha% resul%s af%er %he0 are 5rocesse# 5rovi#e several 5ossible verif0in! values$ This is a 9ea-er re@uiremen% %han %he one im5ose# b0 ei%her FC or ran#om choice vreun bu% 9ha% all %hese i%ems have in common is %he fac% %ha% %heir ou%5u% con%e;% involves several verif0in! values$ Ue 9ill assume %hen %ha% all vreun in#efini%es have a fea%ure Y7PISZ re@uirin! %hem %o be com5a%ible 9i%h e5is%emic uncer%ain%0 9hich is com5a%ible 9i%h FC in%er5re%a%ions bu% allo9s %hem %o occur in %he %05e of ran#om choice con%e;%s e;em5lifie# in (CB/ an# (CC/ as 9ell$ 3.2.% I3ent.f.able .n3ef.n.tes? un anume Ue close %he #iscussion of s5ecial in#efini%es 9i%h un anume 3 %05e in#efini%es e;em5lifie# in (+=+/ 9here anume is a mar-er of identifiability of reference$
(+=+/ Dn#eva cWn#va 5oves%ea s5une cL En%r-un anume %im5 En%r-un anume loc some9here some%ime s%or0-%he sa0s %ha% in-a cer%ain %ime in-a cer%ain 5lace 5rinResa Alma Mi-a 5us o #orinRL$ 5rincess-%he Alma R7FL-has 5u% a 9ish >Some9here some%ime %he s%or0 sa0s %ha% in a cer%ain %ime in a cer%ain 5lace 5rincess Alma ma#e a 9ish$?
The a##i%ion of anume 6us% li-e %he a##i%ion of certain in 7n!lish si!nals %ha% even %hou!h %he reference of %he in#efini%e is no% #e%ermine# in %he curren% con%e;% i% is in 5rinci5le i#en%ifiable b0 some non-%rivial uni@ue 5ro5er%0 %ha% se%s i% a5ar% from o%her 5ossible referen%s$ In %his sense anume in#efini%es are %he o55osi%e of FC in#efini%es 9hich si!nal %he non-#ifferen%ia%ion of %heir 5ossible values$ Ue have %o %alabou% i#en%ifiabili%0 in 5rinci5le ra%her %han i#en%ifiabili%0 b0 %he s5ea-er since %he s5ea-er in (+=+/ is no% necessaril0 re@uire# %o be able %o i#en%if0 %he %ime an# 5lace of 5rincess Alma?s 9ish even %hou!h she chose %o use an anume in#efini%e$ The i#en%ifiabili%0 con#i%ion is %o be un#ers%oo# in %erms of %he re@uiremen% %ha% %here be an accessible con%e;% 9here %he referen% of %he in#efini%e is #e%ermine# i$e$ 9here all assi!nmen%s %ha% verif0 %he con%e;% in @ues%ion assi!n %he relevan% variable %he same value$ A con%e;% C? is assume# %o be accessible %o a con%e;% C if an# onl0 if
+BB
C? is reachable from C b0 a##in! informa%ion %o i%$ Anume in#efini%es ma0 occur 9i%hin %he sco5e of o%her o5era%ors as lon! as %he seman%ics of %hose o5era%ors #oes no% 5reclu#e i#en%ifiabili%0$ Thus anume in#efini%es canno% occur 9i%hin %he sco5e of 5re#ica%es such as a vrea >%o 9an%? for ins%ance since no ma%%er ho9 much informa%ion is a##e# %o a con%e;% if an in#efini%e is 9i%hin %he sco5e of a boule%ic o5era%or i% 9ill no% be i#en%ifie#$ In#ee# %he DP in (+=1/ can onl0 be in%er5re%e# as havin! 9i#e sco5e rela%ive %o vrea >9an%?3
(+=1/ :anole vrea sL vorbeascL cu un anume s%u#en%$ :anole 9an%s SD'N s5ea-$2 9i%h a cer%ain s%u#en% >:anole 9an%s %o s5ea- %o a cer%ain s%u#en%$?
The mo#ifier anume >cer%ain? ma0 occur af%er %he hea# N as 9ell as before i% as seen in (i/3 (i/ :anole vrea sL vorbeascL cu un s%u#en% anume$ :anole 9an%s SD'N s5ea-$2 9i%h a s%u#en% cer%ain >:anole 9an%s %o s5ea- 9i%h a cer%ain s%u#en%$?
Gn %he o%her han# 9e have seen %ha% in#efini%es 9i%hin %he sco5e of universal DPs are i#en%ifiable in 5rinci5le$ Ue %hus correc%l0 5re#ic% %ha% %he anume DP in (+=2/ can be in%er5re%e# 9i%hin %he sco5e of %he universal bu% ou%si#e %he sco5e of vrea >9an%?3
(+=2/ Fiecare s%u#en% vrea sL vorbeascL cu un anume 5rofesor$ ever0 s%u#en% 9an%s SD'N s5ea-$2 9i%h a cer%ain 5rofessor >7ver0 s%u#en% 9an%s %o s5ea- %o a cer%ain 5rofessor$?
In (+=2/ un anume profesor >a cer%ain 5rofessor? mus% be in%er5re%e# as ou%si#e %he sco5e of vrea >9an%? bu% %he sen%ence is s%ill sco5all0 ambi!uous 9i%h res5ec% %o 9he%her %he in#efini%e is 9i%hin or ou%si#e %he sco5e of fiecare student >ever0 s%u#en%?$ The former rea#in! #escribes a si%ua%ion 9here for ever0 s%u#en% %here is a 5ar%icular 5rofessor such %ha% %ha% s%u#en% 9an%s %o s5ea- 9i%h %ha% 5rofessor$ Dn#er %his rea#in! %he sen%ence can be follo9e# 9i%h fur%her informa%ion s5ecif0in! 9hich s%u#en% 9an%s %o s5ea- 9i%h 9hich 5rofessor$ To sum u5 9e %rea% anume in %hese e;am5les as con%ribu%in! %he fea%ure Y ID7NTZ 9hose seman%ic con%en% is >i#en%ifiabili%0 of reference?$ The limi%e# sco5e 5ossibili%ies of anume mar-e# in#efini%es is e;5laine# in %erms of %he re@uiremen% %ha% %he referen%ial 5ro5er%ies im5ose# b0 %heir seman%ic sco5e mus% be com5a%ible 9i%h %he seman%ic con%en% of %his fea%ure$ 3.3. Con/l1s.on Ui%hin %he realm of in#efini%e #e%erminers in Romanian 9e have seen above a #is%inc%ion be%9een %he versa%ile unmar-e# in#efini%e #e%erminer un >a? an# a lar!e an# varie# !rou5 of s5ecial #e%erminers mar-e# for s5ecial cons%rain%s %ha% %he0 im5ose on %he 9a0 %he variable %he0 in%ro#uce is %o be evalua%e#$ Sco5al res%ric%ions on DPs hea#e# b0 %hese s5ecial #e%erminers ma0 follo9 from %he 5ar%icular seman%ic na%ure of %hese cons%rain%s$ The mos% res%ric%ive s5ecial #e%erminer is %he ne!a%ive niciun 9hose YN7GZ fea%ure re@uires i% %o be 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion$ Similarl0 %he Y 7PISTZ fea%ure on vreun DPs re@uires %hem %o be 9i%hin %he sco5e of a 5ar%icular -in# of o5era%ors$ The leas% res%ric%ive in %erms of #is%ribu%ion re@uiremen%s are %he DPs 9hose D is mar-e# 9i%h %he 5ar%i%ive fea%ure Y PARTZ because %he seman%ic con%en% of %his fea%ure is com5a%ible 9i%h %he DP bein! 9i%hin %he sco5e of an0 o5era%or an# %hus 9e e;5ec% such DPs %o have no seman%ic cons%rain%s on %heir #is%ribu%ion be0on# %he re@uiremen% %ha% %he con%e;% 5rovi#e an a55ro5ria%e 5ool of values for %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he #e%erminer$ Ui%hin %hese %9o e;%remes 9e fin# %he o%her s5ecial +BC
#e%erminers 9hose re@uiremen%s resul% in cer%ain 5rohibi%e# sco5e confi!ura%ions$ Thus %he re@uiremen% im5ose# b0 %he YID7NTZ fea%ure on un anume >a cer%ain? is incom5a%ible 9i%h bein! 9i%hin %he sco5e of cer%ain mo#al o5era%ors bu% no% o%hers$ The co-varia%ion re@uiremen% im5ose# b0 cte un 5re#ic%s %ha% DPs hea#e# b0 %his com5le; #e%erminer mus% occur 9i%hin a confi!ura%ion %ha% 5rovi#es an a55ro5ria%e variable for %hem %o co-var0 9i%h$ The re@uiremen%s %ha% 9e foun# %o be relevan% for un#ers%an#in! %he seman%ics of %he lar!e class of s5ecial in#efini%e DPs #o no% form a series of binar0 con%ras%s$ Ue sim5l0 have %he unmar-e# in#efini%e on %he one han# an# %he #iverse !rou5 of mar-e# in#efini%es on %he o%her$ In %he conclu#in! sec%ion of %his cha5%er 9e #iscuss some s%ran#s %ha% run %hrou!h %he 9hole class of #e%erminers #iscusse# above$
$. Con/l1s.on
The common 6ob of #e%erminers is %o in%ro#uce a variable 9hose value is re@uire# %o mee% %he various res%ric%ions %ha% are im5ose# b0 %he #e%erminer i%self as 9ell as %hose im5ose# b0 o%her elemen%s in %he DP$ These res%ric%ions concern %he 9a0 %he variable is %o be assi!ne# values$ Loo-in! bac- a% %he rich varie%0 of seman%ic res%ric%ions %he members of %he lar!e class of #e%erminers in Romanian im5ose 9e can #is%in!uish a !eneral %hrea# runnin! across of %hem namel0 %ha% of mar-in! s%abili%0 vs$ ins%abili%0 (or varia%ion/ of reference a no%ion men%ione# a% %he en# of %he #iscussion of (non/s5ecifici%0 in Sec%ion 2$+$1$ S%abili%0 of reference involves -ee5in! %he values of a variable cons%an% across several al%erna%ive assi!nmen%sI non-s%abili%0 (or varia%ion/ of reference involves var0in! %he values across such assi!nmen%s$ Gne can classif0 %he re@uiremen%s various #e%erminers im5ose in%o %9o ca%e!ories s%abili%0 in#ucin! re@uiremen%s an# varia%ion in#ucin! re@uiremen%s$ Revie9in! %he main #is%inc%ions #iscusse# above un#er %his li!h% no%e %ha% 9hen i% comes %o %he #is%inc%ion be%9een e;is%en%ial an# universal force e;is%en%ial @uan%ifiers are s%able rela%ive %o universal ones3 e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ion re@uires fin#in! one verif0in! value 9hile universal @uan%ifica%ion re@uires each elemen% of %he #omain %o be a verif0in! value$ Ui%hin e;is%en%ial #e%erminers #efini%eness is a s%abili%0 in#ucin! re@uiremen% in %ha% i% amoun%s %o re@uirin! %he values of %he variable in all ou%5u% con%e;% al%erna%ives %o be s%able$ The various res%ric%ions im5ose# b0 %he man0 s5ecial in#efini%e #e%erminers #iscusse# in %his cha5%er involve ei%her #irec% or in#irec% s%abili%0 or varia%ion re@uiremen%s$ Thus #e5en#en% in#efini%es as 9ell as free choice an# e5is%emic in#efini%es im5ose #irec% varia%ion re@uiremen%s across #ifferen%l0 #efine# al%erna%ives$ The i#en%ifiabli%0 cons%rain% im5ose# b0 anume is a #irec% s%abili%0 re@uiremen% concernin! values assi!ne# %o %he variable in an accessible con%e;%$ Similarl0 %he 5ar%i%ive fea%ure im5oses a con%e;%uall0 es%ablishe# limi% on %he 5ossible varia%ion of values !iven %o %he variable in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5ar%i%ive #e%erminer$ Finall0 %he YN7GZ fea%ure im5oses an in#irec% varia%ion re@uiremen% since an e;is%en%iall0 boun# variable %ha% is 9i%hin %he seman%ic sco5e of ne!a%ion has %o be !iven each value 9i%hin i%s #omain in %urn$ Given %he ubi@ui%ous na%ure of %his 5arame%er 9hen i% comes %o #is%in!uishin! be%9een various #e%erminers 9e 5osi% %ha% s%abili%0 vs$ non-s%abili%0 of reference is one of %he im5or%an% seman%ic #is%inc%ions na%ural lan!ua!e is sensi%ive %o$ The fac% %ha% informa%ion concernin! %his 5arame%er is enco#e# on #e%erminers is no% sur5risin! un#er %he assum5%ion %ha% %he 6ob of %he #e%erminer is %o in%ro#uce %he variable associa%e# 9i%h %he DP$ The 9eal%h of #e%erminers 9e encoun%er in Romanian as 9ell as in o%her lan!ua!es is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %here are man0 5ossible 5arame%ers alon! 9hich values of a variable can be hel# cons%an% or re@uire# %o var0 as 9ell as %o %he fac% %ha% %here are man0 9a0s in 9hich s%abili%0 or varia%ion re@uiremen%s can be im5ose#$ This cha5%er has 5rovi#e# an overvie9 of %he seman%ics of %he rich s0s%em of
+C=
#e%erminers in Romanian a%%em5%in! %o bo%h #ra9 %he main #is%inc%ions an# #iscuss some of %he fine-!raine# seman%ic #ifferen%ia%ions %o be foun# in %his area$
+C+
Pronouns
%. P0ono1ns
SANDA R`P7AND R7INO7I:7R LILIAN7 TAS:GUSSI ) ANDRA VASIL7SCD (**+$+-+$</ IGN GIDRG7A (**+$B$+-+$B$, *4/ ANDRA VASIL7SCD (*+$B$./ RGDICA FAFID (**1-2/ 1. Pe0sonal an3 0efle<.2e 50ono1ns
+$+$ In%ro#uc%ion +$1$ Gramma%ical Fea%ures an# Para#i!m +$2$ S0n%ac%ic #ifferences be%9een s%ron! an# cli%ic forms +$4$ S%ron! Pronouns +$,$ The Gramma%ical Func%ions of Cli%ic Pronouns +$.$ The S%ruc%ure of Cli%ic Clus%ers +$<$ Cli%ic Allomor5hs +$B$ The Seman%ics of Personal Pronouns
2. Pol.teness 50ono1ns
1$+$ In%ro#uc%ion 1$1$ :or5holo!0 1$2$ S0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies3 #oublin! cli%ics an# a!reemen% 1$4$ The use of 5oli%eness forms
3. T8e P0ono6.nal .ntens.f.e0 nsui

2$+$ :or5holo!0 2$1$ S0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies 2$2$ The in%ensifier use 2$4$ The refle;ive use
$. Re/.50o/al /onst01/t.ons
4$+$ In%ro#uc%ion 4$1$ Reci5rocal mar-in! 4$2$ Locali%0 cons%rain%s an# 5osi%ions of %he an%ece#en% 4$4$ Reci5rocal mar-in! an# s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es 4$,$ The seman%ics of reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions
+C1
Pronouns
,. Int0o31/t.on
This cha5%er #iscusses 5ronouns havin! a Person fea%ure (5ersonal refle;ive 5oli%eness 5ronouns/ 5ronominal in%ensifiers an# reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions$ The la%%er have been inclu#e# here because %he0 share some forms 9i%h refle;ives an# 5a%%ern seman%icall0 9i%h refle;ives bein! !ramma%ical ana5hors$ In#efini%e 5ronouns an# 5ronouns 9hich have a #e%erminer coun%er5ar% are #iscusse# in cha5%er 2 (sec%ions 2 an# +=/$
1. Pe0sonal an3 0efle<.2e 50ono1ns

1.1. Int0o31/t.on Personal 5ronouns form a close# class of elemen%s %ha% sen# %o referen%s via !ramma%ical fea%ures (5erson number !en#er/$ +s% an# 1n# 5erson sin!ular 5ronouns (eu >I? an# tu >0ou?/ func%ion as #eic%ic elemen%s %ha% can be #efine# as res5ec%ivel0 referrin! %o %he s5ea-er an# hearer$ The +s% 5erson 5lural noi >9e? #esi!na%es %he s5ea-er?s !rou5 (9hich ma0 also inclu#e %he hearer P 9ha% is calle# %he inclusive rea#in! P or no% P %he e'clusive rea#in!/ an# 1n# 5erson 5lural voi >0ou? #esi!na%es a !rou5 inclu#in! %he hearer an# e;clu#in! %he s5ea-er$ Thir# 5erson sin!ular an# 5lural 5ronouns (el$ea >he/she? ei$ele >%he0 m$/f$?/ can func%ion ei%her as ana5horic elemen%s (%a-in! reference from ano%her DP in %he %e;% 9hich 9ill be referre# %o as %he antecedent/ or as #eic%ic elemen%s$ Refle;ive 5ronouns are formall0 #is%in!uishe# from 5ersonal 5ronouns onl0 in %he 2 r# 5erson$ 1.2. #0a66at./al Feat10es an3 Pa0a3.46 1.2.1. T8e feat10e /o65os.t.on of 5e0sonal 50ono1ns Person fea%ures are com5le; fea%ures 9hich can be #ecom5ose# in%o \Par%ici5an% \S5ea-er an# \!rou5$ The \Par%ici5an% fea%ure i#en%ifies %he referen% of %he 5ro-form as 5ar%ici5a%in! or no% %o %he #ialo!ue$ Amon! %he 5ronouns mar-e# as YHPar%ici5an%Z 9e ma0 fur%her #is%in!uish be%9een %hose 5ronouns %ha% refer %o %he S5ea-er (or %he !rou5 of %he S5ea-er/ 9hich are mar-e# here as YHS5ea-erZ an# %hose %ha% refer %o %he Oearer (or his !rou5/ e;clu#in! %he s5ea-er mar-e# here as Y-S5ea-erZ$ 7ach of %he %9o classes of 5ronouns %hus se5ara%e# namel0 YHPar%ici5an% HS5ea-erZ an# YHPar%ici5an% -S5ea-erZ can be fur%her #is%in!uishe# b0 %he Number fea%ure 9hich in %his case is in%er5re%e# as YGrou5Z P hence 9e label i% YGrou5Z$ '0 combinin! %hese fea%ures 9e ob%ain Persons + an# 1 sin!ular charac%eriAe# as YHPar%ici5an% HS5ea-er -!rou5Z an# YHPar%ici5an% -S5ea-er -!rou5Z res5ec%ivel0$ The H!rou5 coun%er5ar%s of %hese 5ronouns corres5on# %o Persons + an# 1 5lural$ Number (sin!ular/5lural/ an# !en#er (masculine/feminine see Table +/ o55osi%ions charac%eriAe 2r# 5erson 5ronouns onl0$ The follo9in! #ia!ram summariAes %he fea%ure com5osi%ion of %he Romanian 5ersonal 5ronouns3
+C2
Pronouns
T8e 5e0sonal 50ono1n
YHPar%ici5an%Z
Y-Par%ici5an%Z(Person 2/
YHS5ea-erZ (Person +/
Y-S5ea-erZ (Person 1/
Ysin!ularZ
Y5luralZ
Y-!rou5Z YH!rou5Z Y-!rou5Z YH!rou5Z (s!$/ (5l$/ (s!$/ (5l$/ eu noi tu voi
YmascZ YfemZ el ea
YmascZ YfemZ ei ele
The 2r# 5erson 5ronominal forms have masculine/feminine !en#er fea%ures 9hich corres5on# ei%her %o %he !en#er fea%ures of %heir nominal an%ece#en% or %o %he se; (male/female/ of %heir referen%$ The 2r# 5erson is also %he onl0 5erson %o have s5ecial refle;ive forms$ These forms #o no% sho9 an0 !en#er or number o55osi%ion so 9e anal0Ae %hem as YHana5h H2 r#Z$ For %he o%her 5ersons %he forms of %he 5ersonal 5ronouns ma0 also func%ion as refle;ive (in#ica%in! co-reference insi#e a minimal #omain an# as voice mar-ers for inchoa%ives an# mi##les/$ Ue consi#er %herefore %ha% HPar%ici5an% 5ronouns are unmar-e# for %he ana5h fea%ure$
The class of so-calle# >neu%er? nouns %ri!!er masculine a!reemen% in %he sin!ular an# feminine a!reemen% in %he 5luralI accor#in!l0 5ronouns 9i%h a "neu%er& nominal an%ece#en% are masculine in %he sin!ular an# feminine in %he 5lural3 (i/ a$ Am 5us creionuli 5e masL$ Nu-li !Lsesc acum have$+ 5u% 5encil-%he$:SG on %able$ no% CL$2:SG$ACC fin#$+SG no9 >I 5u% %he 5encil on %he %able$ I canno% fin# i% no9? b$ Am 5us creioanelei 5e masL$ Nu lei !Lsesc acum have$+ 5u% 5encils-%he$FPL on %able$ no% CL$2FPL$ACC fin#$+SG no9 >I 5u% %he 5encils on %he %able$ I canno% fin# %hem no9?
Romanian #oes no% have a s5ecial form for reference %o %he con%en% of a 5ro5osi%ion/a s%a%e of affairs$ Some%imes %he feminine accusa%ive 9ea- 5ronoun o is use# 9i%h %his meanin! (see (++B/-(+1+// bu% %he mos% common forms %ha% fulfill %his func%ion belon! %o %he #emons%ra%ive 5ara#i!m ( asta% aia% see Cha5%er 2/3 (i/ a$ Am s5us -od have$+ sai#-CL$2FSG$ACC >I sai# i%? b$ G s -o fac cu si!uranRL 9ill SD'N-CL$2FSG$ACC #o$+SG 9i%h sure%0 >I?ll surel0 #o i%?
No 5ersonal 5ronoun (cli%ic or s%ron!/ can s%an# for a 5re#ica%e in Romanian (com5are French 9here le can func%ion as an A#6P subs%i%u%e/3
+C4
Pronouns
(ii/ Sun% ferici%L/ XG sun% am ha550/ CL$2FSG$ACC am > I am ha550? / XI am i% (cf$ Fr$ Ne suis heureuse/Ne le suis/
The refle;ive cli%ic a55ears no% onl0 as a 5ronoun 9%ih a refle;ive in%er5re%a%ion bu% also as anon5ronominal mar-er of a verbal form %ha% has various in%er5re%a%ions e$!$ inchoa%ive mi##le 5assive$ These non-5ronominal uses of S7 9ill be e;amine# in %he secon# Volume$
1.2.2. T8e fo06s Romanian 5ersonal 5ronouns have %9o series of forms P s%ron!/non-cli%ic forms an# 9ea-/ cli%ic forms P 9hich #iffer re!ar#in! %heir 5honolo!ic mor5holo!ic s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic5ra!ma%ic behaviour$ Romanian 5ersonal 5ronouns are 5resen%e# in %he %able belo93
STRON# FORMS N Ac D eu mine mie %u %ine Rie noi noi nouL voi voi vouL el el lui ea ea ei ei ei lor ele ele lor sine sie sieMi G lui ei lor lor CLITIC FORMS A (G/D m(L/ YEZmi %e YEZRi ne ne ni v(L/ v(L/ vi YEZl YEZi o YEZi YEZi le li le le li se YEZMi
+s! 1s! +5l 15l 2s!
:$ F$ 25l :$ F 2 Refle;ive
Table 1. T8e fo06s of 5e0sonal an3 0efle<.2e 50ono1ns The al%erna%ive forms of cli%ics in#ica%e# b0 brac-e%s are allomor5hs 9hich 9ill be #iscusse# in sec%ion <$ For %he use of cer%ain Nomina%ive 5ronouns as Voca%ives see Cha5%er +,$ The forms of 5ersonal 5ronouns of 5ersons + an# 1 lac- Geni%ive forms 9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of cli%ic forms in %he sin!ular (9hich are for %he mos% 5ar% archaic see +$2 belo9/$ These mor5holo!ical !a5s are fille# b0 5ossessive a#6ec%ives$ Gn %he al%erna%ion be%9een 5ossessive a#6ec%ives (for Persons + 1/ an# !eni%ive-mar-e# 5ossessive 5ronouns (for Person 2 s!$ an# 5l$/ see Cha5%er . sec%ion ,$ As can be seen from Table + %he 5ara#i!m of 5ronouns has some ins%ances of s0ncre%ism for bo%h
s%ron! an# cli%ic forms3 (i/ %he !eni%ive forms of 2 r# 5ers$ s!$ an# 5l$ are homon0mous 9i%h %he #a%ive forms of 2r# 5ers$ s!$ an# 5l$ on a 5ar 9i%h %he !eni%ive an# #a%ive forms of nouns I (ii/ %he 2 r# 5lural #a%ive an# !eni%ive have i#en%ical feminine an# masculine forms$ In %he 5ara#i!m of s%ron! 5ronouns 2r# 5erson 5ronouns have i#en%ical s%ron! forms for %he nomina%ive an# %he accusa%ive$ In %he cli%ic 5ara#i!m %here are some ins%ances of homon0m03 )*i is bo%h 2r# 5erson sin!ular #a%ive an# 2r# 5erson 5lural masculine accusa%iveI le is 2r# 5erson 5lural feminine accusa%ive an# also an allomor5h of %he 2r# 5lural #a%iveI ne% v are +s%/1n# 5erson 5lural accusa%ive an# allomor5hs of %he + s%/1n# 5lural 5erson #a%ive$
There are no nomina%ive cli%ics$ Rich a!reemen% suffi;es on %he fini%e verb 5la0 %he role of 9ea-/cli%ic forms for nomina%ive 5ronouns see sec%ion +$,$,$ 1.3. S9nta/t./ 3.ffe0en/es betDeen st0on4 an3 /l.t./ fo06s St0on4 50ono1ns can a55ear in all 5osi%ions 9here DPs can a55ear namel0 as sub6ec%s com5lemen%s of verbs 5re5osi%ions a#6ec%ives a#verbs nouns or in%er6ec%ions3
+C,
Pronouns
(+/ (1/
(2/
(4/
(,/ (./
A veni% Gheor!he/el has come Gheor!he/he >Gheor!he/Oe came? a$ Lam vLAu% 5e Gheor!he/5e el CL$2:SG$ACC have$+ seen DG: Gheor!he/DG: him >I sa9 Gheor!he/him? b$ Iam #a% lui Gheor!he/lui CL$2SG$DAT have$+ !iven DAT Gheor!he/him$DAT >I !ave %o Gheor!he/him? c$ acor#a%e s%u#enRilor/ lor a9ar#e# s%u#en%s-%he$DAT/%hem$DAT >a9ar#e# %o %he s%u#en%s/%o %hem? #$ #e a#us co5iilor/ lor of brin!$SDP -i#s-%he$DAT/%hem$DAT >%o brin! %o %he -i#s/%o %hem? a$ A veni% cu soRia/ cu mine has come 9i%h 9ife-%he /9i%h me >Oe came 9i%h his 9ife/9i%h me? b$ mulRumi%L ei %han-s her$DAT >%han-s %o her? c$ En faRa ei in face-%he her$G7N >in fron% of her? a$ %rLsL%urile s5ecifice limbii romWne/ ei %rai%s-%he s5ecific lan!ua!e-%he$DAT Romanian/2FSG$DAT >%he fea%ures s5ecific %o %he Romanian lan!ua!e/%o i%? b$ asemenea invi%aRilor/ nouL similar !ues%s-%he$DAT/us$DAT >similar %o %he !ues%s/%o us? casa %a%Llui/ lui house-%he fa%her-%he$G7N/his$G7N >%he fa%her?s/his house? 'ravo cWM%i!L%orilor/ lor bravo 9inners-%he$DAT/%hem$DAT >'ravo %o %he 9inners/%o %hemd?
Li-e DPs s%ron! 5ronouns can a55ear as %he onl0 over% ma%erial of an u%%erance for ins%ance in elli5%ical ans9ers %o @ues%ions3 (</
a$ Cine a ci%i% car%eaK - Profesoara/ 7a 9ho has rea# boo--%he %eacher-%he/she$NG: >Uho rea# %he boo-K P The %eacher/She #i#? b$ Cui iai #a% car%ea K P Profesoarei/ 7i 9hom$DAT CL$2SG$DAT have$1SG !iven boo--%he %eacher-%he$FSG$DAT/ her$DAT >To 9hom #i# 0ou !ive %he boo-K To %he %eacher/To her$?
Li-e DPs %he0 can be lef% #isloca%e# 3

(B/ 'Lia%ului/ lui nu vreau sL -i scriu bo0-%he$DAT/him$DAT no% 9an%$+SG SD'N-CL$2SG$ACC 9ri%e$+SG >As for %he bo0/him I #on?% 9an% %o 9ri%e him$?
+C.
Pronouns
Cl.t./ 50ono1ns can a55ear in none of %he s0n%ac%ic environmen%s lis%e# above$ The #is%inc%ive 5ro5er%0 of cli%ics is %ha% %he0 #o no% occu50 a free-s%an#in! s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion bu% ins%ea# %he0 mus% a%%ach %o ano%her elemen% !enerall0 %he inflec%e# verb (bu% also %o nouns an# a#6ec%ives mar-e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle/$ The resul%in! cons%i%uen% is no% 5hrasal (in o%her 9or#s %he verb an# %he cli%ic #o no% form a VP/ bu% ins%ea# has %he s%a%us of a Oea# (VT elemen%/ 9hich occu5ies a V-5osi%ion$ The fac% %ha% cli%ics are no% free-s%an#in! elemen%s is su55or%e# b0 %he follo9in! observa%ions3 (i/ Cli%ics #o no% have a 9or# accen%$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %he 9or# accen% mus% be #is%in!uishe# from con%ras%ive s%ress 9hich is use# 9i%h %he 5ur5ose of correc%in! a 5revious asser%ion$ The s0llabic allomor5hs of cli%ics can receive a con%ras%ive accen% of correc%ion 9hich is also foun# on uns%resse# s0llables insi#e a 9or# (see (C/b/3
(C/ a$ Am Ais `:I 5lace nu Ì 5lace >I sai# > li#e no% NE li#es. b$ Am Ais in%enSIGnal nu in%enjIGnal
>I sai# in%ensional no% in%en%ional? (ii/ Cli%ics have a fi;e# 5osi%ion 9i%h res5ec% %o %he hos% from 9hich %he0 canno% be se5ara%e# e;ce5% in 9ell #efine# circons%ances b0 o%her cli%ics (see sec%ions +$.-+$< for %he or#er insi#e cli%ic clus%ers an# %he #is%inc%ion be%9een s0n%ac%ic an# 5hone%ic hos%s/3
(+=/ mL (X#e6a/ ve#e me$CL$ACC alrea#0 sees >he alrea#0 sees me?
(iii/ The0 canno% be coor#ina%e# or mo#ifie#3

(++/ a$ Xne Mi vL ve#e us$CL$ACC an# 0ou$CL$ACC sees b$ a lua% (X#oar/ -o has %a-en onl0 CL$2FSG$ACC c$ El (X care mia Ais cL vine / aM%e5% him$CL$ACC 9hich me$CL$DAT-has sai# %ha% comes 9ai%$+SG #$ Xnumai `L iubeM%e onl0 him$CL$ACC loves
(iv/ The0 canno% form a com5le%e u%%erance on %heir o9n (in elli5%ical ans9ers/3
(+1/ Pe cine a vLAu%K /P XMl 9hom has seen him$ CL$ACC >Uhom #i# he seeK/ P Oim$?
DG:
S%ron! 5ronouns #iffer from cli%ics insofar as %he0 are free-s%an#in! forms 9hich occu50 a s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion %ha% is in#e5en#en% from %he 5osi%ion of %he verb hence %he various 5ossibili%ies illus%ra%e# in e;am5les (+/-(B/ a% %he be!innin! of %his sec%ion$ The0 can carr0 a 9or# accen% can be coor#ina%e# an# mo#ifie# can form a com5le%e u%%erance3
(+2/ a$ Ne s5une mie Mi Rie us$CL$DAT %ells me$ DAT an# 0ou$DAT >(S/he is %ellin! me an# 0ou?
+C<
Pronouns b$ Ne s5une #oar nouL us$CL$DAT sa0s onl0 us$DAT >(S/he is %ellin! onl0 us? c$ 7l care nu cre#e he$NG: 9hich no% believes >Oe 9ho #oesn?% believe? #$ Cui Ei scriiK 7i$ 9hom$DAT CL$2SG$DAT 9ri%e$1SG her$DAT >To 9hom are 0ou 9ri%in!K To her$?
In shor% cli%ics never occu50 %he same s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion as s%ron! forms3 %he0 are V = elemen%s (hea#s/ %ha% a%%ach %o ano%her V= elemen% 9hile s%ron! 5ronouns are free-s%an#in! cons%i%uen%s 9hich have %he #is%ribu%ion of DPs$ In Romanian cli%ics are canonicall0 hos%e# b0 %he inflec%e# verb$ :ar!inall0 (mos%l0 archaicI %he s0mbol >d? no%a%es %he mar-e# charac%er of %his %05e of cli%ic/ %he0 ma0 also a%%ach %o nouns or a#6ec%ives bearin! %he #efini%e ar%icle an# %o !eni%ive-%a-in! 5re5osi%ions$ Uhen hos%e# b0 nouns or 5re5osi%ions %he cli%ic is Geni%ive (see (+4/a an# (+4/b res5ec%ivel0 an# cha5%er ./$ The onl0 case 9here %he cli%ic is s%ill use# in 5resen%-#a0 lan!ua!e is 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive propriu >o9n? (see (+4/c/3
(+4/ a$ Em5o%riva 2.eA../ d Em5o%riva-. a!ains% life-%he$G7N/a!ains%-CL$2FSG$G7N b$ sufle%ul omului /d sufle%u-mi soul-%he man-%he$G7N/ soul-%he-CL$+SG$G7N c$ 5ro5ria-6. mamL o9n-%he-CL$+SG$G7N mo%her
Some in%er6ec%ions allo9 Accusa%ive cli%ics3

(+,/ a$ ia%L-l lo - CL$2SG$ACC >There he is? b$ ui%e-l loo--CL$2SG$ACC >There he is$?
1.$. St0on4 P0ono1ns In %he 5rece#in! sec%ion 9e have sho9n %ha% s%ron! 5ersonal 5ronouns P as o55ose# %o 5ronominal cli%ics P have %he #is%ribu%ion of DPs$ In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill sho9 %ha% %he0 never%heless resemble cli%ics an# #iffer from DPs insofar as %he0 are minimal elemen%s 9hich con%ain onl0 fea%ures such as Person Number an# Gen#er bu% have no in%ernal s%ruc%ureI in o%her 9or#s %he0 con%ain no sub-cons%i%uen%s$ 'ecause s%ron! 5ronouns have no in%ernal s%ruc%ure %he0 canno% be 5rece#e# b0 an0 #e%erminer nor b0 an0 of %he elemen%s %ha% insi#e DPs occu50 %he 5osi%ion be%9een #e%erminers an# nouns3
(+./ a$ aces% co5il@Laces% el %his chil#/ %his he b$ #oi co5ii /X#oi ei %9o chil#ren/ %9o %hem
+CB
Pronouns
These im5ossibili%ies in#ica%e %ha% #e%erminers as 9ell as 5renominal elemen%s are of necessi%0 DP-in%ernal an# as such %he0 are incom5a%ible 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 9hich canno% combine 9i%h an0 DP-in%ernal cons%i%uen%s$ The onl0 elemen%s %ha% can 5rece#e 5ersonal 5ronouns are %hose %ha% 5rece#e #e%erminers e$!$ focal 5ar%icles an# in%ensifiers 3
(+</ focal 5ar%icles (c!iar% doar% i% tot% nici/3 a$ chiar gel / bLia%ul cel mare al vecinului / Ionh even he /bo0-%he %he ol# G7N nei!hbour-%he$G7N/ Ion >even he/even %he nei!hbour?s el#er son/even Ion? b$ #oar gel / aces% bLia% / Ion h onl0 he / %his bo0/ Ion c$ Mi gel @ bie%ul co5il / Ionh also he/ 5oor-%he chil#/ Ion >he %oo/%he 5oor chil#/Ion %oo? in%ensifiers (nsui/3 EnsuMi gel @ bLia%ul cel mare al vecinului /Ion h himself he/ bo0-%he %he ol# G7N nei!hbour-%he$G7N/Ion >he himself/%he nei!hbour?s el#er son himself/Ion himself?
(+B/
Pos%nominal cons%i%uen%s can be ei%her DP-in%ernal or DP-e;%ernal$ The e;am5les belo9 sho9 %ha% %he former are incom5a%ible 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 3
(+C/ a$ bzia%ul meu vs$ Xel meu bo0-%he m0 Xhe m0 >m0 son? vs X >m0 he? b$ bzia%ul vecinului vs$ Xel vecinului bo0-%he nei!hbour-%he$G7N he nei!hbour-%he$G7N >%he nei!hbour?s son? vs X >%he nei!hbour?s he? c$ bzia%ul brune% vs$ Xel brune% bo0-%he bro9n he bro9n >%he bro9n (haire#/ bo0? vs X >%he bro9n (haire#/ he? #$ bzia%ul #e 5e bancz vs$ Xel #e 5e bancz bo0-%he of on bench he of on bench >%he bo0 on %he bench vs Xhe on %he bench?
No%e %ha% %he meanin!s of %hese im5ossible confi!ura%ions can be e;5resse# b0 usin! s5ecial elemen%s %ha% are calle# >(!eni%ival/a#6ec%ival/ ar%icles? in %he Romanian !ramma%ical %ra#i%ion3
(1=/ a$ al meu al$:SG m0 >mine? b$ al vecinului al$:SG nei!hbour-%he$:SG$G7N >%he nei!hbour?s? c$ cel brune% %he$:SG bro9n >%he bro9n one? #$ cel #e 5e bancL %he$:SG of on bench >%he one on %he bench?
+CC
Pronouns
As e;5laine# in #e%ail in Cha5%er 2 sec%ion 2 %hese forms can be anal0Ae# as fuse# DHN hea#s or as Ds follo9e# b0 a null N$ 7i%her 9a0 such elemen%s are no% 5ro-DPs bu% ins%ea# involve an N-cons%i%uen% 9hich e;5lains 9h0 %he0 ma0 combine 9i%h DP-in%ernal ar!umen%s or mo#ifiers$ Sin!ular +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns an# 2r# 5erson 5ronouns are also incom5a%ible 9i%h a class of mo#ifiers 9hich are allo9e# b0 5ro5er nouns 9i%hou% a #e%erminer3 res%ric%ive rela%ive clauses celHa#6ec%ive/PP alH!eni%ive de-PPs$ In%eres%in!l0 %hese mo#ifiers ma0 a55ear 9i%h 5lural +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns3
(1+/ a$ voi ai lui Va#im 0ou al$:PL G'L Va#im >0ou Va#im?s su55or%ers/5eo5le? b$ Gheor!he al :ariei Gheor!he al0:SG :aria$G7N >Gheor!he :aria?s husban#/son? c$ Xei ai lui Va#im %he0 al0:PL G'L Va#im #$Xel al :ariei he al$:SG :aria$G7N e$ Xeu al Ioanei I al$:SG Ioana$G7N a$ Gheor!he #e la mare Gheor!he of a% sea >Gheor!he from %he seasi#e? b$ Xel #e la mare >he of a% sea? a$ noi care am fos% acolo 9e 9hich have$+PL been %here >9e 9ho 9ere %here? b$ Gheor!he care lucreaAL En fabricL Gheor!he 9hich 9or-s in fac%or0 >The Gheor!he 9ho 9or-s in %he fac%or0? c$ Xel care a fos% acolo/care lucreaAL En fabricL he 9hich has been %here/9ho 9or-s in fac%or0 #$ Xeu care am fos% acolo I 9ho have been %here a$ noi cei #eM%e5Ri 9e %he$:PL smar% >9e %he smar% ones? b$ X el cel #eM%e5% he %he$:SG smar%
The 1n# 5erson sin!ular 5ronoun ma0 %a-e a de-PP onl0 9hen use# as a voca%ive3 (i/ a$ Tu #e-acolo ieMi la %ablLd 0ou of-%here come-ou%$I:PV$1SG %o blac-boar# >qou over %here !o %o %he blac-boar#? b$ XTe 5refer 5e %ine #e-acolo$ 0ou$CL$ACC 5refer$+SG DG: 0ou$ACC of-%here >I 5refer 0ou over %here$?
(11/
(12/
(14/
The fac% %ha% %hese mo#ifiers can combine 9i%h %he 5lural + s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns an# also 9i%h 5ro5er nouns 9i%hou% a #e%erminer 9hich #o no% allo9 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives (see
1==
Pronouns
cha5%er +1 P Pro5er Names/ su!!es%s %ha% %he0 belon! %o a hi!her la0er of mo#ifica%ion bein! 5erha5s DP-a#6unc%s an# %he reason 9h0 %he0 are incom5a%ible 9i%h cer%ain 5ronouns is 5robabl0 %ha% %he0 e;5ress res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion$ This h05o%hesis lea#s us %o %he conclusion %ha% sin!ular +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns canno% allo9 res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion of an0 sor%$ This follo9s #irec%l0 from %heir meanin! P %he s5ea-er an# %he a##ressee are uni@ue no 5re#ica%e can be use# %o 5ic- a sub-se% or an in#ivi#ual from a lar!er se%$ Com5are 5lural + s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns 9hich #eno%e !rou5s3 here %he res%ric%ive mo#ifier s5ecifies %he com5osi%ion of %he !rou5 con%ainin! %he s5ea-er/a##ressee$ For 2r# 5erson 5ronouns %he e;5lana%ion is less s%rai!h%for9ar#3 no%e %ha% %he forms cel an# al illus%ra%e# in (1=/ ma0 be use# %o conve0 9ha% su55ose#l0 9oul# be %he meanin! of %he im5ossible s%ruc%ure Pronoun H :o#ifier3
(1,/ a$ cel care a fos% acolo lucreaAL En fabricL %he$:SG 9ho has been %here 9or-s in fac%or0 >%he one 9ho 9as %here 9or-s in a fac%or0? b$ (cei/ Lia/ ai lui Va#im %he$:PL/%hose al$:PL G'L Va#im >%he ones/%hose of Va#im?s?
If forms such as al an# cel in#ee# #omina%e a N-cons%i%uen% as s%a%e# above %he0 5resen% a confi!ura%ion %ha% allo9s res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion$ Com5are 5ersonal 5ronouns 9hich are 5roDP cons%i%uen%s an# as such canno% be use# 9i%h NP-level mo#ifica%ion$ Le%?s assume %ha% res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion mus% be e;5resse# b0 NP-level mo#ifica%ion 9herever 5ossible$ Since for %he 2r# 5erson NP-level mo#ifica%ion is allo9e# #ue %o %he e;is%ence of forms of %he %05e cel an# al DP-a#6unc%ion %o 5ersonal 5ronouns is e;clu#e#$ DP-a#6unc%s ma0 func%ion as res%ric%ive mo#ifiers onl0 in %hose con%e;%s in 9hich NP-in%ernal mo#ifica%ion is im5ossible3 9i%h 5lural +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns an# 9i%h 5ro5er nouns 9i%hou% a #e%erminer (see e;am5les 1+-14/$ The onl0 elemen%s 9i%h 9hich all s%ron! 5ronouns are com5a%ible are %rul0 DP-e;%ernal elemen%s (non-res%ric%ive/3 - in%ensifiers (nsui% sin ur% unul/3
(1./ a$ gbLia%ul cel mare al vecinului / Ion / elh EnsuMi bo0-%he %he ol# G7N nei!hbour-%he$G7N / Ion / he himself >%he nei!hbour?s el#er son /Ion /he himself? b$ gIon / elh sin!ur M%ie ce !Wn#eM%e Ion/ he alone -no9s 9ha% %hin-s >Gnl0 Ion/he -no9s 9ha%?s on his min#? c$ gIon / elh unul Ion/ he one$ADG: >As for him@Ion$?
The em5ha%ic 5ar%icle unul !enerall0 combines 9i%h +s% 5erson sin!ular al%hou!h 1n# an# 2r# 5erson sin!ular 5ronouns are no% e;clu#e#3 eu unul$tu unul$el unul >as for me/as for 0ou/as for him?
- non-res%ric%ive rela%ive clauses3

(1</ gbLia%ul cel mare al vecinului / Ion / elh care a fLcu% a%W%a 5en%ru noi bo0-%he %he ol# G7N nei!hbour-%he$G7N / Ion / he 9hich has #one man0 for us >%he nei!hbour?s el#er son/Ion/he 9ho #i# so much for us?
1=+
Pronouns - a55osi%ive DPs (for 5ronouns of Person 4-,/3 (1B/ a$ Noi femeile iubim na%ura 9e 9omen-%he love$+PL na%ure-%he >Ue 9omen love na%ure? b$ Voi femeile iubiRi na%ura 0ou 9omen-%he love$1PL na%ure-%he >qou 9omen love na%ure?
A#6ec%ives follo9in! %he 5ronoun or 5ro5er name in %he e;am5les belo9 are no% mo#ifiers of %he DP bu% 5re#ica%es of a small-clause (9hose sub6ec% 5robabl0 is a PRG co-in#e;e# 9i%h %he 5ronounI see Secon# Volume on Small Clauses/3 (i/ Aici es%e g:aria/eah mireasL here is :aria/she bri#e >This is :aria/she as a bri#e? (ii/ Aici es%e gIon/elh mic here is Ion/ he li%%le$:SG >%his is Ion/he as a li%%le bo0H
Tha% %he e;am5le in (1B/ is buil% 9i%h an a55osi%ive DP is in#ica%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he #efini%e ar%icle is obli!a%or0$ Com5are lan!ua!es such as 7n!lish French or I%alian 9hich allo9 a bare noun e$!$ &e lin uists% nous lin uistes% noi >taliani$ No%e %ha% 5ronouns canno% func%ion as a55osi%ions3
(1C/ XFemeile noi iubim na%ura 9omen-%he 9e love$+PL na%ure-%he
Pronouns can also be mo#ifie# b0 5os%5ose# car#inals an# %he universals toi% tot >all %he 9hole? an# amndoi >bo%h?3
(2=/ b$ Au a$ Au 5leca% ei #oi have$2PL lef% %he0 %9o >The %9o of %hem lef%? 5leca% ei %oRi have$2PL lef% %he0 all >The0 all lef%?
Ui%h DPs %his -in# of mo#ifica%ion is e;clu#e# 9i%h car#inals an# e;ce5%ional 9i%h universals (in %he normal or#er %he universal a55ears before %he #e%erminer an# %he car#inal in be%9een %he #e%erminer an# %he noun/3
(2+/ a$ X Au 5leca% oamenii #eM%e5Ri #oi have$2PL lef% men-%he smar% %9o a?$ Au 5leca% cei #oi oameni #eM%e5Ri have lef% %he %9o 5eo5le smar% >The %9o smar% 5eo5le lef%? b$ K Au 5leca% fe%ele mele %oa%e have$2PL lef% #au!h%ers-%he m0 all >:0 #au!h%ers all lef%? b?$ Au 5leca% %oa%e fe%ele mele have$2PL lef% all #au!h%ers-%he m0 >all m0 #au!h%ers lef%?
1=1
Pronouns
1.%. T8e #0a66at./al F1n/t.ons of Cl.t./ P0ono1ns 1.%.1 Co66on #0a66at./al F1n/t.ons of Cl.t./ an3 St0on4 P0ono1ns Al%hou!h %he0 never occu50 %he same 5osi%ion as DPs an# s%ron! 5ronouns (see above/ cli%ics can realiAe %he same !ramma%ical func%ions as DPs an# s%ron! 5ronominal forms3 %he #irec% an# in#irec% ob6ec%s of verbs an# verbal in%er6ec%ions %he #a%ive com5lemen% of a#6ec%ives %he a#nominal !eni%ive an# %he !eni%ive com5lemen% of 5re5osi%ions (see +$2 above on %he res%ric%ions on %he use of !eni%ive cli%ics/3
(21/ (22/ (24/ (2,/ (2./ (2</ Iubesc viaRa/G iubesc love life-%he/CL$2FSG$ACC love >I love life/I love i%? Acor# Encre#ere 412e0n1l1./ M. acor# Encre#ere !ive %rus% !overnmen%-%he$DAT/CL$2:SG$DAT !ive %rus% >I %rus% %he !overnmen%? Ia%L 6a0ea/Ia% -o loo- sea-%he@ loo--CL$2FSG$ACC >Oere is %he sea/>here i% is? co5il #ra! /Co5ilul N6. es%e #ra! chil# #ear /chil#-%he me$ CL$DAT is #ear >#ear chil#?/ >The chil# is #ear %o me? sufle%ul o61l1./ sufle%u -6. soul-%he man-%he$G7N/soul-%he me$CL$G7N >%he man?s soul?/>m0 soul? En 6urul /o5a/1l1./ En 6uru -. aroun# %ree-%he$G7N/aroun# CL$2:SG$G7N >aroun# %he %ree/aroun# i%?
To %his 9e ma0 a## %he func%ion of #a%ive a#6unc%s (benefac%or or 5ossessor/$ No%e ho9ever %ha% in %his case a DP mus% be #ouble# b0 a cli%ic3
(2B/ am s5ar% un vas 1ne. 50.etene/ Iam s5ar% un vas CL$2SGF$DAT have$+ bro-en a #ish a$DAT frien#(F7:// CL$2SG$DAT have$+ bro-en a #ish >I bro-e a #ish %o a frien#? / >I bro-e one of her #ishes? I-
The cli%ic ma0 realiAe %hese func%ions onl0 9hen %he verb noun or a#6ec%ive @ualifies as an a55ro5ria%e hos% an# i% #oes conflic% 9i%h ano%her cli%ic belon!in! %o %he same cli%ic clus%er (see +$.$2/$ The con#i%ions 9hich a verb mus% fulfill in or#er %o be able %o hos% cli%ics 9ill be 5resen%e# in .$1 belo9$ As for nouns an# a#6ec%ives %he con#i%ion is %ha% %he0 bear %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle$ 1.%.2. #0a66at./al f1n/t.ons 0est0./te3 to /l.t./s Cli%ic forms have some s5ecific func%ions 9hich are no% foun# 9i%h DPs or s%ron! 5ronouns$ In some of %hese cases s%ron! 5ronouns canno% a55ear b0 %hemselves an# %he0 canno% be cli%ic-#ouble# ei%her3 (i/ "7%hical Da%ive& (9i%h 5ersons +-1 sin!ular/ sho9in! s5ea-er?s or hearer?s emo%ional involvemen% (no 7n!lish e@uivalen%/3
(2C/ a$ Pe un#e -6. umbli K Gver 9here-me$CL$DAT 9al-$1SG >Uhere are 0ou 9an#erin! abou%K?
1=2
Pronouns b$ ii A. -l luL o#a%L #e !rumaAd an# CL$1SG$DAT him$CL$ACC !rabbe#$2SG su##enl0 b0 nec-d >An# all of a su##en he !rabbe# him b0 his nec-d?
(ii/ Refle;ive mar-ers for inheren% refle;ive verbs inchoa%ives an# refle;ive 5assives an# im5ersonals (onl0 %he 2r# 5ersons have s5ecial refle;ive forms see sec%ion +$1 aboveI for 5ersons +-1 an# 4-, %he 5ronominal forms are also use# as refle;ives/3
(4=/ a$ Ne 6ucLm /XNe 6ucLm 5e noi (inheren% refle;ive/ CL$+PL$ACC 5la0$+PL CL$+PL$ACC 5la0$+PL DG: us >Ue are 5la0in!? b$ Gmul s-a En!rLMa% /XGmul s-a En!rLMa% 5e sine (inchoa%ive S7/ man-%he CL$R7FL$ACC-has fa%%en man-%he CL$R7FL$ ACC-has fa%%en DG: himself >The man !o% fa%? c$ S-au a#us 5riAonierii (5assive S7/ CL$R7FL$ ACC-have brou!h% 5risoners-%he >The 5risoners 9ere brou!h%? #$ Se #oarme bine aici (im5ersonal S7/ CL$R7FL$ACC slee5s 9ell here >Gne can slee5 9ell here?
(iii/
(4+/
In some i#ioma%ic cons%ruc%ions3

a$ a lua%-o la sLnL%oasa has %a-en-CL$2FSG$ACC a% heal%h0-%he$F7: >Oe bea% .t? b$ Mi #L-. Mi lu5%L an# !ive$I:PV$1SG-CL$2SG$DAT an# fi!h%$I:PV$1SG >Oe -e5% fi!h%in!?
1.%.3. T8e Cl.t./ Do1bl.n4 of St0on4 P0ono1ns Accusa%ive an# Da%ive cli%ics ma0 co-occur 9i%h a DP or a s%ron! 5ronoun realiAin! %he same func%ion$ This 5henomenon 9hich is curren%l0 referre# %o as >cli%ic #oublin!? sho9s #ifferen% 5ro5er%ies #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he #ouble# elemen% is a DP con%ainin! a noun (see %he secon# volume for cli%ic #oublin!/ or a s%ron! 5ronoun$ Oere 9e 9ill concen%ra%e on %he #oublin! of s%ron! 5ronouns 9hich is obli!a%or0 5rovi#e# %ha% %he environmen% offers a hos% for %he cli%ic (for confi!ura%ions 9hich #o no% 5rovi#e such a hos% see sec%ion +$.$1$/$
(41/ a$ (Le-/ am #a% ca#ouri 61lto0a@ /o5..lo0 %hem$CL$DAT have$+ !iven 5resen%s man0$ DAT/chil#ren$DAT >I !ave 5resen%s %o man0 5eo5le/%he chil#ren? b$ X(Le-/ am #a% ca#ouri lo0 %hem$CL$DAT have$+ !iven 5resen%s %hem$DAT >I !ave 5resen%s %o %hem? c$ X(Le-/ am #a% ca#ouri l1. C. Mon./:. %hem$CL$DAT have$+ !iven 5resen%s him$DAT an# :onica$DAT >I !ave 5resen%s %o him an# :onica$?
In all %hose con%e;%s in 9hich %he cli%ic is 5ossible a s%ron! 5ronoun can be use# 5rovi#e# %ha% i% is #ouble# b0 %he cli%ic$ No%e %ha% cli%ic-#oublin! occurs onl0 in %he verbal #omain$ Com5are
s%ron! Geni%ive 5ronouns 9hich canno% be #ouble# b0 Geni%ive cli%ics3 (42/ a$ X Em5o%riva-. l1. a!ains% -CL$2:SG$G7N he$G7N
1=4
Pronouns b$ X inima-i lui hear%-%he-CL$2:SG$G7N he$G7N
Some of %he con#i%ions 9hich %ri!!er %he use of a s%ron! form alon!si#e %he cli%ic are formal3 a s%ron! form has %o be use# in or#er %o allo9 mo#ifica%ion con%ras%ive s%ress coor#ina%ion %o5icaliAa%ion all of 9hich canno% be realiAe# b0 %he cli%ic see +$2$+ above$
(44/ a$ `l
CL$2:SG$ACC
vreau 5e 7L 9an%$+SG DG: him
>I 9an% OI:? b$ Pe el El M%iu #e mul% DG: him CL$2:SG$ACC -no9$+SG for lon! >I have -no9n him for a lon! %ime? c$ `l CDNGSC 5e el CL$2:SG$ACC -no9$+SG DG: him >I SNGU him? #$ ì aM%e5% 5e el Mi 5e :aria CL$2:PL$ACC 9ai%$+SG DG: him an# DG: :aria >I 9ai% for him an# :aria? e$ `l cre# numai 5e el CL$2:SG$ACC believe$+SG onl0 DG: him >I believe onl0 him?
(5os%verbal %o5ic/
'esi#es %hese cons%rain%s s%ron! forms ma0 a55ear for 5urel0 seman%ic reasons3 9hen %he 5ronoun is #eic%icall0 use# or 9hen i% has a con%ras%ive meanin! (%he referen% is con%ras%e# 9i%h o%her referen%s/ 9i%hou% carr0in! con%ras%ive s%ress3
(4,/ a$ `n%reabL-l 5e el as-$I:PV$1SG-him$CL$ACC DG: him >As- him over %here? (9i%h a !es%ure/ (#eic%ic/ b$ `n%reabL-l 5e el #acL 5e mine nu mL creAi as-$I:PV$1SG-him$CL$ACC DG: him if DG: me$ACC no% me$CL$ACC believe$1SG >As- him if 0ou #on?% believe me? (con%ras%ive meanin!/
In all %hese cases s%ron! forms normall0 refer %o humans$ 7;ce5%ionall0 9hen a s%ron! form mus% be use# because of mo#ifica%ion or coor#ina%ion i% can refer %o a non-human en%i%03
(4./ Nu sun% %ulburL%oare aces%e analo!ii K Nu vL vine sL lLsaRi %o%ul bal%L no% are %hrillin! %hese analo!ies no% 0ou$ CL$DAT comes SD'N le%$1PL ever0%hin! 5u##le 5en%ru a le s%u#ia 3oa0 5e eleK (7;$ In%erne%/ for %o CL$2FPL$ACC s%u#0$INF onl0 DG: %hem(F/ >Aren?% %hese analo!ies %hrillin!K Don?% 0ou feel li-e #ro55in! ever0%hin! in or#er %o s%u#0 onl0 %hemK?
1.%.$. P0ono6.nal /l.t./s 2s. Infle/t.on Several fac%s su55or% %he h05o%hesis %ha% Romanian cli%ics are inflec%ional elemen%s3 (i/ %he0 are func%ional ca%e!ories %ha% incor5ora%e !ramma%ical fea%ures (5erson number !en#er case/ (see +$+ above/$ This is a necessar0 bu% no% a sufficien% con#i%ion3 see s%ron! 5ronouns 9hich canno% be sai# %o be inflec%ional elemen%s al%hou!h %he0 are mere bun#les of fea%uresI (ii/ %heir 5osi%ion 9i%h res5ec% %o %he verb is fi;e# rule !overne# (see +$, above/I %he0 a55ear in a clus%er of V= elemen%s con%ainin! verbal inflec%ional elemen%s occu50in! a 5osi%ion 9here no DP can a55earI in %his %he0 resemble inflec%ional hea#s (for ins%ance cli%ic 1=,
Pronouns
au;iliaries/I (iii/ cli%ics share %he s0n%ac%ic behaviour of inflec%ional elemen%s3 li-e inflec%ional mor5hemes cli%ics are re5ea%e# on each hos% even in coor#ina%ion3
(4</ a$ Le cum5Lr Mi KK(leF ci%esc cu 5lLcere %hem$CL$ACC bu0$+SG an# %hem$CL$ACC rea#$+SG 9i%h 5leasure >I bu0 %hem an# rea# %hem 9i%h 5leasure? b$ vLAWn#u-i Mi auAin#u -i /XvLAWn#u-i Mi see$G7R-%hem$CL$ACC an# hear$G7R-%hem$CL$ACC/see$G7R-%hem$CL$2:PL$ACC an# auAin# /XvLAWn# Mi auAin#u -i hear$G7R/see$G7R an# hear$G7R-%hem$CL$ACC >seein! %hem an# hearin! %hem/seein! %hem an# hearin!/seein! an# hearin! %hem?$
7;ce5%ions are 5ossible 9hen %9o (or more/ seman%icall0 rela%e# verbs are coor#ina%e# an# %rea%e# as a com5le; ac%ion$ In %his case onl0 %he firs% 5re-verbal cli%ic is obli!a%or0 9hile o%hers can be #ele%e# I #ele%ion is no% 5ossibile 9i%h 5os%-verbal cli%ics (9hich are more %i!h%l0 connec%e# %o %he verb i$e$ no elemen% can be inser%e# be%9een %he verb an# %he cli%ic P see +$,$+/ 3 (i/ Le ci%esc Mi EleF reci%esc %o% %im5ul CL$2FPL$ACC rea#$+SG an# (CL$2FPL$ACC/ re-rea#$+SG all %ime-%he >I?m rea#in! %hem all %he %ime a!ain an# a!ain? (ii/ Xci%in# Mi reci%in#u -le %o% %im5ul Xrea#$G7R an# re-rea#$G7R-CL$2FPL$ACC all %ime-%he
(iv/ The cli%ic #oublin! of #irec%/in#irec% ob6ec%s (see +$,$2-+$,$4 above/ is 5arallel %o verb P sub6ec% a!reemen%$ Never%heless %here are several #ifferences be%9een inflec%ional elemen%s an# cli%ics3 (i/ Generall0 all members of a le;ical ca%e!or0 %a-e %he s5ecific inflec%ional mor5hemes of %he class (almos% all nouns %a-e sin!ular P 5lural mor5hemesI all verbs %a-e %ense P moo# P 5erson P number mor5hemes/ 9hile cli%ics occur un#er s5ecific s0n%ac%ic an# #iscourse circums%ances$ Al%hou!h #irec% an# in#irec% ob6ec% cli%ic #oublin! can be com5are# %o verbsub6ec% a!reemen% verb-sub6ec% a!reemen% is !eneral 9hile ob6ec% #oublin! is le;icall0 seman%icall0 mor5holo!icall0 an# s0n%ac%icall0 res%ric%e#$ (ii/ A !iven inflec%ional mor5heme has a fi;e# 5osi%ion rela%ive %o %he verb i$e$ a 5ar%icular mor5heme is ei%her a suffi; (e$!$ 5erson or %ense inflec%ional mor5hemes on verbs/ or a 5refi; (e$!$ #eriva%ional mor5hemes such as re- des- e%c$/$ This is no% %he case 9i%h cli%ics3 as is clear from Table 1 in %he follo9in! sec%ion %he %9o 5osi%ions labele# Cli%ic Pronoun + an# Cli%ic Pronoun 1 can be occu5ie# b0 %he same cli%ic(s/ #e5en#in! on %he mor5hos0n%ac%ic (an# 5honolo!ical for %he cli%ic o/ 5ro5er%ies of %he o%her elemen%s %ha% a%%ach %o %he verb$ (iii/ Inflec%ional elemen%s canno% be se5ara%e# from %he verb 9hile some cli%ic a#verbials can in%ervene be%9een a 5re-5ose# cli%ic an# i%s verbal hos% (see +$,$+/$ 1.%.%. O2e0t an3 n1ll s1b7e/t 50ono1ns The s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic con#i%ions %ha% re!ula%e %he use of s%ron! DG an# IG forms are similar %o %hose %ha% !overn %he use of 5ronominal sub6ec%s (9hich in Romanian have onl0 s%ron! non-cli%ic forms/$ Romanian is a 5ro-#ro5 lan!ua!e3 nomina%ive 5ronominal sub6ec%s %ha% are ana5horicall0 or #eic%icall0 re%rievable ma0 be #ro55e#$ This 5ossibili%0 is correla%e# 9i%h %he fac% %ha% %he verbal inflec%ion carries %he 5erson an# number (bu% no% !en#er/ fea%ures of %he sub6ec%3 lucre( (li%$ &or#0;9K "I 9or-&/I lucre(i (li%$ &or#0<9K% "0ou 9or-&/I lucrea( (li%$ &or#0=9K$/L% "he/she/i% 9or-s %he0 9or-&/I lucrm (li%$ &or#0;/L% "9e 9or-&/I lucrai (li%$&or#0</L "0ou 9or-&/$ If 9e anal0Ae sub6ec%-#ro5 as an ins%ance of pro (null sub6ec%/
1=.
Pronouns
license# b0 rich inflec%ion 9e can consi#er %he null sub6ec% as a -in# of 9ea- form a-in %o cli%ics$ Ue can also consi#er %ha% %he rich inflec%ion is %he corres5on#en% of a cli%ic form$ 7i%her 9a0 %he al%erna%ion be%9een null/im5lici% sub6ec%s an# over% 5ronominal sub6ec%s resembles %he al%erna%ion be%9een ob6ec% cli%ics an# s%ron! ob6ec% 5ronouns$ I% shoul# ho9ever be observe# %ha% %he use of over% sub6ec%s is less res%ric%e# %han %he use of s%ron! ob6ec%s a si%ua%ion 9hich is 5robabl0 rela%e# %o %he fac% %ha% %he verbal inflec%ion #oes no% mar- !en#er (see (4C//$ Li-e s%ron! 5ronouns in ob6ec%s 5osi%ions over% sub6ec%s mus% be use# in or#er %o allo9 coor#ina%ion mo#ifica%ion %o5icaliAa%ion con%ras%ive s%ress an# for #ei;is an# con%ras%ive meanin! (9hen %he referen% is con%ras%e# 9i%h o%her en%i%ies 9i%hou% bein! a con%ras%ive focus see e;$ (4B/f-!/3
(4B/ a$ 7l Mi %a%Ll lui vin mWine he an# fa%her-%he his come$2PL %omorro9 >Oe an# his fa%her come %omorro9? b$ Numai/chiar Mi eu vin onl0/ even I come$+SG >Gnl0 I 9ill come/7ven I 9ill come? c$ 7u VIN I come >I CG:7? #$ 7D vin >I come? e$ El o sL vinL he 9ill SD'N comes >Oe over %here 9ill come? (#eic%ic 9i%h a !es%ure/ f$ Are #re5%a%e cre# e1 Oas ri!h% %hin-$+SG I >Oe is ri!h% I %hin-? !$ Ion mi-a s5us cL :aria nu vine mWine$ E1 cre# cL va veni$ Ion me$CL$DAT-has %ol# %ha% :aria no% comes %omorro9 I believe %ha% 9ill$2SG come >Ion %ol# me %ha% :aria 9oul# no% come %omorro9$ I %hin- she 9ill come$?
The over% realiAa%ion of sub6ec% 5ronouns is also mean% %o avoi# !en#er ambi!ui%ies (since inflec%ion #oes no% sho9 !en#er #is%inc%ions/3
(4C/ 'Lia%ul Mi fa%a se Rineau #e mWnL$ Ea En%oarce ca5ul$ bo0-%he an# !irl-%he R7FL hol#$I:PF of han# she %urns hea#-%he >The bo0 an# %he !irl 9ere hol#in! %heir han#s$ S8e %urne# her hea#$?
Gver% sub6ec%s ma0 also be use# 9hen %he en%i%0 %he0 refer %o is no% (0e%/ a #iscourse %heme3
(,=/ Vom vorbi as%LAi #es5re 7nescu$ El a fos% un mare com5oAi%or$ 9ill$+PL s5ea- %o#a0 abou% 7nescu he has been a !rea% com5oser >To#a0 9e 9ill %alabou% 7nescu$ Oe 9as a !rea% com5oser$?
In %his case Romanian allo9s 5ronominal sub6ec%s %o refer %o non-human referen%s3

(,+/ a$ CWn# eM%i bL%rWn surWAi cWn# %e !Wn#eM%i la viaRL Mi la %o% ce 9hen are$1SG ol# smile$1SG 9hen R7FL %hin-$1SG a% life an# a% ever0%hin! 9ha% ERi oferL ea$ 0ou$CL$DAT offers she >Uhen 0ou are ol# 0ou smile %hin-in! abou% life an# ever0%hin! .t has %o offer 0ou$?
1=<
Pronouns b$ :L ui%am la fo%o!rafia aceea En!Llbeni%L #eMi ea nu Emi mai R7FL loo-$I:PF$+SG a% 5ho%o-%he %ha% 0ello9e# al%hou!h she no% me$ DAT more s5unea nimic acum$ %ell$I:PF$2SG no%hin! no9 >I 9as loo-in! a% %ha% 0ello9 5ho%o al%hou!h .t #i#n?% %ell me an0%hin! an0more$?
'0 bein! use# as a sub6ec% %he en%i%0 9hich is no% a #iscourse %heme ma0 become one (in 9hich case 9e s5ea- of %o5ic shif%in!/ bu% %his is no% necessar0 (see for ins%ace (,+/a/$ Pronominal sub6ec%s ma0 also a55ear in im5era%ives3
(,1/ a$ Vreau sL ci%esc un roman ale!e -mi t1 unul frumos$ 9an%$+SG SD'N rea#$+SG a novel choose$I:PV$1SG-me$CL$DAT 0ou one nice >I 9an% %o rea# a novel 5lease choose a nice one for med? b$ Acum t1 #u-%e Mi %e culcL eu rLmWn$ no9 0ou !o$I:PV$1SG- R7FL an# R7FL slee5$I:PV$1SG I s%a0 >No9 !o an# slee5 I 9ill s%a0$?
Gver% sub6ec% 5ronouns of Persons 2 an# . ma0 #ouble #efini%e sub6ec% DPs sharin! %he !en#er an# number fea%ures of %he sub6ec% DP$ There are %9o %05es of %his sor% of #oublin!3 (i/ verb P #oublin! nomina%ive 5ronoun P DP sub6ec%$ The 5ronoun is uns%resse# an# i% imme#ia%el0 follo9s %he verb$
(,2/ a$ Vine eli %a%ai n- ai !ri6L d comes he fa%her no% have$I:PV$1SG 9orr0d >I?m 9arnin! 0ou #a# 9ill come soond? b$ 'a%e eli Ivani la 5oar%L cW% 5oa%e (^/ #ar au 5rins ei 6 acum #racii6 la -noc-s he Ivan a% !a%e ho9 can$2SG bu% have$2PL cau!h% %he0 no9 #evils-%he a% min%e (Crean!L/ min# >Ivan -noc-s a% %he !a%e as har# as he can bu% %he #evils have learne# %he %ric-$?
This cons%ruc%ion is use# %o conve0 illocu%ionar0 forces such as %hrea% 9arnin! 5romise a#vice concession or %o sho9 %he narra%or?s involvemen% in %he s%or0 or %he sur5rise 9hen confron%e# 9i%h an une;5ec%e# flo9 of even%s$ (ii/Ui%h %he focal 5ar%icle i3 DP sub6ec% P verb P i P #oublin! nomina%ive 5ronoun3
(,4/ a$ S%u#enRiii au Mi eii #re5%urile lord s%u#en%s-%he have$2PL also %he0 ri!h%s-%he %heir >S%u#en%s %oo have %heir o9n ri!h%sd? b$ Co5iii6 se 6oacL Mi ei6 5e un#e 5o%$ chil#ren-%he R7FL 5la0$2PL also %he0 on 9here can$2PL >Chil#ren 5la0 9here %he0 can fin# a 5lace %o$?
1.&. T8e St01/t10e of Cl.t./ Cl1ste0s 1.&.1. L.nea0 o03e0s .ns.3e t8e 2e0bal /l1ste0 Le% us no9 e;amine %he com5le; cons%i%uen% forme# b0 a verb an# one or more cli%ics 9hich 9ill be referre# %o as %he >verbal clus%er? belo9$ Le% us re5ea% %ha% %his cons%i%uen% is no% 5hrasal (in o%her 9or#s %he verb an# %he cli%ic #o no% form a VP/ bu% ins%ea# has %he s%a%us of a Oea# (VT elemen%/ 9hich occu5ies a V-5osi%ion$ 'esi#es 5ronominal cli%ics %he verbal clus%er ma0 also con%ain o%her cli%ics3 (i/ 1=B
Pronouns
a#verbial cli%ics (i tot cam mai prea/I (ii/ moo# an# %ense cli%ics3 am% ai% a% am% ai% au (5as% %ense/ voi% vei% va% vom% vei% vor (fu%ure/ a% ai% ar% am% ai% ar (con#i%ional/ oi% oi% o% om% oi% or (5resum5%ive/% uninflec%e# fi (fi is an invariable 5erfec% au;iliar0 %ha% is !enerall0 follo9e# b0 a 5as% 5ar%ici5le an# en%ers %he 5eri5hras%ic forms of 5erfec% sub6unc%ives 5erfec% con#i%ionals 5erfec% infini%ivals an# 5erfec% 5resum5%ivesI in 5resum5%ives fi can also be follo9e# b0 a !erun# 0iel#in! a con%inuous 5resen% in%er5re%a%ion/I (iii/ %he moo#com5lemen%iAer 5ar%icles s an# a for %he sub6unc%ive an# %he infini%ive res5ec%ivel0I (iv/ %he ne!a%ive a#verbial cli%ic nu (no%e ho9ever %ha% nu unli-e %he o%her elemen%s men%ione# here can also a55ear as a free-s%an#in! elemen% an# bear s%ress e$!$ -Ai nelesQ -Nu "Di# 0ou un#ers%an#K& "Nod&/$ The follo9in! %able #escribes %he rela%ive or#er of cli%ic elemen%s 9i%hin %he verbal clus%er$ The %able illus%ra%es %he combina%ions of %he 2s!$ cli%ics l (masc$/ (re5resen%a%ive for all o%her cli%ics/ an# o (fem$/ (%he 5osi%ion of 9hich is s5ecial in cer%ain au;iliar0 confi!ura%ions/ 9i%h %he verb cnta >sin!? in %he +s% 5erson (e;ce5% for %he im5era%ive/ an# %he cli%ic a#verb mai "a!ain s%ill (an0/ more (an0/ lon!er& (In %he %able %he abbrevia%ions s%an# for3 PR7S- 5resen%I CP P com5oun# 5erfec%I I:PF P im5erfec%I SP P sim5le 5erfec%I PLPF P 5lu5erfec%I FDT P fu%ureI PRF P 5erfec%I SD'N P sub6unc%iveI CGND P con#i%ionalI I:PV P im5era%iveI INF P infini%iveI PART P 5ar%ici5leI SDP P su5ineI G7R P !erun#I PRS P "5resum5%ive&3 a moo# use# for e5is%emic 5ossibili%0/ 3
:GGD :GRPO7: 7 N7GA TIGN CLITIC PRONOUN1 T7NS7/:GG D ADVILIARq ADV
fiPRF
'
CLITIC PRONOUN2
7VA:PL7S
A SLSD'N A SLSD'N -
(N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G / (N7G /
N7G N7G
/l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. O oP /l.t./ 50on. Oe</e5t fo0 oP /l.t./ 50on. Oe</e5t fo0 oP /l.t./ 50on. Oe</e5t fo0 oP /l.t./ 50on. Oe</e5t fo0 oP /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ /l.t./ /l.t./ +
(ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ voiFDT voiFDT oiPRS oiPRS aMCGND aMCGND amCP (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV /
fi
-
cWn%PR7S cWn%amI:PF cWn%aiSP cWn%asemPLPF cWn%a cWn%a% cWn%a cWn%a%/-Wn# cWn%a
+ + + + + + Qo Qo Qo Qo Qo + + + + + /l.t./. /l.t./ 50on. /l.t./ 50on.
)nu*-)*l )mai* cnt )nu*- )*l)mai* cntam )nu*- )*l )mai* cntai )nu*-)*l )mai* cntasem )nu -)*l voi )mai* cnta )nu*-)*l voi )mai* fi cntat )nu* l-oi )mai* cnta )n-* oi )mai* cnta-o )nu* l-oi )mai* fi cntat )n-* oi )mai* fi cntat-o )nu* l-a )mai* cnta )n-* a )mai* cnta-o )nu* l-a )mai* fi cntat )n-* a )mai* fi cntat-o )nu* l-am )mai* cntat )n-* am )mai* cntat-o a )nu*-l )mai* fi cntat s )nu*-l )mai* fi cntat a )nu*-l )mai* cnta s )nu*-l )mai* cntai nu-l )mai* cnta nu-l )mai* cntai )mai* cnt-l )mai* cntai-l )nemai*cntndu-l
fi
fi
cWn%a% cWn%a%
fi fi -
cWn%a%INF cWn%a% cWn%aINF cWn% cWn%aI:PV cWn%aRiI:PV cWn%LI:PV cWn%aRiI:PV cWn%Wn#G7R
N7G
(ADV/ (ADV/ (ADV/
1=C
Pronouns
Table 2.T8e st01/t10e of 2e0bal /l1ste0s This Table sho9s %ha% %he or#er of cli%ic elemen%s insi#e %he verbal clus%er is no% ran#om bu% ins%ea# resembles %he or#er of free-s%an#in! func%ional cons%i%uen%s such as Com5(lemen%iAers/ :oo# V$ Re!ar#in! 5ronominal cli%ics Table 1 sho9s %ha% %he0 ma0 a55ear in %9o 5osi%ions labelle# CLITIC PRGNGDN + an# CLITIC PRGNGDN 1$ The firs% of %hese 5osi%ions 9hich is occu5ie# b0 mos% Romanian cli%ics (inclu#in! refle;ive cli%ics/ is %he 2r# slo% of %he verbal clus%er 9hich is se5ara%e# from %he (le;ical/ verb b0 a#verbial cli%ics an# au;iliar0 cli%ics$ CLITIC PRGNGDN1 9hich is %he +s% slo% %o %he ri!h% of %he verb is %he 5osi%ion 9here cli%ics a55ear in more res%ric%e# con%e;%s3 (i/ for all cli%ics %his is %heir 5osi%ion in affirma%ive im5era%ives an# !erun#sI (ii/ for %he feminine accusa%ive sin!ular cli%ic o %his is i%s 5osi%ion in %hose clus%ers %ha% con%ain an au;iliar0 be!innin! 9i%h a vo9el3 am v(ut-o% a vedea-o% -o am v(ut% -o a vedea0 The 5os%verbal 5osi%ion of %he cli%ic o mus% a% leas% 5ar%iall0 be #ue %o some 5hone%ic cons%rain% 9hich 5rohibi%s %he a#6acenc0 of %9o vo9els3 Xo oi% -o a% -o am$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %his 5hone%ic 5rohibi%ion is no% absolu%e since se@uences of %his %05e are allo9e# (viA$ obli!a%or0/ 9henever %he verb follo9in! %he cli%ic is no% an au;iliar03 o am cu mine >YIZ her have 9i%h me? (see belo9 +$<$1$-+$<$2$/$ 'ecause of i%s ver0 s5ecial 5ro5er%ies (an# i%s #e5en#ence on 5hone%ic fac%ors/ %he 5os%verbal 5osi%ion of o has been mar-e# b0 d in %he %able$ If %he verb is 5rece#e# b0 %he fu%ure au;iliar0 voi %he cli%ic o s%a0s 5referen%iall0 before voi (o voi vedea >$$?/ bu% i% ma0 o5%ionall0 follo9 %he main verb (K voi vedea-o >$$?/$
A5ar% from %he re!ular s sub6unc%ive for %he 2r# 5erson s5o-en Romanian allo9s a less fre@uen%l0 use# sub6unc%ive "%he sub6unc%ive 9i%hou% s&$ The func%ion of %his sub6unc%ive form is close %o %he func%ion of %he 7n!lish 2r# 5erson im5era%ive (let !imG% let itG% let t!em/ or %o %he 7n!lish sub6unc%ive (may youG/$ In %his mor5ho-s0n%ac%ic con%e;% %he 5ronominal cli%ic is in %he 5os%verbal 5osi%ion 9hich is clearl0 correla%e# 9i%h %he absence of s$ (i/ a$ ArAL-l focul burn$2SG$SD'N -him$CL fire-%he >Le% fire burn him? b$ FicL-le %ell$2SG$SD'N -%hem$CL$DAT >Le% him %ell %hem?
The in#ica%ive 5as% an# o5%a%ive au;iliaries (am% ai% a% e%c$ an# a% ai% ar e%c$/ an# %he fu%ure au;iliar0 (voi% vei% va e%c$/ can #is5la0 au;iliar0 Pverb inversion in 9hich case %he cli%ic 5ronoun occu5ies %he 5osi%ion be%9een %he verb an# %he au;iliar0 -ee5in! i%s 5osi%ion rela%ive %o %he au;iliar0$ (ii/ a$ l-aM cWn%a > cWn%a-l-aM P >I 9oul# sin! i%?I b$ 2-am #a% > #a%u-2-am P >I have !iven 0ou$?
These s%ruc%ures are archaic$ Rarel0 9i%h a fe9 verbs refle;ive cli%ic P verb inversion is 5ossible 9i%h sim5le %enses also3 mi se pare > pare-)mi-*se ("i% seems (%o me/&/R se (ice > (ice-se ( "%he0 sa0&/$ The inversion em5hasiAes %he #ubi%a%ive meanin! of %he s%ruc%ure$
A5ar% from %he verbal forms in Table 1 %9o more fu%ure forms are available in Romanian calle# 5eri5hras%ic fu%ure forms3 (i/ am (+SG/% ai (1SG/% are (2SG/ H sub6unc%ive (%he 5ara#i!m of %his 5eri5hras%ic fu%ure form is incom5le%e bein! available onl0 for 5ersons + 1 2s!/I (ii/ o (uninflec%e#/ H sub6unc%ive3
(,,/ am sL lucreA/ ai sL lucreAi/ are sL lucreAe have$+ SD'N 9or-$+SG/have$1SG SD'N 9or-$1SG/ has SD'N 9or-$2SG$SD'N >I?ll 9or-/0ou?ll 9or-/he?ll 9or-?
1+=
Pronouns (,./ o sL lucreA /o sL lucreAi /o sL lucreAe / o sL lucrLm/ 9ill SD'N 9or-$+SG/9ill SD'N 9or-$1SG/ 9ill SD'N 9or-$2SG$SD'N/9ill SD'N 9or-$+PL/ o sL lucraRi /o sL lucreAe 9ill SD'N 9or-$1PL/9ill SD'N 9or-$2PL$SD'N >I?ll 9or-/0ou?ll 9or-/he?ll 9or-/9e?ll 9or-/0ou?ll 9or-/%he0?ll 9or-$?
In %hese s%ruc%ures %he au;iliar0 belon!s %o %he same verbal clus%er as %he sub6unc%ive as sho9n b0 several s0n%ac%ic %es%s 9hich in#ica%e a s%ron! in%ernal cohesion (com5arable %o %ha% of 5eri5hras%ic forms buil% 9i%h an infini%ival or a 5as% 5ar%ici5le/ an# %he lac- of au%onom0 of %he sub6unc%ive %ha% en%ers in%o %he s%ruc%ure3 a le;ical sub6ec% canno% in%ervene be%9een %he au;iliar0 an# %he sub6unc%ive (-are 5aria s vin >has :aria SD'N come$2SG$SD'N? Xo 5aria s vin >FDT :aria SD'N come$2SG$SD'N?/I %he inser%ion of a ne!a%ive cli%ic in fron% of %he sub6unc%ive is bloc-e# (X5aria are s nu vin >:aria has SD'N no% come$2SG$SD'N? X5aria o s nu vin >:aria FDT SD'N no% come$2SG$SD'N?/I in %his cons%ruc%ion %he ne!a%ion mus% 5rece#e %he au;iliar0$ The 5osi%ions of 5ronominal an# non-5ronominal cli%ics in 5eri5hras%ic fu%ure s%ruc%ures never%heless sho9 %ha% %he s0n%ac%ic hos% of cli%ics is %he le;ical verb (in %he sub6unc%ive/ ra%her %han %he au;iliar03
(N7G/ (N7G/ am/ai/are sL o sL /l.t./ /l.t./ (ADV/ (ADV/ Vfin Vfin )nu* am s-l )mai* cnt )nu* o s-l )mai* cnt
Table 3. T8e st01/t10e of 2e0bal /l1ste0s D.t8.n 5e0.580ast./ f1t10e fo06s 1.&.2. Const0a.nts on t8e 2e0bal 8ost In %he verbal #omain cli%ics ma0 a%%ach %o (i/ a fini%e verb (ii/ a fini%e au;iliar0 (iii/ a nonfini%e verb in%ro#uce# b0 %he infini%ival 5ar%icle a or (iv/ a verb bearin! %he !erun# inflec%ion -nd$ Verbs 9hich #o no% sa%isf0 %hese con#i%ions e$!$ 5ar%ici5les or su5ines canno% hos% cli%ics$ In all %hese con%e;%s onl0 a s%ron! 5ronominal form can be use#3
(,</ a$ cLrRile #a%e nouL boo-s-%he !iven us$DAT >%he boo-s !iven %o us? a?$ XcLrRile #a%e-ne/ ne#a%e boo--%he !iven-us$CL$DAT/us$CL$DAT-!iven b$ #e %rimis lui %oa%e informaRiile SDP sen%$SDP him$DAT all informa%ions-%he >%o sen# him all %he 5ieces of informa%ion? b?$ X#e %rimis-Ei %oa%e informaRiile /X #e-i %rimis %oa%e SDP sen%$SDP-him$ CL$DAT all informa%ions-%he/ SDP-him$CL$DAT sen% all informaRiile informa%ions-%he
The a%%achmen% of cli%ics %o infini%ivals lac-in! %he 5ar%icle a is sub6ec% %o s0n%ac%ic cons%rain%s$ Ue mus% in#ee# #is%in!uish be%9een infini%ivals %ha% are com5lemen%s of %he mo#al a putea >can ma0? (see (,B/a/ an# infini%ival embe##e# in%erro!a%ives (see (,B/b-c/$ The former #o no% allo9 cli%ics 9hereas %he la%%er allo9 %hem3
(,B/ a$ XPo% El ve#ea$ can$+SG CL$2:SG$ACC see$INF b$ N-am cu cine -l lLsa no%-have$+SG 9i%h 9hom-CL$2:SG$ACC leave$INF "There?s nobo#0 I can leave i% 9i%h& c$ N-am cui i -l
#a
1++
Pronouns no%-have$+SG 9hom$DAT CL$2:SG$DAT- CL$2:SG$ACC !ive$INF
"There?s nobo#0 I can !ive i% %o& The #ifference be%9een 5ar%ici5les su5ines an# infini%ival VP-com5lemen%s embe##e# un#er a putea on %he one han# an# a-infini%ivals !erun#s an# infini%ival in%erro!a%ives on %he o%her han# in#ica%e %ha% cli%iciAa%ion is no% sensi%ive %o %he mor5holo!ical #is%inc%ion be%9een fini%e an# non-fini%e moo#s bu% ra%her %o some s0n%ac%ic #is%inc%ion %ha% is onl0 loosel0 correla%e# 9i%h (non-/fini%eness (see secon# volume/$ There are %9o con%e;%s 9hich allo9 for a cli%ic %o be hos%e# b0 a verb or verbal com5le; %ha% is hi!her %han %he non-fini%e verb or a#6ec%ive of 9hich %he cli%ic is an ar!umen%3 %he verb a putea >can? combinin! 9i%h a bare infini%ive i$e$ no% 5rece#e# b0 %he 5ar%icle a (see (,C/a/ an# co5ular verbs$ In %his la%%er case %he cli%ic ma0 be %he ar!umen% of a 5ar%ici5le (see (,C/b/ or of an a#6ec%ive (see (,C/c-#/$ Due %o %he na%ure of co5ular cons%ruc%ions onl0 #a%ive cli%ics a55ear in %his con%e;% (a#6ec%ives an# 5assive 5ar%ici5les #o no% %a-e accusa%ive com5lemen%s/3
(,C/ 5o% (#e6a/ ve#ea can$+SG alrea#0 see$INF >I can alrea#0 see him? b$ :ia fos% Encre#inRa%L #in !reMealL me$CL$DAT-has been en%rus%e# b0 mis%a-e >She has been en%rus%e# %o me b0 mis%a-e? c$ ì es%e #ra!L /ì es%e su5erioarL CL$2SG$DAT is #ear$FSG/CL$2SG$DAT is su5erior$FSG >She is #ear %o him/her /She is su5erior %o him/her? #$Ia #eveni% in#is5ensabilL CL$2SG$DAT-has become in#is5ensable$FSG >I% became in#is5ensable %o him/her$?
CL$2SG:$ACC
a$ `l
The verb a putea can also be buil% 9i%h %he sub6unc%ive (as all o%her raisin! an# con%rol verbs in Romanian see secon# volume/$ In %his case %he cli%ic a%%aches %o %he sub6unc%ive3 (i/ Nu 5o% sL -l vL# no% can$+SG SD'N-him$CL$ACC see$+SG
Pronominal cli%ics also a%%ach %o au;iliaries o%her %han %he 5assive fi >be? (see %he elemen%s %ha% a55ear in Table 1 un#er Tense/:oo# Au;iliar0/$ 'u% %hese au;iliaries are %hemselves cli%ics belon!in! %o %he same verbal clus%er as %he le;ical verb (from 9hich %he0 can be se5ara%e# onl0 b0 o%her cli%ic elemen%s/$ Coor#ina%e# verbal clus%ers nee# s5ecial men%ion$ In 5rinci5le cli%ics mus% be re5ea%e# before each of %he con6unc%s (see (4</ above/$ Oo9ever for cer%ain 5airs of verbs 9i%h rela%e# meanin!s if %he cli%ic clus%er con%ains an au;iliar0 i% is 5ossible (al%hou!h some9ha% mar!inal/ %o #ro5 %he 9hole clus%er before %he secon# con6unc%3
(.=/ a$Iam vLAu% Mi auAi% CL$2PL$ACC-have$+ seen an# hear# >I sa9 an# hear# %hem? b$ Enain%e #e a-l ci%i Mi EnRele!e before of %o-CL$2:SG$ACC rea#$INF an# un#ers%an#$INF >before rea#in! an# un#ers%an#in! i%?
I% is com5le%el0 im5ossible %o #ro5 onl0 5ar% of %he cli%ic clus%er3

(.+/ a$ L+am ci%i% MiX(-l/ voi EnRele!e
1+1
Pronouns
CL$2:SG$ACC-have$+ rea# an# CL$2:SG$ACC 9ill$+SG un#ers%an# >I rea# i% an# I 9ill un#ers%an# i%? b$ I-am vLAu% Mi X(i-/ am auAi% CL$2PL$ACC-have$+ seen an# CL$2PL$ACC have$+ hear#
1.&.3. P0ono6.nal Cl.t./ Cl1ste0s +$.$2$+$ The Gr#er of Co-occurrin! Da%ive an# Accusa%ive Cli%ics Re!ar#less of %heir 5osi%ion rela%ive %o %he verb (5re- or 5os%-5ose#/ cli%ic 5ronouns form a s0n%ac%ic uni% insi#e 9hich %he or#er of cli%ics is fi;e# an# no inser%ion is allo9e#$ The unmar-e# or#er of cli%ics is Dative pronominal )or refle'ive* clitic J Accusative pronominal )or refle'ive* clitic0
(.1/ a$ M. +l #L me$CL$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC !ives >(S/he is !ivin! i% %o me? b$ I lam a#us CL$2SG$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC have$+ brou!h% >I brou!h% i% %o him? c$ N. le 5reAin%L us$CL$DAT CL$2FPL$ACC in%ro#uces >(S/he is in%ro#ucin! %hem %o us? #$J. la lua% CL$R7FL$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC has$2SG %a-en >(S/he %oo- i% for himself? e$L. se 5are %hem$CL$DAT CL$R7FL$ ACC seem >I% seems %o %hem$?
Clus%ers ma#e u5 of %9o cli%ics mar-e# 9i%h %he same mor5holo!ical case (%9o #a%ives or %9o accusa%ives/ are e;clu#e#$ In %he s5ecial case of #i%ransi%ive verbs onl0 %he YHhumanZ NP can be subs%i%u%e# b0 a cli%ic no% %he Y-humanZ NP3
(.2/ a$ Ion El EnvaRL 5e Pet0e o 5oeAie Ion CL$2:SG$ACC %eaches DG: Pe%re a 5oem >Ion is %eachin! Pe%re a 5oem? b$ Ion Nl EnvaRL o 5oeAie Ion CL$2:SG$ACC %eaches a 5oem >Ion is %eachin! him a 5oem? c$ XIon o EnvaRL 5e Pe%re Ion CL$2FSG$ACC %eaches DG: Pe%re #$ XIon o Nl EnvaRL /XIon l +o EnvaRL Ion CL$2FSG$ACC CL$2:SG$ACC %eaches/Ion CL$2:SG$ACC-CL$2FSG$ACC %eaches
+$.$2$1$ 7%hical Da%ives Co-occurrin! 9i%h G%her Pronominal Cli%ics 7%hical Da%ive cli%ics (see +$,$1 above/ are an e;ce5%ion %o %he rule above3 %he0 can co-occur 9i%h in#irec% ob6ec% #a%ive cli%ics an# are 5lace# in fron% of %he in#irec% ob6ec% #a%iveI %9o e%hical #a%ives (e%hical #a%ive 5erson + an# e%hical #a%ive 5erson 1/ can co-occur 9i%hin %he same cli%ic clus%er in %he follo9in! or#er3 7%hical Da%ive(+s%s!/ f 7%hical Da%ive(1n#s!/ f Da%ive cli%ic (in#irec% ob6ec%/ 3
(.4/ a$ :i -i a#uce Em5Lra%ului merele me$CL$DAT CL$2SG$DAT brin!s em5eror-%he a55les-%he
1+2
Pronouns b$ ji -i a#uce Em5Lra%ului merele 0ou$CL$DAT CL$2SG$DAT brin!s em5eror-%he$DAT a55les-%he c$ :i Ri -i a#uce Em5Lra%ului merele me$CL$DAT 0ou$CL$DAT CL$2SG$DAT brin!s em5eror-%he$DAT a55les-%he >Oe brin!s %he a55les %o %he -in!$?
7%hical #a%ive(s/ can co-occur 9i%h #irec% ob6ec% accusa%ive cli%ics as 9ell in %he follo9in! or#er3 7%hical Da%ive (+s%s!/ f 7%hical Da%ive (1n#s!/ f Accusa%ive cli%ic (#irec% ob6ec%/3
(.,/ a$ :i -l aruncL vrL6i%oarea 5es%e Ma5%e co#rid me$CL$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC %hre9$2SG 9i%ch-%he over seven 9oo#s b$ ji -l aruncL vrL6i%oarea 5es%e Ma5%e co#rid 0ou$CL$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC %hre9$2SG 9i%ch-%he over seven 9oo#s c$ :i Ri -l aruncL vrL6i%oarea 5es%e Ma5%e co#rid me$CL$DAT 0ou$CL$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC %hre9$2SG 9i%ch-%he over seven 9oo#s >The 9i%ch %hre9 i% over seven 9oo#s$?
In cli%ic clus%ers con%ainin! an e%hical #a%ive #irec% ob6ec% accusa%ive cli%ics are in com5lemen%ar0 #is%ribu%ion 9i%h in#irec% ob6ec% #a%ive cli%ics i$e$ a cli%ic clus%er con%ainin! e%hical #a%ive cli%ics in#irec% ob6ec% #a%ive cli%ics an# #irec% ob6ec% accusa%ive cli%ics is no% allo9e#$ +$.$2$2$ Person Cons%rain%s The follo9in! 5erson cons%rain%s occur in Da%ive P Accusa%ive cli%ic clus%ers3 (i/ T9o cli%ics mar-e# for %he same 5erson e;ce5% %he 2 r# or %9o refle;ive cli%ics canno% co-occur in %he same cli%ic clus%er3
(../ a$ X:i 6: ara%L me$CL$DAT me$CL$ACC sho9s b$ Xji 2: ara%L CL$1SG$DAT CL$1PL$ACC sho9s c$ XNi 6: ara%L 9e$CL$DAT me$CL$ACC sho9s #$ XVi te ara%L CL$1PL$DAT CL$1SG$ACC sho9s e$ Xii se ara%L CL$R7FL$DAT CL$R7FL$ACC sho9s
(ii/ Accusa%ive cli%ics for 5ersons +s!$ +5l$ 15l$ canno% co-occur 9i%h referen%ial #a%ive cli%ics3
(.</ a$Xji 6: recoman#L CL$1SG$DAT me$CL$ACC recommen#s b$ Xji ne recoman#L CL$1SG$DAT us$CL$ACC recommen#s c$ X:i 2: recoman#L me$CL$DAT CL$1PL$ACC recommen#s #$ XI 2: recoman#L CL$2SG$DAT CL$1PL$ACC recommen#s
To avoi# such clus%ers #a%ives sho9 u5 as s%ron! 5ronouns 5lace# af%er %he verb3
(.B/ a$ VL recoman#L 6.e
1+4
Pronouns
CL$1PL$ACC recommen#s me$DAT >(S/he recommen#s 0ou %o me? b$:L recoman#L A.e me$CL$ACC recommen#s 0ou(SG/$DAT >(S/he recommen#s me %o 0ou? c$ Ne recoman#L Rie us$CL$ACC recommen#s 0ou(SG/$DAT >(S/he recommen#s us %o 0ou? #$ VL recoman#L l1.@ e. CL$1PL$ACC reccommen#s him$DAT/her$DAT >(S/he recommen#s us %o him/her?
Accusa%ive referen%ial cli%ics for 5ersons 1s!$ an# 2 can co-occur 9i%h referen%ial #a%ive cli%ics 5rovi#e# %ha% %he0 #o no% viola%e rule (i/3
(.C/ a$ :i te 5reAin%L me$CL$DAT CL$1SG$ACC in%ro#uces >(S/he is recommen#in! me %o 0ou? b$ Ni te recoman#L us$CL$DAT CL$1SG$ACC recommen#s >(S/he is recommen#in! 0ou %o us?
The %able belo9 5resen%s all 5ossible Da%ive - Accusa%ive cli%ic clus%ers3
Acc Da% mi i ne$ni v)*$v i i le$li i m t e H H H H H n e v l H H H H H H H o H H H H H H H i H H H H H H H l e H H H H H H H s e H H H H H H -
Table $. Dat.2e R a//1sat.2e /l.t./ /l1ste0s 1.(. Cl.t./ Allo6o058s 1.(.1. T8e Fo06s San#hi 5henomena affec% 5ronominal cli%ics in s5ecific mor5ho-5honolo!ic con%e;%s 5ro#ucin! a lar!e number of cli%ic allomor5hs$ The selec%ion of allomor5hs is #e%ermine# b0 %hree fac%ors3 a/ %he 5hone%ic con%e;% in 9hich %he cli%ic occurs (s5ecificall0 %he final soun# of %he 5rece#in! 9or# an# %he ini%ial soun# of %he ne;% 9or#/I b/ %he 5osi%ion of %he cli%ic rela%ive %o o%her elemen%s of %he verbal clus%er (o%her cli%ics au;iliaries %he le;ical verb/I c/ %he re!is%er (formal/informal collo@uial/$ Cli%ic allomor5hs are 5resen%e# in %he %able bello9 (%he 5hone%ic no%a%ions in %he %able rea# as follo9s3 YiZ [ as0llabic 5os%-consonan%al iI YZ [ semi-vo9el corres5on#in! %o e %ha% forms %9o fre@uen% Romanian #i5h%hon!s YaZ an# YoZI Y}Z [ semi-vo9el corres5on#in! %o iI YZ [ cen%ral mi#-o5en vo9elI [] [ cen%ral close# vo9el/3
1+,
Pronouns
DATIV7 SqLLA'IC Insi#e Gu%si#e Cli%ic Cli%ic Clus%ers Clus%ers +s!$ 1s!$ +5l$ 15l$ 2s!$ : 2s!$ F 25l$ : 25l$ F Refle;iv e mi YmiZ Ri Y%siZ ni YniZ vi YviZ i YiZ i YiZ li YliZ li YliZ Mi YshiZ Emi YmiZ ERi Y%siZ ne YneZ vL Yv{Z Ei Y6Z Ei Y6Z le YleZ le YleZ EMi YshiZ
ASqLLA'IC PrePos%nuclear nuclear
ACCDSATIV7 SqLLA'IC ASqLLA'IC PrePos%nuclear nuclear
mi Ym}Z Ri Y%s}Z ne YnZ v YvZ i Y }Z i Y }Z le YlZ le YlZ Mi Ysh}Z
mi YmiZ Ri Y%siZ i Y }Z i Y }Z Mi YshiZ
mL Ym{Z %e Y%eZ ne YneZ vL Yv{Z El YlZ o YoZ Ei Y}Z le YleZ se YseZ
m YmZ %e Y%Z ne YnZ v YvZ l YlZ i Y}Z le YlZ s YsZ
l YlZ i Y}Z
Table %. P0ono6.nal /l.t./ allo6o058s The %able rea#s as follo9s3 +$ Cli%ic allomor5hs can be s0llabic (i$e$ %he0 form a s0llable all b0 %hemselves/ or as0llabic (%he0 nee# a 5hone%ic hos% in or#er %o form a s0llable/$ Ue 9ill call %he use of an as0llabic form p!onetic cliticisation an# %he 9or# 9hich 5rovi#es %he s0llabic nucleus p!onetic !ost$ 1$ Da%ive s0llabic allomor5hs have %9o #is%inc% 5honolo!ical s%ruc%ures #e5en#in! on %he con%e;% in 9hich %he0 occur i$e$ insi#e or ou%si#e cli%ic clus%ers (%he %erm "cli%ic clus%er& is use# %o refer %o a se@uence of several 5ronominal cli%ics/3 ou%si#e cli%ic clus%ers sin!ular forms an# %he 2r# 5erson refle;ive %a-e an ini%ial e5en%he%ic - %ha% becomes %he vocalic nucleus of %he s0llable$ Insi#e cli%ic clus%ers all s0llabic forms en# in %he vo9el i (9hich re5laces %he vo9els e an# of %he (s0llabic/ +s% an# 1n# 5lural/$ 75en%he%ic - also occurs 9i%h Accusa%ive cli%ics for %he masculine 2r# Person (bo%h numbers/$ 2$ As0llabic allomor5hs form a s0llable 9i%h %he ini%ial/final vo9el of %he 5hone%ic hos%I %he vo9el of %he 5hone%ic hos% is %he nucleus of %he ne9l0 forme# s0llable$ Ta-in! in%o accoun% %he 5osi%ion of %he cli%ic rela%ive %o i%s 5hone%ic hos% as0llabic cli%ic allomor5hs are3 (i/ 5renuclear (%he0 5rece#e %he 5hone%ic hos%/ an# (ii/ 5os%nuclear (%he0 follo9 %he 5hone%ic hos%/$ 4$ Prenuclear allomor5hs are ei%her (i/ consonan%s (e$!$ m-% v-% l-/ formin! a s0llable 9i%h %he ini%ial vo9el of %he hos% or (ii/ bi5honemic se@uences 9i%h a final se!men% formin! a #i5h%hon! 9i%h %he vo9el of %he hos% (e$!$ m}-% n-/$ ,$ Pos%nuclear allomor5hs are ei%her (i/ consonan%s or semi-consonan%al se!men%s (e$!$ -l% -}/ or (ii/ bi5honemic se@uences 9i%h a final as0llabic vocalic se!men% (e$!$ -mi/$ As0llabic allomor5hs are si!nale# b0 a h05hen3
(<=/ a$ M.+ a s5us/M+ a vzAu% /I+ a s5us /L+ a vzAu%/ me$ CL$DAT has %ol#/me$CL$ACC has seen / CL$2SGDAT has %ol#/ CL$2:SG$ACC has seen/ Ne+ a s5us/ Ne+ a vLAu% us$CL$DAT-has %ol#/ us$CL$ACC-has seen >(S/he %ol# me/(s/he sa9 me/ (s/he %ol# him/her/ (s/he sa9 him/(s/he %ol# us/(s/he sa9 us? b$ a-l a#uce /a -. #a / a-C. amin%i %o-CL$2:SG$ACC brin!$INF/%o-CL$2SG$DAT !ive$INF/%o-R7FL$DAT remember$INF >%o brin! i%/%o !ive him/%o remember?
1+.
Pronouns
The h05hen also mar-s 5os%verbal cli%ics no ma%%er if %he0 are as0llabic or no%3
(<+/ a$ Ia -6: %a-e$I:PV$1SG-me$CL$ACC >Ta-e me? b$ Ia -l %a-e$I:PV$1SG-CL$2:SG$ACC >Ta-e i%?
In %his case %he h05hen si!nals %he cohesion be%9een %he verb an# %he cli%ic 9hich can !ive rise %o some chan!es in %he 5honolo!ic sha5e of %he verb (see +$.$4 above/$ 1.(.2. T8e Sele/t.on of Allo6o058s De5en#in! on %he 5osi%ion insi#e %he verbal clus%er %he selec%ion of an as0llabic allomor5h ma0 be obli!a%or0 or o5%ional$ Gbli!a%or0 selec%ion of a 5renuclear as0llabic allomor5h (5hone%ic cli%icisa%ion/ occurs in %he follo9in! si%ua%ions3 (i/ If %he cli%ic 5rece#es an au;iliar0 verb %ha% s%ar%s 9i%h a vo9el (in %his case %he au;iliar0 is %he 5hone%ic hos%/3
(<1/ a$ M.+ a s5us/ M+ a vzAu%/ I+ a s5us / L+ a vzAu%/ me$ CL$DAT has %ol#/ me$CL$ACC has seen/ CL$2SGDAT has %ol#/ CL$2:SG$ACC has seen/ Ne+ a s5us/ Ne+ a vLAu% us$CL$DAT-has %ol#/ us$CL$ACC-has seen >(S/he %ol# me/(S/he sa9 me/(S/he %ol# him/her/ (S/he sa9 him/(S/he %ol# us/(S/he sa9 us? b$ :i la #a%/ Vi lea a#us me$ CL$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC-has !iven/0ou$CL$DAT CL$2FPL$ACC-has brou!h% >(S/he !ave i% %o me/(S/he brou!h% %hem %o 0ou?
(ii/ If %he cli%ic is a #a%ive follo9e# b0 %he accusa%ive cli%ic o3

(<2/ a$ M. +o s5une /I +o s5une/ Ne +o me$CL$DAT-CL$2FSG$ACC %ells/ him$CL$DAT-CL$2FSG$ACC %ells/ us$CL$DAT-CL$2SGF$ACC s5une %ells >(S/he %ells i% %o me/(S/he %ells i% %o him/her /(S/he %ells i% %o us? b$ S5une -6. +o /S5une-. +o /S5une-ne +o %ell-me$CL$DAT-CL$2FSG$ACC/%ell-him$CL$DAT-CL$2FSG$ACC/ %ell-us$CL$DAT- CL$2FSG$ACC >Tell i% %o me/ Tell i% %o him/her/ Tell i% %o us?
Gbli!a%or0 selec%ion of a 5os%nuclear as0llabic allomor5h occurs in %he follo9in! si%ua%ions3 (iii/ The cli%ic follo9s %he le;ical verb an# is no% insi#e a cli%ic clus%erI in %his case %he verb is %he 5hone%ic hos%3
(<4/ Ia-l /Ia-A. Yia%siZ / DL-. Y#{}Z %a-e$I:PV$1SG-CL$2:SG$ACC %a-e$I:PV$1SG- CL$1SG$DAT !ive$I:PV$1SG-CL$2SG$DAT >Ta-e i%d / Ta-e for 0ourselfd / Give himd?
(iv/ The cli%ic is accusa%ive an# follo9s a #a%ive cli%ic$ In %his case if %he cli%ic #oes no% fall un#er rule (i/ (#oes no% 5rece#e an au;iliar0 s%ar%in! in a vo9el cf$ (<1/b/ %he 5hone%ic hos% is %he #a%ive cli%ic 3
1+<
Pronouns (<,/ a$ :i-l #L me$CL$DAT-CL$2:SG$ACC !ives >(S/he !ives i% %o me? b$ DL-mi-l !ive$I:PV$1SG-me$CL$DAT- CL$2:SG$ACC >Give i% %o me?
If %he con#i%ions lis%e# above are no% fulfille# 5hone%ic cli%icisa%ion is o5%ional3 an as0llabic allomor5h ma0 be use# if %he cli%ic 5rece#es or follo9s a vo9el belon!in! %o ano%her 9or# (%his 9or# serves %hen as 5hone%ic hos%/3 (v/ Prenuclear allomor5hs (9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of %he 2r# 5erson masculine sin!ular l/ ma0 be use# 9hen %he cli%ic 5rece#es a le;ical verb s%ar%in! in a vo9el (in 9hich case %he 5hone%ic hos% is %he verb/3
(<./ M. a#uce/I-a#uce CL$2SG$DAT brin!s >(S/he brin!s him/her?
The use of %he as0llabic allomor5h l of 2r# 5erson masculine sin!ular is mar!inal confine# %o subs%an#ar# varie%ies3
(<</ d Lau#e/KK Lar#e /KK L are CL$2:SG$ACC hears/ CL$2:SG$ACC burns/ CL$2:SG$ACC has
>(s/he hears i%?/>(s/he burns i%?/>(s/he has i%? (vi/ Pos%nuclear allomor5hs ma0 a55ear af%er3 non-5ronominal cli%ics (%he ne!a%ion nu %he sub6unc%ive mor5heme s% %he infini%ive mor5heme a/ an# o%her 9or#s 9i%h a vocalic en#in! (nouns a#6ec%ives 5ronouns a#verbs con6unc%ions/ imme#ia%el0 5rece#in! %he cli%ic3
(<B/ a$ Nu Emi 5lace/ Nu-mi 5lace no% me$CL$DAT li-es >I #on?% li-e (i%/? b$ Sz Ei #au / sz-i #au SD'N CL$2SG$DAT !ive$+SG >I shoul# !ive him / %o !ive him? c$ a El ve#ea / a-l ve#ea %o him$CL$ACC see$INF >%o see him? #$ Fa%a Ei #L o car%e / Fa%a-i #L o car%e !irl-%he CL$2SG$DAT !ives a boo>The !irl !ives him/her a boo-? e$ Care ERi 5lace/ Care-Ri 5laceK 9hich CL$1SG$DAT li-es >Uhich one #o 0ou li-eK? f$ AMa EMi s5une/ AMa-Mi s5une so CL$R7FL$2$DAT %ells? >Tha%?s %he 9a0 (s/he calls himself?
The use of %he as0llabic allomor5h is s5ecific %o %he s5o-en lan!ua!e$The as0llabic allomor5h ma0 also a%%ach %o %he en#in! -u of masculine #efini%e sin!ular 9hich is 9ri%%en -ul bu% in 9hich %he consonan% -l is usuall0 no% 5ronounce#3
(<C/ Gmul El iar%L / Gmu?l iar%L
1+B
Pronouns man-%he CL$2:SG$ACC for!ives >%he man for!ives him?
(vii/ Uhen %he con#i%ions for o5%ional cli%iciAa%ion are me% bo%h %o %he lef% an# %o %he ri!h% of %he cli%ic (vo9el a#6acenc0 con#i%ion/ lef% cli%iciAa%ion is 5referre#3
(B=/ Nu Ei a#uce / Nu-i a#uce/ Nu i-a#uce no% CL$2SG$DAT brin!s >(s/he #oesn?% brin! him/her?
(viii/ Cli%ics follo9e# b0 ano%her 5ronominal cli%ic canno% un#er!o o5%ional 5hone%ic cli%icisa%ion3
(B+/ a$ Nu . la #a% /XNu-i l-a #a% no% CL$2SG$DAT CL$2:SG$ACC-has !iven >(S/he #i#n?% !ive %o him? b$ SL 6. se s5unL /XsL-6. se s5unL SD'N me$ CL$DAT CL$R7FL$ACC %ell$2SG$SD'N >I 9an% %o be %ol#?
'esi#es %he selec%ion of as0llabic allomor5hs 9hich is al9a0s #e5en#en% on %he 5hone%ic environmen% %here is as can be seen in Table , an ins%ance of allomor5h0 9hich is onl0 #e5en#en% on %he s0n%ac%ic environmen%3 (i;/ In cli%ic clus%ers 9hen follo9e# b0 cli%ics o%her %han accusa%ive o% s5ecial s0llabic #a%ive allomor5hs en#in! in -i occur3
(B1/ a$ :i se s5une me$CL$DAT CL$R7FL$2$ACC %ells >I am %ol#? b$ Ni %e 5reAin%z us$CL$DAT CL$1SG$ACC in%ro#uce$2PL >The0 in%ro#uce 0ou %o us? c$ I le cere CL$2SG$DAT CL$2FPL$ACC as-s >(S/he is as-in! him/her for %hem? #$ s5unWn#u-mi-se %ell$G7R-me$CL$DAT-CL$R7FL$2$ACC >havin! been %ol#? e$ 5reAen%Wn#u-ni-%e in%ro#uce$G7R-us$CL$DAT- CL$1SG$ACC >in%ro#ucin! 0ou %o us? f$ Cere-i-le as-$I:PV$1SG-CL$2SG$DAT-CL$2FPL$ACC >As- him/her for %hem?
The follo9in! !eneraliAa%ions emer!e from %he aforemen%ione# rules3 (i/ %he selec%ion of a s5ecific allomor5h is obli!a%or0 in enclisis (for 5os%verbal cli%ics/ 9hen %he cli%ic is follo9e# b0 ano%her 5ronominal or au;iliar0 cli%ic or 9hen i% is 5rece#e# b0 ano%her 5ronominal cli%icI (ii/ #a%ive cli%ics have s5ecial forms in cli%ic clus%ers an# %heir sha5e is no% affec%e# b0 %he 5rece#in! 5hone%ic environmen%$ The various allomor5hs in Table , can be #erive# from a sim5ler lis% of un#erl0in! forms if 9e ma-e %he follo9in! assum5%ions3 (i/ cli%ic forms ma0 be un#erl0in!l0 ass0labic or s0llabicI (ii/ e5en%he%ic - is a##e# %o as0llabic forms 9hen %he environmen% #oes no% 5rovi#e 1+C
Pronouns
a 5hone%ic hos%I (iii/ a lin-in! vo9el - i- is a##e# be%9een %9o 5ronominal cli%ics if %he secon# one be!ins 9i%h a consonan%I %his vo9el re5laces %he vo9el of %he un#erl0in! form of %he firs% cli%icI (iv/ s0llabic forms ma0 become as0llabic b0 a5oco5e or #i5h%hon! forma%ion onl0 before ano%her vo9el$ 'ase# on (ii/ i% can be es%ablishe# %ha% sin!ular an# 2 r# refle;ive #a%ive cli%ics are un#erl0in!l0 as0llabic (mi% i% }% i/ as 9ell as %he 2r# masculine accusa%ive (bo%h numbers/ (l an# }/$ No%e %ha% %hese are %he onl0 cli%ics 9hich have 5os%nuclear as0llabic allomor5hs$ The fac% %ha% %he o%her cli%ics #o no% have 5os%nuclear as0llabic allomor5hs is e;5laine# b0 (iv/ 9hich res%ric%s %he forma%ion of an as0llabic allomor5h b0 a5oco5e or #i5h%hon! forma%ion %o %he 5revocalic con%e;%$ Assum5%ion (iii/ e;5lains %he #a%ive allomor5hs in -i-$ The un#erl0in! forms of %he cli%ics accor#in! %o %his anal0sis are 5resen%e# in %he %able belo93 DATIV7 +s!$ 1s!$ +5l$ 15l$ 2s!$ : 2s!$ F 25l$ : 25l$ F ACCDSATIV7
mi m{ i %s %e ne ne v{ v{ } l } o le } le le Table &. Un3e0l9.n4 /l.t./ fo06s
To sum u5 %he fac% %ha% %he ver0 same forms 9hich have allomor5hs be!innin! 9i%h - also have 5os%nuclear as0llabic allomor5hs !ives s%ron! su55or% %o %he i#ea %ha% some cli%ics are un#erl0in!l0 as0llabic an# o%hers are un#erl0in!l0 s0llabic$ 1.(.3. T8e Cl.t./ o H (2r# 5erson sin!ular feminine accusa%ive/ has a s5ecial s%a%us com5are# %o all %he o%her 5ronominal cli%ics3 i% is al9a0s %he vocalic cen%re of %he s0llable i% forms alone or in combina%ion 9i%h o%her 5hone%ic se!men%sI i% has no allomor5hsI i% %ri!!ers 5hone%ic chan!es a% %he en# of %he forms on 9hich i% cli%iciAes$ Phone%ic chan!es obli!a%oril0 occur if o is 5os%-verbal an# %he verb en#s in a vo9el$ This vo9el is ei%her a5oco5a%e# or %urne# in%o a semivo9el3
(B2/ a$ cWn%L H o s cWn%-o >sin! i%? sin!$I:PV$1SG b$ M%er!e H o s M%er!e-o YoZ >bea% i%? 9i5e$I:PV$1SG c$ %receRi H o s %receRi-o Y}oZ >5ass i%? 5ass-I:PV$1PL
If o is 5reverbal i% ma0 %ri!!er %he #ele%ion or %ransforma%ion in%o a semivo9el of a 5rece#in! vo9el of a #ifferen% 9or#3
(B4/ a$ SL o
SD'N CL$2FSG$ACC
iau /S-o iau %a-e$+SG
>I shoul# %a-e i%? b$ Nu o M%iu /N-o M%iu no% CL$2FSG$ACC -no9$+SG
11=
Pronouns >I #on?% -no9 i%? c$ 5e care o vrei/ 5e care-o vrei DG: 9hich CL$2FSG$ACC 9an%$1SG >%he one 0ou 9an%?
1.(.$. 'e0b allo6o058s 'esi#e %he combina%ion 9i%h %he cli%ic o illus%ra%e# in %he 5revious sec%ion (see (C+/ above/ verbal forms ma0 un#er!o o%her chan!es in combina%ion 9i%h 5os%verbal cli%ics$ These chan!es are s5ecific %o cer%ain 5ara#i!ma%ic forms3 (i/ The as0llabic i for %he 5lural im5era%ive becomes as0llabic3
(B,/ a$ #aRi Y#a%siZ !ive$I:PV$1PL >Gived? b$ #aRi -l Y#|%silZ !ive$I:PV$1PL-CL$2:SG$ACC >Give i%d? c$ #aRi -ne Y#|%sineZ !ive$I:PV$1PL-us$CL$DAT >Give usd?
(ii/ The !erun# receives a s0llabic -u- before cli%ics %ha% s%ar% 9i%h a consonan% or 9i%h a semivo9el3
(B./ a$ vLAWn# Yv{An#Z see$G7R b$ vLAWn#u -i Yv{An#u}Z see$G7R-%hem$CL$ACC >seein! %hem? c$ vLAWn#u -mL Yv{An#um{Z see$G7R-me$CL$ACC >seein! me?
(iii/ 2#r# con6u!a%ion im5era%ives en#in! in -i chan!e %his vo9el in%o -e3
(B</ a$Treci d 5ass$I:PV$1SG >Passd? b$ Trece-l d 5ass$I:PV$1SG$-CL$2:SG$ACC
>Pass i%d? 1.). T8e .nte050etat.on of 5e0sonal an3 0efle<.2e 50ono1ns In %his sec%ion 9e #iscuss %he in%er5re%a%ion of 5ersonal an# refle;ive 5ronouns concen%ra%in! on %he %05es of rela%ions be%9een 5ronouns an# %heir an%ece#en%s$ As men%ione# in %he In%ro#uc%ion 5ronouns are ei%her #eic%ic or ana5horic$ Par%ici5an% 5ronouns are #eic%ic sen#in! %o %heir referen%s via %he Person fea%ure (for %he in%er5re%a%ion of %his fea%ure see sec%ions +$+ an# +$1/$ 2 r# 5erson 5ronouns ma0 be ana5horic P %a-in! reference b0 es%ablishin! an ana5horic rela%ion 9i%h ano%her DP in %he %e;% P #eic%ic P %a-in! reference from an en%i%0 5resen% in %he communica%ion si%ua%ion P or evoca%ive P referrin! %o an en%i%0 5resen% in %he common bac-!roun# of %he s5ea-er an# %he hearer$ The evoca%ive use
11+
Pronouns
ma0 be consi#ere# an ins%ance of remo%e #ei;is$ 1.).1. Co+0efe0en/e Pronouns ma0 %a-e reference from an e;5ression 5resen% in %he %e;% calle# t!e antecedent$ Co-reference 9i%h an an%ece#en% (calle# referential anap!ora/ is foun# no% onl0 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns bu% 9i%h o%her #efini%e 5hrases (#emons%ra%ives #efini%e DPs 5ronominal a#verbs/$ The rela%ion be%9een 5ersonal 5ronouns an# %heir an%ece#en%s #iffers from %he ana5horic rela%ion foun# 9i%h %he o%her #efini%e DPs in several res5ec%s 9hich concern locali%03 (i/ Personal 5ronouns ma0 be c-comman#e# b0 %heir an%ece#en% o%her DPs canno% #o so3
(BB/ a$ Ioni cre#e cL proi va lua un 5remiu/cL Eli vor numi #irec%or Ion believes %ha% 9ill$2SG 9in a 5riAe %ha% him$CL$AC 9ill$2PL a55oin% mana!er >Ion believes he 9ill 9in a 5riAe/ %he0 9ill a55oin% him mana!er? b$XIoni/X7li cre#e cL Ioni va lua un 5remiu/cL 5e Ioni Eli vor numi #irec%or Ion/he believes %ha% Ion 9ill 9in a 5riAe/ %ha% DG: Ion him$CL$AC 9ill$2PL a55oin% mana!er >Ion believes Ion 9ill 9in a 5riAe/ %he0 9ill a55oin% Ion mana!er? c$ XIoni/X7li cre#e cL aces%ai va lua un 5remiu/cL 5e aces%ai Eli vor Ion/ he believes %ha% %his-one 9ill 9in a 5riAe/ %ha% DG: %his-one him$CL$AC 9ill$2PL numi #irec%or a55oin% mana!er >Ion believes %his one 9ill 9in a 5riAe/ %he0 9ill a55oin% %his one mana!er$?
Uhen %he rela%ion is local P %he co-referrin! forms are in %he same !overnin! #omain or %he0 are co-ar!umen%s P s5ecial forms are use# for %he 2r# 5erson %he so-calle# refle'ive pronouns (see sec%ion +$1 above/$ The s5ecial refle;ive forms are obli!a%or0 for cli%icsI as s%ron! forms besi#es %he s5ecial refle;ive forms 5ersonal (non-refle;ive/ 5ronouns ma0 also be use# of%en reinforce# 9i%h %he 5ronominal in%ensifier nsui% nsi e%c$ (see *2 belo9/3
(BC/ a$ Ioni sei /X Eli iubeM%e 5e sinei /5e eli EnsuMi Ion CL$R7FL$ACC/him$CL$AC loves DG: himself /DG: him$ACC self >Ion loves himself? b$ Ioni sei iubeM%e numai 5e eli Ion CL$R7FL$ACC loves onl0 DG: him$ACC >Ion loves onl0 himself? c$ :ariai EMii / X Eii #e#icL o 5oeAie (chiar eii/ :aria CL$R7FL$DAT/her$CL$DAT #e#ica%e a 5oem (even her$ DAT/ >:aria is #e#ica%in! a 5oem %o herself?
The s5ecial refle;ive forms (inclu#in! %he s%ron! ones/ are also obli!a%or0 9hen %he an%ece#en% is an arbi%rar0 null 5ronoun/arbi%rar0 im5lici% ar!umen% of a nominal3
(C=/ #ra!os%ea #e sine love-%he of himself
(ii/ Personal 5ronouns ma0 5rece#e %he an%ece#en% 5rovi#e# %ha% %he0 are in %he same sen%ence 9i%h i% an# no% c-comman#e# b0 i%3
(C+/ a$ CWn# liam vLAu% :irceai 5ur%a o 5LlLrie lar!L 9hen him$CL$ACC-have$+ seen :ircea 9ear$I:PF a ha% lar!e >Uhen I sa9 him :ircea 9as 9earin! a lar!e ha%? b$ XCWn# lam vLAu% 5e aces%a i :irceai 5ur%a o 5LlLrie lar!L 9hen him$CL$ACC-have$+ seen DG: %his-one :ircea 9ear$I:PF a ha% lar!e
111
Pronouns
If %he %erm >an%ece#en%? is un#ers%oo# as li%erall0 meanin! >5rece#in!? %he co-referrin! DP 9oul# ra%her be calle# >subse@uen%?$ Oo9ever %he curren% use of callin! %he >ana5horic source? >an%ece#en%? is 9ell-foun#e#3 %he 5ronoun can be in%er5re%e# onl0 af%er %he >an%ece#en%? has been in%er5re%e# so 9e ma0 s5ea- of some sor% of an%eriori%0 as far as in%er5re%a%ion is concerne#$
No%e %ha% in such con%e;%s %he 5ronoun mus% have %he 9ea- (viA$ null/ form (9henever a 9eaform is available/I com5are (C1/b 9here a s%ron! form mus% be use# because 9ea- forms canno% a55ear af%er 5re5osi%ions3
(C1/ a$ CWn# proi/Xeli e En secre%aria% #ecanuli s%L %o% %im5ul En 5icioare 9hen he is in secre%aria%e #ean-%he s%a0s all %ime-%he on foo% >Uhen he?s in %he secre%aria%e %he #ean al9a0s s%an#s? b$ CWn# mam En%alni% cu el Ion era bea% 9hen R7FL-have$+SG mee% 9i%h him Ion 9as #run>Uhen I me% him Ion 9as #run-?
1.).2. T8e bo1n3 2a0.able .nte050etat.on The an%ece#en% of %he 5ronoun ma0 be @uan%ifica%ional in 9hich case %he %ransla%es as a variable boun# b0 %ha% @uan%ifier$ This is %ra#i%ionall0 re5resen%e# via co-in#e;in! al%hou!h %he rela%ion is clearl0 #ifferen% from co-reference since in %his case %he 5ronoun is no% referen%ial (i% #oes no% 5ic- ou% a cer%ain en%i%0 in %he 9orl#/3
(C2/ a$ YNiciun co5ilZi nu a veni% cu %a%Ll luii no chil# no% has come 9i%h fa%her-%he his >No chil# came 9i%h his fa%her? ; (chil#(;/ l ; came 9i%h ;?s fa%her/ b$ Am vorbi% #es5re Yfiecare co5ilZi cu 5LrinRii luii have$+ s5o-en abou% ever0 chil# 9i%h 5aren%s-%he his >I/Ue %al-e# abou% ever0 chil# 9i%h his 5aren%s?
G%her DPs ma0 also func%ion as boun# variables 5rovi#e# %ha% %heir an%ece#en% #oes no% ccomman# %hem a% surface s%ruc%ure (9hich is rule# ou% b0 %he cons%rain% #escribe# in (i/ in %he 5revious sub-sec%ion/$ In %he lo!ical re5resen%a%ion %he o5era%or mus% c-comman# %he variable bu% %his re5resen%a%ion ma0 be ob%aine# b0 cover% raisin!3
(C4/ :ihai a vorbi% cu Yfiecare bLia%Zi #es5re 5LrinRii bLia%uluii /aces%uiai :ihai has s5o-en 9i%h ever0 bo0 abou% 5aren%s-%he bo0-%he$ G7N/%his-one$G7N
>:ihai %al-e# %o ever0 bo0 abou% %he bo0?s 5aren%s/%his one?s 5aren%s$? The boun# variable rea#in! is foun# no% onl0 9i%h @uan%ifica%ional an%ece#en%s bu% also 9i%h referen%ial an%ece#en%s$ Consi#er %he follo9in!3
(C,/ Ioni nu mai vorbeM%e cu sora luii Mi nici Vic%or$ Ion no% more s5ea-s 9i%h sis%er-%he his an# nei%her Vic%or >Ion #oesn?% s5ea- 9i%h his sis%er an0 lon!er an# nei%her #oes Vic%or?
This sen%ence has %9o in%er5re%a%ions one in 9hich Vic%or #oesn?% s5ea- an0 lon!er 9i%h Ion?s sis%er (calle# %he strict rea#in!/ an# one in 9hich he #oesn?% s5ea- %o his o9n sis%er (%he sloppy rea#in!/$ The s%ric% rea#in! can be e;5laine# b0 assumin! %ha% a% Lo!ical Form %he elli5sis si%e is fille# b0 co50in! %he missin! ma%erial3 (C./
Ioni nu mai vorbeM%e cu sora luii Mi nici Vic%or nu mai vorbeM%e cu sora lui i
112
Pronouns Ion no% more s5ea-s 9i%h sis%er-%he his an# nei%her Vic%or no% more s5ea-s 9i%h sis%er-%he his >Ion #oesn?% s5ea- 9i%h his sis%er an0 lon!er an# Vic%or %oo #oesn?% s5ea- 9i%h his sis%er an0 lon!er$?
'u% %he slo550 in%er5re%a%ion canno% be rea# off %his re5resen%a%ion because %he in#e; on %he secon# lui is %he same as %he in#e; on >on$ To #erive %he slo550 rea#in! 9e have %o in%er5re% %he elli#e# 5re#ica%e as "no% s5ea- 9i%h one?s (o9n/ sis%er& 9hich is 9ri%%en as in (C</ 9here %he 5ronoun lui is in%er5re%e# as a boun# variable3
(C</ ; ( } (s5ea--9i%h (; ;?s sis%er///
The slo550 rea#in! ma0 no9 be re5resen%e# as in (CB/3

(CB/ Ion ; ( } (s5ea--9i%h (; ;?s sis%er/// an# Vic%or ; (} (s5ea--9i%h (; ;?s sis%er///
The 5ossibili%0 of %hese %9o rea#in!s P s%ric% an# slo550 P also a55ears 9hen %he an%ece#en% is mo#ifie# b0 focal 5ar%icles such as only an# even$ Sen%ences con%ainin! %hese 5ar%icles have as a 5ar% of %heir meanin! (ei%her as an en%ailmen% or as a 5resu55osi%ion/ a 5ro5osi%ion 9hich con%ains a @uan%ifier in %he 5osi%ion of %he DP %o 9hich %he 5ar%icle is a%%ache#$ In %his 5ro5osi%ion a 5ronoun co-in#e;e# 9i%h %he DP ma0 be co-referen%ial %o %his DP (%he s%ric% rea#in!/ or ma0 be anal0Ae# as a variable boun# b0 %he @uan%ifier 9hich re5laces %he DP (%he slo550 rea#in!/3
(CC/ Numai :ariai s5erL cL Liviu oi iubeM%e onl0 :aria ho5es %ha% Liviu her$CL$ACC loves >Gnl0 :aria ho5es %ha% Liviu loves her? (i/ In%er5re%a%ion corres5on#in! %o %he s%ric% rea#in!3 >:aria ho5es %ha% Liviu loves her an# an# all %he o%her 9omen (e;ce5% for :aria/ #on?% ho5e Liviu loves :aria? ^ ) ; (; in a con%e;%uall0 #efine# !rou5/ (}(; ho5es Liviu loves :aria// Re5resen%a%ion of %he sen%ence3 (GNLq :aria/ ; (; ho5es Liviu loves :aria/ (ii/ In%er5re%a%ion corres5on#in! %o %he slo550 rea#in!3 >All %he o%her 9omen (e;ce5% for :aria/ #on?% ho5e Liviu loves %hem?
^ ) ; (; in a con%e;%uall0 #efine# !rou5/ (}(; ho5es Liviu loves ;//

Re5resen%a%ion of %he sen%ence3 (GNLq :aria/ ; (; ho5es Liviu loves ;/ (slo550 rea#in!/
The boun# variable rea#in! is no% limi%e# %o 2 r# 5erson 5ronouns$ Sen%ence (+==/ con%ainin! a 1n# 5erson 5ronoun has a s%ric% rea#in! in 9hich %he o%hers #on?% %hin- %ha% Go# sees %he a##ressee an# a slo550 rea#in! in 9hich %he o%hers #on?% %hin- %ha% Go# sees %hemselves3
(+==/ Numai %u creAi cL DumneAeu %e onl0 0ou believe %ha% Go# 0ou$CL$ACC >Gnl0 0ou believe %ha% Go# is loo-in! a% 0ou? 5riveM%e loo-s
This sho9s %ha% even for 5ar%ici5an% 5ronouns %he Person fea%ure #oes no% necessaril0 con%ribu%e #irec% reference$ Uhen %he an%ece#en% is mo#ifie# b0 a focal 5ar%icle a 5ar%ici5an% 5ronoun e$!$ 1n# 5erson ma0 %ransla%e as a variable %ha% !e%s boun# b0 %he @uan%ifier %ha% re5laces %he an%ece#en% in %he LF re5resen%a%ion$
114
Pronouns
There is evi#ence %ha% %he boun# variable rea#in! for 5ar%ici5an% 5ronouns re@uires an a!reemen% rela%ion be%9een %he an%ece#en% an# %he 5ronoun$ The evi#ence comes from rela%ive sen%ences mo#if0in! %he an%ece#en%$ In sen%ences of %he %05e in (+=+/ %he boun# variable rea#in! is onl0 5ossible if %he verb insi#e %he rela%ive clause a!rees 9i%h %he 5ar%ici5an% 5ronoun an%ece#en% (via sub6ec%-5re#ica%e a!reemen% an# 5ivo%-rela%ive 5ronoun a!reemen%/3
(+=+/ a$ pro+s! Sun% sin!urul care am !ri6L #e co5ilul meu 3 'oun# variable rea#in! 5ossible am onl0-%he 9hich have$+SG care of chil#-%he m0 >I?m %he onl0 one 9ho care(s/ abou% m0/his chil#ren? b$ pro+s! Sun% sin!urul care are !ri6L #e co5ilul meu 3 X'oun# variable rea#in! am onl0-%he 9hich has care of chil#-%he m0 >I?m %he onl0 one 9ho cares abou% m0 chil#ren$?
To conclu#e %he Par%ici5an% fea%ure is no% referen%iall0 in%er5re%e# 9hen an A!ree rela%ion is es%ablishe# be%9een %he co-in#e;e# DPs$ 1.).3. T8e .nte050etat.on of #en3e0 The !en#er fea%ure of 5ronouns ma0 ei%her reflec% 5ro5er%ies of %he referen% (masculine for male human bein!s feminine for female human bein!s/ or of %he noun b0 9hich %he an%ece#en% 9as in%ro#uce# in %he #iscourse or 9hich #eno%es %he ca%e!or0 %o 9hich a salien% referen% no% 5reviousl0 men%ione# can be subsume# (in %he case of #ei;is/$ Le%?s firs% e;amin #ei;is$ Uhen referrin! %o anima%e en%i%ies (humans or animals 9i%h #is%in!uishable se;/ !en#er #irec%l0 reflec%s a 5ro5er%0 of %he referen% (se;/ ((+=1/a/$ 'u% for inanima%es an# animals 9i%h non-#is%in!uishable se; !en#er is no% #irec%l0 in%er5re%able in Romanian$ In %his case %he !en#er of %he 5ronoun is %he !en#er of %he noun 9hich 9oul# have been use# %o refer %o %ha% en%i%0 if a non-5ronominal DP ha# been chosen3
(+=1/
a$ (5oin%in! %o a man/3
:i se 5are cL Nl cunosc me$CL$DAT R7FL seems %ha% him$CL$ACC -no9$+SG >I% seems %o me %ha% I -no9 him?
b$ (5oin%in! %o a 5ear Rom$ par feminine/3

:LnWnc -o d ea%$I:PV$1SG CL$2FSG$ACC >7a% i%? [ :LnWncL 5a0a d ea%$I:PV$1SG 5ear-%he(F/ >7a% %he 5eard?
Romanian nouns have %hree !en#er classes3 masculine feminine an# a %hir# class usuall0 calle# >neu%er? 9hich %ri!!ers masculine a!reemen% in %he sin!ular an# feminine a!reemen% in %he 5lural$ For referen%s 9hich fall un#er a conce5% e;5resse# b0 a neu%er noun %he 5ronouns use# are also masculine in %he sin!ular an# feminine in %he 5lural3
(+=2/ a$ (5oin%in! %o an a55le Rom$ mr >neu%er? P hence masculine in %he sin!ular/ :LnWncL -l d ea%$I:PV$1SG CL$2:SG$ACC b$ (5oin%in! %o some a55les Rom$ mr >neu%er? P hence feminine in %he 5lural/ :LnWncL -le d ea%$I:PV$1SG CL$2FPL$ACC
11,
Pronouns
The absence of s5ecial neu%er 5ronominal forms su55or%s %he i#ea %ha% Romanian has onl0 %9o values of %he ca%e!or0 Gen#er :asculine an# Feminine an# %ha% a %hree-fol# #is%inc%ion is onl0 foun# in nominal classes 9hich shoul# be #is%in!uishe# from Gen#er (see cha5%er +/$ In %he con%e;%s 9here 5ronouns #is%in!uish s%ron! an# 9ea- forms s%ron! forms are in%er5re%e# as anima%e e;ce5% for nomina%ive over% sub6ec%s (see sec%ions +$,$2$-+$,$, above/$ In %he case of #ei;is %he con#i%ion is s%ron!er3 all s%ron! forms inclu#in! sub6ec%s an# ob6ec%s of 5re5osi%ions mus% refer %o humans3 (+=4/ (5oin%in! %o a #es- Romanian birou >neu%er? i$e$ masculine in %he sin!ular/3
a$ m Scriu 5e el 9ri%e$+SG on 2:SG$ACC >I?m 9ri%in! on i%? (>on %ha% #es-?/ b$ (m 7l/ a fos% cum5Lra% anul %recu% 2:SG$NG: has been bou!h% 0ear-%he las% >I% has been bou!h% las% 0ear?
For ana5horic 5ronouns (5ronouns 9i%h an an%ece#en% 5resen% in %he #iscourse/ !en#er behaves li-e9ise$ 'u% %here is a fur%her si%ua%ion %o consi#er besi#es %hose e;amine# before3 some nouns al%hou!h referrin! %o humans have a !ramma%ical !en#er conflic%in! 9i%h %he na%ural !en#er P for ins%ance ordonan >or#erl0? feminine bu% normall0 a55lie# %o males$ In %his case %he 5ronoun ma0 have ei%her %he na%ural !en#er or %he !ramma%ical !en#er of %he an%ece#en% (see (+=.//$ I% has been observe# %ha% across lan!ua!es 9hen %he #is%ance be%9een %he an%ece#en% an# %he 5ronoun increases na%ural !en#er is 5referre#$
(+=,/ (+=./ Am a#us s%iclai$ Am 5us -oi 5e masL$ have$+ brou!h% bo%%le(F/-%he have$+ 5u%-CL$2FSG$ACC on %able >I brou!h% %he bo%%le$ I 5u% i% on %he %able? a$ Gr#onanRai a bLu% cu fraRii eii/ luii or#erl0-%he has #run- 9i%h bro%hers-%he her/his >The or#erl0 #ran- 9i%h his bro%hers? b$ `n%Wi a in%ra% or#onanRai$ Du5L eai /eli au in%ra% ceilalRi firs% has en%ere# or#erl0-%he af%er her/him have$2 PL en%ere# %he-o%hers >Firs% %he or#erl0 en%ere#$ Af%er him %he o%hers en%ere#?
No%e %ha% in %he boun# variable rea#in! !ramma%ical !en#er is 5refere# or even obli!a%or03
(+=</ a$ Nicio or#onanRLi n- a vorbi% cu ru#ele KKlui i/eii no or#erl0 no% -has s5o-en 9i%h rela%ives-%he his/her >No or#erl0 s5o-e 9i%h his rela%ives? b$ Numai or#onanRai a vorbi% cu fra%ele luii KK slo550 rea#in! onl0 or#erl0-%he has s5o-en 9i%h bro%her-%he his >Gnl0 %he or#erl0 %al-e# %o his bro%her?$
This su!!es%s %ha% na%ural !en#er forces a referen%ial rea#in!$ The use of !ramma%ical !en#er in 5ronouns sho9s %ha% %heir in%er5re%a%ion involves no% onl0 in#ices an# reference %o en%i%ies bu% also a rela%ion %o a nominal e;5ression (a nominal conce5%/$ This is a %05e of ana5horic rela%ion #ifferen% from co-reference an# boun# variable rea#in!$ This rela%ion 9hich is also foun# in nominal elli5sis an# 5ro-N (see cha5%er 2 sec%ion 2/ ma0 be calle# nominal anap!ora$ I% is an ins%ance of identity-of-sense anap!ora also encoun%ere# in verbal elli5sis an# non-referen%ial 5ro-forms such as %he 5roa#6ec%ive/5ro-a#verb aa >so?$ Oere are some e;am5les of nominal elli5sis3
11.
Pronouns (+=B/ a$ CauRi o ciocola%LK Di%e sun% acolo #ouL YNeZ YNeZ[ciocolate(F/ loo--for$1SG a chocola%e(F/ loo- are$2PL %here %9o$F >Are 0ou loo-in! for a chocola%eK Loo- %here are %9o over %here? b$ (loo-in! %o some ha%s Romanian plrie P feminine/ Am Mi eu una YNeZ aMa YNeZ [ plrie(F/ have$+ also I one$FSG li-e-%ha% >I %oo have one li-e %ha%?
In (+=B/b 9e see %ha% %he >ana5horic source? of noun elli5sis ma0 be a salien% conce5% in %he e;%ralin!uis%ic con%e;% so nominal 5ro-forms can be use# in a sor% of >#eic%ic? 9a0 (%his %05e of ana5horic source has been calle# b0 some researchers pra matic antecedent/$ Gn %he assum5%ion %ha% 5ronouns 9i%h conven%ional !en#er involve nominal elli5sis %he e;is%ence of 5ra!ma%ic an%ece#en%s in nominal elli5sis e;5lains %he use of !ramma%ical !en#er in #eic%ic 2 r# 5erson 5ronouns (see (+=1/-(+=2/ above/$ Ue ma0 consi#er %ha% ana5horic 5ersonal 5ronouns in %he con%e;% YYDYNPZZ i ^ Proni are in%er5re%e# as YTO7YNPZZi$ The in#e; can be re5resen%e# as an i#en%i%0 5re#ica%e ;$;[v(i/ (9here v(i/ is %he value %he variable assi!nmen% func%ion v assi!ns %o i/ combinin! 9i%h %he NP b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion an# %hen combinin! 9i%h %he io%a o5era%or (con%ribu%e# b0 %he #efini%eness fea%ure of 5ronouns/$ This rule also 9or-s for boun# variable 5ronouns$ Ue have seen %ha% some%imes even #efini%e DPs 9i%h over% nouns func%ion as boun# variables (see (C4// so 9e nee# a rule %o in%er5re% %hem as boun# an09a0$ 1.).$. P0ono1ns of laB.ness There are 5ronouns 9hich are rela%e# %o %heir an%ece#en% onl0 b0 nominal ana5hora P %he0 nei%her co-refer 9i%h %heir an%ece#en% nor are %he0 boun# b0 i%$ So in %heir case 9e sim5l0 have YDYNPZZ$$$Pron s YDYNPZZ^YTO7YNPZZ 9i%hou% an0 in#e;$ These are calle# pronouns of la(iness or payc!ec#-pronouns af%er %he e;am5le b0 9hich %he0 have been in%ro#uce# in %he lin!uis%ic li%era%ure$ The name pronouns of la(iness e;5resses %he i#ea %ha% %hese 5ronouns are onl0 use# in or#er no% %o re5ea% an NP ra%her %han for 5oin%in! %o %he same referen%$ A %05ical e;am5le are 5ronouns 9hose an%ece#en% con%ains a boun# variable$ In Romanian %his variable %05icall0 a55ears as a 5ossessive #a%ive cli%ic ou%si#e %he DP3
(+=C/ Ioni C..a lua% 6aC.na (l1../$ :aria6 (Mi6-/ a lLsa% -o acasL Ion CL$R7FL$DAT-has %a-en car(F/-%he his :aria CL$R7FL$DAT-has le%- CL$2FSG$ACC home >Ion %oo- his car$ :aria lef% i% home?
In (+=C/ o in %he secon# sen%ence refers %o :aria?s car no% %o Ion?s car$ The 5ronoun is in%er5re%e# b0 re%rievin! %he NP of i%s an%ece#en% P main a lui ' >;?s car? P$ In %he firs% sen%ence ' is a variable boun# b0 Ion in %he secon# sen%ence i% is boun# b0 :aria$
The classical e;am5le #ue %o Sar%%unen (+C../ af%er 9hich %hese 5ronouns have been labelle# >5a0chec--5ronouns? is %he follo9in! 3 (i/ The man 9ho !ave 8.s 5a9/8eI1e %o his 9ife 9as 9iser %han %he man 9ho !ave .t %o his mis%ress
Ano%her %05e of 5ronouns of laAiness involves an%ece#en%s 9hich are 5ar% of an i#iom3 al%hou!h %he0 are #efini%e DPs %he0 #o no% refer$ The 5ronoun is in%er5re%e# b0 recoverin! %he NP of %he an%ece#en%3
11<
Pronouns
(++=/ Iar
a sLri% Aan3:0a$ Poa%e o sL -mi sarL pro Mi mie a!ain CL$2SG$DAT -has burs%e# sliver-%he ma0be 9ill SD'N-me$CL$DAT burs%$2 also me$DAT >Ion fle9 off %he han#le a!ain$ Perha5s I?ll #o %oo?$
i-
Ano%her case in 9hich %he 5ronoun #oes no% have %he same reference as %he an%ece#en% is 9hen %he an%ece#en% is non-!eneric an# %he 5ronoun is use# !enericall0 (in %he follo9in! e;am5le a!reemen% on %he verb an# %he 5re#ica%ive a#6ec%ive sho9s %ha% %he pro sub6ec% is 2r# 5erson masculine 5lural %a-in! %he !en#er of %he an%ece#en% an# sho9in! %he 5lural of !enerici%0/3
(+++/ A3 Am vLAu% 1n Ca05e$ '3 VeAi cL pro 5o% fi 5ericuloMi d have$+ seen a sna-e(:/ see$I:PV$1SG %ha% can$2PL be #an!erous$:PL >A3 I sa9 a sna-e$ '3 Ta-e care %he0 ma0 be #an!erous?$
A similar si%ua%ion a55ears in e;am5les of %he %05e in (+1=/ 9here %he 5ersonal 5ronoun is in%er5re%e# referen%iall0 P >%he co9s? in a cer%ain re!ion 9here 9e -no9 %ha% co9s mus% be 5resen% P 9hereas %he an%ece#en% is use# non-referen%iall0 onl0 con%ribu%in! %he noun >co9?3
(++1/ N-am vLAu% nicio 2a/:$ Probabil RLranii le bL!aserL En !ra6#uri no%-have$+ seen no co9 5robabl0 5easan%s-%he CL$FPL$ACC 5u%$PLPF in s%ables >I #i#n?% see an0 co9$ The 5easan%s mus% have 5u% %hem in s%ables?
Nominal ana5hora ma0 also be consi#ere# %o be res5onsible for a %05e of non-referen%ial 5ronouns calle# don#ey 5ronouns$ In %his case 5ronouns a55ear in %he nuclear sco5e of a @uan%ifica%ional o5era%or an# %heir an%ece#en%s are narro9 sco5e in#efini%es %ha% occur in %he res%ric%ive %erm of %he o5era%or$ In %his confi!ura%ion %he 5ronoun is no% C-comman#e# b0 %he an%ece#en% an# %herefore i% canno% be boun# b0 i%3 (++2/ a$ Gricine scrie o car%e
vrea ca lumea s - o ci%eascL$ 9hoever 9ri%es a boo-(F/ 9an%s %ha% 5eo5le SD'N-CL$2FSG$ACC rea#$2 >Uhoever 9ri%es a boo- 9an%s 5eo5le %o rea# i%? b$ DacL /.ne2a !LseM%e un ba4a7 5.e031t pro sL -l a#ucL aici if somebo#0 fin#s a lu!!a!e(N7DT/ los% SD'N-CL$2:SG$ ACC brin!$2 here >If somebo#0 fin#s a los% lu!!a!e he shoul# brin! i% here?
The #e5en#enc0 of %hese 5ronouns on %he @uan%ifica%ional o5era%or ma0 be re5resen%e# usin! a si%ua%ion variable insi#e %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he 5ronoun3
(++4/ in all si%ua%ions s in 9hich some 5erson fin#s a los% lu!!a!e t8e 1n.I1e 5e0son < .n s shoul# brin! t8e 1n.I1e lost l144a4e < .n s
The 5ossibili%0 %ha% #efini%e #escri5%ions have a variable in%er5re%a%ion co-var0in! 9i%h a si%ua%ion o5era%or even if %he0 #o no% con%ain in %heir #escri5%ive con%en% an e;5lici% variable is 5roven b0 e;am5les such as %he follo9in!3 (i/ 7ver0 %ime I %oo- %he bus %o %he Dniversi%0 t8e /on31/to0 9as a 9oman$
In %his e;am5le %he #efini%e DP "%he con#uc%or& #oes no% refer %o a sin!le in#ivi#ual bu% %o an in#ivi#ual 9hich ma0 #iffer from a si%ua%ion of %a-in! %he bus %o ano%herI %he use of %he #efini%e ar%icle is 6us%ifie# b0 %he fac% %ha% in all of %hese si%ua%ions %here is one an# onl0 one in#ivi#ual 9hich sa%isfies %he #escri5%ion "con#uc%or&$
11B
Pronouns
DPs 9i%h over% nouns %oo can be use# as > don#ey ana5horae? 9hich !ives su55or% %o %he 5ro5osal of e;5lainin! don#ey-5ronouns b0 nominal ana5hora3
(++,/ CWn# se En%Wlnesc o 5.s./: Mi un /K.ne 5.s./a En !eneral fu!e #e /K.ne 9hen R7FL mee%$2PL a ca% an# a #o! ca%-%he in !eneral runs from #o!-%he >Uhen a ca% an# a #o! mee% usuall0 %he ca% flees from %he #o!?
1.).%. #en3e0less 50ono1ns Ue have seen %ha% !en#er in 5ronouns reflec%s %he !en#er of %he nominal an%ece#en% (9here >an%ece#en%? is un#ers%oo# in %he broa# sense inclu#in! >5ra!ma%ic an%ece#en%s?/ e;ce5% for humans an# animals 9i%h #is%in!uishable se; 9here i% can also reflec% a 5ro5er%0 of %he referen% (%he se;/$ There are ho9ever en%i%ies 9hich are nei%her human nor fall un#er a nominal conce5%3 %his is %he case 9i%h 5ro5osi%ional con%en%s or uni#en%ifie# (unca%he!oriAe#/ ob6ec%s$ In or#er %o refer %o en%i%ies of %his %05e neu%er !en#er is use# in %hose lan!ua!es %ha% have i%$ Romanian 9hich has onl0 %9o values for %he Gen#er fea%ure (see above/ uses some forms 9hich are ar!uabl0 !en#erless as 9e have sho9n for %he #emons%ra%ive asta% aia in cha5%er 2 sec%ion <$ Amon! 5ersonal 5ronouns %he null sub6ec% pro (9hich 9e %rea% here as a 9ea- form of %he nomina%ive see above/ ma0 be use# bo%h for a 5ro5osi%ional con%en% an# for an uni#en%ifie# 5erce5%ual ob6ec%3
(++./ (++</ A3 YFice YcL va cWM%i!a ale!erileZiZ6 '3 !roi/6 e im5osibil$ sa0s %ha% 9ill 9in elec%ions-%he is im5ossible >A3 Oe sa0s he 9ill 9in %he elec%ions$ '3 I%?s im5ossible? A3 Ce e aiaK '3 Nu M%iu ce o fi pro #ar pro n-ara%L bine 9ha% is %ha% no% -no9$+SG 9ha% ma0$2 SG be bu% no%-loo-s !oo# >A3 Uha%?s %ha%K '3 I #on?% -no9 9ha% i% is bu% i% #oesn?% loo- !oo#?
Reference %o a 5ro5osi%ional con%en% ma0 also be e;5resse# b0 usin! %he accusa%ive feminine cli%ic3
(++B/ a$ Nici nu-mi vine s-o s5un no%-even no%-me$CL$DAT comes SD'N-CL$2FSG$ACC sa0$+SG >I #on?% even feel li-e sa0in! i%? b$ Di%e am fLcu%-o loo- have$+ #i#-CL$FSG$ACC >Loo- I #i# i%? c$ N-am creAu%-o 5WnL nu mi -a arL%a% fo%o!rafia no%-have$+ believe#-CL$FSG$ACC un%il no% me$CL$DAT-has sho9n 5ho%o-%he >I #i#n?% believe i% un%il (s/he sho9e# me %he 5ho%o?
Al%hou!h 5ossible %he use of a 5ronominal cli%ic resumin! a 5ro5osi%ion is more res%ric%e# in Romanian com5are# %o 9es%ern Romance lan!ua!es$ In man0 cases Romanian uses ins%ea# ei%her ob6ec% #ro5 or %he neu%er #emons%ra%ive3
(++C/ a$ Ne le souhai%e/6e l? es5pre French I CL$2:SG$ACC 9ish/ I CL$2:CL$ACC-ho5e b$ X G #oresc/X G s5er (9i%h o s%an#in! for a 5ro5osi%ion/ Romanian CL$2FSG$ACC 9ish$+SG/CL$2FSG$ACC ho5e$+SG c$ S5er (as%a/ ho5e$+SG %his >I ho5e so? #$ Doresc as%a 9ish$+SG %his
11C
Pronouns >I 9an% %his? a$ Ne l? a#me%s I CL$2:SG$ACC a#mi% b$ (KKG/ a#mi%

CL$2FSG$ACC
(+1=/
French (9i%h o s%an#in! for a 5ro5osi%ion/ Romanian
a#mi%$+SG
If %o5icaliAe# %he neu%er #emons%ra%ive can be #ouble# b0 %he feminine sin!ular cli%ic (in %he s%ruc%ure -no9n as Cli%ic Lef% Disloca%ion see secon# Volume/3
(+1+/ a$ :a conce#ia% asta nu-mi vine so cre# me$CL$ACC-has fire# %his no%-me$CL$DAT comes SD'N-CL$2FSG$ACC believe$+SG >(S/he fire# me I can?% believe i%? b$ Te a6u% asta o fac 5en%ru %ine CL$1SG$ACC hel5$+SG %his CL$2FSG$ACC #o$+SG for 0ou >I 9ill hel5 0ou I?ll #o %ha% for 0ou?
1.).&. S5e/.al E50a46at./F .nte050etat.ons of so6e 50ono6.nal fo06s (An#ra Vasilescu/ +$B$.$+$ Generic uses Con%e;%uall0 1n# 5erson sin!ular 5ronouns inclu#in! null sub6ec%s ma0 %a-e a !eneric rea#in!3
(+11/ !ro nu 5oR. 5reve#ea %o%ul no% can$1SG 5re#ic%$INF ever0%hin! >Gne canno% 5re#ic% ever0%hin!$?
+$B$.$1$ Person #evia%ions Person #evia%ions can a%%ach su55lemen%ar0 #iscourse values %o 5ersonal 5ronouns3 (i/ soli#ari%0 5lural3 &e for !e
(+12/ (A la#0 s5ea-in! 9i%h her in%erlocu%or abou% her 5u550/ (I$ L Cara!iale Lubico/ No. sun%em bLieRi bine crescuRi$ No. nu sun%em mo6ici ca 'ismar-$ 9e are bo0s 9ell e#uca%e# 9e no% are ru#e li-e 'ismar>Ue behave ourselves$ Ue are no% ru#e li-e 'ismar-$?
(ii/ inclusive 5lural as 5osi%ive 5oli%eness s%ra%e!03 &e for you

(+14/ As%LAi o sL fa/e6 cura% En casL %o#a0 9ill SD'N ma-e$+PL clean in house >To#a0 De 9ill clean %he house? (an ins%ruc%ion !iven %o %he housecleaner/
The +s% 5erson 5lural ins%ea# of %he 1 n# sin!ular ma0 also a55ear 9hen a##ressin! %o chil#ren as an em5a%he%ic use (see (iv/ belo9/$ (iii/ s5ea-er-a!en% #issocia%ion (s5eech ac%3 %hrea%enI e;5ressive/ s!e for > you for >3
(+1,/ Te cL5%uMeM%e ea 6:t1Ca M:0.oa0a$ (I$ Crean!L Amintiri/ %hrashes she aun%-%he :Lrioara >S8e 9ill %hrash 0ou aun% :Lrioara? (sa0s aun% :Lrioara/$ (+1./ A5oi lasL -A. b:.ete sa%ul cu %o% farmecul frumuseRilor lui %hen le%$I:PV$1SG$-CL$1SG$DAT bo0$VGC villa!e-%he 9i%h all charm-%he beau%ies-%he$ G7N i%s Mi 5asL #e te #u En loc s%rLin Mi aMe #e5Lr%a% #acL an# 5ass$I:PV$1SG %ha% CL$1SG$ACC !o$I:PV$1SG in 5lace forei!n an# so remo%e if
CL$1SG$ACC
12=
Pronouns te lasL 5Wr#alnica #e inimL$ le%s 9ic-e#-%he of hear% >An# no9 bo0 leave 0our na%ive villa!e 9i%h all %he charm of i%s beau%ies an# s%ar% for so remo%e forei!n 5laces if 0our 9ic-e# hear% le%s 0ou #o i%? (9ri%es %he narra%or a charac%er in %he s%or0/
CL$1SG$ACC
(iv/ em5a%he%ic use (s5ea-er P a!en%/3 > for you

(+1</ Ya mo%her abou% her son3Z E1 sun% bLieRel cumin%e Mi mL s5Ll 5e #inRi En fiecare Ai I am bo0$DI: 9ell-behave# an# me$ ACC$CL 9ash$+SG on %ee%h in ever0 #a0 >I am a !oo# bo0 an# I brush m0 %ee%h ever0 #a0?
Me for you 9hen a#ressin! %o chil#ren3 (+1B/ Ce facem

ne- am mur#Lri%K 9ha% #o$+PL R7FL-have$+PL #ir%ie# >Uha% are 9e #oin! have 9e !o% #ir%0K?
(v/ 5o9er #is%ance 5lural3 &e for > 3

(+1C/ No. /o6.sa01l secRiei ,, #u5L reclamaRia 5LrRilor^ (I$ L$ Cara!iale Hpere/ 9e officer-%he sec%ion-%he$G7N ,, af%er com5lain%-%he si#es-%he$G7N >Se t8e 5ol./e off./e0 of %he ,,%h De5% havin! hear# %he com5lain%s of %he si#es^?
(vi/ mo#es%0 5lural3 &e for >3

(+2=/ Dn#e ai 5leca% moMuleK P :er!em Mi no. la %Wr!$ (Slavici/ 9here have$1SG !one ol#-man$VGC !o$+PL also 9e %o fair >Uhere are 0ou !oin! ol# manK P Ue are !oin! %o %he fair?
(vii/ %he au%hor?s 5lural3 &e for >3

(+2+/ 'o6 #iscu%a mai En%Wi s%ruc%ura (,4/b care selec%eaAL in%er5re%area non-s5ecificL 9ill$+PL #iscuss firs% s%ruc%ure-%he 9hich selec%s in%er5re%a%ion-%he non-s5ecific reAul%Wn# conform i5o%eAei noast0e En urma a5licLrii R8 resul%in! accor#in! h05o%hesis-%he$DAT our in conse@uence-%he a55lica%ion-%he$G7N 8R (Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin 9inta'a limbii romne/ >Ue 9ill firs% #iscuss s%ruc%ure (,4/b 9hich has a non-s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion resul%in! accor#in! %o our h05o%hesis from a55l0in! 8R$?
(viii/ collec%ivism 5lural3 &e for > (in collec%ivis%ic cul%ures ins%ea# of assumin! a 5oin% of vie9 s5ea-ers 5refer a 5lural form %o evo-e a !rou5 e;5erience/3
(+21/ PP Ce 5Lrere aveRi #es5re anunRa%a viAi%L la 'ucureM%i a 9ha% o5inion have$1PL(PGLIT7/ abou% announce#-%he visi% %o 'uchares% G7N 5reMe#in%elui 'ushK 5resi#en%-%he$G7N 'ush PP S1nte6 fericiRi cL #u5L a%WRia ani americanii se ui%L Mi s5re no. are$+PL !la# %ha% af%er man0 0ears Americans-%he R7FL loo- also %o9ar#s us s5re Rara noast0:$ %o9ar#s coun%r0-%he our >Uha% #o 0ou %hin- abou% 5resi#en% 'ush?s announce# visi% %o 'uchares%K/ - Ue are !la# %ha% af%er so man0 0ears %he Americans seem in%eres%e# in us in our coun%r0$?
12+
Pronouns
2. Pol.teness 50ono1ns
2.1. Int0o31/t.on Poli%eness 5ronouns are s5ecialiAe# in mar-in! social #ei;is #e5en#in! on #ifferences in a!e role an# social 5osi%ion an# on %he rela%ionshi5 be%9een %he in%erlocu%ors$ The0 have man0 %05es of forms in#ica%in! various #e!rees of #eference for %he 1n# 5erson (5oli%e a##ressin!/ an# %he 2r# 5erson (5oli%e referrin!/$ There are %9o fac%s 9hich are consi#ere# as s5ecific for %he Romanian 5oli%eness 5ara#i!m3 %he 5resence of %he 2r# 5erson 5ronominal forms 9hich are use# ei%her #eic%icall0 (+22a/ or ana5horicall0 (+22b/ an# %he e;is%ence of %hree #e!rees3 non-5oli%eness (+24a/ in%erme#ia%e 5oli%eness charac%eriAe# b0 sin!ular a!reemen% an# sin!ular #oublin! cli%ics (+24b/ an# formal 5oli%eness charac%eriAe# b0 5lural a!reemen% an# 5lural #oublin! cli%ics (+24c/3
(+22/ a$ SL in%re 316neae.d en%er$SD'N$2 she$PGLIT7 >Le% her en%erd? b$ YDomnul Po5escuZi ne-a invi%a%$ D16neal1.. ne aM%e5%a la uML$ :is%er Po5escu$N us-has invi%e# he$PGLIT7 us 9ai%$I:PF a% #oor >:r$ Po5escu invi%e# us$ Oe 9as 9ai%in! for us a% %he #oor$? a$ Te aM%e5%am 5e t.ne$ 0ou(SG/$CL$ACC 9ai%$I:PF$+SG DG: 0ou(SG/ b$ Te aM%e5%am 5e 316neata$ 0ou(SG/$CL$ACC 9ai%$I:PF$+SG DG: 0ou$PGLIT7(SG/ c$ ': aM%e5%am 5e 316nea2oast0:$ 0ou(PL/$CL$ACC 9ai%$I:PF$+SG DG: 0ou$PGLIT7(PL/ >I 9as 9ai%in! for 0ou$?
SD'N
(+24/
The use of 5oli%eness 5ronouns #e5en#s on social co#es an# %herefore manifes%s a cer%ain ins%abili%03 %he forms as 9ell as %he %he values of %he forms chan!e in %ime$ 2.2. Mo058olo49 The curren% forms of 5oli%eness 5ronouns are com5ose# of %he elemen% dumnea- comin! from %he noun domnia >lor#shi5? (b0 5honolo!ical re#uc%ion in an o5a@ue com5oun#/ an# %he a!reein! 5ossessives (curren%l0 calle# >5ossessive a#6ec%ives? see *, in cha5%er ./ - ta (1n# sin!ular/ -voastr (1n# 5lural/ -sa (2r# sin!ular/ or %he !eni%ive of %he 5ersonal 5ronoun P lui >his?% ei >her?% lor >%heir?$ As can be seen from %he forms lis%e# in (+2,/ %he 5ronominal elemen%s insi#e %hese com5oun#s are inflec%e# for 5erson an# number as 9ell as for !en#er (onl0 in %he 2r# 5erson/ an# case (onl0 in %he 1n# 5erson sin!ular an# in %he 2r# sin!ular dumneasa/$
(+2,/ 1 s!$ in%erme#ia%e 5oli%eness3 NA dumneata GD dumitale 1 s!$/5l$ formal 5oli%eness3 dumneavoastr 2 s!$m$3 dumnealui 2 s!$f$3 dumneaei 2$s!$ (mHf$/ NA dumneasa GD dumisale 2 5l$ dumnealor
No%e %ha% %he a!reein! 5ossessive elemen%s -ta% -voastr% -sa sho9 feminine forms 9hich is e;5laine# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he noun domnia (fdumnea-/ is feminine$ Com5are dumnealui 121
Pronouns
dumneaei an# dumnealor forme# 9i%h non-a!reein! !eni%ive-mar-e# 5ronouns3 in such forms %he fea%ures of %he 5ronoun in#ica%e %he !en#er an#/or number of %he 5erson %ha% is referre# %o$ Ano%her se% of forms less fre@uen%l0 use# consis% of DPs %ha% 5reserve %he 5a%%ern %ha% is a% %he ori!in of %he curren% forms conservin! %he 5hone%ic in%e!ri%0 of %he com5onen%s (%he noun domnie H %he #efini%e ar%icle H 5ossessive/ an# %he mor5holo!ical au%onom0 (infle;ion of %he #efini%e noun an# of %he 5ossessive/ 9hich ensures case mar-in! in %he 9hole 5ara#i!m3
(+2./ 1 s!$ in%erme#ia%e 5oli%eness 1 s!$ formal 5oli%eness 1 5l$ formal 5oli%eness 2 s!$ m$ 2 s!$ f$ 2$s!$ (m$Hf$/ 2 5l$ NA3 domnia ta NA3 domnia voastr NA3 domniile voastre NA3 domnia lui NA3 domnia ei NA3 domnia sa NA3 domniile lor GD3 domniei tale GD3 domniei voastre GD3 domniilor voastre GD3 domniei lui GD domniei ei GD3 domniei sale GD3 domniilor lor
The same 5a%%ern is use# for honorific e;5ressions 9hich are func%ionall0 e@uivalen% %o %he 5oli%eness 5ronoun bu% belon! %o a le;ical class o5en %o innova%ion3 e'celena voastr$sa >0our/his(her/ e;cellence?% ma nificena voastr$sa >0our/his(her/ >0our/his(her/ ma!nificence?% sfinia ta$voastr$sa >0our/his holiness? e%c$ The 5ronoun dnsul 9hich in %he ol# lan!ua!e an# some #ialec%al varie%ies is a 2 r# 5erson 5ronoun unmar-e# for 5oli%eness (i% comes from %he La%in #emons%ra%ive ipse/ is use# as a 2r# 5erson 5oli%eness form in collo@uial s%an#ar# Romanian al%hou!h i% is no% acce5%e# as a 5oli%eness form b0 %he norma%ive$ This 5ronoun is inflec%e# li-e #efini%e nouns3
(+2</ m$s!$ f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ NA3 dnsul NA3 dnsa NA3 dnii NA3 dnsele GD3 dnsului GD dnsei GD3 dnilor GD3 dnselor
2.3. S9nta/t./ 50o5e0t.es? 3o1bl.n4 /l.t./s an3 a40ee6ent Li-e s%ron! 5ersonal 5ronouns 5oli%eness 5ronouns func%ionin! as #irec% or #a%ive-mar-e# in#irec% ob6ec%s mus% be cli%ic-#ouble#$ The cli%ics a!ree 9i%h %he 5ronominal elemen% of %he com5oun# form of 5oli%eness3 %he0 are 1n# 5erson sin!ular cli%ics for dumneata (+2Ba/ 1n# 5erson 5lural cli%ics for dumneavoastr (+2Ca/ 2r# 5erson sin!ular cli%ics for dumnealui$dumneaei$dumneasa% Domnia Lui% Domnia Ei% Domnia 9a% dnsul$dnsa (+4=a b c/ an# 2r# 5erson 5lural cli%ics for dumnealor% Domniile Lor% dnii$dnsele (+4+a/$ The !en#er fea%ure is referen%ial for dumneasa an# Domnia 9a (+4=a b/$ The non-le;icaliAe# forms of %he 1n# 5erson (%he %05e Domnia ta$voastr >0our lor#shi5?/ can also be cli%ic-#ouble# b0 forms of %he 2r# 5erson (+2Bb +2Cb c/ a!reein! 9i%h %he noun domnia$ In %he 2r# 5erson %he cli%ics canno% a!ree 9i%h domnia bu% mus% be referen%ial (see (+4=c//3
(+2B/ a$ Pe #umnea%a %e cLu%am$ DG: 0ou$PGLIT7(SG/ CL$1SG$ACC search$I:PF$+SG b$ Pe Domnia Ta %e / o cLu%am$ DG: lor#shi5-%he 0our(SG/ CL$1SG$ACC / 2FSG$CL$ACC search$I:PF$+SG >I 9as loo-in! for 0ou? a$ Dumneavoas%rL vL vorbesc$ 0ou$PGLIT7(PL/ CL$1PL$DAT s5ea-$+SG >I am s5ea-in! %o 0ou?
(+2C/
122
Pronouns b$ Domniei Voas%re vL / Ei vorbesc$ lor#shi5-%he$DAT 0our(PL/ CL$1PL$DAT/ CL$SG$DAT s5ea-$+SG >I am s5ea-in! %o 0ou (sin!ular/? c$ Domniilor Voas%re vL / le vorbesc lor#shi5s-%he$DAT 0our(PL/ CL$1PL$DAT/ CL$SG$DAT s5ea-$+SG >I am s5ea-in! %o 0ou (5lural/? a$ `l cau% 5e #umnealui / #umneasa / Domnia Lui / Domnia CL$2:SG$ACC search$+SG DG: 2:SG$PGLIT7 / 2SG$PGLIT7 / lor#shi5-%he his / lor#shi5-%he Sa /#Wnsul$ 2SG$PGSS /2:SG$PGLIT7 >I am loo-in! for him? b$ G cau% 5e #umneaei /#umneasa / Domnia 7i / Domnia CL$2FSG$ACC search$+SG DG: 2FSG$PGLIT7 / 2SG$PGLIT7 / lor#shi5-%he her / lor#shi5-%he Sa / #Wnsa 2SG$PGSS /2FSG$PGLIT7 >I am loo-in! for her? c$ XG cau% 5e Domnia Lui$ CL$2FSG$ACC search$+SG DG: lor#shi5-%he his a$ ì cau% 5e #umnealor /Domniile lor / #WnMii$ CL$2:PL$ACC search$+SG DG: 2PL$PGLIT7 / lor#shi5-%he %heir / 2:PL$PGLIT7 >I am loo-in! for %hem (masculine/? b$ Le cau% 5e #umnealor /Domniile lor / #Wnsele$ CL$2FPL$ACC search$+SG DG: 2PL$PGLIT7 / lor#shi5-%he %heir / 2FPL$PGLIT7 >I am loo-in! for %hem (feminine/?
(+4=/
(+4+/
Uhen %he !ramma%ical number an# %he referen%ial one are no% consis%en% (e$!$ formal 5lural of %he 5oli%eness 5ronoun vs$ a##ress %o a uni@ue 5erson/ %he verb?s a!reemen% chooses %he formal number 9hereas 5re#ica%ive a#6ec%ives sho9 referen%ial a!reemen% (in !en#er an# number/3
(+41/ Dumneavoas%rL sun%eRi nemulRumi%LK 0ou$PGLIT7 are1PL unha550$FSG Are 0ou unha550K
For %he non-fuse# forms of %he 1n# 5erson (%he %05e Domnia :a$Eoastr/ %he verb usuall0 %a-es 1n# 5erson (referen%ial/ a!reemen% bu% 2r# 5erson a!reemen% 9i%h %he noun domnia is also 5ossible3
(+42/ a$ Domnia Ta eM%i / es%e invi%a%ul nos%ru$ lor#shi5-%he 0our( SG/ are$1SG / is !ues%-%he our >0ou are our !ues%? b$ Domnia Voas%rL rLmWneRi / rLmWne aici$ lor#shi5-%he 0our( PL/ remain$1PL / remains here >qou remain here?
In %his case %oo a#6ec%ival 5re#ica%es have onl0 referen%ial a!reemen% (%he0 canno% a!ree in !en#er 9i%h %he noun domnie bu% have %he !en#er of %he referen%/ 9hich forces referen%ial a!reemen% on %he verb3
(+44/ Domnia voas%rL sun%eRi foar%e amabil /Xes%e foar%e amabilL$ (s5ea-in! %o a male/ lor#shi5-%he 0our( PL/ are$1PL ver0 -in#$:SG / is ver0 -in#$FSG >qou are ver0 -in#?
124
Pronouns
2.$. T8e 1se of 5ol.teness fo06s To a##ress %o a sin!le 5erson %he follo9in! scale of forms is available3
familiar tu lo9 #e!ree #eference dumneata of s%an#ar# 5oli%eness dumneavoastr honorific Domnia Eoastr
Table (. Fo06s fo0 s.n41la0 a330essees In 5resen%-#a0 Romanian dumneata is rarel0 use#I i% is use# merel0 b0 ol#er 5eo5le in a##ressin! 0oun! 5eo5le or in si%ua%ions of verbal conflic%3
(+4,/ Dumnea%a sL nu vorbeM%id 0ou$PGLIT7$SG SD'N no% %al-$1SG >Don?% s5ea- 0oud&
Dumneavoastr is %he #ominan% form of s%an#ar# 5oli%eness$ Domnia Eoastr is rarel0 use#$ The shor%ene# forms (b0 a5heresis/ mata (e dumneata/ an# matale (e dumitale/% an# %heir #iminu%ives mtlu% mtlic% tlic are collo@uial conve0in! affec%ive or ironical values$ The mos% fre@uen% is matale ori!inall0 an obli@ue form 9hich became a uni@ue form for all cases (+4.a/I in nons%an#ar# varie%ies i% combines 9i%h %he 5re5ose# obli@ue mar-er lu)i*3
(+4./ a$ :a%ale un#e ai fos%K matale 9here have$1SG been >Uhere 9ere 0ouK? b$ As%a e casa lu(i/ ma%aleK %his is house-%he G'L matale >Is %his 0our houseK?
For 5lural a##ressees %he scale is sim5ler3

familiar voi s%an#ar# 5oli%eness dumneavoastr honorific Domniile Eoastre
Table ). Fo06s fo0 5l10al a330essees For %he 2r# 5erson %he choice is richer bu% %he hierarch0 of %he forms is no% unanimousl0 a55lie# or reco!niAe#3
familiar el$ea ei$ele me#ium #e!ree s%an#ar# or me#ium of #eference 5oli%eness dnsul$dnsa dumnealui $dumneaei (rarel0/ dumneasa dnii $ dnsele dumnealor s%an#ar# 5oli%eness or honorific Domnia 9a (rarel0/ Domnia Lui% Domnia Ei Domniile Lor
Table *. 303 5e0son fo06s Dnsul is consi#ere# a re!ular 5ersonal 5ronoun b0 %ra#i%ional !rammars bu% i% ac@uire# a 5oli%eness value in cer%ain re!ions (in %he Sou%h/$ I%s use as a 5oli%eness form is cri%iciAe# an# s%i!ma%iAe# bu% never%heless occurs ver0 fre@uen%l0$ Dumnealui an# dumneaei belon! %o %he same formal series as dumneavoastr bu% %he0 #on?% have %he same s%an#ar# value an# %he same fre@uenc03 in %he 5resen%-#a0 Romanian %he0 are in%er5re%e# as ra%her collo@uial an#
12,
Pronouns
even ironical$ The %hir# 5erson form dumneasa has almos% #isa55eare#$ Poli%eness forms obe0 %he !eneral rules for %he use of s%ron! 5ronominal forms (see **+$,$2-+$,$, above/$ In con%e;%s 9here reference is mar-e# onl0 b0 cli%ics or verb a!reemen% %he onl0 5ossibili%0 %o e;5ress 5oli%eness is for sin!ular a##ressees for 9hich 5lural 1 n# 5erson cli%ics an# 5lural verb a!reemen% conve0 #eference3
(+4</ V-aRi ui%a% umbrela$ CL$1PL$DAT-have$1PL for!o%%en umbrella-%he >qou (5oli%e/ for!o% 0our umbrella? (9i%h a sin!ular a##ressee/
3. T8e 50ono6.nal .ntens.f.e0 nsui

The 5ro%o%05ical in%ensifier nsui has bo%h 5ronominal an# a#6ec%ival fea%ures$ This 9or# is a DP-mo#ifier %ha% func%ions as a focal 5ar%icle rou!hl0 5ara5hrasable b0 "gm0- 0our- him-$$$hself&$ Combine# 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns i% can also be use# as a refle;ive mar-er$ 3.1. Mo058olo49 Gri!ina%in! in a com5oun# form %his 9or# sho9s an in%ernal inflec%ion3 %he elemen% nsuvaries accor#in! %o %he ca%e!ories of number !en#er an# (in %he feminine sin!ular/ case (nsu$ ni-R ns- $ nse-/I %he secon# elemen% is i#en%ical 9i%h %he #a%ive refle;ive cli%ic an# in#ica%es 5erson an# number (-mi% -i% -i% -ne% -v% -i/I for %he 2r# 5lural feminine %he en#in! -le (formall0 i#en%ical %o %he #efini%e ar%icle/ can be use# as a free varian% of -i3
(+4B/ + s!$ m$ nsumiI f$ NA nsmi GD nsemi 1 s!$ m$ nsuiI f$ NA nsi GD nsei 2 s!$ m$ nsuiI f$ NA nsi (GD nsei + 5l$ m$ nine f$ nsene 1 5l$ m$ niv f$ nsev 2 5l$ m$ nii f$ nsei $ nsele
In subs%an#ar# varie%ies %his rich inflec%ion %en#s %o be sim5lifie#$ Some s5ea-ers use an invariable form nsui or nsi$ G%hers -ee5 %he 5erson inflec%ion bu% fail %o mar- !en#er (usin! ei%her nsumi% nsui e%c$ or nsmi% nsi e%c$ for bo%h !en#ers/$
In%ensifiers are al9a0s s%resse# as 5ar% of %he focus$ No%e %ha% unli-e in o%her Romance lan!ua!es in Romanian %he in%ensifier is formall0 #is%inc% from %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer (9hich is acelai >%he same?/$ 3.2. S9nta/t./ 50o5e0t.es The in%ensifier nsui func%ions as a mo#ifier of a DP3 omul nsui >%he man himself? $ nsui omul >himself %he man? (vs$ Xom nsui >man himself? $ Xnsui om >himself man?/$ I% can mo#if0 DPs hea#e# b0 le;ical nouns or #efini%e 5ronouns (5ersonal #emons%ra%ive/$ Uhen mo#if0in! a 5ersonal or refle;ive 5ronoun P e$!$ el nsui )nsui el* >he himself?% sine nsui >2$R7FL$ACC himself? P i% can be in%er5re%e# as an em5ha%ic refle;ive mar-er (see *2$4/$ Snsui a!rees in number !en#er an# case 9i%h %he nominal hea# (see +4Ca/I %he +s% an# n# 1 5erson forms a!ree 9i%h %he 5ronominal hea# in 5erson number an# case an# sho9 a referen%ial a!reemen% in !en#er (see +4Cb/3
12.
Pronouns (+4C/ a$ fe%ei EnseMi !irl-%he$SG$G7N/DAT herself$ SG$G7N/DAT >%o/of %he !irl herself? b$ eu EnsLmi/ Ensumi I m0self$F/ m0self$: >m0self? (9hen a female/male is s5ea-in!/
Ui%h DPs hea#e# b0 nouns %he in%ensifier can be 5lace# ei%her %o %he lef% of %he DP or %o i%s ri!h%3
(+,=/ a$ `nsuMi Y5reMe#in%ele com5aniei Z a Encurca% #a%ele himself 5resi#en%-%he com5an0-%he$G7N has mi;e#-u5 #a%a-%he b$ YPreMe#in%ele com5aniei Z EnsuMi a Encurca% #a%ele 5resi#en%-%he com5an0-%he$G7N himself has mi;e#-u5 #a%a-%he >The 5resi#en% of %he com5an0 himself mi;e# u5 %he #a%a? c$ Am vorbi% cu EnsuMi YEm5Lra%ul Na5onieiZ have$+ %al-e# 9i%h himself em5eror-%he Na5an-%he$ G7N #$ Am vorbi% cu YEm5Lra%ul Na5onieiZ EnsuMi have$+ %al-e# 9i%h em5eror-%he Na5an-%he$G7N himself >I/9e %al-e# %o %he 7m5eror of Na5an himself?
If %he DP is com5le; %he 5re5ose# 5osi%ion is 5referre#$ 7;ce5%ionall0 %he in%ensifier can a55ear imme#ia%el0 af%er a #efini%e noun an# 5rece#in! an a#nominal cons%i%uen%$ In such cases i% em5hasiAes %he noun$ Therefore i% is acce5%able in (+,+/ bu% no% in an e;am5le such as (+,1/ 9here %he noun is no% em5hasiAe#3
(+,+/ (+,1/ Pe a%unci era Ymo#elul Nns1C. al succesuluiZ b0 %hen 9as$2SG mo#el-%he i%self G7N success-%he$G7N >In %hose %imes (s/he 9as %he ver0 mo#el of success? KK A veni% Y5rie%enul EnsuMi al RalucLiZ has come frien#-%he himself G7N Raluca$G7N
Ui%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 5os%5osi%ion is 5referre# an# is obli!a%or0 if %he 5ronoun is in%ro#uce# b0 a 5re5osi%ion or is in %he obli@ue case (see (+,4//3
(+,2/ (+,4/ 7l EnsuMi / `nsuMi el a Encurca% #a%ele he himself himself he has mi;e#-u5 #a%a-%he >Oe mi;e# u5 %he #a%a himself? a$ L-am invi%a% 5e el EnsuMi CL$ACC-have$+ invi%e# DG: him himself >I/Ue invi%e# himself? b$ - L-am invi%a% 5e EnsuMi el CL$ACC-have$+ invi%e# DG: himself him c$ Lui Nns1C. i se 5o%riveM%e #efiniRia$ he$DAT himself CL$2SG$DAT R7FL fi%s #efini%ion-%he >The #efini%ion sui%s himself? #$XMns1C. lui i se 5o%riveM%e #efiniRia himself he$DAT CL$2SG$DAT R7FL fi%s #efini%ion-%he
The 5re5ose# 5osi%ion is also e;clu#e# 9i%h 5lural +s% an# 1n# 5ronouns3
(+,,/ a$ Voi NnC.2: s5uneRi as%a0 0ou 0ourselves sa0$1PL %ha% >qou 0ourselves sa0 %ha%?
12<
Pronouns b$ X MnC.2: voi s5uneRi as%a 0ourselves 0ou sa0$1PL %ha%
In #efini%e DPs 9i%h unmo#ifie# nouns in%ro#uce# b0 5re5osi%ions 9here %he #efini%e ar%icle mus% be #ro55e# accor#in! %o a rule s5ecific of Romanian (see Cha5%er B *+$2/ %he use of %he 5re5ose# in%ensifier 5reclu#es ar%icle #ro53
(+,./ a$ Au fos% 5rimiRi #e 5rimar / X#e 5rimarul have$2PL been receive# b0 ma0or b0 ma0or-%he >The0 9ere receive# b0 %he ma0or? b$ Au fos% 5rimiRi #e EnsuMi 5rimarul /X #e EnsuMi 5rimar have$2PL been receive# b0 himself ma0or-%he b0 himself ma0or >The0 9ere receive# b0 %he ma0or himself?
The 5os%5ose# in%ensifier seems %o be some%imes ra%her mar!inal in such con%e;%s bu% e;am5les can be foun# (see (+,</c/I in %his case %oo ar%icle #ro5 is im5ossible (see (+,</b/3
(+,</ a$ KAu fos% 5rimiRi #e 5rimarul EnsuMi have$2PL been receive# b0 ma0or-%he himself b$ XAu fos% 5rimiRi #e 5rimar EnsuMi have$2PL been receive# b0 ma0or himself c$ En s5iri%ul a#evLrului es%e%ic cu5rins En %e;%ul EnsuMi in s5iri%-%he %ru%h-%he$G7N aes%he%ic com5rise# in %e;%-%he i%self >in %he s5iri% of %he aes%he%ic %ru%h con%aine# in %he %e;% i%self? (%alusa+C4.$forumcul%ure$ne%//
The in%ensifier of%en occurs a%%ache# %o a s%ron! 5ronoun 9hich #oubles %he sub6ec%3
(+,B/ :aria a fos% (ea EnsLMi/ #e faRL (ea EnsLMi/ :aria has been she herself 5resen% she herself >:aria 9as 5resen% herself?
This %05e of #oublin! cons%ruc%ion is use# in or#er %o mar- %he sub6ec% bo%h as %o5ic an# as a (5ar%icular %05e of/ focus$ This use of #oublin! 5ronouns is no% limi%e# %o nsui3 i% can be foun# 9i%h o%her focal 5ar%icles (such as c!iar >even? i >also? see (+,C/a-b/I %he 5ronoun can also occur 9i%hou% an0 focal elemen% bu% bearin! focal s%ress (see (+,C/c/3
(+,C/ a$ :aria e chiar ea bolnavL :aria is even she ill >:aria herself is ill? b$ Ion mer!e Mi el cu noi Ion !oes also he 9i%h us >Ion comes 9i%h us %oo? c$ Geor!e s5alL 7L maMina Geor!e 9ashes he car-%he >Geor!e 9ashes %he car himself?
In %he ol# lan!ua!e nsui coul# be use# as a #oubler 9i%hou% bein! a%%ache# %o a 5ronoun bein! a floa%in! in%ensifier li-e 7n!l$ !imself3 (+.=/ un#e era nevoie nsui sL vWrWea (Dreche/ 9here 9as nee# himself R7FL in%ro#uce$I:PF$2SG >Uhenever nee#e# he !o% involve# himself
12B
Pronouns
This use reflec%s i%s 5ronominal ori!in (%he elemen% nsu- comes from %he La%in 5ronoun ipse/$
3.3. T8e .ntens.f.e0 1se Gn i%s in%ensif0in! use nsui 5resen%s %he focaliAe# elemen% as a less e;5ec%e# al%erna%ive an# i% can have %9o rea#in!s3 (i/ %he inclusive rea#in! in 9hich i% #oes no% e;clu#e o%her al%erna%ives bu% ra%her 5resu55oses %ha% %he 5ro5osi%ion f(;/ is %rue for o%her values of ; %han %he focusI here nsui ma0 be 5ara5hrase# b0 >even? (Romanian c!iar/3
(+.+/ Co5iii EncL nu s-au fLcu% bine$ Acum mama lor EnsLMi e bolnavL / EnsLMi chil#ren-%he 0e% no% R7FL-have ma#e 9ell no9 mo%her-%he %heir herself is ill herself mama lor e bolnavL mo%her-%he %heir is ill >The chil#ren have no% 0e% recovere#$ No9 %heir mo%her herself is ill?
,!iar >even e;ac%l0 reall0? is a focal 5ar%icle 9hich unli-e nsui lac-s nominal fea%uresI %herefore i% has a 9i#er #is%ribu%ion bein! able %o mo#if0 all sor%s of cons%i%uen%s (no% onl0 DPs bu% also PPs APs a#verbs or verbs e$!$ c!iar acolo >ri!h% %here? E c!iar frumoas >She?s reall0 beau%iful? c!iar cnt >he even sin!s?/$ I% forms a class %he focal 5ar%icles i >also %oo? doar >onl0? numai >onl0? (see cha5%er + *4$2/$
(ii/ %he e;clusive rea#in! in 9hich %he o%her al%erna%ives are e;clu#e#3
(+.1/ a$ A rLs5uns acuAa%ul EnsuMi (nu avoca%ul sLu/$ has ans9ere# #efen#an%-%he himself (no% la90er-%he his/$ >The #efen#an% himself ans9ere# (no% his la90er/? b$ A rLs5uns el EnsuMi (nu al%cineva/$ has ans9ere# he himself (no% somebo#0-else/ >Oe himself !ave %he ans9er (no% somebo#0 else/?
I% seems %ha% %he 5os%5osi%ion of %he in%ensifier is 5referre# for %his rea#in!$ These %9o rea#in!s can also be foun# 9hen nsui a%%aches %o a 5ronoun #oublin! %he sub6ec% (see (+.2/ for %he inclusive rea#in! an# (+.4/ for %he e;clusive rea#in!/3
(+.2/ a$ Aici 5WnAa susurL%oare #e a5L nu a6un!ea #ar aerul era el EnsuMi ume# (inclusive/ here s%rea--%he 5urlin! of 9a%er no% reache# bu% air-%he 9as i% i%self 9e% >The 5urlin! 9a%er #i# no% !e% here bu% %he air i%self 9as 9e%$? (CLr%Lrescu/ b$ S%L5Wnul viselor era el EnsuMi un vis (CLr%Lrescu/ mas%er-%he #reams-%he$G7N 9as he himself a #ream >The mas%er of %he #reams 9as a #ream himself? Direc%orul Mi-a re5ara% el EnsuMi maMina (e;clusive/ mana!er-%he CL$R7FL$2$DAT-has re5aire# he himself car-%he >The mana!er himself re5aire# %he car?
(+.4/
The in%ensifier normall0 occurs 9i%h DPs 9hich are a% %he %o5 in %he hierarch0 of a!en%ivi%0 (5ro5er names 5ersonal 5ronouns e%c$/ bu% i% #oes no% e;clu#e inanima%es3
(+.,/ A5a EnsLMi era fierbin%e 9a%er-%he i%self 9as ho%
12C
Pronouns
3.$. T8e 0efle<.2e 1se Uhen a%%ache# %o 5ersonal 5ronouns nsui is of%en use# as an em5ha%ic refle;ive mar-er$ The use of in%ensifiers as refle;ive mar-ers is 9i#el0 a%%es%e# cross-lin!uis%icall0 #ue %o a !ramma%icaliAa%ion 5rocess$ This meanin! #evelo5men% ma0 be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% for man0 rela%ions R(; 0/ %he choice of 0 as i#en%ical %o ; is a less e;5ec%e# al%erna%ive$ Snsui can a%%ach %o a refle;ive 5ronoun (see (+../b (+.</b/ a 5ersonal 5ronoun #ouble# b0 a refle;ive cli%ic (see (+../# (+.</#/ or a 5ersonal 5ronoun insi#e a PP (see (+.B/b #/$ As can be seen from %hese e;am5les nsui is no% obli!a%or0 9i%h ana5horic 5ronouns (see (+../a c (+.</a c (+.B/a c/I local ana5hors re@uire refle;ive cli%ics for #irec% an# in#irec% ob6ec%s (see (+../-(+.<// bu% 9i%h PPs %here is no obli!a%or0 refle;ive mar-er (see (+.B// an# %herefore nsui can #isambi!ua%e %he sen%ence b0 elimina%in! %he 5ossibili%0 of %he #is6oin% reference (see (+.B/b-#/$ I% can also be no%ice# %ha% %he s%ron! #a%ive 5ronoun can %a-e %he -i elemen% unless follo9e# b0 nsui (see (+.</a-b/$
(+../ a$ Dani sei a#mirL 5e YsineZi Dan CL$R7FL$2$ACC a#mires DG: 20R7FL$ACC b$ Dani sei a#mirL 5e Ysine EnsuMiZi Dan CL$R7FL$2$ACC a#mires DG: 2$R7FL$ACC himself c$ Dani sei a#mirL 5e YelZi$ Dan CL$R7FL$2$ACC a#mires DG: him #$ Dani sei a#mirL 5e Yel EnsuMiZi Dan CL$R7FL$2$ACC a#mires DG: him himself >Dan a#mires himself? a$ Direc%oruli EMii vin#e gsiei / sieMii h acRiuni$ mana!er-%he CL$R7FL$2$DAT sells 2R7FL$DAT / 2R7FL$DAT shares b$ Direc%oruli EMii vin#e gYsie EnsuMiZi / X YsieMi EnsuMiZi h acRiuni$ mana!er-%he CL$R7FL$2$DAT sells 2R7FL$DAT himself 2R7FL$DAT himself shares c$ Direc%oruli EMii vin#e luii acRiuni$ mana!er-%he CL$R7FL$2$DAT sells he$DAT shares #$ Direc%oruli EMii vin#e Ylui EnsuMiZi acRiuni$ mana!er-%he CL$R7FL$2$DAT sells him$DAT himself shares >The mana!er sells shares %o himself? a$ Dani are Encre#ere En eli/Dan has %rus% in him >Dan is confi#en% 9i%h him/himself? b$ Dani are Encre#ere En Yel EnsuMiZi Dan has %rus% in him himself >Dan is confi#en% 9i%h himself? c$ Dani a reuMi% #a%ori%L luii/Dan has succee#e# %han-s he$DAT >Dan succee#e# %han-s %o him/himself? #$ Dani a reuMi% #a%ori%L Ylui EnsuMiZ i Dan has succee#e# %han-s he$DAT himself >Dan succee#e# %han-s %o himself?
(+.</
(+.B/
Uhen a%%ache# %o a 5ronoun coreferen% 9i%h ano%her DP in %he same clause nsui can -ee5 i%s in%ensifier func%ion bu% i% can also ac% as a mere refle;ive mar-er$ Thus %he follo9in! sen%ence can be use# ou%-of-%he-blue in a ne9s re5or% 9i%hou% im5l0in! a scalar focus (i$e$ base# on %he or#erin! of focal al%erna%ives in %erms of / on %he PronounHnsui cons%i%uen%3
(+.C/ Dn son#a6 ara%L cum se 5erce5 i%alienii 5e ei EnMiMi a 5oll sho9s ho9 R7FL 5erceive$2PL I%alians-%he DG: %hem %hemselves
14=
Pronouns >An o5inion 5oll sho9s ho9 I%alians vie9 %hemselves?
Li-e9ise %he focal al%erna%ive >%hemselves? can b0 no means be seen as une;5ec%e# in %he follo9in! sen%ence3
(+<=/ ToRi %in# sL-Mi ier%e lor EnMiMi !reMelile all$:PL %en# SD'N-CL$R7FL$2$DAT for!ive$2 %hem$DAT %hemselves faul%s-%he >7ver0bo#0 %en#s %o for!ive %hemselves for %heir faul%s?
No%ice %ha% in %hese e;am5les nsui is a mere refle;ive mar-er al%hou!h refle;ivi%0 is alrea#0 e;5resse# b0 %he cli%ics$ 7;5ec%e#l0 i% can ac% as a mere refle;ive mar-er 9hen refle;ive cli%ics are no% available3
(+<+/ Sun% curios ce 5Lrere are #es5re el EnsuMi am curious 9ha% o5inion has abou% him himself >I?m curious 9ha% o5inion he has on himself?
The lac- of %he focal meanin! 9hen use# 9i%h !ramma%ical ana5hors is also 5roven b0 %he 5ossibili%0 of bein! #es%resse#3
(+<1/ 7l se AD:IRa 5e el EnsuMi he R7FL a#mires DG: him himself >Oe AD:IR7S himself?
In %he s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions 9here a refle;ive rea#in! is 5ossible (e$!$ ob6ec% 5osi%ions/I %he se@uence nsuiHPronoun %en#s %o be res%ric%e# %o %he refle;ive use$ Thus e;am5les such as (+<2/a 9here %he 5ronoun is no% co-in#e;e# 9i%h %he sub6ec% are ra%her mar!inal$ The in%ensifier use is never%heless 5ossible 9i%h non-5ronominal DPs (see (+<2/b/3
(+<2/ a$ K L-am En%Wlni% 5e el EnsuMi$ CL$ACC have$+ me% DG: him himself b$ L-am En%Wlni% 5e EnsuMi au%orul romanului$ CL$ACC have$+ me% DG: himself au%hor-%he novel-%he$G7N >I me% %he novel?s au%hor himself?
Ue ma0 %hus conclu#e %ha% nsui is al9a0s an in%ensifier 9hen use# 9i%h a DP hea#e# b0 a le;ical N$ Uhen i% a%%aches %o a 5ronoun i% is an in%ensifier or a refle;ive #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he 5ronoun occu5ies %he sub6ec% or some o%her 5osi%ion$ The in%ensifier use for non-sub6ec% 5ronouns is onl0 rarel0 a%%es%e#$
$. Re/.50o/al /onst01/t.ons
$.1. Int0o31/t.on Reci5rocal forms consis% of 5ronominal cli%ics %ha% are formall0 i#en%ical 9i%h refle;ive cli%ics (see *+$1 an# *+$< above for %he forms/ an# %he com5le; 5hrases unul )pe$cu$ln $despre00* altul $ unul altuia >one - Pre5osi%ion - o%her? / >one o%her$ DAT?% unul )pe$cu$ln $despre00* cellalt $ unul celuilalt >one - Pre5osi%ion - %he-o%her? / >one %he-o%her$ DAT?% an# (less fre@uen%l0 use#/ fiecare )pe$cu$ln $despre00* fiecare >each - Pre5osi%ion - each? an# ntre noi$voi$ei >be%9een H Plural Pronoun?3
(+<4/ a$ Ion Mi Ana se iubesc (1n1l 5e alt1l/$
14+
Pronouns Ion an# Ana 2$R7FL$ACC ha%e one DG: o%her >Ion an# Ana love each o%her? b$ Co5iii nu NC. mai vorbesc (1n1l alt1.a/$ chil#ren-%he no% 2$R7FL$DAT more %alone o%her$DAT >The chil#ren #on?% %al- %o each o%her an0 more? c$ Cei #oi s5uneau lucruri urW%e 1n1l 3es50e /el:lalt %he %9o sai0$I:PF %hin!s ba# one abou% %he-o%her >The %9o use# %o sa0 / 9ere sa0in! ba# %hin!s abou% each o%her? #$ 7i se cri%icau f.e/a0e 5e f.e/a0e %he0 2$R7FL$ACC cri%iciAe$I:PF each DG: each >The0 9ere cri%iciAin! / use# %o cri%iciAe each o%her? e$ Poli%icienii se #uMmLnesc Nnt0e e. 5oli%icians-%he 2$R7FL$ACC ha%e be%9een %hem >The 5oli%icians ha%e each o%her? f$ Ne-au 5us 1n1l lKn4: alt1l us-have$2PL 5lace# one ne;% o%her >The0 5lace# us ne;% %o each o%her?
Such reci5rocal forms (see %he bol#-face# cons%i%uen%s in (+/a-f/ func%ion as ana5hors %ha% %a-e a !rou5-referrin! an%ece#en% e;5resse# b0 ei%her a 5lural DP or b0 a con6unc%ion of DPs$ In %he e;am5les above %he an%ece#en% is %he sub6ec% in a-e an# %he #irec% ob6ec% in fI for o%her 5ossible 5osi%ions see *4$2$ Cons%ruc%ions of %his %05e are un#ers%oo# as in#ica%in! %ha% each member of %he 5lurali%0 e;5resse# b0 %he an%ece#en% s%an#s in a cer%ain rela%ion (e;5resse# b0 %he 5re#ica%e of %he clause/ %o all or some of %he o%her members of %his 5lurali%0 (see *4$, belo9 on %he seman%ics of reci5rocals/3
(+<,/ Ion Ana Mi An#rei se urLsc unul 5e al%ul Ion Ana an# An#rei R7FL ha%e one DG: o%her >Ion Ana an# An#rei ha%e each o%her(s/? [ Ion ha%es Ana an# Ion ha%es An#rei an# Ana ha%es Ion an# Ana ha%es An#rei an# An#rei ha%es Ion an# An#rei ha%es Ana %he 5lurali%0 [ gIon Ana An#reihI %he rela%ion [ !ate
The 5re#ica%e of %he clause can have ar!umen%s %ha% are no% involve# in %he reci5rocal rela%ion (see (+<./ belo9 an# (+<4/c above 9here reci5roci%0 hol#s be%9een %he a!en% an# %he !oal an# #oes no% concern %he %hemeI see also (+<4/f above 9here reci5roci%0 hol#s be%9een %he #irec% ob6ec% an# %he !oal an# #oes no% concern %he sub6ec%/3
(+<./ Co5iii Mi-au oferi% ca#ouri unul al%uia chil#ren-%he R7FL$DAT-have offere# 5resen%s one o%her$DAT
The reci5rocal rela%ion can also hol# be%9een an ar!umen% an# an a#6unc% (see (+<<//$
(+<</
7i
fac %o%ul unul 5en%ru al%ul %he0 #o ever0%hin! one for
o%her
For clear cases in 9hich %he %9o ar!umen%s for 9hich reci5roci%0 hol#s are no% ar!umen%s of %he same 5re#ica%e see *4$2 belo9$ Such e;am5les sho9 %ha% %he rela%ion mar-e# as reci5rocal can consis% of more ma%erial %han a mere le;ical 5re#ica%e P e$!$ "r !ives 5resen%s %or& "r ma-e ever0%hin! for r&$ 141
Pronouns
In s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure one of %he ar!umen%s 5ar%ici5a%in! %o %his (5o%en%iall0 com5le;/ rela%ion occu5ies a hi!her 5osi%ion %han %he o%her one$ I% is %his hi!her 5osi%ion %ha% hos%s %he an%ece#en% 5lurali%0 9hereas %he lo9er 5osi%ion is mar-e# b0 %he reci5rocal ana5hor$ Some%imes %he firs% 5ar% of %he reci5rocal ana5hor also con%ains a mar-in! charac%eriAin! %he hi!her 5osi%ion (see *4$1 belo9 e;$ (+C=//$ $.2. Re/.50o/al 6a0>.n4 $.2.1. Cl.t./s As 9e sai# above reci5rocal cli%ics are formall0 i#en%ical %o refle;ive cli%ics (9hich have s5ecial forms onl0 in %he 2r# 5erson accusa%ive se an# #a%ive iI for %he o%her 5ersons %he0 are i#en%ical %o %he 5ersonal 5ronouns see *+$1/$ Given %his formal i#en%i%0 9e shall some%imes refer %o reci5rocal cli%ics as >refle;ive/reci5rocal? cli%ics$ If %he 5osi%ion of %he reci5rocal ana5hor allo9s a cli%ic reci5roci%0 mus% be mar-e# b0 a refle;ive/ reci5rocal cli%ic$ This is %he case for #irec% ob6ec%s an# a#-verbal #a%ives$ In e;am5les of %his %05e %he use of a s%ron! reci5rocal ana5hor co-occurrin! 9i%h %he cli%ic is o5%ional3
(+<B/ a$ Ion Mi Ana se iubesc Ion an# Ana 2$R7FL$ACC ha%e >Ion an# Ana love each o%her? b$ Ion Mi Ana se iubesc 1n1l 5e alt1l Ion an# Ana 2$R7FL$ACC ha%e one DG: o%her >Ion an# Ana love each o%her? c$ X Ion Mi Ana iubesc unul 5e al%ul Ion an# Ana love each DG: o%her a$ Ion Mi Ana NC. scriu Ion an# Ana 2$R7FL$DAT 9ri%e >Ion an# Ana 9ri%e %o each o%her? b$ Ion Mi Ana NC. scriu 1n1l alt1.a Ion an# Ana 2$R7FL$DAT 9ri%e one o%her$DAT >Ion an# Ana 9ri%e %o each o%her? c$ X Ion Mi Ana scriu unul al%uia Ion an# Ana 9ri%e one o%her$DAT
(+<C/
As %he reci5rocal an# refle;ive cli%ics have %he same form some%imes s%ron! reci5rocal (or refle;ive/ ana5hors are nee#e# for #isambi!ua%ion3
(+B=/ a$ Tinerele se analiAau En#elun! 0oun!(F$PL/-%he 2$R7FL$ACC anal0Ae$I:PF for-a-lon!-%ime >The 0oun! 9omen use# %o anal0Ae %hemselves/each o%her for a lon! %ime? b$ Tinerele se analiAau En#elun! una 5e al%a 0oun!(F$PL/-%he 2$R7FL$ACC anal0Ae$I:PF for-a-lon!-%ime one DG: o%her >The 0oun! 9omen use# %o anal0Ae each o%her for a lon! %ime?
The use of %he same mar-ers for refle;ives an# reci5rocals is foun# in man0 lan!ua!es of %he 9orl#$ This ma0 be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he reci5rocal rela%ion can be conce5%ualiAe# as a varie%0 of a rela%ion a 5lurali%0 has 9i%h i%self$ Some of %he li%era%ure on Romance lan!ua!es %rea% %hese cli%ics as mar-ers of a refle;ive-reci5rocal voice$ I% is %rue %ha% refle;ive cli%ics have some voice mar-er uses (see *+$,$1 above (ii// bu% i% is no% cer%ain 9he%her %he0 shoul# be anal0Ae# as such in %he 5ro5er refle;ive an# reci5rocal uses a% leas% in Romanian$ As can be seen in %he e;am5les (+<B/-(+<C/ above (an# %his also hol#s for 5ro5er refle;ives/ %he0 #o no% %ri!!er a re#uc%ion of %he valenc0 of %he verb3 %he #irec% an# in#irec% ob6ec% can s%ill be e;5resse# b0 a s%ron! ana5hor$ The re@uiremen% of cli%ic #oublin! is no% s5ecific %o reci5rocals an# 5ro5er refle;ives bu% also hol#s for 5ersonal 5ronouns (see *+$,$2/3
142
Pronouns
(i/ (ii/
Ana X(El/ iubeM%e 5e el Ana him$CL$ACC loves DG: him >Ana loves him? Ana X(Emi/ scrie mie Ana me$CL$DAT 9ri%es me$DAT >Ana is 9ri%in!/9ri%es %o me?
Secon#l0 %hese cli%ics mar- case P %he0 can be ei%her accusa%ive or #a%ive$ The use as a voice mar-er is onl0 foun# 9i%h accusa%ive cli%ics (see %he inchoa%ive mi##le 5assive/im5ersonal uses briefl0 men%ione# in *+$,$1 above/$ I% is %herefore #is5u%able 9he%her one can %al- of a >#a%ive refle;ive/reci5rocal voice?$
$.2.2. St0on4 0e/.50o/al ana58o0s The com5le; 5hrases 9hich mar- reci5roci%0 9ill be calle# >s%ron! reci5rocal ana5hors? (some%imes abbrevia%e# as >s%ron! reci5rocals?/ in o55osi%ion %o cli%ics$ Ue have seen above (e;$ (+<B/b-c (+<C/b-c/ %ha% for %he #irec% ob6ec% an# a#-verbal #a%ive s%ron! reci5rocals can a55ear onl0 9i%h a co-occurrin! cli%ic$ If %he 5osi%ion of %he ana5hor has no corres5on#in! cli%ic %he onl0 9a0 %o e;5ress reci5roci%0 is %o use a s%ron! reci5rocal ana5hor (in (+B+/a 9e have a PPI in (+B+/b a #a%ive com5lemen% of an a#6ec%ive/3
(+B+/ a$ :aria Mi Tu#or vorbesc frumos 1n1l 3es50e alt1l :aria an# Tu#or %alnicel0 one abou% o%her >:aria an# Tu#or s5ea- 9ell abou% each o%her? b$ Rar am vLAu% 5ar%eneri a%W% #e fi#eli 1n1l alt1.a rarel0 have$+ seen 5ar%ners so lo0al one o%her$ DAT >I?ve sel#om seen 5ar%ners so lo0al %o each o%her?
The mos% usual s%ron! reci5rocal ana5hor is com5ose# of %he in#efini%e #e%erminer unul >one? follo9e# b0 %he al%erna%ive altul >o%her? or cellalt >%he o%her? 9hich bears %he case mar-er or 5re5osi%ion in#ica%in! %he func%ion of %he secon# (lo9er/ ar!umen% of %he reci5rocal rela%ion (see (+B1//$ In %he sin!ular %he #efini%e al%erna%ive cellalt >%he o%her? can a55ear onl0 if %he 5lurali%0 con%ains %9o members3
(+B1/ a$ Direc% ob6ec% Cei #oi nu se au# 1n1l 5e alt1l @ 1n1l 5e /el:lalt %he %9o no% 2$R7FL$ACC hear one$:SG DG: o%her$:SG / one$:SG DG: %he-o%her$:SG >The %9o can?% hear each o%her? b$ In#irec% ob6ec% (#a%ive com5lemen%/3 7i C.-au %ransmis %o% ce M%iau 1n1l alt1.a @ 1n1l %he0 2$R7FL$DAT %ransmi%%e# all %ha% -ne9 one$:SG o%her$:SG$DAT / one$:SG /el1.lalt %he-o%her$:SG$DAT >The0 %ransmi%%e# all %he0 -ne9 %o each o%her/%o one ano%her? c$ Possessive #a%ive3 :aria Mi Ileana NC. cum5LrL a#esea %ablourile 1na alte.a @ 1na :aria an# Ileana 2$R7FL$DAT bu0 of%en 5ain%in!s-%he one$FSG o%her$FSG$DAT /one$FSG /ele.lalte %he-o%her$FSG$DAT >:aria an# Ileana of%en bu0 each o%her?s 5ain%in!s? #$ PP com5lemen%3 Ta%Ll Mi fiul erau mWn#ri 1n1l 3e alt1l @ 1n1l 3e /el:lalt fa%her-%he an# son-%he 9ere 5rou# one$:SG of o%her$:SG / one$:SG of %he-o%her$:SG >The fa%her an# son 9ere 5rou# of each o%her?
144
Pronouns e$ PP a#6unc%3 Nu fLceau nimic 1n1l f:0: alt1l @ 1n1l f:0: /el:lalt no% #i#$I:PF$2PL no%hin! one$:SG 9i%hou% o%her$:SG/ one$:SG 9i%hou% %he-o%her$:SG >The0 #i#n?% (use %o/ #o an0%hin! 9i%hou% each o%her?
'o%h altul an# cellalt can be use# in %he 5lural onl0 if %he an%ece#en% 5lurali%0 con%ains more %han %9o members3
(+B2/ a$ Ra#u Mi Ana se 5lac unul 5e al%ul / Xunii 5e alRii Ra#u an# Ana 2$R7FL$ACC li-e one$:SG DG: o%her one$:PL DG: o%hers b$ Ra#u Ana Mi Pe%re se 5lac unul 5e al%ul / unii 5e alRii Ra#u Ana an# Pe%re 2$R7FL$ACC li-e one$:SG DG: o%her one$:PL DG: o%hers a$ X Cei #oi co5ii se 5lac unii 5e ceilalRi %he %9o chil#ren 2$R7FL$ACC li-e one$:PL DG: %he-o%her$:PL b$ Cei %rei co5ii se 5lac unii 5e ceilalRi %he %hree chil#ren 2$R7FL$ACC li-e one$:PL DG: %he-o%her$:PL
(+B4/
The %9o 5hrases com5osin! %he reci5rocal 5hrase (unul an# P/CaseHaltul$cellalt/ canno% be se5ara%e# b0 an0 o%her elemen%$ The0 mus% share %he same !en#er an# number fea%ures$ The usual !en#er resolu%ion rules a55l0 (e$!$ 9i%h anima%es masculine is unmar-e# see (+B,/a/3
(+B,/ a$ Ra#u Mi Ana se 5lac unul 5e al%ul / Xunul 5e al%a Ra#u an# Ana 2$R7FL$ACC li-e one$:SG DG: o%her$:SG one$:SG DG: o%her$FSG / Xuna 5e al%ul one$FSG DG: o%her$:SG b$ Co5iii se a6u%L unul 5e al%ul / unii 5e alRii chil#ren-%he 2$R7FL$ACC hel5 one$:SG DG: o%her$:SG / one$:PL DG: o%her$:PL / Xunul 5e alRii / unul 5e celLlal% / unii 5e ceilalRi one$:SG DG: o%her$:PL one$:SG DG: %he-o%her$:SG one$:PL DG: %he-o%her$:PL / X unul 5e ceilalRi one$:SG DG: %he-o%her$:PL
If %he an%ece#en% is a con6oine# 5hrase con%ainin! a 5lurali%0 as one of i%s members %he reci5rocal 5hrase mus% be mar-e# as 5lural3
(+B./ :aria Mi co5iii se iubesc unii 5e alRii / Xunul 5e al%ul :aria an# chil#ren-%he 2$R7FL$ACC love one$:PL DG: o%her$:PL / one$:SG DG: o%her$:SG
If %he an%ece#en% con%ains more %han %9o members i% is 5ossible %o use 0e% ano%her reci5rocal binomial cons%ruc%ion fiecare >each? H Pre5 H fiecare 9hich s%ren!%hens %he fac% %ha% all %he members of %he 5lurali%0 are involve# in %he reci5rocal rela%ion3
(+B</ a$ S-au a%aca% fiecare 5e fiecare 2$R7FL$ACC-have$2PL a%%ac-e# each DG: each >The0 all a%%ac-e# each o%her / 7ach of %hem a%%ac-e# ever0 o%her one? b$ RW#eau fiecare #e fiecare lou!he#$I:PF$2PL each of each >The0 9ere all lau!hin! a% each o%her / 7ach of %hem 9as lau!hin! a% ever0 o%her one?
Ano%her 5hrase e;5ressin! reci5roci%0 is ntre (li%$ >be%9een/amon!?/ H Plural Personal Pronoun 9hich can onl0 be use# if %he an%ece#en% has more %han %9o members an# %he reci5rocal ana5hor is mar-e# b0 a cli%ic (5referabl0 an accusa%ive one/$ The res%ric%ion %o ana5hors mar-e# b0 a cli%ic is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he ntre-PP #oes no% bear a mar- 9hich can 14,
Pronouns
i#en%if0 %he func%ion of %he reci5rocal ana5hor3

(+BB/ a$ Scrii%orii se #enunRau En%re ei 9ri%ers-%he 2$R7FL$ACC #enounce$I:PF be%9een %hem >The 9ri%ers 9ere #enouncin! each o%hers? b$ (K/ Scrii%orii EMi %rime%eau mul%e scrisori En%re ei 9ri%ers-%he 2$R7FL$DAT sen#$I:PF man0 le%%ers be%9een %hem >The 9ri%ers 9ere sen#in! each o%hers man0 le%%ers? c$ X Scrii%orii con%au En%re ei 9ri%ers-%he coun%$I:PF be%9een %hem
$.3. Lo/al.t9 /onst0a.nts an3 5os.t.ons of t8e ante/e3ent Dn%il no9 9e have mos%l0 seen e;am5les in 9hich %he an%ece#en% is a sub6ec%$ 'u% i% can also be a #irec% ob6ec% in 9hich case %he reci5rocal ana5hor can be an in#irec% ob6ec% or a PP3
(+BC/ a$ I-am 5reAen%a% 5e invi%aRi unii al%ora %hem$ACC-have$+ in%ro#uce# DG: !ues%s one$:PL o%her$:PL$DAT >I 5resen%e# %he !ues%s %o each o%her(s/? b$ I-am aMeAa% unul lWn!L al%ul %hem$ACC-have$+ 5lace# one$:SG besi#e o%her$:SG >I 5lace# %hem one besi#e %he o%her?
If %he an%ece#en% is e;5resse# b0 an Accusa%ive cli%ic %he firs% elemen% of %he reci5rocal 5hrase (unul$unii/ can receive %he 5re5osi%ional ob6ec% mar-er pe if i% refers %o humans3
(+C=/ DumneAeu ne-a Encre#inRa% 5e unii al%ora Go# us-has en%rus%e# DG: one$:PL o%her$:PL$DAT
The an%ece#en% can be a #erive# sub6ec% (sub6ec% of 5assives see (+C+// or a #erive# ob6ec% (see %he 7C: cons%ruc%ion in (+C1//3
(+C+/ a$ A%unci am fos% 5reAen%aRi unul al%uia %hen have$+ been in%ro#uce# one$:SG o%her$:SG$DAT >I% is %hen %ha% 9e have been in%ro#uce# %o each o%her? b$ Gamenii Mi-au fos% Encre#inRaRi unii al%ora #e DumneAeu 5eo5le$%he 2$R7FL$DAT-have been en%rus%e# one$:PL o%her$:SG$DAT b0 Go# >Peo5le have been en%rus%e# %o one ano%her b0 Go#? I-am vLAu% rWAWn# unul la al%ul %hem$ACC-have$+ seen lau!hin! one$:SG %o o%her$:SG >I sa9 %hem lau!hin! %o each o%her?
(+C1/
7;am5les of %he %05e (+C+/b 9here %he an%ece#en% is a #erive# sub6ec% an# %he ana5hor is a cli%ic are im5ossible in o%her Romance lan!ua!es such as French an# I%alian 5robabl0 #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %hese lan!ua!es #o no% #is%in!uish #a%ive from accusa%ive refle;ive-reci5rocal cli%ics$ The reci5rocal ana5hor can i%self be a #erive# ob6ec% (see %he 7C: cons%ruc%ion in (+C2//$ In %his case %he reci5rocal rela%ion hol#s be%9een %9o ar!umen%s of %9o #is%inc% 5re#ica%es3 %he hi!her ar!umen% 5osi%ion corres5on#s %o %he 7;5eriencer role of %he verb considera >consi#er? 9hereas %he lo9er ar!umen% 5osi%ion a #irec% ob6ec% of considera is in%er5re%e# as %he sub6ec% of %he embe##e# 5re#ica%e prost >s%u5i#?3
(+C2/ Cei #oi se consi#erau 5roM%i unul 5e al%ul
14.
Pronouns %he %9o 2$R7FL$ACC consi#ere#$I:PF s%u5i# one$:SG DG: o%her$:SG >The %9o (of %hem/ consi#ere# each o%her s%u5i#?
A similar si%ua%ion ob%ains 9i%h 5ossessive #a%ives (see also (+B1/c above/ 9here %he lo9er ar!umen% is seman%icall0 %he >5ossessor? or in%ernal ar!umen% of %he noun hea#in! %he ob6ec% (tablou in (+B1/c/ an# %he hi!her ar!umen% is %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he verb (cumpra in (+B1/c/3
(+C4/ :aria Mi Ileana Mi-au vLAu% una al%eia co5iii la %eleviAor :aria an# Ileana 2$R7FL$DAT-have seen one$FSG o%her$FSG$DAT chil#ren-%he a% TV >:aria an# Ileana sa9 each o%her?s chil#ren on TV?
Ano%her case in 9hich %he reci5rocal rela%ion is >s5rea#? amon! more %han a sin!le 5re#ica%e is 9hen %he an%ece#en% en%ers a con%rol rela%ion$ In %his case illus%ra%e# in (+C,/ %he an%ece#en% occu5ies %he con%roller 5osi%ion (an ar!umen% 5osi%ion of %he hi!her 5re#ica%e P +I here %he #irec% ob6ec% of nva >%each?/ an# %he reci5rocal ana5hor a55ears in %he embe##e# clause (as a com5lemen% of %he embe##e# 5re#ica%e P 1I here %he #irec% ob6ec% of cunoate >-no9? mar-e# b0 a refle;ive cli%ic/$ The #is%ribu%ive o5era%or 9hich o5era%es on %he an%ece#en% an# in%ro#uces %he reci5rocal rela%ion ("for each ;An%ece#en% for each 0An%ece#en% 0w;&/ a55lies imme#ia%el0 belo9 %he an%ece#en% an# one of %he variables i% in%ro#uces a55ears as an ar!umen% of bo%h 5re#ica%es as re5resen%e# in (+C./3
(+C,/ (+C./ I-am EnvLRa% sL se cunoascL unul 5e al%ul %hem$ACC-have$+ %au!h% SD'N R7FL -no9$2PL one$:SG DG: o%her$:SG >I %au!h% %hem %o !e% %o -no9 each o%her? For each ;YY%he0ZZ for each 0YY%he0ZZ 0w; I %au!h% ; (; -no9 0/
This occurrence of one of %he variables as an ar!umen% of %9o 5re#ica%es can also a55ear in cases 9hen %here is no con%rol as in (+C</$ This e;am5le has %9o rea#in!s3 %he rea#in! re5resen%e# in (+C</a is %he normal case in 9hich %he reci5rocal rela%ion hol#s be%9een %he ar!umen%s of a sin!le 5re#ica%e$ In %he rea#in! (+C; %hin-s ; loves 0?$ No%e %ha% %he an%ece#en% a55ears as %he ar!umen% of %he hi!her 5re#ica%e ( crede >%hin-?/ an# %he reci5rocal ana5hor a55ears in %he embe##e# clause (%he secon# variable is %he ar!umen% of %he embe##e# 5re#ica%e/3
(+C</ :aria Mi Ion cre# cL se iubesc unul 5e al%ul :aria an# Ion %hin- %ha% 2$R7FL$ACC love$2PL one$:SG DG: o%her$:SG >:aria an# Ion %hin- %he0 love each o%her? a$ :aria %hin-s %ha% she loves Ion an# Ion loves her an# Ion %hin-s %ha% he loves :aria an# :aria loves him b$ :aria %hin-s %ha% she loves Ion an# Ion %hin-s %ha% he loves :aria
This non-local rela%ion rea#in! is ho9ever no% al9a0s availableI i% seems %ha% 9ha% ma-es (+C</ 5ossible is %he 5ossibili%0 of %rea%in! %he 5re#ica%e "; %hin-s ; loves 0& as a conce5%ual uni%$ In o%her cases %he rea#in! is im5ossible3 (i/ :aria Mi Ion au s5us cL se iubesc unul 5e al%ul :aria an# Ion have sai# %ha% 2$R7FL$ACC love one DG: o%her a$ [ :aria sai# she an# Ion love each o%her an# Ion sai# he an# :aria love each o%her b$ w :aria sai# she loves Ion an# Ion sai# %ha% he loves :aria
14<
Pronouns
I% has been claime# %ha% in lan!ua!es 9i%h refle;ive-reci5rocal cli%ics non-local rea#in!s in %his %05e of e;am5les are al9a0s e;clu#e# because such cli%ics are verbal o5era%ors$ The fac% %ha% Romanian some%imes allo9s %his in%er5re%a%ion (as in (+C<// sho9s %ha% %he correla%ion be%9een %he use of cli%ics an# %he im5ossibili%0 of a non-local rea#in! is no% universal$
Reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions are also 5ossible insi#e NPs in 9hich case %he hi!her 5osi%ion is a !eni%ive or a!reein! 5ossessor an# %he lo9er 5osi%ion is an a#nominal PP3
(+CB/ a$ o5iniile lor unul #es5re al%ul o5inions-%he %he0$ G7N one$:SG abou% o%her$:SG b$ amin%irile noas%re unul #es5re celLlal% memories(F/-%he our$FPL one$:SG abou% %he-o%her$:SG c$ sen%imen%ele lor unul 5en%ru al%ul feelin!s-%he %he0$ G7N one$:SG for o%her$:SG
Reci5rocal ana5hors can also a55ear as com5lemen%s of a#6ec%ives$ In %his case %he an%ece#en% is %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive$ If %he a#6ec%ive is 5re#ica%ive %his ar!umen% is realiAe# as %he sub6ec% of %he 5re#ica%ion (see (+CC/a an# (+B1/# above/$ If %he a#6ec%ive is NP-in%ernal %he an%ece#en% is %he 5lural en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he overall DP (see (+CC/b/3
(+CC/ a$ Cei #oi 5rie%eni erau #evo%aRi unul al%uia %he %9o frien#s 9ere #evo%e# one$:SG o%her$:SG$DAT >The %9o frien#s 9ere #evo%e# %o each o%her? b$ aceM%i 5rie%eni #evo%aRi unul al%uia %hese frien#s #evo%e# one$:SG o%her$:SG$DAT >%hese frien#s #evo%e# %o each o%her?
$.$. Re/.50o/al 6a0>.n4 an3 s966et0./ 50e3./ates Ui%h some 5re#ica%es %he reci5roci%0 be%9een %9o %hema%ic 5osi%ions ; an# 0 hol#s b0 vir%ue of %he le;ical meanin!$ In %his case %he 5re#ica%e is calle# s0mme%ric$ For e;am5le if ; is close %o 0 i% necessaril0 follo9s %ha% 0 is close %o ; or if ; is 0?s nei!hbor %hen 0 9ill also be ;?s nei!hbor$ If %he 5re#ica%e has more %han %9o ar!umen%s s0mme%r0 is rela%iviAe# %o 5airs of ar!umen% 5osi%ions - e$!$ 9i%h to unite s0mme%r0 hol#s be%9een %he ob6ec% an# %he &it!ar!umen%3 if >; uni%es 0 9i%h A? is %rue %hen >; uni%es A 9i%h 0? is also %rue$ S0mme%ric 5re#ica%es can a55ear in reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions combinin! 9i%h a 5lurali%0 com5risin! all %he ar!umen%s 9hich s%an# in %he s0mme%rical rela%ion3
(1==/ a$ PLmWn%ul e a5roa5e #e :ar%e -f PLmWn%ul Mi :ar%e sun% a5roa5e unul #e al%ul 7ar%h-%he is close of :ars 7ar%h-%he an# :ars are close one of o%her >7ar%h is close %o :ars? -f >7ar%h an# :ars are close %o each o%her? b$ Tabloul aces%a seamLnL cu %abloul acela -f Tablourile seamLnL unul cu 5ain%in!-%he %his resembles 9i%h 5ain%in!-%he %ha% 5ain%in!s-%he resemble one 9i%h al%ul o%her >This 5ain%in! resembles %ha% 5ain%in!? -f >The 5ain%in!s resemble each o%her?
Oere is an e;am5le 9i%h more %han %9o ar!umen%s 9here reci5roci%0 hol#s be%9een %he ob6ec% an# a PP3
(1=+/ Vom com5ara aces% roman cu acela -f Vom com5ara romanele unul cu celLlal% 9ill$+PL com5are %his novel 9i%h %ha%-one 9ill$+PL com5are novels-%he one 9i%h %he-o%her
14B
Pronouns >Ue 9ill com5are %his novel 9i%h %ha% one? -f >Ue 9ill com5are %he novels 9i%h each o%her?
Reci5rocal cons%ruc%ion 9i%h s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es can also be foun# insi#e NPs3
(1=1/ Ra5or%urile noas%re unul cu al%ul s-au s%rica% En ul%ima vreme rela%ions-%he our one$:SG 9i%h o%her$:SG R7FL-have #e%eriora%e# in las%-%he %ime >Gur rela%ions 9i%h each o%her have #e%eriora%e# la%el0?
As can be seen from %he e;am5les %he lo9er ar!umen% of a s0mme%ric ar!umen% 5air is of%en mar-e# b0 cu >9i%h?$ The use of %he comi%a%ive mar-in! for %he lo9er ar!umen% of a s0mme%ric ar!umen% 5air is a 9i#es5rea# 5ro5er%0 5robabl0 a lin!uis%ic universal$ The mar-in! of reci5roci%0 is no% obli!a%or03 if %he verb has a 5lural ar!umen% ins%ea# of %9o s0mme%ric ar!umen%s i% can be un#ers%oo# as reci5rocal 9i%hou% an0 reci5roci%0 mar-in!3
(1=2/ a$ Vom com5ara romanele 9ill$+PL com5are novels-%he >Ue 9ill com5are %he novels? b$ Ra5o0t10.le noast0e s-au s%rica% rela%ions-%he our R7FL-have #e%eriora%e# >Gur rela%ions have #e%eriora%e#? c$ Tablourile seamLnL 5ain%in!s-%he resemble >The 5ain%in!s are similar? #$ PLmWn%ul Mi :ar%e sun% a5roa5e 7ar%h an# :ars are close >7ar%h an# :ars are close?
Some s0mme%ric verbs are #erive# from non-s0mme%ric verbs b0 bein! mar-e# 9i%h a refle;ive-reci5rocal cli%ic P in (1=4/b %he fac% %ha% %he verb is s0mme%ric is reflec%e# in %he use of &it! as an in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% of %he secon# ar!umen%3
(1=4/ a$ Ion a bL%u%-o 5e :aria Ion has bea%en-CL$2FSG$ACC DG: :aria >Ion bea% :aria? b$ Ion s-a bL%u% cu :aria Ion 2$R7FL$ACC-has bea%en 9i%h :aria >Ion fou!h% 9i%h :aria?
This refle;ive-reci5rocal mar-in! can be rela%e# %o i%s use in %he reci5rocal cons%ruc%ion$ Thus no%ice %ha% a reci5rocal buil% on (1=4/a is i#en%ical 9i%h %he reci5rocal varian% of (1=4/b unless s%ron! reci5rocal ana5hors are use#3
(1=,/ a$ Ion Mi :aria s-au bL%u% (unul 5e al%ul/ Ion an# :aria 2$R7FL$ACC-have bea%en one DG: o%her >Ion an# :aria bea% each o%her? b$ Ion Mi :aria s-au bL%u% (unul cu al%ul/ Ion an# :aria 2$R7FL$ACC-have bea%en one 9i%h o%her >Ion an# :aria fou!h% (9i%h each o%her/?
G%her e;am5les of such verbs are se bate )cu* >fi!h% (9i%h/? e bate >bea%? se vedea )cu* >mee%? e vedea >see? (cf$ en!l$ see eac! ot!er/ se ntrece )cu* >com5e%e? e ntrece >sur5ass over%a-e? se sruta )cu* >-iss (each o%her/? e sruta >-iss (somebo#0/? se certa )cu* >ar!ue 14C
Pronouns
(9i%h/? e certa >re5rove blame? se consulta )cu* >%a-e counsel 9i%h? e consulta >consul%? se +uca )cu* >5la0 (9i%h/? (cf$ +oc >!ame? +uca >5la0 a !ame?/$ Ue can also inclu#e here refle;ivel0-mar-e# verbs #erive# from s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es 9i%h no causa%ive coun%er5ar% e$!$ se nvecina )cu* >have $$$ as a nei!hbor? se nrudi )cu* >be a rela%ive of$$? se mprieteni >become frien#s?$ Some s%u#ies %rea% %he seHVerbH&it! 5a%%ern as a s5ecial reci5rocal cons%ruc%ion P %he #iscon%inuous reci5rocal cons%ruc%ion$ Oo9ever i% shoul# be no%ice# %ha% %his cons%ruc%ion #oes no% corres5on# %o %he #efini%ion of reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions 9e !ave in *1$+ P i% #oes no% have a 5lurali%0 as one of i%s members P an# correla%ivel0 #oes no% allo9 s%ron! reci5rocal ana5hors3
(1=./ X :aria se ba%e cu Ion unul 5e/cu al%ul :aria R7FL bea%s 9i%h Ion one DG:/9i%h o%her
:oreover %his cons%ruc%ion is le;icall0 res%ric%e# no% bein! available for all verbs (unli-e %he reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions #iscusse# in *4$+-*4$2/ P see (1=mee%? e vedea >see? se ntrece )cu* >com5e%e? e ntrece >sur5ass over%a-e?I ntlni (%ransi%ive/ >mee%? is use# for un5lanne# mee%in! se ntlni )cu* >mee%? is use# for bo%h 5lanne# an# un5lanne# mee%in!s/$
(1=</ a$ X :aria se cri%icL cu Ana :aria R7FL cri%iciAes 9i%h Ana In%en#e# meanin!3 :aria an# Ana cri%iciAe each o%her b$ X :aria se a#mirL cu Geor!e :aria R7FL a#mires 9i%h Geor!e In%en#e# meanin!3 :aria an# Geor!e a#mire each o%her
Ue conclu#e %herefore %ha% 9e are #ealin! 9i%h refle;ivel0-mar-e# s0mme%ric verbs$ Ue can call such verbs inheren%l0 reci5rocal verbs bu% 9e mus% -ee5 in min# %ha% %he0 #o no% re5resen% a !enuine reci5rocal cons%ruc%ion$ As for %he fac% %ha% %he0 allo9 reci5rocal ana5hors 9hen %he0 %a-e a 5lural ar!umen% ins%ea# of %he %9o ar!umen%s of %he &it!- cons%ruc%ion (%he sub6ec% an# %he &it!- ar!umen%/ %his is a !eneral 5ro5er%0 of s0mme%ric verbs (as e;5laine# in %he be!innin! of %his sec%ion/ 9hich #oes no% #e5en# on %he 5resence of %he refle;ive cli%ic (see (1=B/b above 5erfec%l0 5arallel 9i%h (1=B/a/3
(1=B/ a$ :aria se cear%L cu Ion s :aria Mi Ion se cear%L unul cu al%ul :aria 2$R7FL$ACC ar!ues 9i%h Ion :aria an# Ion 2$R7FL$ACC ar!ue one 9i%h o%her >:aria is ar!uin! 9i%h Ion? >:aria an# Ion are ar!uin! 9i%h each o%her? b$ :aria seamLnL cu Ion s :aria Mi Ion seamLnL unul cu al%ul :aria resembles 9i%h Ion :aria an# Ion resemble one 9i%h o%her >:aria resembles Ion? >:aria an# Ion resemble each o%her?
$.%. T8e se6ant./s of 0e/.50o/al /onst01/t.ons Crosslin!uis%icall0 reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions can have several rea#in!s 9hich resul% from %he in%er5la0 of several fac%ors$ $.%.1. St0on4 2s. Dea> 0e/.50o/.t9 Gn %he s%ron! rea#in! %he rela%ion R mus% hol# be%9een an0 %9o members of %he an%ece#en% 5lurali%03
(1=C/ Cei %rei fraRi se iubesc unul 5e al%ul
1,=
Pronouns %he %hree bro%hers R7FL love one DG: o%her ; 0 YY%he %hree bro%hersZZ ;w0 s ; loves 0 ; 0 A ;w0 s R(; 0/ (S%ron! reci5roci%0/
(1+=/
Gn %he 9ea- rea#in! all %ha% is re@uire# is %ha% an0 member ; of %he 5lurali%0 s%an#s in %he rela%ion R 9i%h some o%her member of %he 5lurali%0 (bo%h in %he firs% an# secon# 5osi%ion of %he rela%ion P i$e$ ;R0 an# AR;/$ Thus (1++/ is %rue if each chil# ; receives %he ball from a #ifferen% chil# 0 an# sen#s i% bac- %o ano%her chil# AI i% is nei%her necessar0 %ha% 0 shoul# be %he same as A nor %ha% %he chil# shoul# %hro9 %he ball (in %urn/ %o all %he o%her chil#ren or receive i% from all of %hem3
(1++/ (1+1/ Co5iii EMi aruncau min!ea unii al%ora chil#ren-%he R7FL$DAT %hro9$I:PF ball-%he one$PL o%hers$DAT >The chil#ren 9ere %hro9in! %he ball %o each o%her? ;A 0A ;w0 an# R(; 0/ an# AA ;wA an# R(A ;/
(Uea- reci5roci%0/
I% has been observe# %ha% %hese %9o in%er5re%a%ions corres5on# %o %he 5ossible in%er5re%a%ions of 5lural rela%ions P i$e$ rela%ions be%9een 5lurali%ies 9hich are in%er5re%e# in %erms of rela%ions be%9een members of %hose 5lurali%ies$ Ta-e for e;am5le %he follo9in! sen%ence3
(1+2/ Surorile mele au #ansa% cu Ra#u Mi Paul sis%ers-%he m0 have #ance# 9i%h Ra#u an# Paul
In %he distributive rea#in! (1+2/ is %rue if each of m0 sis%ers #ance# 9i%h bo%h Ra#u an# Paul$ In %he cumulative rea#in! all %ha% is re@uire# is %ha% each of m0 sis%ers #ance# 9i%h a% leas% one of %he %9o men an# %ha% each of %he men #ance# 9i%h a% leas% one of m0 sis%ers3
(1+4/ a$ R(A '/ is %rue if ;A 0' R(; 0/ (Dis%ribu%ive rea#in!/ b$ R(A '/ is %rue if ;A 0' such %ha% R(; 0/ an# ;' AA such %ha% R(A ;/ (Cumula%ive rea#in!/
In %he case of reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions %he rela%ion is es%ablishe# be%9een a 5lurali%0 A an# i%self 9i%h %he fur%her cons%rain% %ha% 9hen chec-e# on %he members of %he 5lurali%0 onl0 different members are %a-en in%o accoun%$ Thus s%ron! reci5roci%0 corres5on#s %o %he #is%ribu%ive rea#in! an# 9ea- reci5roci%0 corres5on#s %o %he cumula%ive rea#in!3 b0 re5lacin! ' 9i%h A an# a##in! %he re@uiremen%s ;w0 an# ;wA %o %he formulas in (1+4/ one ob%ains %he formulas in (1+=/ an# (1+1/$ The %9o meanin! com5onen%s of reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions P ana5hora (%he fac% %ha% %he an%ece#en% en%ers a 5lural rela%ion &it! itself/ an# #ifference (%he re@uiremen% %ha% %he rela%ion R shoul# be chec-e# a!ains% different elemen%s/ corres5on# %o over% mar-ers3 ana5hora is mar-e# b0 refle;ive cli%ics an# #ifference b0 %he use of ot!er in %he s%ron! reci5rocal forms unul00altul% unul00cellalt% 7n!l$ eac! other e%c$ Re!ar#in! %he choice be%9een %hese rea#in!s i% has been no%ice# %ha% s5ea-ers %en# %o use %he s%ron! rea#in! 9henever 5ossible allo9in! a 9ea- rea#in! 9hen 9orl# -no9le#!e ma-es a s%ron! rea#in! im5ossible or im5robable$ Thus (1=C/ onl0 has %he s%ron! rea#in! 9hereas %he follo9in! e;am5le can onl0 have a 9ea- rea#in!3
(1+,/ FrunAele co5acilor se a%in! leaves-%he %rees-%he$G7N R7FL %ouch >The leaves of %he %rees %ouch each o%her?
1,+
Pronouns
$.%.2. In3.2.31al 2s. 40o15 0ea3.n4s A fur%her #imension of varia%ion concerns %he 9a0 in 9hich %he #is%ribu%ion of %he 5lurali%0 is achieve#$ Dn%il no9 9e onl0 consi#ere# #is%ribu%ion %o in#ivi#ual members of %he 5lurali%0$ 'u% %he rela%ion can also be chec-e# a% %he level of subse%s of %he 5lurali%0$ Thus in %he follo9in! e;am5le %he reci5rocal rela%ion is es%ablishe# be%9een %he !rou5s forme# b0 %he villa!ers in each villa!e$ No%ice %ha% %he reci5rocal ana5hor mus% be 5lural in %his case3
(1+./ SL%enii #in cele 5a%ru comune s-au alia% unii cu alRii / Xunul cu al%ul 5easan%s-%he from %he four communes R7FL-have allie# one$PL 9i%h o%hers / one$SG 9i%h o%her >The 5easan%s of %he four 5arishes forme# an alliance
A s5ecial rea#in! %ha% can be ob%aine# usin! !rou5s is %he collec%ive rea#in! 9i%h res5ec% %o %he secon# member of %he rela%ion$ In %his case for each ; member of A %he rela%ion is chec-e# no% 9i%h res5ec% %o each (or some/ member of A #ifferen% from ; bu% 9i%h res5ec% %o %he sum of all %he o%her members of A3
(1+</ Aici cWm5urile !ravi%aRionale ale celor %rei s%ele se anuleaAL unele 5e here fiel#s-%he !ravi%a%ional G7N %he$G7N %hree heavenl0-bo#ies R7FL cancel one$PL DG: al%ele / Xunul 5e al%ul o%hers / one DG: o%her >Oere %he !ravi%a%ional fiel#s of %he %hree heavenl0 bo#ies cancel each o%her ou%?
Oere i% is clear %ha% %he !ravi%a%ional fiel# of a heavenl0 bo#0 ; is no% cancele# b0 %he fiel# of 6us% %he bo#0 0 bu% onl0 b0 %he sums of %he fiel#s of %he o%her bo#ies 0 an# A$ No%ice %ha% because %he secon# member of %he rela%ion is a 5lurali%0 (%he 5lurali%0 con%ains 2 members %herefore "%he o%hers& 9i%h res5ec% %o a member ; 9ill al9a0s be a !rou5 of 1 members/ in Romanian %he reci5rocal ana5hor mus% have 5lural number$ $.%.3. S5e/.al 0ea3.n4 D.t8 o03e0.n4 50e3./ates Cer%ain 5re#ica%es allo9 a rela;a%ion of %he con#i%ions of 9ea- reci5roci%0 re@uirin! %ha% for each elemen% ; %here shoul# be ano%her 0 such %ha% ;R0 or 0R; (i$e$ %he elemen% nee# no% fi!ure on bo%h si#es of %he rela%ionI "an#& in (1+1/ is re5lace# 9i%h "or&/$ This is clear in %he follo9in! e;am5le 9hich is %rue in s5i%e of %he fac% %ha% %here is a 5la%e %ha% #oes no% have ano%her one on %o5 of i% (%he u55ermos% 5la%e/ an# a 5la%e 9hich is no% on %o5 of ano%her (%he lo9ermos% 5la%e/3
(1+B/ Farfuriile sun% 5use una 5es%e al%a 5la%es-%he are 5u% one above o%her >The 5la%es are s%ac-e# on %o5 of each o%her?
I% has been no%ice# %ha% %his rea#in! is res%ric%e# %o cer%ain le;ical i%ems e;5ressin! as0mme%ric s5a%ial an# %em5oral rela%ions3 peste >above? sub >un#er? dup >af%er? n spatele >behin#? urma >follo9?$
1,1
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors
&. #en.t.2e DPs an3 P0ono6.nal Possesso0s

CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN (**=-2/ CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN ) ISA'7LA N7D7LCD (*4/ CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN ) IGN GIDRG7A (*,/ ,. Int0o31/t.on 1. T8e S9nta< of #en.t.2es
+$+$ S0n%he%ic !eni%ives an# al-!eni%ives +$1$ S0n%he%ic !eni%ives follo9in! #efini%e nouns are #is!uise# al-!eni%ives +$2$ In#e5en#en% !eni%ive DPs +$4$ Prenominal Geni%ives +$,$ The s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion of 5os%nominal !eni%ives +$.$ The s%a%us of %he !eni%ive "ar%icle& al occurrin! in 5os%nominal !eni%ives +$<$ Co-occurrin! !eni%ives
2. T8e Inte050etat.on of #en.t.2es

1$+$ The seman%ic com5osi%ion 1$1$ (In/#efini%eness S5rea# 1$2$ In%er5re%ive Variabili%0 1$4$ The Seman%ic Com5osi%ion of !eni%ives in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions
3. #en.t.2e Case alte0nat.n4 D.t8 P0e5os.t.onal Ma0>.n4

2$+$ Geni%ive Case al%erna%in! 9i%h de-:ar-in! 2$1$ Geni%ive Case al%erna%in! 9i%h a-:ar-in!
$. "e-al 4en.t.2es
4$+$ The s%ruc%ure of de-al !eni%ives 4$1$ The in%er5re%a%ion of de-al !eni%ives 4$2$ G%her #is%ribu%ional 5ro5er%ies of de-al !eni%ives 4$4$ Par%i%ive de-al
%. P0ono6.nal 5ossesso0s
,$+$ A non-uniform 5ara#i!m 3 !eni%ive-mar-e# 5ronouns an# a!reein! 5ossessors ,$1$ The 5osi%ion of 5ronominal 5ossessors ,$2$ Gn %he ca%e!orial s%a%us of a!reein! 5ossessors ,$4$ Suffi;al a!reein! 5ossessors 9i%h -inshi5 %erms
1,2
,. Int0o31/t.on
This cha5%er is #evo%e# %o %he s0n%a; of !eni%ive-mar-e# cons%i%uen%s$ The main em5irical !eneraliAa%ions re!ar#in! !eni%ive DPs (inclu#in! 5ersonal 5ronouns/ also hol# for 5ossessive a#6ec%ives 9hich 9ill %herefore be %rea%e# 5arallell0$ Their s5ecial 5ro5er%ies 9ill be si!nalle# in %he a55ro5ria%e 5laces$ The inflec%ional mar-in! of %he !eni%ive-#a%ive case ("%he obli@ue case&/ is hos%e# b0 %he #e%erminer inclu#in! %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle$ The nouns %hemselves as 9ell as %he a#6ec%ives a!reein! 9i%h %he nouns sho9 onl0 a #efec%ive case mor5holo!03 a #is%inc% obli@ue form a55ears onl0 in %he fem$ s!$ an# onl0 9hen %he 5hrase is in%ro#uce# b0 a #e%erminer 9i%h an obli@ue form3 in o%her 9or#s Romanian nouns can be mar-e# 9i%h mor5holo!ical Case onl0 if %he0 are !overne# b0 a De% %ha% is mar-e# for %ha% 5ar%icular Case$
(+/ a$ In#ef$ar%HNoun :$SG$ >a !oo# bo0? :$PL$>!oo# bo0s? F$SG$ >a !oo# !irl? F$PL$ >!oo# !irls? NG:ACC un bLia% bun (niM%e/ bLieRi buni o fa%L bunL (niM%e/ fe%e bune G7NDAT un1. bLia% bun uno0 bLieRi buni une. fe%e bune uno0 fe%e bune b$ NounH#ef$ar%$ :$SG >%he !oo# bo0? :$PL$ >%he !oo# bo0s? F$SG$ >%he !oo# !irl? F$PL$ >%he !oo# !irls? NG:ACC bLia%ul bun bLieRii buni fa%a bunL fe%ele bune G7NDAT bLia%ul1. bun bLieRilo0 buni fe%e. bune fe%elo0 bune
Romanian is charac%eriAe# b0 a remar-able al%erna%ion be%9een sim5le/s0n%he%ic !eni%ives (as in (1// an# anal0%ic !eni%ives forme# b0 a s0n%he%ic !eni%ive 5rece#e# b0 a !eni%ive 5ar%icle (see (2// %he so-calle# "5ossessive ar%icle& (se% in bol# charac%ers/$ In unmar-e# uses bo%h of %hese %05es of !eni%ives occur 5os%nominall03
(1/ a$ casa vecinului /vecinilor house-%he nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N /nei!hbours(:/-%he$G7N >%he nei!hbour?s/%he nei!hbours? house? b$ casa unei vecine /unor vecine house(F/-%he a$F$G7N nei!hbour(F/ /some$F$G7N nei!hbours(F/ >a nei!hbour?s/some nei!hbours? house? a$ o casL a vecinului /a unei vecine a house(F/ al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N /al0FSG a$F$G7N nei!hbour(F/ >a house of %he nei!hbour?s/of a nei!hbour?s(fem/? b$ aces% obicei al vecinului /al unei vecine %his habi% al$:SG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N /al$:SG a$F$G7N nei!hbour(F/ >%his habi% of %he nei!hbour?s/of a nei!hbour?s? c$ casele #e 5ia%rL ale vecinului /ale unei vecine houses(F/-%he in s%one al$FPL nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N /al0FPL a$F$G7N nei!hbour(F/ >%he houses in s%one of %he nei!hbour?s/of a nei!hbour?s? #$ 5rimii s%u#enRi a. mamei mele firs%-%he s%u#en%s(:/ al0:PL mo%her(F/-%he$G7N m0 >%he firs% s%u#en%s of m0 mo%her?s?
(2/
The 5re-!eni%ive 5ar%icle is ma#e u5 of an invariable 5ar% a- follo9e# b0 %he nomina%ive forms of %he #efini%e ar%icle 9hich are inflec%e# for number an# !en#er3 al(m$s!$//a(f$s!$/$ai(m$5l//ale(f$5l/$ This 5ar%icle a!rees 9i%h %he hea# noun of %he overall 5ossessive DP (referrin! %o %he Possessee/$ In sec%ion + i% 9ill be sho9n %ha% s0n%he%ic !eni%ives !overne# b0 le;ical nouns (see (1// are bes% anal0Ae# as al-!eni%ives in 9hich al 9as #ele%e# via a rule com5arable %o
1,4
ha5lolo!0$ The res% of %he sec%ion 9ill be #evo%e# %o %he in%ernal s%ruc%ure an# #is%ribu%ion of al-!eni%ives$ Sec%ion 1 #eals 9i%h various as5ec%s of %he seman%ic anal0sis of !eni%ives3 #efini%e 5ossessive DPs are remar-able insofar as %he0 are in%er5re%e# as #efini%e or in#efini%e #e5en#in! on %he (in/#efini%e fea%ures of %he !eni%ive DP i%selfI %he seman%ic rela%ion be%9een %he hea# N an# %he !eni%ive DP is e;%remel0 fle;ible bein! lar!el0 #e%ermine# b0 %he con%e;% (%he no%ions of Possessor an# Possessee are curren%l0 use# im5ro5erl0 as a cover %erm for various %05es of rela%ions/I 9e 9ill formula%e %he various cons%rain%s %ha% hol# be%9een %he #e%erminer of %he !eni%ive DP an# %he #e%erminer of %he overall 5ossessive DP$ Sec%ion 2 is #evo%e# %o %he al%erna%ion be%9een al-!eni%ives mar-e# 9i%h mor5holo!ical !eni%ive mar-in! an# nominal 5ro6ec%ions %ha% are 5re5osi%ion-mar-e#$ This al%erna%ion is clearl0 #riven b0 %he s0n%ac%ic ca%e!or0 of %he a#nominal cons%i%uen%3 full DPs hea#e# b0 mor5holo!icall0 variable #e%erminers NPs (9hich can be mo#ifie#/ an# DPs hea#e# b0 invariable @uan%i%a%ive #e%erminers mus% res5ec%ivel0 be realiAe# as al-!eni%ives PPs hea#e# b0 de an# PPs hea#e# b0 a3
(4/ a$ uMa 1ne. biserici #oor(F/-%he a$F$G7N church(F/ >%he #oor of a church? b$ o uML 3e bisericL veche a #oor de church ol# >an ol# church-#oor? c$ uMile a #ouL biserici #oors-%he a %9o churches >%he #oors of %9o churches?
Sec%ion 4 is concerne# 9i%h 0e% ano%her %05e of cons%ruc%ion %he "5ar%i%ive& !eni%ive forme# b0 an al-!eni%ive 5rece#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion de >of? (dou studente de-ale 5ariei >%9o s%u#en%s(F/ of-al$FPL :aria (G7N/? >%9o s%u#en%s of :aria?s?/$ The #is%ribu%ion of %he 5ronominal 5ossessors is com5arable %o %ha% of nominal !eni%ives an# %herefore 9e 9ill 5rovi#e e;am5les of ei%her %05e$ Oo9ever 5ronominal forms #o have some s5ecific 5ro5er%ies %o 9hich sec%ion , 9ill be #evo%e#$ The main 5roblem is %ha% %he 5ara#i!m is no% uniform3 5ersonal 5ronouns mar-e# 9i%h !eni%ive-#a%ive Case are use# for %he 2r# 5erson an# 5ossessive "a#6ec%ives& are use# for %he +s% an# 1n# 5ersons an# for %he 2r# 5erson sin!ular buil% on a mor5holo!icall0 refle;ive form$ The label 5ossessive "a#6ec%ive& is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he relevan% elemen%s a!ree in !en#er an# number fea%ures 9i%h %he Possessee al%hou!h %he0 refer %o %he Possessor3
(,/ a$ bLieRii mei bo0s(:/-%he m0$ :PL >m0 bo0s? b$ fe%ele mele !irls(F/-%he m0$ FPL >m0 !irls? c$ celLlal% fra%e al meu %he$:SG-o%her bro%her(:/ al$:SG m0$ :SG >%he o%her bro%her of mine?
The label "5ronominal 5ossessor& is convenien% insofar as i% covers bo%h !eni%ive-mar-e# 5ersonal 5ronouns an# 5ossessive a#6ec%ives$
1,,
1. T8e S9nta< of #en.t.2es

1.1. S9nt8et./ 4en.t.2es an3 al+4en.t.2es In %he In%ro#uc%ion above 9e have si!nalle# %he al%erna%ion be%9een s0n%he%ic !eni%ives an# al-!eni%ives$ S0n%he%ic !eni%ives are use# 9hen %he !eni%ive imme#ia%el0 follo9s %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle$ G%her9ise %he anal0%ic !eni%ive is use#$ 'u% since al-!eni%ives embe# a s0n%he%ic !eni%ive 9e ma0 formula%e %he follo9in! #is6unc%ive !eneraliAa%ion concernin! %he #is%ribu%ion of s0n%he%ic !eni%ives3 (./ S0n%he%ic !eni%ives inclu#in! 5ronominal 5ossessors are imme#ia%el0 5rece#e# ei%her b0 %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle a%%ache# %o %he 5ossessee (e;$ (1// or b0 %he so-calle# "5ossessive ar%icle& al (e;$ (2//$
In e;am5les (</-(+=/ 9e have bol#-face# %he relevan% elemen%s$ The feminine sin!ular form a 9hich a!rees 9i%h %he Possessee is !losse# as al$FSG3
(</ a$ casa YDP-GenvecinuluiZ /YDP-Genunui vecinZ house(F/-%he nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N/ a$:$G7N nei!hbour(:/ >%he nei!hbour?s house/%he house of a nei!hbour? b$ casa YmeaZ /YluiZ house(F/-%he m0$ FSG / he$G7N >m0/his house? a$ o casL a YDP-GenvecinuluiZ /YDP-Genunui vecinZ a house(F/ al0FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N/ a$:$G7N nei!hbour(:/ >a house of %he nei!hbour?s/a nei!hbour?s? b$ o casL a YmeaZ /YluiZ a house(F/ al$FSG m0$ FSG /he$G7N >a house of mine/his? casa frumoasL a YDP-GenvecinuluiZ /YDP-Genunui vecinZ house(F/-%he beau%iful al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N / a$:$G7N nei!hbour(:/ >%he beau%iful house of %he nei!hbour/a nei!hbour? a$ Casa es%e a YDP-GenvecinuluiZ$ house(F/-%he is al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N >The house is %he nei!hbour?s$? b$ Casa mea es%e mai frumoasL #ecW% a YDP-GenvecinuluiZ$ house(F/-%he m0 is more beau%iful %han al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N >:0 house is more beau%iful %han %he nei!hbour?s$?
(B/
(C/ (+=/
No%e no9 %ha% %he "5ossessive ar%icle& al is forme# b0 an invariable elemen% a-follo9e# b0 %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle as %he follo9in! %able sho9s3
(++/
:$ SG$ F$ SG$ :$ PL$ F$ PL$
7ncl$ #ef$ ar%$
Poss$ ar%$
-l -le -a -i -le
al a ai ale
Given %ha% %he !eni%ive 5ar%icle con%ains a #efini%e ar%icle %he #a%a in (</-(+=/ in#ica%e %ha% %he em5irical !eneraliAa%ion formula%e# in (./ can be res%a%e# in a non-#is6unc%ive 9a0 as in (._/3
1,.
(._/
Geni%ive-mar-e# DPs (inclu#in! 5ronominal !eni%ives/ mus% be imme#ia%el0 5rece#e# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle (9hich is suffi;al/$
Romanian !eni%ives ma0 also occur in 5renominal DP-ini%ial 5osi%ions$ :os% DPini%ial !eni%ives are s%0lis%icall0 mar-e# bein! use# onl0 in 5oe%r0 (see (+1/b-c/$ The 5renominal 5osi%ion is never%heless 5ro#uc%ivel0 use# for !eni%ive &!-5hrases (see (+1/a/3
(+1/ a$ a cLrui casL al$FSG 9hose$:SG house(F/ >9hose house? b$ ale %ale #oruri %oa%e al0FPL 0our(SG/$G7N #esires all >all of 0our #esires? c$ al no5Rii mele #omn al$:SG ni!h%(F/-%he$G7N m0$ G7N lor#(:/ >m0 ni!h%?s lor#? S%an#ar# Poe%ic (7minescu H% rmi/ Poe%ic (7minescu Luceafrul/
The e;am5les in (+1/ mus% be #is%in!uishe# from %hose in (+2/ 9hich are also buil% 9i%h a 5renominal !eni%ive 9hich is ho9ever no% DP-ini%ial bein! 5rece#e# b0 an a#6ec%ive$ In %his case %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle a55ears on %he a#6ec%ive (see sec%ion B of Cha5%er 2/ an# al #oes no% a55ear3
(+2/ 5rima noas%rL En%Wlnire firs%-%he our mee%in! >our firs% mee%in!?
I% shoul# be observe# %ha% onl0 5ronominal 5ossessors can occur in be%9een DP-ini%ial a#6ec%ives an# hea# Ns as in (+2/$ Cons%ruc%ions of %he %05e A#6-#ef$ar%$HDPGenHN 9here %he Geni%ive DP is hea#e# b0 a noun (e$!$ mictoarea mrilor sin urtate >res%less-%he seas-%he$G7N soli%u#e? meanin! >%he res%less soli%u#e of %he seas?/ are ver0 mar!inal bein! foun# onl0 in 5oe%r0$ Such e;am5les are even more mar!inal %han %hose of %he %05e a mpratului fat Bal0FSG em5eror%he0G7N #au!h%er(F/? (meanin! >%he em5eror?s #au!h%er?/% 9here %he 5renominal !eni%ive is DP ini%ial$ In abs%rac% %erms %he %9o #is%inc% %05es of confi!ura%ions %ha% allo9 5renominal !eni%ives are !iven in (+4/a-b$ The label DPGen covers bo%h nominal !eni%ives an# %heir 5ronominal coun%er5ar%s3 (+4/ a$ al H DPGen H N b$ A#6$-#ef$ar%$ H 5ronominal 5ossessor H N
No%e %ha% 5ossessive DPs buil% 9i%h 5renominal al-!eni%ives have a #efini%e meanin! 9hich clearl0 se%s %hem a5ar% from 5os%nominal al-!eni%ives (see e;am5les such as (B/a-b 9hich are hea#e# b0 in#efini%e #e%erminers/$ 1.2. S9nt8et./ 4en.t.2es folloD.n4 3ef.n.te no1ns a0e 3.s41.se3 al+4en.t.2es Le% us no9 e;amine more closel0 %he a#6acenc0 cons%rain% s%a%e# in (.~/ an# illus%ra%e# a!ain belo9 3
1,<
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors (+,/ a$ casa (Xa/ vecinului house(F/-%he al$FSG nei!hbour-%he$G7N >%he nei!hbour?s house? b$ casa frumoasL X(a/ vecinului house(F/-%he beau%iful al$FSG nei!hbour-%he$G7N >%he nei!hbour?s beau%iful house? c$ o casL X(a/ vecinului a house(F/ al$FSG nei!hbour-%he$G7N >a house of %he nei!hbour?s?
In 9ha% follo9s 9e 9ill 5rovi#e evi#ence in favor of %he h05o%hesis %ha% s0n%he%ic !eni%ives ((+,/a/ are %o be anal0Ae# as al-!eni%ives in 9hich al is #ele%e# via a mor5ho-5honolo!ical rule com5arable %o ha5lolo!0$ In or#er for %he rea#er %o be imme#ia%el0 convince# b0 %his line of anal0sis le% us res%a%e %he em5irical !eneraliAa%ion$ Ins%ea# of sa0in! %ha% %he !eni%ive mus% be a#6acen% %o %he #efini%e ar%icle (con%aine# in al or in a le;ical noun suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle/ le% us sa0 %ha%3 (.__/ All Romanian !eni%ives con%ain al e;ce5% 9hen %he0 are 5rece#e# b0 a #efini%e N or b0 a #efini%e A#6 (in o%her 9or#s %he s%rin!s XN- 3ef al DPGen an# XA-3ef al DPGen N are ille!i%ima%e/$ No%e no9 %ha% %he un!ramma%ical se@uences con%ain %9o 5ar%iall0 i#en%ical a#6acen% elemen%s3 %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle an# al 9hich i%self con%ains %he #efini%e ar%icle (see (++/ above/$ This se@uence ma0 be assume# %o be %he in5u% of a rule %ha% #ele%es an elemen% %ha% is a#6acen% %o a (5ar%iall0/ i#en%ical one (Oa5lolo!0/3 (+./ Al is #ele%e# in %he con%e;% Y-L rrr Z$ :ore concre%el0 an e;am5le such as (+,/a 9oul# be #erive# as sho9n belo9 3
(+,_/ %he$G7N a$ casa a vecinului house(F/-%he al0FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N casa vecinului house(F/-%he nei!hbour(:/-
The #ecisive evi#ence su55or%in! %he rule in (+./ rela%es %o %he coor#ina%ion of 5os%nominal !eni%ives$ The follo9in! e;am5le sho9s %ha% a "s0n%he%ic& 5os%-nominal !eni%ive can be coor#ina%e# 9i%h an al-!eni%ive
(+</ a5ar%amen%ul 6a6e. 6ele Mi al Ma0.e. a fos% vWn#u% a5ar%men%(:/-%he mo%her-%he$G7N m0$ G7N an# al0:SG :aria$G7N has been sol# >m0 mo%her?s an# :aria?s a5ar%men% has been sol#?
As sho9n b0 %he sin!ular a!reemen% on %he verb (+</ involves one 5ossessee 9hich means %ha% %he 5hrase al 5ariei is no% a DP coor#ina%e# %o Yapartamentul mamei meleZ$ Ins%ea# i% is %he %9o !eni%ives %ha% are coor#ina%e#$ Since con6unc%s mus% occu50 %he same s%ruc%ural 5osi%ion 9e conclu#e %ha% Ymamei meleZ in %he e;am5le above is an ins%ance of "anal0%ic& !eni%ive on a 5ar 9i%h Yal :arieiZ$ The #ele%ion of al is #ue %o %he rule s%a%e# in (+./ 9hich can affec% %he firs% bu% no% %he secon# con6unc% (because onl0 %he firs% con6unc% sa%isfies %he #escri5%ion of %he rule i$e$ is a#6acen% %o a 5rece#in! #efini%e ar%icle/ 3
1,B
(+<_/
a5ar%amen%ul al mamei mele Mi a5ar%men%(:/-%he al0:SG mo%her-%he$G7N m0$ G7N an# a5ar%amen%ul mamei mele Mi al a5ar%men%(:/-%he mo%her-%he$G7N m0$ G7N an# al0:SG
al :ariei al0:SG :aria$G7N :ariei :aria$G7N
Da%a from %he his%or0 of %he lan!ua!e su55or% %he anal0sis a#o5%e# here$ In %he mos% ancien% %e;%s #a%in! from %he +.%h cen%ur0 9e fin# si#e b0 si#e al imme#ia%el0 follo9in! -L an# %he 5resen%-#a0 #is%ribu%ion P as if %he ha5lolo!0 rule 9as o5%ional$ Ue 5resen% here %hese cases im5ossible in %he con%em5orar0 lan!ua!e3
(+B/ a$ 5:/atele ale %u%uror sins(F/-%he al0FPL all$G7N b$ 3181l al Domnului nos%ru s5iri%(:/-%he al$:SG Lor#-%he$G7N our c$ 103B.0ea a lumiei crea%ion-%he al0FSG 9orl#-%he$G7N #. Nna.ntea a %u%uror oamenilor before-%he al$FSG all$G7N humans-%he$G7N
The ar!umen% in favour of ha5lolo!0 ma#e here #e5en#s on %he possibility of coor#ina%in! a s0n%he%ic 9i%h an anal0%ic !eni%ive$ This is ho9ever no% %he onl0 o5%ion as sho9n in (i/ 9here %9o s0n%he%ic !eni%ives are coor#ina%e#3 (i/ 5arfumul crinilor Mi %ran#afirilor 5erfume-%he lilies-%he$G7N an# roses-%he$G7N
7;am5les of %his %05e are 5re#ic%ible because coor#ina%e# DPs ma0 form %he com5lemen% of a sin!le un#erl0in! al 9hich !e%s #ele%e# via ha5lolo!03 (i?/ 5arfumul al Ycrinilor Mi %ran#afirilorZ 5erfume-%he$:SG al0:SG lilies-%he$G7N an# roses-%he$G7N 5arfumul crinilor Mi %ran#afirilor 5erfume-%he$:SG lilies-%he$G7N an# roses-%he$G7N
In fac% such coor#ina%ion is obli!a%or0 if %he hea# noun is a 5re#ica%e %ha% selec%s !rou5s so %ha% %he en%ire con6unc%ion is i%s ar!umen%3 (ii/ reuniunea #e5u%aRilor Mi (Xa/ sena%orilor En Me#inRL comunL reunion(F/-%he #e5u%ies-%he$G7N an# al0FSG sena%ors-%he$G7N in session 6oine#
The same behaviour 9i%h res5ec% %o coor#ina%ion is sho9n b0 !eni%ives subca%e!oriAe# b0 %hose 5re5osi%ions %ha% en# in -l -le or -a% 9hich are mor5holo!icall0 i#en%ical %o %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle (-ul 9i%h masculine nouns in consonan% - le 9i%h masculine nouns in Pe an# -a 9i%h feminines/$ Such 5re5osi%ions are follo9e# b0 a "s0n%he%ic& !eni%ive inclu#in! 5ronominal Possessors bu% 9hen %heir com5lemen%s are coor#ina%e# al ma0 a55ear before %he secon# con6unc%3
(+C/ a$ Em5o%riva RLrii Mi (a/ 5o5orului a!ains% lan#-%he$G7N an# al0FSG 5eo5le-%he$G7N >a!ains% %he lan# an# %he 5eo5le? b$ Em5o%riva mea Mi X(a/ %a a!ains% m0$ FSG an# al$FSG 0our$FSG >a!ains% me an# 0ou?
1,C

:os% of %hese 5re5osi%ions come from nouns an# are 5erha5s s%ill anal0sable as such 9hich 9oul# e;5lain %he a!reemen% of al an# of %he 5ossessive a#6ec%ive3 (i/ a$ En faRa :ariei Mi a mea in face(F/-%he :aria$G7N an# al$FSG m0$FSG >in fron% of me before me? b$ En s5a%ele meu Mi al :ariei in bac-(:/-%he m0$:SG an# al$:SG :aria$G7N >behin# me an# :aria?
'u% in some cases %here is no nominal basis for %he 5re5osi%ion3 ei%her %he basis is an a#verb an# a 5re5osi%ion 9as #erive# from i% b0 a##in! an -a b0 analo!0 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ions #erive# from nominals as in nainte (9hich comes from n >in? an# ainte >before? e la%$ ab ante >from before?/ or %he 5re5osi%ion is a borro9in! en#in! in - a 9hich 9as rein%er5re%e# as an ins%ance of %he feminine sin!ular #efini%e ar%icle a%%ache# %o 5re5osi%ions as in contra >a!ains%? (a neolo!ical borro9in! from la%$ contra% i%$ contra/3 (ii/ a$ Enain%e >before? b$ Enain%ea mea before-%he$FSG m0$FSG >before me? c$ En#LrL%1l sLu behin#-%he$:SG his/her >behin# him/her?
For %hese cases 9e nee# %o assume a %rue reanal0sis b0 9hich 5re5osi%ions became ca5able of receivin! a #efini%e ar%icle an# correla%ivel0 ca5able of assi!nin! !eni%ive Case or of %ri!!erin! a!reemen% 9i%h + s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronominal 5ossessors (as in (ii/b-cI see also sec%ion , of %his cha5%er/$ In fac% all !eni%ive-assi!nin! 5re5osi%ions en# in ei%her -l% -le or "a 9hich are formall0 i#en%ical 9i%h #efini%e ar%icles$ Since %his affi; an# %he f-fea%ures i% carries are obviousl0 non-in%er5re%able (because 5re5osi%ions are non-referen%ial/ 9e mus% ac-no9le#!e %ha% %he mecanism of co50in! of fea%ures un#er a!reemen% is no% cons%raine# b0 %he referen%ial/in%er5re%able na%ure of %hose fea%ures$
SummariAin! Romanian !eni%ives follo9in! #efini%e nouns are %o be anal0Ae# as al!eni%ives a% %he s0n%ac%ic level of re5resen%a%ion$ The absence of al is #ue %o %he a55lica%ion of a mor5ho-5honolo!ical rule com5arable %o Oa5lolo!0$ Ue are %hus le# %o conclu#e %ha% all Romanian !eni%ives !overne# b0 le;ical nouns are %o be uniforml0 anal0Ae# as con%ainin! a s5ecialiAe# elemen% al$ As 9e 9ill sho9 in subse@uen% sec%ions %his #oes no% mean %ha% al is some -in# of !eni%ive mar-er bu% ra%her a 5ronominal elemen% corres5on#in! %o a fuse# s0n%ac%ic ca%e!or0 YDHNZ$ Romanian s0n%he%ic !eni%ives %hus a55ear %o be anal0sable as full 5ossessive DPs !overne# b0 a s5ecifie# 5ronominal hea#$ Des5i%e %heir i#en%ical mor5holo!ical form Romanian !eni%ives can be !rou5e# in%o a% leas% %hree classes from %he 5oin% of vie9 of %heir e;%ernal #is%ribu%ion3 free-s%an#in! (i$e$ nona#nominal/ !eni%ive DPs 5renominal !eni%ives an# 5os%nominal !eni%ives$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e 9ill anal0se each of %hese %05es in %urn$ 1.3. F0ee+stan3.n4 4en.t.2e DPs Le% us firs% consi#er e;am5les such as (1=/ in 9hich al-!eni%ives occur as ar!umen%s of verbs or 5re5osi%ions3
(1=/ a$ A 2e/.n1l1. a fos% #is%rusL ieri$ al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N has been #es%ro0e# 0es%er#a0 >The nei!hbour?s 9as #es%ro0e# 0es%er#a0$?
1.=
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors b$ Casa mea es%e mai frumoasL #ecW% a 2e/.n1l1.$ house(F/-%he m0 is more beau%iful %han al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N >:0 house is more beau%iful %han %he nei!hbour?s$?
8ui%e obviousl0 %he al-!eni%ives occurrin! in %hese e;am5les canno% be "bare& !eni%ives bu% mus% ins%ea# be anal0Ae# as full 5ossessive DPs$ This anal0sis can be fur%her refine# b0 choosin! be%9een %he %9o 5ossible anal0ses sho9n belo93 (1+/ DP 3 D= DPGen
NP 3 N
#
al (11/ vecinului DP
#
YeZ
3 NHD
DPGen
al
vecinului
In (1+/ %he !eni%ive DP is anal0Ae# as occu50in! a 5renominal S5ecifier 5osi%ion al is inser%e# un#er DT as a s5ecial form of %he #efini%e ar%icle an# %he N-hea# is em5%0 (5ossibl0 fille# b0 an em5%0 5ro-YNZ/$ This s%ruc%ure ma0 also be assume# for e;am5les 9i%h 5renominal !eni%ives of %he %05e a mpratului fat >al0FSG em5eror-%he$G7N #au!h%er?$ In (11/ on %he o%her han# al is anal0Ae# as a 5ro-YNHDZ form an# %he !eni%ive DP occu5ies a 5os%nominal S5ecifier 5osi%ion$ Al%hou!h 9e #o no% 9an% %o choose be%9een %hese %9o 5ossible anal0ses i% is 9or%h men%ionin! %ha% (1+/ is 5roblema%ic3 if 5renominal !eni%ives ha# %he s%ruc%ure sho9n in (1+/ %he0 9oul# be sim5ler %han 5os%nominal !eni%ives 9hich as 9e have seen (see sec%ion +$1$ above/ are DPs embe##in! an en%ire al-5hrase$ So 9e 9oul# e;5ec% 5renominal !eni%ives %o be an unmar-e# 5ro#uc%ive form$ Oo9ever 5renominal !eni%ives are hi!hl0 res%ric%e#3 recall %ha% onl0 al crui >9hose? can be foun# in s%an#ar# s5eech o%her forms bein! 5oe%ic$ This %hen is 5roblema%ic for %he anal0sis a% han# since 9e 9oul#n?% e;5ec% a lan!ua!e %o choose more elabora%e s%ruc%ures 9hen i% has sim5ler ones available$ In vie9 of %his fac% 9e su!!es% %ha% %he s%ruc%ure (1+/ is no% a#e@ua%e3 al shoul# no% be anal0Ae# as a #efini%e #e%erminer %a-in! an NP com5lemen%$ Ins%ea# al #irec%l0 en%ers %he #eriva%ion 9i%h %he label NHD as sho9n in (11/$ Le% us no9 consi#er e;am5les such as (12/ 9here an al-5hrase occurs in a 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion3
(12/ Casa es%e a 2e/.n1l1.$ house(F/-%he is al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N >The house is %he nei!hbour?s$?
The @ues%ion is 9he%her al-5hrases occurrin! in 5os%-co5ular 5osi%ions can be anal0Ae# as full 5ossessive DPs on a 5ar 9i%h al-5hrases occurrin! in ar!umen%al 5osi%ions$ Such an anal0sis is s%ron!l0 su!!es%e# b0 %he follo9in! crosslin!uis%ic !eneraliAa%ion3
1.+
(14/
A !eni%ive form can a55ear in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion onl0 if i% can also a55ear >free s%an#in!? in ar!umen% 5osi%ions$ This !eneraliAa%ion #oes no% %a-e in%o accoun% %hose !eni%ive forms 9hich in cer%ain lan!ua!es are no%
!overne# b0 a hea# N bu% ins%ea# are ins%ances of >inheren% Case? i$e$ Case forms %ha% are #irec%l0 correla%e# 9i%h 5ar%icular %h-roles e$!$ La%in Naec domus est patris mei >%his house is fa%her$G7N m0$G7N> vs$ XAmo patris mei0 >love$+SG fa%her$G7N m0$G7N?0 A no%e9or%h0 e;ce5%ion %o %he !eneraliAa%ion in (14/ is mio in I%alian3 questo T mio >%his is mine? vs$ -mi piace mio >I li-e mine?
The e;am5les in (1,/-(1./ illus%ra%e %he !eneraliAa%ion s%a%e# in (14/$ Thus %he Sa;on !eni%ive forms as 9ell as %he 5ronominal forms mine an# yours in 7n!lish or celui de D/ an# le mien$le tien in French occur in bo%h ar!umen% an# 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions 9hereas 7n!lish of!eni%ives French de-Geni%ives an# 5ossessive a#6ec%ives (my% your% our t!eir in 7n!lishI mon% ton% son% e%c$ in French* are #isallo9e# in bo%h 5osi%ions3
(1,/ (1./ a$ I li-e Nohn?s/mine/Xof Nohn/Xm0$ b$ This car5e% is Nohn?s/ mine/Xof Nohn(>s//Xm0$ a$ N?aime celui #e Nean /le mien/X#e Nean/X#e moi$ b$ Ce %a5is es% celui #e Nean /le mien/X#e Nean/ X#e moi/$
The anal0sis su!!es%e# here accor#in! %o 9hich 5os%-co5ular !eni%ives are in fac% full 5ossessive DPs ma0 seem 5roblema%ic on seman%ic !roun#s$ For %his issue see * 1$, belo9$
Free s%an#in! al-!eni%ives buil% 9i%h nominal 5ossessors canno% be mar-e# 9i%h obli@ue Case3 (i/ Iam scris 5rofesorului :ariei /meu$ CL$2SG$DAT-have$+ 9ri%%en %eacher(:/$DAT :aria$G7N m0$:SG >I have 9ri%%en %o :aria?s/m0 %eacher$? (i]/ XI-am scris al1. :ariei /meu$ CL$2SG$DAT-have$+ 9ri%%en al$:SG$DAT :aria$G7N m0$:SG (ii/ Am ci%i% car%ea 5rofesorului :ariei /meu$ have$+ rea# boo--%he %eacher-%he$G7N :aria$G7N m0$:SG >I have rea# :aria?s/m0 %eacher?s boo-$? (ii]/ XAm ci%i% car%ea al1. :ariei /meu$ have$+ rea# boo--%he al$:SG$G7N :aria$G7N m0$:SG In cer%ain re!ional varie%ies an# re!is%ers e;am5les of %he %05e in ((i/-(ii/ can be rescue# b0 %he use of %he 5re5osi%ional Da%ive mar-e# b0 la 3 (iii/ Am scris la al :ariei /meu have$+ 9ri%%en %o al$ :SG :aria$G7N m0$:SG Gbli@ue Case-mar-in! can a55ear on a subse% of %he al-!eni%ives buil% 9i%h pronominal 5ossessors namel0 on %he forms ma#e u5 of %he 5lural form ai )corres5on#in!l0 %he overall DP refers %o a 5lural Possessee/ follo9e# b0 (a!reein!/ +s% or 1n# 5ronominal 5ossessors e$!$ alor mei $ ti $ notri e%c$ >al$PL$G'L m0$:PL/0our(SG/$:PL/our$:PL >mine/0ours/ours? 9hich have an i#ioma%ic meanin! 5ara5hrasable b0 "m0/0our/our 5aren%s/rela%ives/frien#s/su55or%ers& #e5en#in! on %he con%e;% (see (iv//3 (iv/ Le-am scris alo0 6e. CL$2PL$DAT -have$+ 9ri%%en al$PL$DAT m0$:PL >I 9ro%e %o m0 5aren%s? Some s5ea-ers can also use an obli@ue form for %he feminine sin!ular3 (v/ au mul%e maMini En faRa ale. 6ele (In%erne%/ have$+PL man0 cars before al$FSG$G7N m0$FSG$G7N >The0 have man0 cars in fron% of mine?
1.1
1.$. P0eno6.nal #en.t.2es Le% us no9 e;amine 5renominal !eni%ives$ The firs% 5ossibili%0 9oul# be %o assume %ha% %he0 occu50 a 5renominal S5ecifier 5osi%ion insi#e %he NP cons%i%uen%3 (1</ ru DT NP to DPGen 5 #
cLrui no5Rii mele
DP
N
casL #omn
a al
As alrea#0 observe# above %his anal0sis is 5roblema%ic !iven %he #iscre5anc0 be%9een i%s >sim5lici%0? an# %he mar-e# charac%er of Romanian 5renominal !eni%ives$ Ue 9ill %herefore anal0Ae 5renominal !eni%ives as full DPs si%%in! in S5ec DP as sho9n belo93 (1B/ DP 3 S5ec DP YDPZ 3 D= YDHNZ YDPGenZ
a cLrui
D? 3 NP
casL
Le% us no9 recall %he #escri5%ive !eneraliAa%ion men%ione# in 5revious sec%ions accor#in! %o 9hich in Romanian 5renominal !eni%ives are mar!inal 5oe%ic e;ce5% for 5ronominal 9h!eni%ives 9hich are full0 acce5%able$ The reason for %he full acce5%abili%0 of 9h-!eni%ives mi!h% be %ha% S5ec DP is %he onl0 5osi%ion 9hich allo9s !eni%ives %o raise ou% of %he DP in or#er %o chec- (!e% acces %o/ %he 9h-fea%ure of %he Com5 of %he sen%ence in 9hich %he0 occur$ No%e %ha% %here are %9o 5ro5er%ies %ha% #is%in!uish 5renominal &!-!eni%ives from &!!eni%ives in 5os%nominal an# free-s%an#in! 5osi%ions (9here %he0 are 5rece#e# b0 al/3 (a/ Al%hou!h %he0 are 5ronouns 5renominal 9h-!eni%ives #on?% have %he "s%ron!& forms charac%eris%ic of o%her ins%ances of 5ronominal use mar-e# 9i%h %he affi; - a bu% %he "9ea-& form ins%ea# (9i%hou% -a/3
(1C/ a$ A cLrui casL ai vLAu%-oK al$FSG 9hose house(F/ have$1SG seen-i% >Uhose house #i# 0ou seeK? b$ Casa cLruia ai vLAu%-oK (from >casa a cLruia? b0 rule (+.// house(F/-%he 9hose-a have$1SG seen-i% house(F/-%he al$FSG 9hose-a >Uhose house #i# 0ou seeK Gf 9hom #i# 0ou see %he houseK? c$ A cLruia ERi 5laceK al$FSG 9hose-a 0ou$DAT li-es >Uhose (one/ #o 0ou li-eK?
(b/ The0 are al9a0s hea#e# b0 an em5%0 (5ronominal/ hea# 9hile &!-!eni%ives in 5os%nominal as 9ell as free-s%an#in! 5osi%ions can also combine 9i%h an (over%/ noun3
1.2
(2=/
a$ XYale cLrui omZ fe%e al$FPL 9hose$:SG man(:/ !irls(F/ b$ fe%ele YcLrui omZ !irls(F/-%he 9hose$:SG man c$ ale YcLrui omZ al$FPL 9hose$:SG man(:/
For 5oe%ic !eni%ives %here are %9o 9a0s of e;5lainin! %heir mar!inal s%a%us3 ei%her %he0 re5resen% %he s%ruc%ure (1</ 5erha5s available a% a 5revious s%a!e of %he lan!ua!e an# survivin! no9 in %he 5oe%ic lan!ua!e as an archaism or %he0 are cons%i%uen%s in S5ecDP (as #e5ic%e# in (1B// carr0in! a To5(ic/ fea%ure$ Ue coul# %hus asume %ha% %he S5ecDP 5osi%ion is accessible onl0 %o !eni%ive DPs %ha% are mar-e# 9i%h an e#!e fea%ure ei%her H9h or HTo5ic bu% onl0 %he former is full0 acce5%able$ The anal0sis a#o5%e# here for 5renominal al-!eni%ives is com5arable %o %he anal0sis of 5renominal su5erla%ives an# or#inals (%he la%%er bein! forme# 9i%h %he same #e%erminer al/ a#o5%e# in cha5%er 2 sec%ion B 3 (2+/ a$ DP 3 GenP D? 5 2 a cLrui D= NumP/NP g 5 H#ef casL
b$ DP 3 DP D? 5 2 cea mai mare D= NumP/NP g 5 H#ef casL c$ DP 3 DP D? 5 2 a %reia D= NumP/NP g 5 H#ef casL In all %hese confi!ura%ions #efini%e DPs mar-e# b0 ei%her al (for !eni%ives an# or#inals/ or cel (for su5erla%ives/ si% in S5ec DP an# correla%ivel0 DT s%a0s em5%0 bu% is never%heless in%er5re%e# as H#ef 5ossibl0 #ue %o a!reemen% 9i%h %he #efini%e DP in S5ec DP$
1.4
1.%. T8e s9nta/t./ 5os.t.on of 5ostno6.nal 4en.t.2es Pos%nominal al-!eni%ives can be anal0Ae# ei%her as N-com5lemen%s (i$e$ as sis%ers of NT/ or as NP-a#6unc%s$ The firs% o5%ion sui%s al-5hrases %ha% occur as com5lemen%s of rela%ional nouns3
(21/ un 5rie%en al vecinei a frien#(:/ al$:SG nei!hbour(F/-%he$G7N >a frien# of %he nei!hbour?s?
(21]/
DP 3 DT N #
un a 5rie%en frien#(:/
NP 3 DP1 #
al vecinei al$:SG nei!hbour(F/-%he$G7N
Com5are %hose al-!eni%ives %ha% combine 9i%h ob6ec%-#eno%in! nouns (cat% table e%c$/$ Since %his %05e of noun #oes no% have ar!umen%s i% is curren%l0 assume# %ha% %he0 #o no% 5ro6ec% a com5lemen% 5osi%ion$ Conse@uen%l0 %he !eni%ives associa%e# 9i%h such nouns are %a-en %o occu50 an a#6unc%ion 5osi%ion$
(22/ o/aceas%L 5isicL a vecinei a/%his ca%(F/ al$FSG nei!hbour(F/-%he$G7N >A/%his ca% of %he nei!hbour?s?
(22]/ DT
DP 3 NP 3 NP #
o/ aceas%L 5isicL a/ %his ca%(F/
DP1 #
a vecinei al$FSG nei!hbour(F/-%he$G7N
Ano%her 5ossibili%0 9oul# be %o assume %ha% 5os%nominal Geni%ives are DP-a#6unc%s$ This o5%ion seems %o be ina#e@ua%e !iven %ha% 5os%nominal !eni%ives canno% a%%ach %o 5ersonal 5ronouns e$!$ Xei ai vecineiG?%he0 al$:PL nei!hbour(F/-%he$G7N?$ For fur%her evi#ence su55or%in! %he same conclusion see sec%ion 4 of %his cha5%er$ The #is%inc%ion be%9een !eni%ives si%%in! in %he com5lemen% an# a#6unc%ion 5osi%ions is over%l0 mar-e# in cer%ain lan!ua!es e$!$ in 7n!lish3 a friend of t!e nei !bour% t!e le of t!e table vs t!is cat of t!e nei !bourUs% a !ouse of 5aryUs $ Since no similar #is%inc%ion e;is%s in Romanian 9e ma0 9on#er 9he%her al-!eni%ives shoul# be assume# %o occu50 #is%inc% 5osi%ions #e5en#in! on %he na%ure of %he hea# N or shoul# ins%ea# be %a-en %o si% in one an# %he same 5osi%ion$ Shoul# 9e %hen choose %he a#6unc%ion 5osi%ion or ra%her %he com5lemen% 5osi%ion %o uniforml0 hos% all al-!eni%ivesK
1.,
1.&. T8e stat1s of t8e 4en.t.2e Ta0t./leU al o//100.n4 .n 5ostno6.nal 4en.t.2es Romanian !eni%ives e;hibi% a remar-abl0 uniform in%ernal ma-e-u5 ( al follo9e# b0 a !eni%ive-mar-e# DP or b0 a !eni%ive 5ronoun/ al%hou!h %he0 sho9 u5 in a% leas% four ver0 #ifferen% s0n%ac%ic con%e;%s3 ar!umen% (i$e$ non-a#nominal/ 5osi%ions 5renominal 5osi%ions 5os%nominal com5lemen% 5osi%ion 5os%nominal a#6unc% 5osi%ion$ The @ues%ion %ha% arises is 9he%her a uniform syntactic anal0sis (ma%chin! %heir uniform morp!olo ical form/ is com5a%ible 9i%h %heir various s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions$ In sec%ion 2 above al-!eni%ives occurrin! in ar!umen% 5osi%ions 9ere anal0Ae# as sho9n in (24>/3
(24/ a$ Al Ma0.e. nu mi-a 5lLcu%$ al$:SG :aria$G7N no% me$DAT-has 5lease# >:aria?s I #i#n?% li-e$? b$ N-am vLAu%-o EncL 5e a 2e/.n1l1.. no%-have$+ seen-i% 0e% DG: al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N >I/9e haven?% 0e% seen %he nei!hbour?s$?
For concre%eness 9e 9ill assume %ha% al$a$$$ is a fuse# DHN form lis%e# as such in %he Le;icon3
(24]/ Nma;/DP 3 DHN S5ec Nma;/S5ec DP (DPGen/ YNTaZHYDTlZ vecinei a H %he$:SG nei!hbour(F/-%he$G7N YNTaZHYDTaZ vecinului a H%he$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N
a$ b$
This anal0sis can be e;%en#e# %o 5os%nominal !eni%ives$ Thus %he re5resen%a%ion !iven in (24]/ can be ma#e more e;5lici% b0 in#ica%in! %he in%ernal s%ruc%ure of %he 5os%nominal al-!eni%ive as sho9n belo93
(2,/ a$ un cWine a #o!(:/ b$ o casL a house(F/ al vecinului al0:SG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N a vecinului al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N
1..
(2,]/ 3 D+T
DP+ NP 3 NP+ # NP+ D1] DP1 3 S5ec DP # DPGen
a$
un a b$ o a
cWine YNTaZHYDTlZ vecinului #o!(:/ al0:SG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N casL YNTaZHYDTaZ vecinului house(F/ al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N
Pos%nominal !eni%ives coul# %hus be anal0Ae# as 5er%ainin! %o some -in# of rela%iviAin! mechanism$ This #oes no% necessaril0 mean %ha% al i%self is %o be anal0Ae# as some -in# of rela%ive 5ronounI i% ma0 also be anal0Ae# as 5ar% of %he nominal 5re#ica%e of a re#uce# rela%ive clause 9here %he rela%ive 5ronoun as 9ell as %he co5ula are em5%03 %he !loss of %he overall DP 9oul# be ]a #o! Y%ha% isZ %he one of %he nei!hbour]s]$ G%her anal0ses of a#nominal al-!eni%ives are 5ossible 5rovi#e# %ha% 9e assume %ha% %he in%ernal s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure of a#nominal !eni%ives is #ifferen% from %ha% of ar!umen%al !eni%ives e$!$ al 9oul# be a 5re5osi%ion or some -in# of Geni%ive mar-er$ This anal0sis is 5roblema%ic !iven %he fac% %ha% %his elemen% carries 5hi-fea%ures %ha% a!ree 9i%h %he hea# N$ Gne mi!h% s%ill 9an% %o ar!ue %ha% 5re5osi%ions (an# 5ossibl0 Case mar-ers/ ma0 carr0 5hifea%ures %ha% a!ree 9i%h %he elemen% %ha% !overns %hem$ This su!!es%ion is 5roblema%ic for a% leas% %9o reasons 3 (i/ Romanian has no o%her a!reein! 5re5osi%ions I (ii/ in all %he cases %ha% are 9ell-un#ers%oo# concor# a!reemen% (e$!$ be%9een le;ical a#6ec%ives an# N or be%9een 5ossessive a#6ec%ives an# N/ hol#s no% onl0 for !en#er an# number bu% also for Case 3
(2./ a$ fa%a frumoasL !irl-%he$FSG$NG:/ACC beau%iful$FSG$NG:/ACC b$fe%ei frumoase !irl-%he$FSG$G7N/DAT beau%iful$FSG$G7N/DAT
No%e no9 %ha% al a!rees 9i%h %he hea# N in !en#er an# number bu% no% in Case 3
(2</ a$ I-am scris 5rofesoarei #e franceAL a vecinului her$DAT-have$+ 9ri%%en %eacher(F/$SG$DAT of French al$FSG nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N >I/Ue 9ro%e %o %he nei!hbour?s French %eacher? b$ XI-am scris 5rofesoarei #e franceAL ale vecinului her$DAT-have$+ 9ri%%en %eacher(F/$SG$DAT of French al$FSG$G7N nei!hbour(:/-%he$G7N
The un!ramma%icali%0 of (2</b follo9s from %he !eneral 5rohibi%ion of obli@ue Case mar-in! on al (see %he en# of * +$2 above/$ The in%eres%in! fac% ho9ever is %he full !ramma%icali%0 of (2<a/$ I% seems %o su55or% %he vie9 %ha% %he !en#er an# number fea%ures of %he !eni%ive 5ar%icle a in (2<a/ are no% co5ie# from %he hea# N (if %he0 ha# been co5ie# Case shoul# have been co5ie# also/ bu% ins%ea# %he0 are inheren% fea%ures of a %he Case of 9hich is Nomina%ive$ This is coheren% 9i%h %he rela%ive-li-e anal0sis 5ro5ose# in (2,]/ above$
1.<
1.(. Co+o//100.n4 4en.t.2es The e;am5les belo9 sho9 %ha% %9o 5os%nominal !eni%ives canno% a%%ach %o %he same N if bo%h of %hem are %he%a-mar-e#$ Some of %hem are mar!inall0 acce5%able (see %he #iscussion aroun# (42/ belo9/3
(2B/ a$ KK%ra#ucerea Ilia#ei a lui SluManschi %ransla%ion(F/-%he Ilia#$G7N al$FSG G'L SluManschi >Slusanschi?s %ransla%ion of Ilia#? b$ X#esco5erirea Americii a lui Columb #iscover0(F/-%he America-%he$G7N al$FSG G'L Columbus >Columbus? #iscover0 of America? c$ KK5or%re%ul lui Aris%o%el al lui Rembran#% 5or%rai%(:/-%he G'L Aris%o%le al$:SG G'L Rembran#% >Rembran#%?s 5or%rai% of Aris%o%le? #$ K conce5Ria liber%LRii a lui San% conce5%ion(F/-%he free#om-%he$G7N al$FSG G'L San% >San%?s conce5%ion of free#om?
The e;am5les in (2C/ sho9 %ha% %he same cons%rain% hol#s for %he co-occurrence of a 5ronominal Possessor 9i%h a 5os%nominal !eni%ive$ These e;am5les are no% onl0 un!ramma%ical bu% also unin%er5re%able (com5are %he e;am5les in (2B/ 9hich are >meanin!ful? in %he sense %ha% %he s5ea-er ma0 un#ers%an# 9ha% %he e;am5le 9oul# mean if i% 9ere !ramma%ical/3
(2C/ a$ X%ra#ucerea ei a lui SluManschi %ransla%ion(F/-%he she$G7N al$FSG G'L SluManschi b$ X#esco5erirea ei a lui Columb #iscover0(F/-%he she$G7N al$FSG G'L Columbus c$ X5or%re%ul lui al lui Rembran#% 5or%rai%(:/-%he he$G7N al$:SG G'L Rembran#% #$ Xconce5Ria ei a lui San% conce5%ion(F/-%he she$G7N al$FSG G'L San%
These un!ramma%icali%ies can be un#ers%oo# b0 assumin! %ha% %here is onl0 one s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion for DP-in%ernal 5os%nominal !eni%ives (i% 9ill be sho9n belo9 %ha% a DP-in%ernal 5os%nominal !eni%ive can co-occur 9i%h a DP-a#6oine# !eni%ive/$ The e;am5les in (4=/ sho9 %ha% 5re-nominal !eni%ives can co-occur 9i%h 5os%nominal !eni%ives 3
(4=/ a$ 5rima lui %ra#ucere a Ilia#ei firs%-%he$FSG he$G7N %ransla%ion(F/ al$FSG Ilia#$G7N >his firs% %ransla%ion of Ilia#? b$ Columb a cLrui #esco5erire a Americii Columbus al$FSG 9hose$:SG #iscover0(F/ al$FSG America$%he$G7N >Columbus 9hose #iscover0 of America? c$ San% a cLrui conce5Rie a liber%LRii mL in%ri!L San% al$FSG 9hose$:SG conce5%ion(F/ al$FSG free#om-%he$G7N me$ACC in%ri!ue$2SG >San% 9hose conce5%ion of free#om in%ri!ues me?
I% shoul# be observe# %ha% 5os%nominal &!-5ossessors canno% co-occur 9i%h ano%her !eni%ive (no%e %ha% %he e;am5les in (4+/b?-c? are !ramma%ical if %he secon# !eni%ive is su55resse#/3 1.B
(4+/
b]$ XColumb #esco5erirea cLruia a Americii Columbus #iscover0(F/-%he 9hose$:SG-a al$FSG America-%he$G7N c]$ XSan% conce5Ria cLruia a liber%LRii mL in%ri!L San% conce5%ion(F/-%he 9hose$:SG-a al$FSG free#om-%he$G7N me$ACC in%ri!ue$2SG
The !ramma%icali%0 of %he e;am5les in (4=/ can be e;5laine# b0 assumin! %ha% 5renominal !eni%ives an# 5os%-nominal !eni%ives occu50 %9o #is%inc% s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions 9hich are base-!enera%e# in#e5en#en% of each o%her$ I#en%ical mor5holo!ical mar-in! %hus a55ears %o be allo9e# insi#e %he same s0n%ac%ic #omain 5rovi#e# %ha% %9o #is%inc% 5osi%ions are available$ Ue mus% conclu#e %ha% i#en%ical mor5holo!ical mar-in! canno% be %a-en %o in#ica%e i#en%ical s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ion$ Uhich means %ha% 9hen %he0 occur on %heir o9n 5os%nominal !eni%ives shoul# no% be assume# %o ori!ina%e in %he 5renominal 5osi%ionI an# conversel0 5re-nominal !eni%ives shoul# no% be assume# %o ori!ina%e in %he 5os%-nominal 5osi%ion$ The anal0sis 5ro5ose# in %he 5rece#in! sec%ions sa%isfies %hese #esi#era%a$ The e;am5les in (4=/ obe0 %he 9ell--no9n %hema%ic hierarch0 9hich re@uires %ha% Themes an# A!en%s res5ec%ivel0 occu50 %he com5lemen% an# %he S5ecifier 5osi%ions (9hich in Romanian are 5os%-nominal an# 5re-nominal res5ec%ivel0/$ In#ee# if 9e reverse %he 5osi%ions %he e;am5les in (41/ become un!ramma%ical3
(41/ a$ X5rima ei %ra#ucere a lui SluManschi firs%-%he$FSG her$G7N %ransla%ion(F/ al$FSG G'L SluManschi b$ XAmerica a cLrei #esco5erire a lui Columb America al$FSG 9hose$FSG #iscover0(F/ al$FSG G'L Columbus c$ Xliber%a%ea a cLrei conce5Rie a lui San% free#om(F/-%he al$FSG 9hose$FSG conce5%ion(F/ al$FSG G'L San%
Le% us finall0 observe %ha% e;am5les such as (42/ are mar!inall0 5ossible 5rovi#e# %ha% %he secon# !eni%ive is in%er5re%e# as a 5ossessor3
(42/ a$ K%abloul lui Rembran#% al bunicii mele 5ain%in!(:/-%he G'L Rembran#% al$:SG !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N m0$ FSG$G7N >m0 !ran#mo%her?s 5ain%in! of Rembran#%? b$ Kbus%ul lui 'ee%hoven al bunicii mele bus%(:/-%he G'L 'ee%hoven al$:SG !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N m0$ FSG$G7N >m0 !ran#mo%her?s bus% of 'ee%hoven? c$ #icRionarul lui DuRescu al mamei #ic%ionar0( :/-%he G'L DuRescu al$:SG mo%her-%he$G7N >m0 mo%her?s #ic%ionar0 of DuRescu?
The secon# !eni%ive canno% be in%er5re%e# as a Theme or an A!en%3

(44/ a$ X%abloul bunicii mele al lui Rembran#% 5ain%in!(:/-%he !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N m0 al$:SG G'L Rembran#% b$ Xbus%ul bunicii mele al lui 'ee%hoven bus%(:/-%he !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N m0 al$:SG G'L 'ee%hoven c$ X#icRionarul mamei al lui DuRescu #ic%ionar0( :/-%he mo%her-%he$G7N al$:SG G'L DuRescu
The cons%rain%s on co-occurrin! 5os%nominal !eni%ives are e;5ec%e# !iven %he !eneral vie9 %ha% s%ruc%ural !eni%ive Case can be assi!ne# in onl0 one 5os%nominal 5osi%ion %o a
1.C
DP %ha% is %h-mar-e# b0 %he hea# N$ The secon# 5os%nominal !eni%ive is an a#6unc% (9hich ma0 a%%ach %o ei%her NP or DP/ %ha% is assi!ne# inheren% Case 9hich is #irec%l0 rela%e# %o %he 5ossessive in%er5re%a%ion$ 1.). Con/l1s.ons ? t95es of 4en.t.2es= t95es of no6.nal 50o7e/t.ons an3 3ete06.ne0s To conclu#e %his sec%ion le% us briefl0 commen% on %he s%ric% cons%rain% %o 9hich mor5holo!icall0-mar-e# s0n%he%ic !eni%ives are sub6ec% in Romanian3 %he0 can a55ear onl0 on DPs %ha% are !overne# b0 %he fuse# NHD form al$a$ai$ale$ This hi!hl0 res%ric%e# #is%ribu%ion of s0n%he%ic !eni%ives brin!s %o min# com5arable res%ric%ions in o%her lan!ua!es e$!$ 5renominal Sa;on !eni%ives in 7n!lish or associa%es of cons%ruc% s%a%e nominals in Oebre9$ Al%hou!h %he res%ric%ions are obviousl0 no% %he same %he0 are com5arable3 (i/ in lan!ua!es 9i%h #ifferen% realiAa%ions for !eni%ive cons%i%uen%s s0n%he%ic forms are more cons%raine# %han anal0%ic formsI (ii/ %he occurrence of s0n%he%ic !eni%ives is cons%raine# b0 %he %05e of #e%erminer of %he overall 5ossessive DP3 %he0 are allo9e# onl0 if %he #e%erminer is ei%her a #efini%e ar%icle (in Romanian/ or em5%0 (in 7n!lish or Oebre9/$ No%e %ha% Romanian s0n%he%ic !eni%ives are even more cons%raine# insofar as %he0 can occur onl0 if %he hea# of %he 5ossessive DP is 5ronominal (a fuse# form of an em5%0 noun an# a #efini%e #e%erminer/$ Gur 5resen%a%ion leaves o5en %he choice be%9een several 5ossible anal0ses of s0n%he%ic !eni%ives occurrin! insi#e free-s%an#in! (i$e$ non-a#nominal/ !eni%ives3 %he0 ma0 be assume# %o occu50 ei%her a (5renominal/ S5ec NP 5osi%ion or a (5os%nominal/ S5ec DP 5osi%ion an# correla%ivel0 al 9oul# be a s5ecial De% elemen% or a fuse# 5ronominal form labelle# YNHDZ$ A unif0in! anal0sis forces us %o assume %ha% a#nominal al-5hrases are no% mere !eni%ive DPs bu% ra%her full 5ossessive DPs as 9hen %he0 occur free-s%an#in! in ar!umen% 5osi%ions of verbs or 5re5osi%ions$ The #ifference be%9een free-s%an#in! an# a#nominal al-!eni%ives 9oul# be %ha% in %he former case al is coreferen% 9i%h a DP-e;%ernal cons%i%uen% 9hereas in %he la%%er case al is coreferen% 9i%h %he hea# of %he overall 5ossessive DP$ The al%erna%ive anal0sis is %o assume %ha% a#nominal al-5hrases are mere !eni%ive DPs (ra%her %han 5ossessive DPs/ in 9hich case al 9oul# be some -in# of !eni%ive-mar-er$
2. T8e Inte050etat.on of #en.t.2es

The seman%ic anal0sis of definite 5ossessive DPs is in%eres%in! for a% leas% %9o reasons3 (i/ %he #efini%eness or in#efini%eness of %he !eni%ive DP is %ransferre# %o %he 5ossessive DP (al%hou!h %he over% #e%erminer of %he la%%er is #efini%e/I (ii/ %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he hea# N is con%e;%#e5e#en%$ In sec%ions 1$1$ an# 1$2$ i% 9ill be sho9n %ha% %hese %9o !eneraliAa%ions follo9 as a conse@uence of %he rule of seman%ic com5osi%ion %ha% charac%eriAes #efini%e 5ossessive DPs 9hich 9ill be #efine# in sec%ion 1$+$ Sec%ion 1$4 9ill 5resen% several cons%rain%s %ha% %he #e%erminers of !eni%ive DPs an# %he #e%erminers of %he overall 5ossessive DP im5ose on each o%her$ Finall0 in sec%ion 1$, 9e commen% on %he seman%ic anal0sis of !eni%ive DPs (or ra%her 5ossessive DPs/ occurrin! in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions$ 2.1. T8e se6ant./ /o65os.t.on Le% us consi#er %he e;am5les in (4,/$ In or#er %o sim5lif0 %he 5resen%a%ion 9e 9ill i!nore %he fac% %ha% 5os%nominal s0n%he%ic !eni%ives are 5rece#e# b0 a #ele%e# al$ For our 5resen% 5ur5oses 9e ma0 assume %ha% %he #ele%e# al is e;5le%ive i$e$ #oes no% 5ar%ici5a%e %o %he seman%ic com5osi%ion (bu% see %he e;am5les in (,1/ a% %he en# of %his subsec%ion/$
1<=
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors (4,/ a$ mama :ariei mo%her(F/-%he :aria$G7N >:aria?s mo%her? b$ sora vecinei mele sis%er(F/-%he nei!hbour-%he$G7N m0 >m0 nei!hbour?s sis%er? c$ bicicle%a :ariei bi-e(F/-%he :aria$G7N >:aria?s bi-e?
Le% us assume %ha% #efini%e 5ossessive DPs rel0 on %he rule of seman%ic com5osi%ion s%a%e# in (4./3 (4./ A #efini%e noun buil% 9i%h a !eni%ive DP is in%er5re%e# as a func%ion from in#ivi#uals %o in#ivi#uals (%05e ee ef/ 9hich a55lies %o %he in#ivi#ual #eno%e# b0 %he !eni%ive DP an# 0iel#s %he in#ivi#ual #eno%e# b0 %he overall 5ossessive DP$ This anal0sis is s%rai!h%for9ar# for 5ossessives such as (4,/a 9hich are hea#e# b0 nouns %ha% are le;icall0 s5ecifie# as func%ional (mot!er% capital% middle e%c$/$ I% shoul# ho9ever be s%resse# %ha% %he func%ional anal0sis formula%e# in (4./ is no% %ri!!ere# b0 %he le;ical 5ro5er%ies of %he noun bu% shoul# be vie9e# as structure-dependent in %he sense %ha% i% is %ri!!ere# b0 a 5ar%icular s0n%ac%ic confi!ura%ion namel0 a #efini%e noun buil% 9i%h a !eni%ive DP$ As such %he rule in (4./ can a55l0 re!ar#less of 9he%her %he hea# noun is le;icall0 s5ecifie# as func%ional rela%ional or ob6ec%-#eno%in!$ In case %he hea# noun is no% le;icall0 s5ecifie# as func%ional i% is coerce#$ For rela%ional nouns such as sister% friend e%c$ (see (4,b// uni@ueness is %ri!!ere#3 %o one referen% of %he !eni%ive corres5on#s a uni@ue referen% for %he overall 5ossessive (see (4</a/$ As %o ob6ec%-#eno%in! nouns %he func%ion %ri!!ere# b0 #efini%e 5ossessives is no% name# b0 %he hea# noun bu% remains un#ers5ecifie# (no%a%e# R!en in (4</c/I %he role of %he hea# noun is %o res%ric% %he co-#omain of %he func%ion (cons%rains %he value of %he in#ivi#ual re%urne# b0 %he func%ion/$
(4</ a$ mo%her (;/ [ ; 0 Ymo%her (; 0/Z b$ sis%er (;/ [ ; 0 Ysis%er (; 0/Z c$ fbi-e (;/ [ ; 0 YR!en(; 0/ an# bi-e (0/Z$
'0 a55l0in! %hese func%ions (#eno%e# b0 %he hea# noun of a #efini%e DP5oss/ %o %he in#ivi#ual #eno%e# b0 %he !eni%ive DP 9e ob%ain %he in#ivi#ual #eno%a%e# b0 DP5oss3
(4,J/ a$ YYmama :arieiZZ b$ YYsora vecinei meleZZ c$ YYbicicle%a :arieiZZ [ [f [ [f [ [f ; 0 Ymo%her (; 0/Z (m/ 0 Ymo%her (m 0/Z ; 0 Ysis%er (; 0/Z (YYm0 nei!hbourZZ/ 0 Ysis%er (YYm0 nei!hbourZZ 0/Z ; 0 YR!en(; 0/ an# bi-e (0/Z (m/ 0 YR!en(m 0/ an# bi-e (0/Z
Geni%ive s5ecifiers !overne# b0 5lural hea# nouns can also be anal0Ae# as rel0in! on %he rule in (4./$ In %his case %he value of %he func%ion is a 5lural in#ivi#ual (!rou5/ no%a%e# b0 a ca5i%al le%%er in (4B&/ belo93
1<+
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors (4B/ casele vecinului houses-%he nei!hbour-%he$G7N >%he nei!hbour?s houses? YYcasele vecinuluiZZ [ [f ; q YR!en(; q/ an# houses (q/Z (6/ q YR!en (6 q/ an# houses (q/Z$
(4B&/
The overall Nma; #eno%es %he ma;imal !rou5 of houses %ha% is associa%e# %o Nohn b0 %he un#ers5ecifie# R!en$ Ue s%ill nee# %o ma-e 5recise %he anal0sis of 8Ps occurrin! as !eni%ives embe##e# in #efini%e 5ossessive DPs 3
(4C/ :aMina fiecLrui s%u#en% va fi con%rola%L$ car(F/-%he ever0$ :SG$G7N s%u#en%(:/ 9ill be chec-e# >7ver0 s%u#en%?s car 9ill be chec-e#$?
For e;am5les of %his %05e 8uan%ifier Raisin! can be assume#$ An LF such as %he one sho9n in (4C>/ can be ob%aine# in %hree s%e5s b0 (+/ a#6oinin! maina fiecrui student >ever0 s%u#en%?s car? %o %he 9hole sen%ence (1/ raisin! fiecare student >ever0 s%u#en%? ou% of %he 5re5ose# cons%i%uen% (2/ raisin! an# a#6oinin! %he @uan%ifier i%self i$e$ fiecare >ever0? (%ransla%e# as %he universal @uan%ifier/ %o %he 9hole formula3
(4C?/ ; (; is a s%u#en%/ Y0 (R!en (; 0/ car (0// 9ill be chec-e#Z
No%e finall0 %ha% a#6ec%ives such as fostul >former? allo9 #ifferen% sco5al in%er5re%a%ions3 fostul meu restaurant >former m0 res%auran% m0 former res%auran%? ma0 mean ei%her >%he res%auran% 9hich is no lon!er mine? (in %his case fostul >former? is in%er5re%e# above meu >m0?/ or >m0 belon!in! e$!$ house 9hich is no lon!er a res%auran%?$ These in%er5re%a%ions are bo%h 5ossible an# %he0 #o no% seem %o be sub6ec% %o #is%ribu%ional cons%rain%s$ The seman%ic anal0sis 5resen%e# here for #efini%e 5ossessive DPs can be e;%en#e# %o cover free s%an#in! al-5hrases3
(,=/ a$ A :ariei a 5leca% aAi$ al#FSG :aria$G7N has lef% %o#a0 b$ Al vecinei e avoca%$ al0:SG nei!hbour-%he$G7N is la90er(:/ c$ Leam #a% la re5ara% 5e ale co5iilor$ %hem$FPL$ACC-have$+ !iven %o re5airin! DG: al$FPL chil#ren-%he$G7N YYalZZ [ ; 0 YR!en(; 0/ an# N (0/Z (9here N is %he an%ece#en% of al e$!$ mo%her nei!hbour bic0cle(s/ e%c$/ a$ YYal :arieiZZ [ 0 YR!en(:aria 0/ an# N (0/Z (9here N is %he an%ece#en% of al/
(,+/
(,+>/
Accor#in! %o %his re5resen%a%ion al-5hrases are in%er5re%e# as 3 >%he onl0 in#ivi#ual 0 %ha% is rela%e# %o DP!en (:aria %he nei!hbour %he chil#ren/ an# is N (fa%her cousin bic0cle(s/ e%c$/$ Comin! bac- %o #efini%e 5ossessives hea#e# b0 le;ical Ns recall %ha% %he0 embe# an al 9hich a55ears over%l0 in %hose con%e;%s in 9hich %he !eni%ive is no% a#6acen% %o %he noun3
1<1
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors (,1/ a$ !ar#ul roMu al vecinei fence(:/-%he re# al$:SG nei!hbour-%he$G7N b$ !ar#ul al vecinului Mi al vecinei fence(:/-%he al$:SG nei!hbour-%he$G7N an# al$:SG c$ !ar#ul al vecinei$ fence(:/-%he al$:SG nei!hbour-%he$G7N
nei!hbour-%he$G7N
The no%a%ion "al& in#ica%es %ha% al is 5resen% in %he s0n%a; bu% #ele%e# in %he mor5ho-5honolo!ical com5onen%$
If 9e anal0Ae 5os%nominal alP!eni%ives as 5ar% of some -in# of rela%iviAa%ion s%ra%e!0 %hese e;am5les can be 5ara5hrase# as follo9s3 >%he re# fence such %ha% i% is %he onl0 fence rela%e# %o %he nei!hbour?$ In a com5arable manner e;am5les such as o carte a 5ariei an# fiecare biciclet a lui Dumitru are anal0Aable as bein! buil% b0 combinin! a De% here %he in#efini%e ar%icle o or %he @uan%ifica%ional De% fiecare >each? 9i%h a com5le; 5ro5er%0 ob%aine# b0 in%ersec%in! %he nominal 5ro5er%0 e$!$ carte >boo-? an# biciclet >bic0cle? 9i%h %he 5ro5er%0 corres5on#in! %o %he a#nominal Geni%ive ob%aine# b0 abs%rac%in! over %he 5osi%ion of %he Possessee %hus 0iel#in! >%he se% of en%i%ies ; such %ha% ; is rela%e# %o :aria? an# >%he se% of en%i%ies ; such %ha% ; is rela%e# %o Dumi%ru? res5ec%ivel0$ 2.2. EInF3ef.n.teness S50ea3 Defini%e 5ossessive DPs are in%er5re%e# as #efini%e or in#efini%e #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he !eni%ive i%self is #efini%e or in#efini%e3
(,2/ a$ Pe aces% s%u#en%/KKPe un s%u#en% Enal% El cunoaM%e %oa%L lumea$ DG: %his s%u#en%/ DG: a s%u#en% %all him -no9s all 5eo5le >This s%u#en%/a %all s%u#en% ever0bo#0 -no9s? b$ Pe fra%ele aces%ui s%u#en%/KKPe fra%ele unui s%u#en% El cunoaM%e %oa%L lumea$ DG: bro%her-%he %his$G7N s%u#en%/DG: bro%her-%he a$G7N s%u#en% him -no9s all 5eo5le >This s%u#en%?s bro%her/A s%u#en%?s bro%her ever0bo#0 -no9s$?
The e;am5les in (,2a/ sho9 a con%ras% in acce5%abili%0 be%9een DPs hea#e# b0 a #emons%ra%ive an# in#efini%e DPs3 in a lef%-#isloca%e# 5osi%ion (9hich correla%es 9i%h obli!a%or0 cli%ic-#oublin!/ %he former are full0 !ramma%ical 9hereas %he la%%er are mar!inal$ The same con%ras% sho9s u5 in (,2b/ 9here bo%h e;am5les are #efini%e 5ossessive DPs 9hich #iffer onl0 insofar as %he !eni%ive DP is a #emons%ra%ive an# an in#efini%e res5ec%ivel0$ The conclusion is %ha% (in/#efini%eness is %ransmi%%e# from %he !eni%ive DP %o %he overall 5ossessive DP$ The %ransmission of (in/#efini%eness can be anal0Ae# as a conse@uence of %he func%ional anal0sis a#o5%e# above for #efini%e 5ossessive DPs3
(,4/ a$ ferma :ariei [f 0 [ f(;/ 9here farm (f(;// an# //;// [ :aria farm-%he :aria$G7N >:aria?s farm? b$ ferma unui vecin [f 0 [ f(;/ 9here farm (f(;// an# a nei!hbour (;/ farm-%he a$G7N nei!hbour >a nei!hbour?s farm?
In (,4/a %he func%ion f a55lies %o %he cons%an% in#ivi#ual #eno%e# b0 5aria an# %herefore %he value of %he func%ion is i%self a cons%an% in#ivi#ual hence %he #efini%e-li-e in%er5re%a%ion$ In (,4/b on %he o%her han# %he #eno%a%ion of ferma unui vecin >a nei!hbour]s farm? is ob%aine# b0 a55l0in! %he func%ion f %o %he in#ivi#ual variable ; in%ro#uce# b0 a nei !bour$ The #eno%a%ion of %he overall 5ossessive varies 9i%h %he values of %he !eni%ive s5ecifier i%self$ 1<2
'0 #efini%ion %he rule of seman%ic com5osi%ion %ha% charac%eriAes #efini%e 5ossessive DPs (see (4.// %ri!!ers uni@ueness3 for each value of %he !eni%ive %here is onl0 one value for %he func%ion$ Oo9ever %he 5roblem of uni@ueness is com5lica%e# b0 5ra!ma%ic fac%ors 9hich 9ill no% be a##resse# here$ For some fur%her observa%ions on %his issue see * 1$4$ belo9$ 2.3. Inte050et.2e 2a0.ab.l.t9 I% has of%en been observe# %ha% %he in%er5re%a%ion of #efini%e 5ossessives is con%e;%-#e5en#en%$ A DP such as (,,/a ma0 %a-e #e5en#in! on %he con%e;% %he various in%er5re%a%ions !iven in (,,/b3
(,,/ a$ car%ea lui Ion boo--%he G'L Ion >Ion?s boo-? b$ %he boo- 5ossesse#/9ri%%en/e#i%e# b0 Ion / abou% 9hich Ion %al-s / of 9hich Ion %a-es care
Ui%hin %he anal0sis a#o5%e# in * 1$+$ above %he in%er5re%ive fle;ibili%0 charac%eris%ic of #efini%e 5ossessive DPs is #ue %o %he un#ers5ecifie# na%ure of %he func%ion %ha% un#erlies %he seman%ic com5osi%ion of !eni%ive s5ecifiers$ This func%ion is con%e;%uall0 #e%ermine# hence %he various in%er5re%a%ions !iven in (,,/b$ The e;am5les in (,./a sho9 %ha% #efini%e 5ossessives+ %a-e %rul0 "free& in%er5re%a%ions 9hereas all %he o%her 5ossessives hea#e# b0 #e%erminers o%her %han %he #efini%e ar%icle (see (,./b/ are more cons%raine#3
(,./ Ieri Ion Mi Paul au fos% a%acaRi #e #ouL hai%e #e cWini qes%er#a0 Ion an# Paul have been a%%ac-e# b0 %9o !rou5s of #o!s >qes%er#a0 Ion an# Paul 9ere a%%ac-e# b0 %9o !rou5s of #o!s? a$ $$$ #in nefericire /K.n.. l1. Ion erau %urbaRi$ b0 unfor%une #o!s-%he G'L Ion 9ere rabi# >$$$unfor%una%el0 Ion?s #o!s 9ere rabi#$? b$ $$$ m #in nefericire /KA.2a@3o.@61lA.@a/eCt. /K.n. a. l1. Ion erau %urbaRi$ b0 unfor%une some /%9o/man0/%hese #o!s al0:PL G'L Ion 9ere rabi# >m unfor%una%el0 some/%9o/man0/%hese #o!s of Ion?s 9ere rabi#$?
Possessive DPs o%her %han #efini%e allo9 in%er5re%a%ions %ha% can be #escribe# as involvin! a "con%rol& rela%ion 9hich is a cons%an% con%e;%-in#e5en#en% rela%ion 9i%h a "bleache#& un#ers5ecifie# meanin! %ha% can be con%e;%uall0 s5ecifie#3 %he con%e;% #e%ermines %he choice amon! various s5ecific meanin!s of %his un#ers5ecifie# cons%an% rela%ion (e$!$ be entrusted% ta#e care of/3
(,</ Ieri lui Ion Mi Paul l. s+a1 Nn/0e3.nAat #ouL hai%e #e cWini$ qes%er#a0 G'L Ion an# Paul CL$2PL$DAT R7FL-have en%rus%e# %9o !rou5s of #o!s >qes%er#a0 Ion an# Paul 9ere en%rus%e# %9o (#ifferen%/ !rou5s of #o!s$? #in nefericire /KA.2a@3o.@61lA.@a/eCt. /K.n. a. l1. Ion erau %urbaRi$ b0 unfor%une some /%9o/man0/%hese #o!s al0:PL G'L Ion 9ere rabi# >unfor%una%el0 some/%9o/man0/%hese #o!s of Ion]s 9ere rabi#$?
The unacce5%abili%0 sho9n in (,.b/ arises because %he rela%ion be attac#ed 9hich is 5rovi#e# b0 %he con%e;% is no% a sub-%05e of %he con%rol rela%ion3 an in#ivi#ual 9ho is a%%ac-e# canno% be sai# %o con%rol %he in#ivi#ual 9ho a%%ac-s him$
+
In line 9i%h Par%ee (+CB2 +CC4/ S%or%o assumes %ha% 5ossessive e;5ressions %ha% embe# Sa;on !eni%ives are hea#e# b0 a null #efini%e De%$
1<4
2.$. M1t1al /onst0a.nts betDeen t8e 3ete06.ne0s of 4en.t.2es an3 t8e 8ea3 N In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill be concerne# 9i%h some cons%rain%s %ha% hol# be%9een %he #e%erminers of !eni%ive DPs an# %he #e%erminers of %he overall 5ossessive DPs %ha% embe# %hem$ Le% us firs% lis% %he 5ermissible cases 3 %he #e%erminer of N + is no% cons%raine# if %he !eni%ive DP is a 5ro5er nameI if N+ is !overne# b0 a #efini%e or b0 a #emons%ra%ive %he #e%erminer %ha% hea#s %he !eni%ive DP is no% cons%raine#$ The res%ric%ions mainl0 concern 5ossessive DPs hea#e# b0 in#efini%e #e%erminers$ The e;am5les belo9 sho9 %ha% in %his con%e;% %he !eni%ive DP can be a 5ro5er name a #emons%ra%ive or a #efini%e DPI an in#efini%e DP is #is5referre# (see (,B/b c/ 3
(,B/ a$ Ieri am s5Lla% o 0o/8.e a Ma0.e. @a a/este. fet.Ae @ a qes%er#a0 have$+ 9ashe# a #ress(F/ al$FSG :aria$G7N / al$FSG %his$G7N !irl / al$FSG 2e/.ne.$ nei!hbour-%he$G7N >qes%er#a0 I 9ashe# :aria?s/%his !irl?s/%he nei!hbour?s #ress$? b$ m Ieri am s5Lla% o 0o/8.e a 1ne. 2e/.ne$ qes%er#a0 have$+ 9ashe# a #ress(F/ al$FSG a$G7N nei!hbour >qes%er#a0 I 9ashe# a #ress of a nei!hbour?s$? c$ mAm afla% as%a #e la 1n 50.eten al 1n1. /ole4$ Oave$+ foun# %his from a frien# al$:SG a$G7N collea!ue >I hear# %his from a frien# of a collea!ue?s$?
The e;am5les in (,C/a-b are no% un!ramma%ical an# %he0 mi!h% even be acce5%able in cer%ain con%e;%s$ The0 are ho9ever rarel0 use# 5robabl0 because %heir meanin! can be more economicall0 e;5resse# b0 usin! %he #efini%e ar%icle on %he hea# N3
(,C/ a$ Ieri am s5Lla% 0o/8.a 1ne. 2e/.ne$ qes%er#a0 have$+ 9ashe# #ress(F/-%he a$G7N nei!hbour >qes%er#a0 I 9ashe# %he #ress of some nei!hbour/some nei!hbour?s #ress$? b$ Am afla% as%a #e la 50.eten1l 1n1. /ole4$ Oave$+ foun# %his from frien#-%he a$G7N collea!ue >I hear# %his from %he frien# of some collea!ue/some collea!ue?s frien#$?
Al%hou!h %he func%ional in%er5re%a%ion rela%e# %o %he #efini%eness of %he hea# N is b0 #efini%ion correla%e# 9i%h uni@ueness (in (,C/a roc!ia unei vecine >some nei!hbour?s #ress? refers %o %he uni@ue ob6ec% %ha% is rela%e# %o a nei!hbour an# is a #ress/ %he e;am5les in (,B/a-b leave o5en %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% %he nei!hbour has several #resses$ This a55aren% con%ra#ic%ion can be solve# b0 sa0in! %ha% uni@ueness hol#s in a 5ra!ma%icall0 res%ric%e# con%e;%$ A much s%ric%er cons%rain% is illus%ra%e# belo93
(.=/ a$ KXAm mWnca% 6e0e @b0KnBet10. ale l1. Ion$ have$+ ea%en a55les(F//cheese(F/-PL al0FPL G'L Ion >I a%e some of Ion?s a55les/%05es of cheese$? b$ KXAm ascul%a% 3.s/10. ale l1. Ion$ have$+ lis%ene# #is-s al0FPL G'L Ion >I lis%ene# %o some of Ion?s #is-s$? c$ KXAm ci%i% 5oeB.. ale l1. Ion$ have$+ rea# 5oems al0FPL G'L Ion >I rea# some of Ion?s 5oems$?
1<,
These e;am5les sho9 %ha% al-!eni%ives (re!ar#less of %heir o9n #e%erminer/ canno% be buil% 9i%h bare 5lurals in %he 5osi%ion of %he hea# noun$ The cons%rain% seems %o be even s%ric%er 9i%h mass/abs%rac% Ns3
(.+/ a$ KXAm mWnca% 6.e0e @b0KnB: a l1. Ion$ have$+ ea%en hone0(F//cheese(F/ al0FSG G'L Ion >I a%e Ion?s hone0/cheese$? b$ KXAm ascul%a% 61B./: a l1. Ion. have$+ lis%ene# music al0FSG G'L Ion >I lis%ene# %o Ion?s music$? c$ KXAm ci%i% 5oeB.e a l1. Ion$ have$+ rea# 5oe%r0 al0FSG G'L Ion >I rea# a 5oem of Ion?s$?
All %hese e;am5les become !ramma%ical 9i%h a de-al !eni%ive (see sec%ion 4 belo9/$ 2.%. T8e Se6ant./ Co65os.t.on of 4en.t.2es .n 50e3./ate 5os.t.ons The anal0sis 5resen%e# in *+$2 above accor#in! %o 9hich 5os%-co5ular !eni%ives are full 5ossessive DPs is confron%e# 9i%h seman%ic 5roblems3 9hereas 5ossessive DPs hea#e# b0 em5%0 nouns (or 5ronouns/ 5resu55ose uni@ueness 9hen %he0 occur in ar!umen%al 5osi%ions %he0 #o no% #o so in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions$ Thus in (.1/a-b i% is 5resu55ose# %ha% Nohn is rela%e# %o onl0 one ob6ec% e$!$ he has onl0 one car5e% 9hereas (.2/a-b sa0 no%hin! abou% %he number of car5e%s %ha% Nohn has3
(.1/ (.2/ a$ I li-e Nohn?s/mine$ b$ N?aime celui #e Nean /le mien$ a$ This car5e% is Nohn?s/ mine$ b$ Ce %a5is es% celui #e Nean/le mien$
This #ifference in in%er5re%a%ion mi!h% be ar!ue# %o be in#uce# b0 %he #ifference be%9een ar!umen% an# 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions3 %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion in#uces lamb#a-abs%rac%ion over %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he hea# N 9hich 0iel#s %he se% of ob6ec%s %ha% are rela%e# %o %he in#ivi#ual #eno%e# b0 %he !eni%ive DP$ No%e %ha% %he sus5ension of uni@ueness in %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion of 5resen%a%ional co5ular sen%ences can be observe# no% onl0 for 5ossessive DPs hea#e# b0 an (over% or cover%/ 5ronoun bu% also for 5ossessive DPs hea#e# b0 le;ical Ns3
(.4/ This is Nohn?s bro%her$
3. #en.t.2e Case alte0nat.n4 D.t8 P0e5os.t.onal Ma0>.n4

In Romanian mor5holo!ical Geni%ive Case is %i!h%l0 rela%e# %o %he s0n%a;3 i% can onl0 be realiAe# on #e%erminers$ This is no% a !eneral cons%rain% on %he mor5holo!0 of !eni%ives 3 in mos% lan!ua!es e$!$ German mor5holo!ical !eni%ive Case a55ears on a#nominal N5ro6ec%ions re!ar#less of %heir in%ernal s0n%a; (9he%her %he0 are >bare? NT-cons%i%uen%s nouns !overne# b0 car#inal numerals or DPs/ an# of %heir #is%ribu%ion (9he%her %he0 are N-com5lemen%s S5ec DPs or DP-a#6unc%s/$ A com5arable un#er-s5ecifica%ion of over% mar-in! re!ar#in! %he s0n%a; of a#nominal N-5ro6ec%ions can be observe# in French 9here %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de is use# bo%h for >!eni%ive?-Case mar-in! (la fille de mon ami* an# on a#nominal N-mo#ifiers (une tasse de t!V/ an# in 7n!lish 9here
1<.
5renominal Bs-!eni%ives can a%%ach %o bo%h DPs an# NPs (YY DPa frien#?sZ Y#au!h%erZZ vs Ya YYNPmen?sZ YroomZZ/$ Insi#e Romanian i%self %his cons%rain% canno% be rela%e# %o %he realiAa%ion of mor5holo!ical Cases in !eneral since Voca%ive Case can be realiAe# on %he noun i%self e$!$ biete% vino ncoace or las-m fato$fat n pace (see Cha5%ers + an# +,/$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e 9ill e;amine in %urn a#nominal NPs an# a#nominal 5ro6ec%ions hea#e# b0 car#inals (an# o%her #e%erminers %ha% canno% be inflec%e# for Case/ 9hich are mar-e# b0 %9o #is%inc% 5re5osi%ions res5ec%ivel0 de >of? an# a >of?$ 3.1. #en.t.2e Case alte0nat.n4 D.t8 de+Ma0>.n4 Romanian #is5la0s a remar-able al%erna%ion be%9een DPs %ha% are mor5holo!icall0 mar-e# for Geni%ive case an# PPs hea#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion deW
(.,/ a$ fiul re!elui son-%he -in!-%he$G7N b$ cons%ruirea caselor buil#in!-%he houses-%he$G7N c$ fo%o!rafia !ru5ului 5ic%ure-%he !rou5- %he$G7N #$ uMa bisericii #oor-%he church-%he$G7N vs$ fiul #e re!e son-%he de -in! vs$ cons%ruirea #e case buil#in!-%he de houses vs$ fo%o!rafia #e !ru5 5ic%ure-%he de !rou5 vs$ uMa #e bisericL #oor-%he de church
As sho9n b0 %hese e;am5lesI %he %9o %05es of cons%ruc%ion can a55ear 9i%h an0 %05e of noun 3 rela%ional nouns (.,/a #everbal nouns (.,/b 5ic%ure nouns (.,/c ob6ec%-#eno%in! nouns (.,/#$ Correla%ivel0 %he %9o cons%ruc%ions e;5ress similar seman%ic values 3 alienable 5ossession (../a inalienable 5ossession (../b human rela%ionshi5 (../c !oal (../# con%en% (../e loca%ion (../f %ime (../! e%c$3
(../ a$ cur%ea Em5Lra%ului cour%-%he em5eror-%he$G7N b$ !ulerul cLmLMii collar-%he shir%-%he$G7N c$ ne5o%ul unchiului ne5he9-%he uncle-%he$G7N #$ camera oas5eRilor room-%he !ues%s-%he$G7N e$ os%rovul florilor isle-%he flo9ers-%he$G7N f$ aerul mun%elui air-%he moun%ain-%he$G7N !$ cLl#ura verii hea%-%he summer-%he$G7N vs$ vs$ vs$ vs$ vs$ vs$ vs$ cur%ea #e Em5Lra% cour%-%he de em5eror !ulerul #e cLmaML collar-%he de shir% ne5o%ul #e unchi ne5he9-%he de uncle camera #e oas5eRi room-%he de !ues%s os%rovul #e flori isle-%he de flo9ers aerul #e mun%e air-%he de moun%ain cLl#ura #e varL hea%-%he de summer
The DPGen vs de-NP al%erna%ion e;is%s also for a#nominal cons%i%uen%s %ha% func%ion as (in%ernal or e;%ernal/ ar!umen%s in even%-nominaliAa%ions3
(.</ a$ cons%ruirea caselor /aces%or case vs$ cons%ruirea #e case buil#in!-%he houses-%he$G7N /%hese$G7N houses buil#in!-%he de houses b$ 5lWnsul co5iilor vs$ 5lWnsul #e co5ii cr0-%he chil#ren-%he$G7N cr0-%he de chil#ren
The a#nominal noun in%ro#uce# b0 de >of? can be mo#ifie# b0 an a#6ec%ive or b0 a PP as 1<<
sho9n belo93
c$ fiul #e re!e african son-%he de -in! African cons%ruirea #e case #in lemn buil#in!-%he de houses of 9oo#
SummariAin! %he al%erna%ion be%9een !eni%ive-Case mar-in! an# de-mar-in! can be #escribe# as follo9s3 (.B/ An a#nominal nominal 5ro6ec%ion is mar-e# (i/ 9i%h !eni%ive Case if an# onl0 if i% is a full DP cons%i%uen%$ (ii/ 9i%h D7 iff i% is a nominal 5ro6ec%ion %ha% lac-s #e%erminers$
No%e %ha% in all of %he e;am5les above 9e have use# onl0 #efini%es in %he 5osi%ion of %he hea# noun$ This is a 5resen%a%ional o5%ion 9hich allo9s us %o !ive minimal 5airs for a lar!e number of e;am5les$ The use of o%her #e%erminers on %he hea# noun im5oses cer%ain res%ric%ions (9hich are seman%ic in na%ure see *1$4$ above/ on %he #e%erminer of %he a#nominal cons%i%uen% 9hich ma-es i% some9ha% more #ifficul% bu% no% im5ossible %o fin# minimal 5airs3
(.C/ a$ un/aces% 5ala% al Em5Lra%ului /al unui Em5Lra% /#e Em5Lra% a/%his 5alace(:/ al$:SG em5eror-%he$G7N/ al$:SG a$G7N em5eror/de em5eror b$ o/aceas%L fo%o!rafie a 5eisa6ului /#e 5eisa6 a/%his 5ic%ure(F/ al$FSG lan#sca5e-%he$G7N /de lan#sca5e
Goin! bac- %o %he %9o correla%ions s%a%e# in (.B/i-ii i% shoul# be observe# %ha% %he0 #o no% hol# crosslin!uis%icall0 an# are even rare from a %05olo!ical 5oin% of vie93 mos% lan!ua!es use ei%her mor5holo!ical Case or 5re5osi%ional mar-in! on all a#nominal cons%i%uen%s re!ar#less of 9he%her %he0 are full DPs or lo9er-level nominal 5ro6ec%ions$ No%e fur%hermore %ha% in Romanian i%self %he !eneraliAa%ion in (.B/i hol#s for #a%ives (9hich are homo5honous %o !eni%ives/ bu% no% for Voca%ive Case 9hich can be mar-e# on %he noun i%self3
(<=/ a$ Am #a% bomboane 1no0 /o5.. @/o5..lo0 @la /o5.. have$+ !iven can#ies some$PL$DAT chil#ren /chil#ren-%he$DAT /%o chil#ren >I have !iven can#ies %o some -i#s/%o %he -i#s/%o -i#s$? b$ B:.ete vino re5e#e la mined bo0$VGC come$I:PV$1SG @uic-l0 %o me >'o0 come @uic-$?
Ue ma0 %hus conclu#e %ha% %he re@uiremen% of 5ro6ec%in! %he De%-level of re5resen%a%ion 9hich charac%eriAes Romanian !eni%ives (see (.B/i/ an# #a%ives is no% a !eneral re@uiremen% for mor5holo!ical-Case mar-in!$ A %en%a%ive e;5lana%ion for %his s%a%e of fac%s coul# be rela%e# %o %he homon0m0 9i%h #a%ives3 crosslin!uis%icall0 Goals (in %he lar!e sense/ canno% func%ion as 5re#ica%e-mo#ifiers an# canno% be e;5resse# b0 bare NPs$ (no%e %ha% e;am5les such as a da mr ritare la porci >li%%$ %o !ive 6e9els %o 5i!s? #o no% cons%i%u%e a coun%ere;am5le %o %his !eneraliAa%ion because here %he bare NP is in fac% a #efini%e DP 9i%h a !eneric in%er5re%a%ion see Cha5%er B sec%ion +$2 on %he #ele%ion of %he #efini%e ar%icle af%er 5re5osi%ions/$ 'ecause !eni%ives are homon0mous 9i%h #a%ives %he0 are sub6ec% %o %he same cons%rain%$ As is a55aren% from %he e;am5les above a#nominal de-cons%i%uen%s func%ion as NPmo#ifiers 9henever %he hea# N is ob6ec%-#eno%in!$ In even%-nominaliAa%ions %he0 func%ion as ar!umen%s 3
1<B
(<+/
a$ D.st014e0ea 3e 6ate0.al 3.3a/t./ #e cL%re elevi es%e as5ru 5e#e5si%L$ #es%ruc%ion-%he de ma%erial #i#ac%ic b0 5u5ils is severel0 5unishe# b$ Des/o5e0.0ea 3e ele6ente /8.6./e no. #e cL%re savanRi En ul%imul secol^ #iscover0-%he de elemen%s chemical ne9 b0 scien%is%s in las%-%he cen%ur0
Le% us no9 %r0 %o un#ers%an# %he !eneraliAa%ion s%a%e# un#er (.B/ii namel0 9h0 full DPs canno% be mar-e# 9i%h de3
(<1/ (<2/ Xfiul #e re!ele vs$ Xfiul #e un re!e son-%he de -in!-%he son-%he de a -in! a$ mWna omului (bolnav/ vs$ XmWna #e omul bolnav han#-%he man-%he$G7N (sic-/ han#-%he de man-%he sicb$ mWna unui om (bolnav/ vs$ XmWna #e un om bolnav han#-%he a$G7N man (sic-/ han#-%he de a man sicc$ mWna fiecLrui om (bolnav/ vs$ XmWna #e fiecare om bolnav han#-%he ever0$ G7N man (sic-/ han#-%he de ever0 man sic#$ chi5urile %u%uror co5iilor (nevinovaRi/ vs$ Xchi5urile #e %oRi co5ii (nevinovaRi/ faces-%he all$G7N chil#ren-%he$G7N (innocen%/ faces-%he de all chil#ren (innocen%/ e$ casele aces%or /acelor familii (refu!ia%e/ vs$ Xcasele #e aces%e /acele houses-%he %hese$G7N/%hose$G7N families (fleein!/ houses-%he de %hese /%hose familii (refu!ia%e/ families (fleein!/ f$ manualele cW%orva elevi vs$ Xmanualele #e cWRiva elevi %e;%boo-s-%he fe9$G7N 5u5ils %e;%boo-s-%he de fe9 5u5ils !$ manualele niciunui elev vs$ Xmanualul #e niciun elev %e;%boo-s-%he no$G7N 5u5il %e;%boo--%he de no 5u5il h$ a%i%u#inea cW%e unui consilier vs$ Xa%i%u#inea #e cW%e un consilier a%%i%u#e-%he DISTR a$G7N counsellor a%%i%u#e-%he de DISTR a counsellor
A 5lausible ans9er is %o sa0 %ha% %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion D7 is a #efaul% /else9here mar-er 9hich is use# on %hose a#nominal cons%i%uen%s %ha% canno% be mar-e# 9i%h !eni%ive Case$ No%e %ha% %he 5reference for !eni%ive Case can be observe# even for %he le;ical 5re5osi%ion de meanin! >b0?$ Gf course a#nominal DPs ma0 in 5rinci5le be 5rece#e# b0 le;ical 5re5osi%ions an# in 5ar%icular b0 de meanin! >b0? as sho9n in (<4/a$ Le% us ho9ever recall %ha% au%horshi5 or more !enerall0 %he a!en%ive in%er5re%a%ion can also be e;5resse# b0 !eni%ive Case mar-in! 9hich seems %o be 5referre# 9henever 5ossible$ Oence %he al%erna%ion be%9een de-mar-in! on 5ro5er names %ha% are 5ar% of our enc0clo5ae#ic -no9le#!e an# as such seem %o func%ion as mo#ifiers of %he hea# N an# !eni%ive Case 9hich is nee#e# for DPs hea#e# b0 common nouns as 9ell as b0 5ro5er names %ha% refer %o in#ivi#uals %ha% are no% no%orious (see (<4/b-c/$ No%e %ha% no%orious 5ro5er names can also be mar-e# 9i%h !eni%ive Case in 9hich case %heir mo#if0in! in%er5re%a%ion is less 5rominen%3
(<4/ a$ romanele #e Rebreanu/Slavici/^ novels-%he de Rebreanu/Slavici/^ b$ KK/Xromanele #e Ion/Pe%re/:aria novels-%he de Ion/Pe%re/:aria c$ Xromanele #e 5rie%enul meu/vecina mea novels-%he de frien#-%he m0 /nei!hbour m0
1<C
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors (<,/ a$ romanele novels-%he b$ romanele novels-%he c$ romanele novels-%he lui Rebreanu/Slavici/^ Rebreanu/Slavici/^ lui Ion /lui Pe%re /:ariei G'L Ion/ G7N Pe%re/:aria$G7N 5rie%enului meu /vecinei mele frien#-%he$G7N m0 /nei!hbour-%he$G7N m0
G'L
I#ioma%ic com5oun# nominals can be buil% 9i%h ei%her !eni%ives or de-5hrases 3

(<./ a$ floarea soarelui flo9er-%he sun-%he$G7N >sunflo9er? b$ re!ina no5Rii @ueen-%he ni!h%-%he$G7N >ni!h% flo9er? c$ iarba #racului !rass-%he #evil-%he$G7N ?9ee#s? #$ mWna-:aicii-Domnului han#-%he -:o%her-%he$G7N- Lor#-%he$G7N >hone0suc-le? e$ coa#a-Moricelului %ail-%he - mouse-%he$G7N >milfoil? a$ floarea-#e-colR flo9er-%he -de- corner >e#el9eiss? b$ la5%ele-#e-5asLre mil--%he -de- bir# ?#esser%? c$ #in%ele #e la5%e %oo%h-%he de mil?mil- %oo%h?
(<</
As in %he case of 5ro#uc%ive cons%ruc%ions %he choice be%9een !eni%ive Case an# #e-mar-in! s%ric%l0 correla%es 9i%h %he s0n%ac%ic ca%e!or0 of %he a#nominal cons%i%uen%$ Oo9ever 5recisel0 because %hese e;am5les are le;ical com5oun#s %here is no al%erna%ion for %he realiAa%ion of %he a#nominal cons%i%uen% !iven a 5ar%icular le;ical choice for %he hea# N$ Gne ma0 s%ill 9on#er 9he%her %he choice of %he !eni%ive vs D7 is ran#om as mi!h% be su!!es%e# b0 %he i#ios0ncra%ic na%ure of com5oun#s$ A closer observa%ion of %he e;am5les reveals cer%ain in%eres%in! !eneraliAa%ions 9hich in#ica%e %ha% %he le;ical 5ro5er%ies of %he hea# N an# %he mo#ifier (9hich are in#ee# ran#oml0 5u% %o!e%her/ #e%ermine %he choice be%9een a DP an# an NP (lac-in! a #e%erminer/ in %he mo#ifier 5osi%ion 9hich in %urn #e%ermines %he choice be%9een %he !eni%ive an# de$ No%e in#ee# %ha% in e;am5les such as (<./a-c %he mo#if0in! noun refers %o a uni@ue en%i%0 9hich mus% be referre# %o b0 a DP hence %he use of %he !eni%ive$ The choice of %he !eni%ive in (<./#-e seems less 9ell mo%iva%e# since %he !eneric meanin! of common nouns such as oricel >mouse?% rndunic >s9allo9? or noapte >ni!h%? can be e;5resse# ei%her b0 a bare NP or b0 a #efini%e sin!ular DP 9hich 9oul# allo9 ei%her #e or %he !eni%ive$ The choice of %he !eni%ive can 5robabl0 be e;5laine# as a means of #is%in!uishin! le;ical com5oun#s such as coada-oarecelui fusta-rndunicii% re ina-nopii from %he corres5on#in! mo#ifica%ion confi!ura%ions e$!$ o$aceast coad de oarece >a/%his %ail of mouse? o$aceast 1B=
fust de rndunic >a/%his s-ir% of s9allo9?$ 3.2. #en.t.2e Case alte0nat.n4 D.t8 a+Ma0>.n4 Car#inals as 9ell as some o%her #e%erminers or #e%erminer-li-e a#6ec%ives such as diferit >#ifferen%? canno% be inflec%e# for mor5holo!ical Case$ Since %he0 are full DPs %he0 canno% be mar-e# b0 de >of? ei%her$ Gn %his %05e of DP !eni%ive Case is mar-e# b0 %he invariable 5re5osi%ion a$ The e;am5les belo9 illus%ra%e %he use of a 9i%h car#inals (<Ba/ %he 5re-De% universal @uan%ifier tot >all? in %he sin!ular (<Bb/ %he neu%er rela%iviAin! 5ronoun ceea ce >%ha% 9hich 9ha%? (<Bc/ an# %he #e%erminer-li-e a#6ec%ive diferit >#ifferen%? 3
(<B/ a$ cLrRile a t0e. ele2. (conM%iincioMi/ boo-s-%he a %hree 5u5ils (#ili!en%/ >%he boo-s of %hree (#ili!en%/ 5u5ils? b$ a#unarea a tot sat1l !a%herin!-%he a all villa!e-%he >%he !a%herin! of all %he villa!e? c$ urmarea a /eea /e s-a 5ro#us En urmL cu cWRiva ani conse@uence-%he a %ha% 9ha% R7FL-has ha55ene# before 9i%h several 0ears >%he conse@uence of 9ha% ha55ene# a fe9 0ears before? b$ realiAarea a 3.fe0.te t.510. #e s%ruc%uri achievemen%-%he a #ifferen% %05es of s%ruc%ures >%he achievemen% of #ifferen% %05es of s%ruc%ures? a$ familiile a 3o. ele2. families-%he a %9o 5u5ils b$ a#unarea a tot sat1l !a%herin!-%he a en%ire villa!e-%he c$ consecinRa a /eea /e s-a s5us mai #evreme conse@uence-%he a %ha% 9ha% R7FL-has sai# earlier >%he conse@uence of 9ha% has been sai# earlier?
(<C/
Some #e%erminers allo9 bo%h !eni%ive Case mar-in! (see (B=// an# a-mar-in! (see (B+// 3
(B=/ a$ familiile /Kto02a elevi families-%he fe9$G7N 5u5ils b$ a#Lu!area 1n1. 5./ #e AahLr a##in!-%he a$G7N li%%le of su!ar a$ familiile a /KA.2a elevi families-%he a fe9 5u5ils b$ a#Lu!area a 1n 5./ #e AahLr a##in!-%he a a li%%le of su!ar
(B+/
Oo9ever in %he !eneral case variable #e%erminers canno% be mar-e# b0 a in %he s%an#ar# lan!ua!e (no%e ho9ever %ha% a !ains !roun# in %he subs%an#ar# lan!ua!e/ 3
(B1/ a$ familia f.e/:01. famil0-%he ever0$ G7N b$ lec%ura n./.1ne. rea#in!-%he no$G7N a$ Xfamilia elev 5u5il cLrRi boo-
(B2/
a f.e/a0e elev
1B+
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors famil0-%he a ever0 5u5il b$ Xlec%ura a n./.o car%e rea#in!-%he a no boo-
$. "e-al 4en.t.2es
$.1. T8e st01/t10e of de-al 4en.t.2es A s5ecial form of %he !eni%ive is foun# in e;am5les of %he %05e sho9n in (B4/-(B,/ 9here %he !eni%ive DP is 5rece#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion de3
(B4/ (B,/ o car%e 3e+a Ma0.e. a boo-(F/ de-al$FSG :aria$G7N (niM%e/ cLrRi 3e+ale Ma0.e. (some/ boo-s(F/ de-al$FPL :aria$G7N
In %hese e;am5les 6us% as in !eni%ives 9i%hou% de al a!rees in !en#er an# number 9i%h %he hea# noun$ This a!reemen% 5a%%ern 9hich is use# no% onl0 in collo@uial s5eech bu% also in %he 9ri%%en lan!ua!e of e#uca%e# s5ea-ers 9as un%il recen%l0 (un%il DGG: 1==,/ no% acce5%e# b0 norma%ive !rammars (see in 5ar%icular %he Aca#emic Grammar of +C.2/ 9hich consi#er (B4/ %o be a non-s%an#ar# varian% of (B./ 9i%h a 5lural al3
(B./ o car%e 3e+ale Ma0.e. a boo-(F/ de-al$FPL :aria$G7N
7;am5les of %he %05e in (B4/ 9ere 6u#!e# "incorrec%& b0 Romanian !rammarians because %he 5re5osi%ion de Bof. 9as anal0Ae# as havin! a 5ar%i%ive meanin! (e@uivalen% %o dintre% din >of amon!?/ an# conse@uen%l0 %he 5hrase alHDP(Gen/ 9as anal0Ae# as a 5lural-mar-e# frees%an#in! al- 5hrase corres5on#in! %o %he su5er-se% of a 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion$ In o%her 9or#s e;am5les of %he %05e in (B4/ 9ere anal0Ae# as e@uivalen% %o %he %05e sho9n in (B</3
(B</ o car%e 3.n@3.nt0e a boo-(F/ from/amon! ale Ma0.e. al$FPL :aria$G7N
The 5ar%i%ive anal0sis of e;am5les such as (B4/-(B,/ is ho9ever mis!ui#e# since %he 5re5osi%ion de is no lon!er use# in 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ions (see cha5%er 2 * 4$4/ in mo#ern Romanian$ Thus in %he 5ar%i%ive confi!ura%ions sho9n in (BB/ dintre% din canno% be re5lace# b0 de3
(BB/ a$ niciunul 3.nt0e no. none from us a]$ Xniciunul 3e no. none de us b$ una 3.nt0e sK6bete one amon! Sa%ur#a0s b]$ Xuna 3e sK6bete one de Sa%ur#a0s c$ care 3.n no. 9hich from us c]$ Xcare 3e no. 9hich de us
1B1
The non-a!reein! 5a%%ern sho9n in (B./ is use# onl0 b0 %hose s5ea-ers 9ho %r0 %o obe0 %he aca#emic norm (9hich %he0 5erceive as >unna%ural?/ an# can be foun# in school boo-s an# ne9s5a5ers (9here i% is im5ose# b0 %he correc%ors/$ All na%ive s5ea-ers re!ar#less of %heir level of e#uca%ion use onl0 (B4/ in a na%ural (uncon%rolle#/ con%e;%$
In ol# Romanian de ha# a 5ar%i%ive meanin! in cons%ruc%ions of %he %05e Y DP+ D (N/ de DP1Z in 9hich DP1 9as no% res%ric%e# %o !eni%ives / 5ossessives3 Nece unuia de voi pru din capu nu-i va cdea $ (CGD$ VGR$1$ 4.v/+2/ >None of 0ou 9ill lose his hair?I $nu de noi trebe s merem n tr $ (ALR II 2 111/24C in DLR/ >Gne of us has %o !o %o %he mar-e%?I una de sm%ete (in DA/ >one of Sa%ur#a0s?I nimea de ceaia (arch$I in DLR/ >nobo#0 of %hose?I carele de noi (arch$I in DLR/ >9hich of us?$ The s%ruc%ures 9i%h 5ar%i%ive de an# !eni%ive in 9hich DP1 is 5lural or buil% 9i%h a massive or collec%ive noun are ol#er %han %hose 9i%h sin!ular DP 1$ in %he ol#es% %e;%s (from %he +. %h an# +<%h cen%uries/ DP1 is e;clusivel0 5lural 9hen %he noun of DP + is a coun% sin!ular3 neceo d(is de-ale mele% (tLe!en#a #uminicii& P ,ode' 9turd(anus/ >none of m0 9or#s?R Xi nc un Easco oarecarile de-ai notri 000 s-au nc!inat la lei (Gri!ore Dreche a5u# C$ FrWncu (+CB2// >an# some o%her Vasco of ours have !ave in %o %he Polish?$ The sin!ular number in DP1 9hen %he noun of DP+ is a coun% sin!ular onl0 s%ar%s %o a55ear s5ora#icall0 in %he +B%h cen%ur03 niciun !risov nici de-al lor nici de-al monenilor >no #ocumen% of %heirs? or of %he freehol#ers? (+<<, Ar!eM a5u# FrWncu +CB23 +</$ This cons%ruc%ion becomes fre@uen% in %he +C%h cen%ur0$
In mo#ern Romanian %he 5ar%i%ive meanin! of de has survive# onl0 in some s5ecial severel0 res%ric%e# cons%ruc%ions 9hich 9ill be #iscusse# in * 4$4 belo9$ To sum u5 e;am5les such as (B4/ an# (B,/ are no% 5ar%i%ive s%ruc%ures an# %herefore 9e 9ill no% use %he label "5ar%i%ive !eni%ive& %o refer %o %he se@uence de H al-5hrase$ Correla%ivel0 %he !eni%ive DP is no% necessaril0 5lural (as im5ose# b0 aca#emic norms/$ In %he 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion %he secon# DP #eno%es %he 9hole from 9hich a 5ar% is %a-en$ In de-al !eni%ives on %he o%her han# de is no% even a 5re5osi%ion since i% #oes no% bloca!reemen% be%9een al an# %he hea# noun$ Ue ma0 anal0Ae de-al as a le;ical com5oun# a varian% of al e;5ressin! "an%i-uni@ueness& (on %his in%er5re%a%ive effec% see * 4$1 belo9/3 (B4]/ D o 3 DP NP 2 car%e NP #e-a :ariei DP1
$.2. T8e .nte050etat.on of de-al 4en.t.2es The seman%ic effec% %ri!!ere# b0 %he 5resence of de 5rece#in! %he !eni%ive is no% 5ar%i%ivi%0 bu% ra%her "an%i-uni@ueness&3 %he s%ruc%ure in#ica%es %ha% %he referen% of %he 9hole 5ossessive 5hrase (%he en%i%0 bein! 5ossesse#/ is no% %he onl0 one %ha% s%an#s in a cer%ain rela%ion R %o %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he !eni%ive$ In 5ar%icular an e;am5le such as (B,/ 9hich corres5on#s %o some boo#s of 5ary.s in 7n!lish 5resu55oses %ha% :aria has more boo-s %han %he se% of boo-s #eno%e# b0 nite cri ale 5ariei >some boo-s of :aria?s?I %he e;am5le in (B4/ corres5on#in! %o a boo# of 5ary.s 5resu55oses %ha% :aria has more %han one boo-0 'ecause %he0 are incom5a%ible 9i%h uni@ueness de-al !eni%ives canno% be 5ar% of DPs 9i%h #efini%e #e%erminers (#efini%e ar%icles or #emons%ra%ives/ or 5ro5er names3
(BC/ a$ elevii buni (X#e/-ai :ariei 5u5ils(:/-%he !oo# (de-/al$:PL :aria$G7N b$ aces% elev (X#e/-al meu %his 5u5il(:/ (de-/al$:SG m0$ :SG
1B2
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors c$ Ion (X#e/-al meu Ion (de-/al$:SG m0$ :SG
The hea# noun can be !overne# b0 in#efini%e #e%erminers or i% can be a bare noun3
(C=/ a$ un elev #e-al meu a 5u5il(:/ de-al$:SG m0$ :SG b$ niM%e elevi #e-ai mei some 5u5ils(:/ de-al$:PL m0$ :PL c$ mulRi / cWRiva/ unii elevi #e-ai mei man0 / a fe9/ some 5u5ils(:/ de-al$:PL m0$ :PL #$ #ouL maMini noi #e-ale firmei %9o cars(F/ ne9 de-al$FPL firm-%he$G7N Ion es%e /l.ent 3e+al 6e1. Ion is clien%(:/ de-al$:SG m0$ :SG >Ion is a clien% of mine$? A bLu% sKn4e 3e+al 31C6an1l1.$ has #run- bloo# de-al$:SG enem0-%he$G7N >Oe has #run- %he enem0?s bloo#$? a$ 7i sun% 50.eten. 3e+a. 6e. $ %he0 are frien#s(:/ de-al$:PL m0$ :PL >The0 are frien#s of mine$? b$ La 5e%recere au veni% numai 50.eten. 3e+a. 6e. $ %o 5ar%0 have$2PL come onl0 frien#s de-al$:PL m0$ :PL >Gnl0 frien#s of mine came %o %he 5ar%0$? c$ Am ci%i% a0t./ole 3e+ale l1.$ have$+ rea# ar%icles de-al$FPL he$G7N >I have rea# 5a5ers of his$?
(C+/ (C1/ (C2/
The hea# noun can also be em5%0 (elli#e#/3

(C4/ a$ #oi #e-ai 5rofesorului %9o de-al$:PL %eacher-%he$G7N >%9o of %he %eacher?s (ones/? b$ unul #e-al nos%ru one$:SG de-al$:SG our$:SG >one of ours?
No%e %ha% in e;am5les such as (C=/ de can bu% nee# no% be use# (see (C,/a/$ The 5resence of de %ri!!ers %he an%i-uni@ueness in%er5re%a%ion #escribe# above sim5le !eni%ives have an in%er5re%a%ion %ha% is com5a%ible 9i%h uni@ueness3 %herefore in con%e;%s 9here %he in#efini%e is use# because e;is%ence is asser%e# no% because %here are o%her en%i%ies sa%isfi0n! %he NP 5ro5er%0 de canno% be use# as seen in (C,/bI com5are %his e;am5le %o (C,/c 9here de can a55ear 9i%h %he same au%horshi5 in%er5re%a%ion of %he !eni%ive as in (C,/b$
(C,/ a$ Va veni o elevL (#e-/a :ariei 9ill come a 5u5il(F/ (de/al0FSG :aria$G7N b$ A a5Lru% o car%e (KK#e-/a lui >A boo- b0 him has been issue#? c$ Am ci%i% o car%e (#e-/a lui >I rea# a boo- b0 him?
The use of de is re@uire# in e;am5les such as (C./ buil% 9i%h in#efini%e 5ronouns such as
1B4
ceva >some%hin!?% cineva >somebo#0? nimic >no%hin!?% nimeni >nobo#0? (for in#efini%e 5ronouns see cha5%er 2 * 2/ 5ossibl0 because such e;am5les favor an an%i-uni@ueness in%er5re%a%ion of %he !eni%ive3
(C./ a$ Cre# cL mai era acolo /e2a LE3e+Fal b1n./.. 6ele. %hin-$+SG %ha% s%ill 9as %here some%hin! (de-/al$:SG !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N m0$ FSG >I %hin- %here 9as some%hin! else of m0 !ran#mo%her?s? b$ Pen%ru f.e/a0e LE3e+Fal nost01 5e care-l uci#eRi vom uci#e Aece for ever0 (de-/al$:SG our$:SG DG: 9hom-CL$ACC -ill$1PL 9ill$+PL -ill %en #e-ai voM%ri de-al$:PL 0our(PL/$:PL >For each of our men %ha% 0ou -ill 9e 9ill -ill %en of 0ours? c$ `n%r-o RarL s%rLinL un#e nu-i n.6en. LE3e+Fal t:1 in-a coun%r0 forei!n 9here no%-is nobo#0 (de-/al$:SG 0our(SG/$:SG >In a forei!n coun%r0 9here %here noone of 0ours? #$ o0./a0e LE3e+Fal lo0 an0one (de-/al$:SG %he0$G7N
No%e %ha% even 9i%h 5ronouns if %he an%i-uni@ueness con#i%ion is no% sa%isfie# al !eni%ives canno% %a-e de3
(C</ a$ Ai ceva al %Lu care Emi 5lace have$1SG some%hin! al$:SG 0our$:SG 9hich me$DAT li-es >qou have some%hin! s5ecial (li%$ 0ours/ %ha% I li-e? b$ Nu mai am nimic al meu no% an0-lon!er have$+SG no%hin! al$:SG m0$ :SG >There?s no%hin! lef% 9hich is mine?
$.3. Ot8e0 3.st0.b1t.onal 50o5e0t.es of de-al 4en.t.2es De-al !eni%ives are usuall0 foun# 9i%h !eni%ives e;5ressin! 5ossession an# in%er5ersonal rela%ions$ Never%heless 9e can also fin# e;am5les 9henin 9hich %he N hea# is an abs%rac% noun3
(CB/ G cali%a%e #e-a mea es%e rLb#area a @uali%0( F/ de-al$FSG m0$ FSG is 5a%ience-%he >A @uali%0 of mine is 5a%ience?
De-al !eni%ives are no% use# 9hen %he !eni%ive e;5resses a 5ar%-9hole rela%ion (5resumabl0 because %he an%i-uni@ueness in#ica%ion is re#un#an% here bein! -no9n %ha% %here are o%her 5ar%s %han %ha% referre# %o b0 %he DP/3
(CC/ a$ X un membru #e-al !uvernului a member de-al$:SG !overnmen%-%he$G7N b$ X o 5ar%e #e-a noas%rL a 5ar% de-al0FSG our$FSG
Finall0 de-al !eni%ives are e;clu#e# if %he !eni%ive noun is inanima%e3

(+==/ a$ o a bo a 5ro5rie%a%e 5ro5er%0(F/ con#iRie con#i%ion(F/ (X#e/-a aurului (de-/al$FSG !ol#-%he$G7N (X#e/-a reuMi%ei (de-/al$FSG success-%he$G7N
1B,
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors c o 5roblemL (X#e/-a a 5roblem(F/ (de-/al$FSG acor#ului a!reemen%-%he$G7N
$.$. Pa0t.t.2e de-al $.$.1. $nul V de V 5l10al al- 580ase In con%em5orar0 s5o-en Romanian %he onl0 ins%ance of 5lural al 9i%h a sin!ular hea# noun is %he cons%ruc%ion unul >one? H de-al$ Unul is %he form %a-en b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle un in %he con%e;% of N elli5sis (-ul can be anal0Ae# as a 5ro-NI see cha5%er 2 * 2/$
(+=+/ a$ unul #e-ai noM%ri one-%he de-al$:PL our$:PL >one of ours? b$ unul #e-ai mei one-%he de-al$:PL m0$ :PL >one of mine?
The meanin! of %he cons%ruc%ion is >someone belon!in! %o %he !rou5 of 5ersons rela%e# %o V P his su55or%ers rela%ives frien#s e%c$?$ In %his cons%ruc%ion %he em5%0 hea# N is necessaril0 in%er5re%e# as >Hhuman?I no%e %ha% %he i#iom de-ai casei >of %he house? is onl0 a55aren%l0 an e;ce5%ion since i% >house? #oes no% refer %o %he ob6ec% i%self bu% ra%her %o >5eo5le 9ho are familiar in a cer%ain house3 members of %he famil0 H close famil0 frien#s?$ In mos% of %he cases (as in (+=+/ above/ %he 5ossessor is 5ronominal (see * 4$,/$ Pro5er names or common nouns referrin! %o uni@ue eni%i%ies are allo9e# bu% common nouns are unacce5%able3
(+=1/ a$ unul #e-ai lui Va#im one-%he de-al$:PL G'L Va#im b$ unul #e-ai mamei one-%he de-al$:PL mo%her-%he$G7N c$ Xunul #e-ai Mcolii one-%he de-al$:PL school-%he$G7N #$ Xunul #e-ai oraMului one-%he de-al$:PL ci%0-%he$G7N
The ne!a%ive coun%er5ar% of %his 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion is also a%%es%e# al%hou!h less fre@uen%l03
(+=2/ Nu seamLnL cu n.6en. 3e+a. No% ressembles 9i%h nobo#0 de-al$:PL >Oe #oesn?% ressemble an0one of ours? noM%ri$ our$:PL
In %he con%em5orar0 lan!ua!e %here are some relics of %he cons%ruc%ion de H 5lural DP in 9hich de is no lon!er 5ar%i%ive 3 %he cons%ruc%ion deH5lural #emons%ra%ive e;5resses @uali%0 meanin! >li-e %hose? >of %ha% -in#?I %he #emons%ra%ive can also a!ree in number (see (i/c/$ (i/ a$ o elevL 3e a/elea a 5u5il(F/ de %hose$F >a 5u5il li-e %hose/ %ha% -in# of 5u5il? b$ unul 3e+:.a one$:-%he de -%hose$:PL >one of %hose? c$ unul 3+:la one$:-%he de -%ha%$:SG
1B.

>one of %ha% -in#? Ano%her le;icaliAe# cons%ruc%ion in 9hich de in%ro#uces a 5lural DP is %he cons%ruc%ion deH%he feminine universal toate$ This cons%ruc%ion is onl0 use# as a free s%an#in! DP 5resumabl0 9i%h an elli5%ical hea# N an# a null #e%erminer (see cha5%er 2 * 2$4 on nominal elli5sis in bare nouns/ an# means >%hin!s of all sor%s ever0 sor% of %hin!s?$ (ii/ Am a#us 3e toate$ have$+ brou!h% de all$FPL >I/Ue have brou!h% all sor%s of %hin!s$?
$.$.2. Ell.5t./al /onst01/t.ons Consi#er ne;% e;am5les such as (+=4/3

(+=4/ a$ Au veni% numai 3e+a. 6e.. have$2PL come onl0 de-al$:PL m0$ :PL >Gnl0 frien#s/collea!ues/rela%ives of mine have come$? b$ La nun%L au veni% 3e+a. /ase.. %o 9e##in! have$2PL come de-al$:PL house-%he$G7N >Close frien#s an# famil0 members came %o %he %he 9e##in!$?
These e;am5les ma0 be vie9e# as 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ions in 9hich %he hea# N is em5%0 (an em5%0 noun in%er5re%e# as \Ouman P e$!$ om% oameni >man/men in#ivi#ual(s/? in (+=4/ or lucruri >%hin!s? in (+=./ belo9/ because %hese e;am5les sho9 res%ric%ions %ha% are similar %o %hose observe# in %he 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion e;amine# in * 4$4$+ above3 5ossessive 5ronouns an# %he i#ioma%ic de-ai casei >of %he house? are acce5%able bu% ran#om common nouns are #isallo9e# (for a s%ron!er ar!umen% see (+=C/ belo9/3
(+=,/ KK S-au En%Wlni% 3e+a. C/ol.. /3e+a. 2e/.n1l1.. R7FL-have$2PL me% de-al$:PL school-%he$G7N /de-al$:PL nei!hbour-%he$G7N >Peo5le close %o %he school/%o %he nei!hbour have me%$?
Ue ma0 also fin# con%e;%ual elli5sis 9i%h bare nouns follo9e# b0 de-al 9i%h an ana5horic in%er5re%a%ion of %he em5%0 N$ In %his case as %here is no cons%rain% on %he N similar %o %he cons%rain% in *4$4$+ %here is no reason %o assume %ha% 9e are #ealin! 9i%h a 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion ra%her %han 9i%h %he normal de-al cons%ruc%ion #iscusse# in *4$+-*4$23 (i/ N-au veni% s%u#enRi #e-ai %Li$ Au veni% numai 3e+a. 6e.. no%-have$2PL come s%u#en%s de-al$:PL 0our(SG/$:PL have$2PL come onl0 de-al$:PL m0$:PL >S%u#en%s of 0ours #i#n?% come onl0 (s%u#en%s/ of mine #i#$?
Common nouns use# !enericall0 can never%heless be foun# 9hich su!!es%s %ha% %he cons%ruc%ion un#er #iscussion here is no% a sub-%05e of %he 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion #iscusse# in * 4$4$+3
(+=./ a$ Au 5oves%i% 3e+ale t.ne0eA.. @2.eA.. have$2PL #iscusse# de-al$FPL 0ou%h-%he$G7N /life-%he$G7N >The0 %al-e# abou% %hin!s rela%e# %o 0ou%h/life$? b$ Au cum5Lra% 3e+ale 410.. have$2PL bou!h% de-al$FPL mou%h-%he$G7N >The0 bou!h% foo# (li%%$%hin!s for %he mou%h?/
Uhen occurrin! in ar!umen% 5osi%ions elli5%ical de-al !eni%ives have %he #is%ribu%ion of bare nouns (see cha5%er 1/3 in 5ar%icular %he0 can a55ear in ob6ec% 5osi%ions an# in 5os%verbal sub6ec% 5osi%ions bu% no% in %he 5reverbal sub6ec% 5osi%ion$ Thus (+=B/ is 5ossible onl0 9i%h a s5ecial in%ona%ion P ei%her a con%ras%ive focus in%ona%ion or a con%ras%ive %o5ic in%ona%ion P on 1B<
%he sub6ec% 9hich in#ica%es %ha% i% is #isloca%e# 3

(+=</ (+=B/ Au veni% 3e+a. noCt0.. have$2PL come de-al$:PL our$:PL m De+a. noCt0. au veni%$ de-al$:PL our$:PL have$2PL come
7lli5%ical de-al 5hrases ma0 also a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions3

(+=C/ a$ 7l e 3e+a. noCt0.. he is de-al$:PL our$:PL >Oe is one of ours$? b$ 7l e 3e+a. l1. 'a3.6. he is de-al$:PL G'L Va#im >Oe is one of Va#im?s$?
No%e %ha% in %his e;am5le %he !eni%ive is in %he 5lural #es5i%e %he fac% %ha% %he sub6ec% is in %he sin!ular$ Thus %hese !eni%ives ma0 be vie9e# as 5ar%i%ives an anal0sis 9hich can be e;%en#e# %o %hose sho9n in (+=4/ above$ The onl0 #ifference is %ha% in %his case %he eli#e# hea# N is sin!ular (%he e;am5le can be 5ara5hrase# as unul dintre ai notri >one of ours?/$ The fac% %ha% in ar!umen% 5osi%ions de-al !eni%ives buil% 9i%h an em5%0 N can onl0 be use# in %he 5lural is #ue %o a !eneral cons%rain% on bare nouns (see cha5%er 1/3 sin!ular coun% nouns canno% be use# bare in ar!umen% 5osi%ions (onl0 coun% 5lurals can #o so/$ Since 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions are no% sub6ec% %o %his cons%rain% (e$!$ >on e biat bun >Ion is bo0 !oo#?/ 5ar%i%ive de-al !eni%ives 9i%h a sin!ular elli5%ical hea# N can a55ear in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions as sho9n in (+=C/$ No%e fur%hermore %ha% in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion %he !eni%ive ma0 also a!ree in number 9i%h %he sub6ec%3
(++=/ a$ 7l e 3e+al nost01. he is de-al$:SG our$:SG >Oe is one of ours$? b$ 7l e 3e+al l1. 'a3.6. he is de-al$:SG G'L Va#im >Oe is one of Va#im?s$?
In e;am5les of %his %05e de-al !eni%ives canno% be anal0Ae# as 5ar%i%ives$ The0 coul# be vie9e# as a s5ecial cons%ruc%ion meanin! "belon!in! %o %he !rou5 of ;&$
%. P0ono6.nal Possesso0s
%.1. A non+1n.fo06 5a0a3.46 ? 4en.t.2e+6a0>e3 an3 a40ee.n4 50ono6.nal 5ossesso0s Li-e man0 o%her In#o-7uro5ean lan!ua!es Romanian uses so-calle# "5ossessive a#6ec%ives& i$e$ 5ronominal 5ossessors %ha% a!ree 9i%h %he hea# noun for %he +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns bo%h sin!ular an# 5lural3
1BB
Geni%ive DPs an# Pronominal Possessors (+++/ a$ fa%a mea / %a / noas%rL / voas%rL !irl-%he m0$ FSG / 0ours!$FSG / our$FSG / 0our5l$FSG b$ fraRii mei / %Li / noM%ri / voM%ri bro%hers-%he m0$ :PL / 0ours!$:PL / our$:PL / 0our5l$:PL
For %he 2r# 5erson re!ular !eni%ive forms of %he 5ersonal 5ronouns are use# P i$e$ mar-e# 9i%h %he obli@ue mor5heme3
(++1/ a$ fa%a lui / ei / lor !irl-%he he$G7N / she$G7N / %he0$G7N b$ fraRii lui / ei / lor bro%hers-%he he$G7N / she$G7N / %he0$G7N
'esi#es %hese forms for %he 2r# 5erson sin!ular %here is also %he 5ossibili%0 of usin! a!reein! forms base# on %he refle;ive roo% s-$
(++2/ a$ fa%a sa [ fa%a lui / ei !irl-%he 2SG$FSG !irl-%he he$G7N / she$G7N b$ fraRii sLi [ fraRii lui / ei bro%hers-%he 2SG$:PL bro%hers-%he he$G7N / she$G7N
These forms 9ere refle;ive in %he ol#es% %e;%s bu% %he0 soon los% %he refle;ive in%er5re%a%ion #evelo5in! ins%ea# a number res%ric%ion bein! use# onl0 for sin!ular referen%s$ In%eres%in!l0 %he same evolu%ion %oo- 5lace in I%alian an# French$ Oo9ever unli-e %hese lan!ua!es Romanian also -e5% !eni%ive forms of %he 2 r# 5erson 5ronouns (lui >he$G7N? an# ei >she$G7N?/$ In %he 5resen%-#a0 lan!ua!e %he !eni%ive forms are 5referre# in %he collo@uial re!is%er$ The forms su$sa$si$sale are mos%l0 confine# %o %he 9ri%%en re!is%er$ Uh0 are a!reein! forms use# onl0 in 5ar% of %he 5ronominal 5ara#i!mK I% has been no%ice# %ha% %here is a correla%ion be%9een %he mor5holo!0 of 5ronouns an# %he availabili%0 of a!reein! forms3 5ronouns 9here %he inheren% -fea%ures are mar-e# on %he roo% have a!reein! forms 9hereas 5ronouns 9here %he inheren% -fea%ures are mar-e# on %he inflec%ional mor5heme have inflec%ional !eni%ive$ The follo9in! %able sho9s %ha% +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns 9hich have a!reein! forms have #is%inc% roo%s for #ifferen% 5ersonHnumber combina%ions (!en#er is no% mor5holo!icall0 mar-e#/$ Nomina%ive +s%s! 1n#s! +s%5l 1n#5l eu tu no-i vo-i Accusa%ive s%ron cli%ic ! mm- ine t-ine t-e no-i n-e Da%ive s%ron cli%ic ! m-ie m-} A!reein! 5ossessor m-e-u% m-e-a% m-e-i% m-e-le
-ie t--u% t-a% t--i% t-a-le -} none no-str-u% noa-str-% no-tr-i% noa-str-e u vo-i v- vov vo-str-u% voa-str-% vo-tr-i% voa-str-e u Table I3 The mor5holo!0 of 5ronouns 9i%h a!reein! forms
The %able also sho9s %ha% %he 5ronominal roo% is foun# in %he a!reein! forms bu% no% imme#ia%el0 before %he inflec%ional mor5heme 9hich mar-s %he fea%ures inheri%e# b0 a!reemen% from %he hea# noun3 be%9een %he %9o ano%her elemen% is foun# 9hich 9e call >5ossessive suffi;?3 -e- for %he +s% sin!ular -a$- for %he 1n# sin!ular an# -str- for %he 5lural$ 1BC
The 5ossessive suffi; is use# %o #erive %he a!reein! 5ossessor s%em from %he 5ronominal roo%$ In con%ras% 2r# 5erson 5ronouns have all %he same roo% 9hich ho9ever un#er9en% con%e;%ual al%era%ions a55earin! no9 in %he forms }el-$}e- an# 9i%h %he fall of %he roo% vo9el l-$}- in %he obli@ue$ '0 a s5ecial or%o!ra5hic rule of Romanian %he ini%ial } is no% no%a%e# in %hese forms$ Uha% is im5or%an% is %ha% %he inheren% !en#er an# number are e;5resse# on inflec%ional mor5hemes a##e# %o %he various forms of %his roo% as can be seen from %he follo9in! %able3 :asc$s!$ Fem$ s!$ :asc$ 5l$ Fem$ 5l$ Direc% Case }el-Y (9ri%%en el/ }-a (9ri%%en el/ }e-i (9ri%%en ei/ }el-e (9ri%%en ele/ (s%ron! forms/ Gbli@ue Case l-ui l-or }-ei (9ri%%en ei/ r# Table II3 The mor5holo!0 of 5ronouns 9i%h !eni%ive forms (2 5erson 5ronouns/ Ta-in! in%o accoun% %hese fac%s %he #is%ribu%ion of a!reein! an# !eni%ive forms of 5ronominal 5ossessors can be #erive# from %he follo9in! rules3 (++4/ A 9or# canno% con%ain %9o #is%inc% se%s of inflec%ional -fea%ures (i$e$ -fea%ures mar-e# on inflec%ional mor5hemes/ (++,/ Uhenever 5ossible use an a!reein! form ins%ea# of a !eni%ive$ The rule in (++4/ ensures %ha% 9or#s 9here %he inheren% -fea%ures are mar-e# on an inflec%ional mor5heme canno% ac@uire a secon# se% of -fea%ures inheri%e# b0 a!reemen% (no%e %ha% inheri%e# -fea%ures are al9a0s mar-e# on inflec%ional mor5hemes/$ This allo9s a!reein! forms onl0 for +s% an# 1n# 5erson 5ronouns 9here inheren% -fea%ures (number an# 5erson/ are mar-e# on %he roo% (see Table I/$ Rule (++,/ ensures %ha% %he 5ossibili%0 of a!reein! forms e;clu#es %he use of !eni%ive forms for %hese 5ronominal 5ossessors$ No%e %ha% %he lac- of !eni%ive forms for %he +s% an# 1n# 5ersons canno% be e;5laine# b0 invo-in! a 5ara#i!m !a5 because !eni%ive an# #a%ive forms are i#en%ical in Romanian an# %hese 5ronouns #o have #a%ive forms$ This is 9h0 %he rule (++,/ is nee#e#$ A s5ecial remar- is in or#er for %he 2r# sin!ular a!reein! 5ossessors su% sa% si% sale$ The0 are covere# b0 %he !eneraliAa%ions above since %he inheren% fea%ures P 2 r# 5erson an# sin!ular P are mar-e# on %he roo% (s-$sa-/ 9hich ori!ina%es in %he 5ossessive s%em of %he refle;ive roo%$ As sho9n in %he %able belo9 %his roo% is #ecom5osable in%o %he refle;ive roo% s- an# %he same -$a- 5ossessive suffi; 9hich a55ears in %he 1 n# 5erson sin!ular 5ossessive tu% ta (see Table I above/3 2r# 5erson refle;ive 5ronoun 2r# 5erson sin!ular a!reein! 5ossessor Accusa%ive Da%ive s%ron! cli%ic s%ron! cli%ic s-ine s-e s-ie s--u% s-a% s--i% s-a-le -} Table III3 Refle;ive Pronouns an# 2r# s!$ a!reein! 5ossessors Oo9ever s0ncronicall0 %he forms su% sa% si% sale canno% be consi#ere# %o belon! %o %he same 5ara#i!m as %he refle;ive forms sine% se% sie% )*i because %he0 are no lon!er refle;ive (%he0 are no% re@uire# %o have an an%ece#en% in %he same clause bu% have %he referen%ial 5ro5er%ies of 5ersonal 5ronouns/ an# %he0 are res%ric%e# %o sin!ular referen%s (9hereas %he refle;ive 5ronouns are use# for bo%h numbers/$
1C=
%.2. T8e 5os.t.on of 50ono6.nal 5ossesso0s As 9e men%ione# in %he In%ro#uc%ion in Romanian unli-e in o%her Romance lan!ua!es such as French or S5anish a!reein! 5ossessors have %he #is%ribu%ion of !eni%ives bein! imme#ia%el0 5rece#e# ei%her b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle or b0 %he !eni%ival 5ar%icle al3
(++./ a$ casa mea / 5rofesorului house(F/-%he m0$ FSG %eacher-%he$G7N b$ casa #e vacanRL a mea / a 5rofesorului house(F/-%he of holi#a0 al$FSG m0$ FSG al$FSG %eacher-%he$G7N c$ o 5rie%enL a mea / a 5rofesorului a frien#(F/ al$FSG m0$ FSG al$FSG %eacher-%he$G7N
There are never%heless %9o #ifferences be%9een %he #is%ribu%ion of 5ronominal 5ossessors an# %ha% of non-5ronominal !eni%ives$ Cruciall0 in %hese cases a!reein! forms an# !eni%ive 2 r# 5erson 5ronouns behave ali-e 9hich sho9s %ha% %he s5ecial #is%ribu%ion is no% correla%e# 9i%h a!reemen% bu% 9i%h 5ronominal na%ure3 (i/ Pronominal 5ossessors can a55ear imme#ia%el0 af%er %he #efini%e ar%icle even 9hen %he ar%icle is suffi;e# on a 5renominal a#6ec%ive 9hereas non-5ronominal !eni%ives are e;clu#e# from %his 5osi%ion3
(++</ a$ ul%ima noas%rL / lor #esco5erire las%-%he our$FSG / %he0$G7N #iscover0(F/ b$ X ul%ima cerce%L%orilor #esco5erire las%-%he researchers-%he$G7N #iscover0
This in#ica%es %ha% 5ronominal 5ossessors can occur in %he func%ional #omain of %he noun 5hrase (see cha5%er 2 on %he e;is%ence of minor func%ional 5ro6ec%ions be%9een D an# N/$ This fac% can also be seen 9hen %he suffi;al ar%icle is born b0 %he noun3 a 5ronominal 5ossessor can a55ear be%9een %he noun an# a ver0 lo9 mo#ifier such as a classif0in! a#6ec%ive or a de-PP 9hich forms a le;icaliAe# (i#ioma%ic/ uni% 9i%h %he noun (a @uasi-com5oun#/ 9hereas a non5ronominal !eni%ive is e;clu#e# from %his 5osi%ion3
(++B/ a$ cen%ralele noas%re / lor a%omice 5o9er-s%a%ions(F/-%he our$FPL %he0$G7N a%omic b$ X cen%ralele FranRei / franceAilor a%omice 5o9er-s%a%ions(F/-%he France$G7N Frenchmen-%he$G7N a%omic c$ faRa mea / lui #e masL face(F/-%he m0$ FSG / he$G7N of %able >m0 %able clo%h? #$ X faRa mamei #e masL face-%he mo%her-%he$G7N of %able
(ii/ Pronominal 5ossessors canno% be coor#ina%e# 9hereas non-5ronominal !eni%ives can #o so3
(++C/ a$ X En%Wlnirea noas%rL Mi voas%rL / noas%rL Mi lor mee%in!-%he our$FSG an# 0our5l$FSG our$FSG an# %he0$G7N b$ En%Wlnirea 5rofesorilor Mi s%u#enRilor mee%in!-%he 5rofessors-%he$G7N an# s%u#en%s-%he$G7N
This 5ro5er%0 in#ica%es %ha% 5ronominal 5ossessors are 9ea- forms$ In %he !eneral %05olo!0 of
1C+
5ronouns 9ea- forms are #is%in!uishe# from s%ron! forms b0 %he im5ossibili%0 of coor#ina%ion an# mo#ifica%ion an# from cli%ics b0 %he fac% %ha% %he0 can be 5hone%icall0 in#e5en#en% an# %he0 can occu50 %he same 5osi%ions as s%ron! forms$ This secon# 5ro5er%0 is also a%%es%e# in Romanian3 9e have in#ee# seen %ha% 5ronominal 5ossessors a55ear af%er al an environmen% in 9hich non-5ronominal !eni%ives also a55ear$ No%e %ha% al- 5hrases base# on 5ronominal 5ossessors #o no% behave as 9ea- forms bu% as s%ron! forms allo9in! coor#ina%ion an# mo#ifica%ion3
(+1=/ a$ o 5rie%enL YYa meaZ Mi Ya luiZZ a frien#(F/ al$FSG m0$ FSG an# al$FSG he$G7N b$ 7s%e 5Lrerea Y#oar Ya luiZZ is o5inion(F/-%he onl0 al$FSG he$G7N >I%?s onl0 OIS o5inion?
%.3. On t8e /ate4o0.al stat1s of a40ee.n4 5ossesso0s As 9e have seen above a!reein! 5ossessors have %he s0n%a; of !eni%ive 5ronouns an# no% %ha% of a#6ec%ives$ A!reein! 5ossessors also resemble 5ronouns in behavin! as referen%ial e;5ressions$ Thus a!reein! 5ossessors ma0 bin# refle;ives 9hich is im5ossible for a#6ec%ives even for %hema%ic ones (a#6ec%ives 9hich charac%eriAe an ar!umen% of %he hea# noun behavin! as @uasi-ar!umen%al/3
(+1+/ a$ o5inia sai #es5re sinei o5inion(F/-%he 2SG$FSG abou% hm/herself >Ois/her o5inion on him/herself? b$ X o5inia franceAL #es5re sine o5inion-%he French abou% hm/herself
The referen%ial s%a%us of a!reein! 5ossessors is fur%her su55or%e# b0 e;am5les of %he %05e in (+11/ an# (+12/ 9hich con%ain a55osi%ive rela%ive clauses an# secon#ar0 5re#ica%es license# b0 %he 5ossessor3
(+11/ SL ascul%e Mi 5Lrerea noas%rL care am fos% #e a%W%ea ori 5LcLliRi lis%ens also o5inion-%he our$FSG 9hich have$+PL been of so-man0 %imes #eceive# >(S/he shoul# lis%en 9ha% 9e have %o sa0 (li%$3 our o5inion/ 9ho have been so man0 %imes #eceive#? 5oAele mele %WnLrL 5ho%os(F/-%he m0$ FPL 0oun!$FSG >%he 5ho%os of me (9hen I 9as/ 0oun!?
SD'N
(+12/
For all %hese reasons 9e conclu#e %ha% %he %ra#i%ional label >5ossessive a#6ec%ive? is no% a#e@ua%e$ A!reein! 5ossessors are 5ronouns 9hich have %he 5eculiari%0 of bein! mar-e# b0 a!reemen% mor5holo!0$
A 5ossible anal0sis of %his 5henomenon resor%s %o a func%ional hea# above D (%a-in! DP as a com5lemen%/ 9hich realiAes case mor5holo!0 (ei%her inflec%ional or b0 a func%ional 5re5osi%ion see cha5%er + sec%ion +$4 Cha5%er B sec%ion +$1$2/ calle# S (or Case/$ The inheri%e# -fea%ures of a!reein! 5ossessors can be anal0Ae# as fea%ures in%ro#uce# b0 a 5ossessive S$ The 5ossessive suffi; use# %o #erive 5ossessive s%ems from 5ronominal roo%s (see %able I above/ can be anal0Ae# as %he s5ell-ou% of %his 5ossessive S$
1C1
%.$. S1ff.<al a40ee.n4 5ossesso0s D.t8 >.ns8.5 te06s Li-e o%her lan!ua!es (amon! %he Romance lan!ua!es see I%alian/ Romanian has a s5ecial 5ossessive cons%ruc%ion use# 9i%h -inshi5 %erms$ In %his cons%ruc%ion forms base# on %he sin!ular a!reein! 5ossessor 5ara#i!ms (meu% tu% su/ a%%ach as suffi;es %o %he noun$ 'o%h %he 5ossessor an# %he hea# noun some%imes sho9 s5ecial forms in %his cons%ruc%ionI %hus %he 5ossessor has %he forms -miu% -tu% -su% ins%ea# of meu% tu% su$ The various mo#ifica%ions of %he noun s%ems are 5resen%e# in Cha5%er +. (Inflec%ion/ sec%ion <$ No%e %ha% %he suffi;al 5ossessive cons%ruc%ion 9hich is use# in collo@uial s5eech #oes no% bloc- %he normal cons%ruc%ion #efini%e-noun H a!reein!-5ossessor$ The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %he #ifference be%9een %he suffi;al 5ossessive cons%ruc%ion an# %he normal one3
(+14/ a$ fra%e-miu [ fra%ele meu bro%her-m0$ :SG bro%her-%he m0$ :SG >m0 bro%her? b$ sor-%a [ sora %a sis%er-0ours!$FSG sis%er-%he 0our$FSG >0our sis%er? c$ cumna%L-su [ cumna%ul sLu bro%her-in-la9-2SG$PGSS$:SG bro%her-in-la9 2SG$PGSS$:SG >his/her bro%her-in-la9? #$ fi-miu [ fiul meu son-m0$ :SG son-%he m0$ SG e$ fiicL-mea fi-mea [ fiica mea #au!h%er-m0$ FSG #au!h%er-%he m0$ FSG
For >mo%her? an# >fa%her? %he nouns maic an# taic a55ear in %his cons%ruc%ion or (for %he secon# an# %hir# 5erson onl0/ %he monos0llabic bases m- an# ta)c*-I %he forms maic an# taic are no% use# in#e5en#en%l0 as %he basic %erms for >mo%her? an# >fa%her? in %he s%an#ar# lan!ua!e (as in#e5en#en% 9or#s maic means >nun? or is use# as an a##ressin! form taic is use# as a familiar a##ressin! form no% onl0 for %he fa%her bu% also for el#erl0 5eo5le/$ Ue can %hus sa0 %ha% %he suffi;al 5ossessive 5ara#i!m for >mo%her? an# >fa%her? is com5le%el0 irre!ular3
(+1,/ a$ maicL-mea maicL-%a / mL-%a maicL-sa / mL-sa [ mama mea mama %a mama sa mo%her-m0 mo%her-0our mo%her-2SG$PGSS mo%her-%he m0 >m0/0our/his(her/ mo%her? b$ %aicL-miu %aicL-%u / %ac-%u %aicL-su / %a-su [ %a%Ll meu %a%Ll %Lu %a%Ll sLu >m0/0our/his(her/ fa%her?
The suffi;al 5ossessive cons%ruc%ion is res%ric%e# %o sin!ular 5ossessees an# sin!ular 5ossessors$ The com5le; cons%i%uen% YNounH Suffi;al PossessorZ behaves as a 5ro5er name$ Thus li-e 9i%h masculine 5ro5er names %he obli@ue inflec%ion is realiAe# b0 %he 5re5ose# mar-er lui3
(+1./ maMina lui %aicL-miu car-%he G'L fa%her-m0 >m0 fa%her?s car?
The feminine obli@ue inflec%ion can ei%her be realiAe# b0 %he same 5re5ose# mar-er or for 1C2
some nouns b0 an obli@ue inflec%ion of %he 5ossessor 5rovi#e# %he 5ossessor is + s% or 2r# 5erson (for #e%ails see cha5%er +. sec%ion </3
(+1</ maicL-mii [ lui maicL-mea
mo%her-m0$G'L
G'L
mo%her-m0
Normall0 onl0 %he 5ossessor sho9s %he obli@ue mor5holo!0 as 9e can see in (+1</$ The onl0 e;ce5%ion is %he noun nevast >9ife? 9here bo%h %he noun an# %he 5ossessor sho9 obli@ue inflec%ion e$!$ nevesti-mii >9ife$G'L-m0$G'L?$
The YNHPossZ cons%i%uen% also behaves s0n%ac%icall0 li-e a 5ro5er name in %ha% i% is in%er5re%e# as a #efini%e DP an# correla%ivel0 i% canno% combine ei%her 9i%h #e%erminers or 9i%h 5renominal or 5os%nominal mo#ifiers3
(+1B/ a$ X aceas%L sor-%a %his sis%er-0ou b$ X 5rima nevas%L-mea firs%-%he 9ife-m0 c$ X fra%e-miu mai mic bro%her-%he more 0oun!
Li-e 9i%h 5ro5er names cer%ain 5os%nominal mo#ifiers namel0 celHAPs an# deJPPs (see (+1C/a-b/ can e;ce5%ionall0 be use# 9i%h a res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion (see cha5%er +1 * 1/$ No%e ho9ever %ha% res%ric%ive rela%ives are no% allo9e# (see (+1C/c/3
(+1C/ a$ fra%e-miu #e la Pi%eM%i bro%her-m0 from Pi%eM%i b$ fra%e-miu cel mic bro%her-m0 %he 0oun! c$ X sor-%a care a emi!ra% nu cea #in RomWnia sis%er-0our 9hich has emi!ra%e# no% %he from Romania
The affi;al charac%er of 5ronominal 5ossessors in %his cons%ruc%ion is si!nalle# b0 %he im5ossibili%0 %o combine 9i%h a coor#ina%ion (see (+2=/a/$ Com5are %he normal cons%ruc%ion in (+2=/b 9hich allo9s %he 5ossessor %o combine 9i%h a coor#ina%ion of nouns3
(+2=/ a$ XYvLr Mi fra%e-Zsu cousin an# bro%her-2SG$PGSS b$ YvLrul Mi fra%eleZ sLu cousin-%he an# bro%her-%he 2SG$PGSS
1C4
The A#6ec%ive
(. T8e A37e/t.2e
AL7VANDRA CGRNIL7SCD ) IGN GIDRG7A (**+-4/ IGN GIDRG7A (*,/
1. Int0o31/t.on. T8e a37e/t.2e /o65a0e3 to t8e ot8e0 le<./al /ate4o0.es

+$+$ A#6ec%ives an# nouns$ The nominaliAa%ion of a#6ec%ives$ +$1$ A#6ec%ives an# verbs$ +$2$ A#6ec%ives as a ne!a%ivel0 #efine# ca%e!or0 +$4$ A#6ec%ives an# a#verbs
2. Classes of a37e/t.2es. Se6ant./ t95es of a37e/t.2es an3 t8e.0 3.st0.b1t.on

1$+$ Dis%ribu%ional classes 1$1$ Firs%-or#er vs$ secon#-or#er or in%ersec%ive vs$ non-in%ersec%ive$ 1$2 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives 1$4 Non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives
3. A37e/t.2e 5la/e6ent .ns.3e t8e DP

2$+ Prenominal vs$ 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives 2$1 Rela%ive or#er of s%ac-e# a#6ec%ives 2$2 The #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion
$. #0a3at.on. De40ee e<50ess.ons= 3e40ees of /o65a0.son

4$+$ Gra#abili%0$ The #e!ree ar!umen% an# scales$ 4$1$ An%on0mic 5airs 5osi%ive an# ne!a%ive %erms$ 4$2$ T05es of !ra#able a#6ec%ives #e5en#in! on %he s%ruc%ure of %he scales 4$4$ The s0n%a; of %he De!ree Phrase 4$,$ The com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 4$.$ The com5ara%ive of inferiori%0 4$<$ The com5ara%ive of e@uali%0 (%he e@ua%ive/ an# o%her cons%ruc%ions 9i%h att an# aa$ 4$B$ Com5arin! #ifferen% 5ro5er%ies 4$C$ The su5erla%ive 4$+=$ Gn %he seman%ics of o%her #e!ree 9or#s 4$++$ :easure 5hrases com5ara%ive clauses an# com5ara%ive PPs
%. T8e /o65le6entat.on of a37e/t.2es

,$+$ Da%ive com5lemen%s ,$1$ Pre5osi%ional com5lemen%s ,$2$ Inheren% accusa%ive 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive dator ,$4$ Clausal ar!umen%s
1C,
The A#6ec%ive
1. Int0o31/t.on. T8e a37e/t.2e /o65a0e3 to t8e ot8e0 le<./al /ate4o0.es

A#6ec%ives are charac%eriAe# b0 %he follo9in! #is%ribu%ional an# mor5holo!ical 5ro5er%ies3 %he0 can func%ion as noun mo#ifiers (a#6unc%s3 o5%ional cons%i%uen%s of %he NP/I %he0 are inflec%e# for !en#er number an# case (9i%h ver0 fe9 e;ce5%ions/ receivin! a value for %hese fea%ures b0 a!reemen% 9i%h %he hea# nounI (iii/ besi#e %he a#nominal use some of %hem are also allo9e# in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion in 9hich case %he0 a!ree 9i%h %he sub6ec%$ The follo9in! e;am5les illus%ra%e %he #is%ribu%ion of %he %9o ma6or %05es of a#6ec%ives3
(+/ A#nominal-onl03 a$ un fos% minis%ru a former$:SG minis%er(:/ b$ o fos%L bisericL a former$FSG church(F/ A#nominal an# 5re#ica%ive3 a$ un bLrba% %WnLr a man 0oun!$ :SG >a 0oun! man? b$ Femeia era %WnLrL 9oman-%he 9as 0oun!$FSG >%he 9oman 9as 0oun!? c$ 7l o consi#era EncL %WnLrL he her consi#ere# s%ill 0oun!$ FSG >Oe consi#ere# her s%ill 0oun!? #$ `ncL %WnLr Geor!e nu obosea #eloc s%ill 0oun!$:SG Geor!e no% !o%-%ire# a%-all >S%ill 0oun!$ Geor!e #i#n?% !e% %ire# a% all? e$ L-am cunoscu% %WnLr him-have$+ -no9n 0oun!$:SG >I?ve -no9n him 0oun!?
(1/
(a#nominal/ (5re#ica%ive af%er co5ula/ (5re#ica%e of ob6ec% small clause/ (5re#ica%e of a#6unc% small clause/
Some a#6ec%ives ma0 combine 9i%h #e!ree 9or#s such as mai >more? foarte >ver0?$ This 5ro5er%0 9hich #is%in!uishes a#6ec%ives from nouns an# verbs is also foun# 9i%h a#verbs an# some 5re5osi%ions$ The inflec%ions of a#6ec%ives are share# b0 nouns an# #e%erminers$ Therefore 9e 5resen% %he inflec%ion of a#6ec%ives in a !eneral cha5%er on nominal inflec%ion (cha5%er +./$ Due %o %he mor5holo!ical similari%0 be%9een a#6ec%ives an# nouns in lan!ua!es such as Gree- La%in an# Romance (inclu#in! Romanian/ a#6ec%ives have been inclu#e# amon! %he nominal cate ories in %ra#i%ional !rammars (%he %erm ad+ective comes from %he La%in nomen adiectiuum >a##e# name (noun/ (i$e$ noun a##e# %o ano%her one/? i%self a %ransla%ion of %he Gree- Znoma ep[t!eton/$ The 5ro5er%ies 9hich #is%in!uish be%9een %he ma6or le;ical ca%e!ories (nouns a#6ec%ives verbs an# a#verbs/ are #is%ribu%ional$ Al%hou!h %hese #is%inc%ions of%en have a seman%ic mo%iva%ion %he #efinin! 5ro5er%ies of a#6ec%ives are #is%ribu%ional an# no% seman%ic$ Thus an a#6ec%ival 5re#ica%e ma0 be s0non0mous 9i%h a verbal or a nominal one (see (2/(4//I one an# %he same conce5% can be e;5resse# b0 an a#6ec%ive a noun or a verb in #ifferen% lan!ua!es (see (,//3
(2/ a$ Ion e bun la ma%ema%icL >Ion is !oo# a% ma%h? b$ Ion se 5rice5e la ma%ema%icL >Ion -no9s ma%h?
1C.
The A#6ec%ive (4/ a$ Sora lui e !enialL >Ois sis%er is brillian%? b$ Sora lui e un !eniu >Ois sis%er is a !enius? a$ :i-e foame me$DAT-is hun!er b$ I?m hun!r0 c$ 7surio (La%in/
(,/
'elo9 9e 9ill briefl0 5resen% %he #is%inc%ion be%9een a#6ec%ives an# %he o%her le;ical classes an# %heir seman%ic correla%es$ 1.1. A37e/t.2es an3 no1ns$ T8e no6.nal.Bat.on of a37e/t.2es Dnli-e nouns a#6ec%ives canno% combine 9i%h #e%erminers in or#er %o 0iel# referen%ial or @uan%ifica%ional e;5ressions$ Correla%ivel0 %heir number mar-in! is no% in%er5re%e# bu% is #ue a!reemen%3
(./ a$ Fiecare /Gricare cWine la%rL$ ever0 an0 #o! bar-s >7ver0/an0 #o! bar-s? b$ XFiecare/ oricare YEnal%ZAP es%e acce5%a% En echi5L$ ever0 an0 %all is acce5%e# in %eam a$ Profesorul / un 5rofesor / fiecare 5rofesor va sosi #isearL 5rofessor-%he a 5rofessor ever0 5rofessor 9ill arrive %oni!h% b$ X:inuna%ul / un minuna% va sosi #isearL 9on#erful-%he a 9on#erful 9ill arrive %oni!h% a$ Vom coo5%a niM%e 5ersoane bune la en!leAL 9ill$+PL co-o5% some 5ersons !oo#$FPL a% 7n!lish >Ue?ll co-o5% some 5eo5le (9ho are/ !oo# a% 7n!lish? b$ XVom coo5%a niM%e bune la en!leAL 9ill$+PL co-o5% some !oo#$FPL a% 7n!lish
(</
(B/
The 5ossibili%0 %o %a-e #e%erminers an# 5lural mar-in! 0iel#in! referen%ial an# @uan%ifica%ional e;5ressions is a #is%inc%ive 5ro5er%0 of nouns 9hich has been correla%e# %o a seman%ic 5ro5er%0 of %he conce5%s #eno%e# b0 nouns %ha% of havin! cri%eria of i#en%i%0 9hereb0 %he0 can serve as s%an#ar#s of sameness$ Thus onl0 nouns have a com5onen% of meanin! %ha% ma-es i% le!i%ima%e %o as- 9he%her some V is %he same (9ha%ever/ as q$ The frame >V is %he same rrr as q& is meanin!ful onl0 if %he blan- is fille# b0 a noun irres5ec%ive of 9ha% -in# of noun %ha% is$ A#6ec%ives an# verbs are uniforml0 e;clu#e# in %his frame3
(C/ a$ Aces%a es%e acelaMi om cu cel 5e care l-ai vLAu% ieri$ %his is same$:SG man 9i%h %he$:SG DG: 9hich him-have$1SG seen 0es%er#a0 >This is %he same man as 0ou sa9 0es%er#a0? b$ FranceAii vor sL aibL aceleaMi liber%LRi ca cele 5e care Frenchmen 9an% SD'N have same$FPL free#om$FPL as %he$FPL DG: 9hich le au americanii$ %hem have Americans >The French 9an% %o have %he same ri!h%s as %he Americans have? mAcela es%e acelaMi lun! ca aces%a %ha% is same lon! as %his
(+=/
1C<
The A#6ec%ive
The cri%eria of i#en%i%0 associa%e# 9i%h nouns allo9 %hem %o be coun%e# since an essen%ial 5re-con#i%ion for coun%in! is %he abili%0 %o #is%in!uish 9hich %hin!s are %he same an# 9hich are #ifferen%$ Since nouns su55or% coun%in! %he0 have number mor5holo!0$ Uhen number mor5holo!0 a55ears on verbs or a#6ec%ives i% is %he resul% of mor5ho-s0n%ac%ic a!reemen%/ concor# 9i%h a noun$ A#6ec%ives can a55ear af%er #e%erminers ei%her if %he0 are nominaliAe# or if %he noun is em5%0 (in 9hich case i% is normall0 in%er5re%e# b0 elli5sis see cha5%er 2 sec%ion 2/$ In Romanian nominaliAe# a#6ec%ives canno% be #is%in!uishe# from %rue a#6ec%ives b0 %heir form because of %he i#en%i%0 be%9een nominal an# a#6ec%ival en#in!s$ There is ho9ever a 5ossibili%0 %o formall0 #is%in!uish be%9een a nominaliAe# a#6ec%ive an# an a#6ec%ive 9i%h an em5%0 noun3 some #e%erminers such as %he #efini%e an# in#efini%e ar%icle have s5ecial forms 9hen %he0 5rece#e an em5%0 N (see cha5%er 2 sec%ion 2/$ Thus for a#6ec%ives 9hich are normall0 5os%nominal (i$e$ %he !rea% ma6ori%0 of Romanian a#6ec%ives/ 9e can %ell 9he%her %he #e%erminer %a-es an em5%0 N or i% is %he a#6ec%ive i%self 9hich is nominaliAe#3
(++/ a$ A sosi% un %WnLr / %WnLrul 3 nominaliAe# a#6ec%ive has arrive a 0oun! 0oun!-%he >A/The 0oun! man has arrive#? b$ A sosi% unul YNeZ %WnLr / cel YNeZ %WnLr 3 em5%0 N H a#6ec%ive has arrive one$ADG: 0oun! %he 0oun! >A/The 0oun! one has come?
The i#ea %ha% a#6ec%ives combinin! 9i%h %he encli%ic #efini%e ar%icle an# %he shor% in#efini%e ar%icle un are nominaliAe# is su55or%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% in %his environmen% %he0 lose some %05ical a#6ec%ival 5ro5er%ies firs% of all %he abili%0 %o %a-e #e!ree 9or#s3
(+1/ a$ Xfoar%e %inerii ver0 0oun!-%he$:PL b$ Xun mai %WnLr a more 0oun!
Com5are %he corres5on#in! e;am5les 9i%h an em5%0 N3 since here %he a#6ec%ive is no% nominaliAe# bu% mo#ifies an YNeZ insi#e an NP 9hich is %he com5lemen% of %he #e%erminer %he e;am5les are acce5%able3
(+2/ a$ cei foar%e %ineri %he$:PL ver0 0oun!$:PL >%he ver0 0oun! (ones/? b$ unul mai %WnLr one$:SG-ADG: more 0oun!$:SG >a 0oun!er one?
Ano%her #ifference foun# 9i%h some nominaliAe# a#6ec%ives is %he loss of %heir subca%e!oriAa%ion frame ((+4/a sho9s %ha% dra in a#nominal use ma0 %a-e a #a%ive com5lemen%I b-c sho9 %he same use bu% 9i%h an em5%0 NI #-e sho9 %ha% %he nominaliAe# a#6ec%ive canno% %a-e %he #a%ive com5lemen%/3
(+4/ a$ o fa%L #ra!L mie a !irl #ear me$DAT b$ una #ra!L mie one$FSG-ADG: #ear me$DAT
1CB
The A#6ec%ive c$ cea #ra!L mie %he$FSG #ear me$DAT #$ X#ra!a mie #ear-%he me$DAT e$ Xo #ra!L mie a #ear me$DAT
The nominaliAa%ion of a#6ec%ives is a ver0 9i#es5rea# 5henomenon$ I% is 5ro#uc%ive 9i%h a#6ec%ives %05icall0 a55lie# %o humans P e$!$ tnr >0oun!? btrn >ol#? detept >in%elli!en%? elos >6ealous? e%c$ This can be e;5laine# b0 %he fac% %ha% nominal conce5%s are i#en%if0in! conce5%s3 since %he conce5% !uman is an i#en%if0in! conce5% %he YHhumanZ fea%ure (im5lica%ion/ of %hese a#6ec%ives 5rovi#es %he i#en%if0in! conce5% nee#e# %o be use# as nouns$ G%her nominaliAe# a#6ec%ives e;5ress names of 5ro5er%ies P e$! frumosul >%he beau%iful [ %he beau%0? roul >%he re#?$ The form use# in %his case %he masculine sin!ular 5robabl0 re5resen%s a #efaul% form lac-in! !en#er an# number$ In#ee# %hese forms are no% use# in %he 5lural even in %hose con%e;%s %ha% are seman%icall0 com5a%ible 9i%h 5luraliAa%ion$ Oou >re#? for ins%ance can refer %o a cer%ain nuance of re# an# even in %his case i% canno% have 5lural bu% %he noun nuan >sha#e? mus% be use# %o conve0 %he #esire# meanin!3
(+,/ a$ aces% roMu %his re# b$ XaceM%i roMii %hese$:PL re#$:PL c$ aces%e nuanRe #e roMu %hese$FPL sha#es(F/ of re#
7vi#ence in favor of lac- of !en#er comes from %he onl0 a#6ec%ive 9hich has a s5ecial !en#erless form 9hen a55lie# %o 5ro5osi%ional con%en%s P bun >!oo#? 9i%h %he !en#erless form bine (see cha5%er 2 sec%ion B/$ The fac% %ha% bine is a !en#erless form is illus%ra%e# in e;am5les (+./b-c 9hich sho9 %ha% 9hen %he sub6ec% #oes no% have !en#er bein! a clause or a clausal 5ro-form (%he >neu%er #emons%ra%ive? asta/ %he a#6ec%ive >!oo#? mus% %a-e %he form bine$ In %he nominaliAe# use 9i%h %he meanin! >%he !oo#? i% is %his !en#erless form ( bine/ 9hich is use# (see (+<//$
(+./ a$ Aces% lucru e bun %his$:SG %hin!(N7DT/ is !oo#$:SG >This %hin! is !oo#? b$ As%a e bine %his is bine >This is !oo#? c$ 7 bine sL En%rebi En%Wi is bine SD'N as-$1SG firs% >I%?s !oo# %o as- firs%? Nu #is%in!e binele Mi rLul no% #is%in!uishes bine-%he an# evil-%he >Oe can?% %ell ri!h% from 9ron!?
(+</
'esi#es %hese !eneral 5a%%erns nominaliAe# a#6ec%ives can have 5ar%icular meanin!s resul%in! from %he conven%ionaliAe# elli5sis of a noun 9hich also e;5lains %he !en#er P e$!$ naionala >na%ional-%he$FSG? [ ec!ipa naional >%eam(F/-%he na%ional? "%he na%ional %eam& en le(a >en!lish-%he$FSG? [ limba en le( >lan!ua!e(F/-%he 7n!lish? "%he 7n!lish lan!ua!e& e%c$
1CC
The A#6ec%ive
Al%hou!h %his is no% %heir normal use nouns can also func%ion as NP-mo#ifiers resemblin! a#6ec%ives$ In %his use %he0 #iffer from a#6ec%ives in %ha% %he0 #o no% sho9 !en#er a!reemen% P !en#er is an inheren% 5ro5er%0 of nouns P an# canno% a55ear in 5renominal 5osi%ion (in (+C/b %he !en#er a!reemen% on %he #e%erminer sho9s 9hich noun is %he hea# of %he NP/3
(+B/ a$ oraM reMe#inRL #e 6u#eR ci%0 resi#ence of coun%0 b$ femeie me#ic 9oman #oc%or a$ aceas%L Y (frumoasL/ femeie (frumoasL/Z %his beau%iful 9oman beau%iful b$ aceas%L Y (Xme#ic/ femeie (me#ic/Z %his #oc%or 9oman #oc%or
(+C/
1.2. A37e/t.2es an3 2e0bs Verbs #iffer from a#6ec%ives b0 %he func%ional ca%e!ories %he0 combine 9i%h an# %he licensin! of ar!umen%s correla%e# %o %hese func%ional ca%e!ories$ Thus verbs have %he ca%e!ories of :oo# Tense an# As5ec% e;5resse# b0 inflec%ions or au;iliaries 9hich allo9 %hem %o occur as %he main 5re#ica%e of a clause$ A#6ec%ives 9hich lac- %hese ca%e!ories mus% combine 9i%h a verbal su55or% %he co5ula (%he verb a fi >%o be?/ in or#er %o be able %o occur as main 5re#ica%es of a clause$ The ca%e!or0 of Tense licenses nomina%ive case on %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of a 5re#ica%e (or on %he in%ernal ar!umen% if %he 5re#ica%e is in %he 5assive Voice/$ Transi%ive verbs in %he ac%ive Voice license %heir in%ernal ar!umen% as accusa%ive$ A#6ec%ives lac-in! %hese func%ional ca%e!ories can onl0 mar- %heir in%ernal ar!umen%s b0 subca%e!oriAe# 5re5osi%ions or inheren% cases3
(1=/ a$ #emn #e lau#L 9or%h0 of 5raise b$ #ra! nouL #ear us$DAT
1.2.1. T8e e<te0nal a0416ent of a37e/t.2es The e;%ernal ar!umen% of a#6ec%ives is no% case-license# in %he e;%en#e# 5ro6ec%ion of %he a#6ec%ive (i$e b0 a func%ional ca%e!or0 associa%e# %o a#6ec%ives as is Tense for verbs/$ As can be seen in %he various e;am5les in (1/b-e re5ea%e# belo9 i% can be in%ro#uce# as a sub6ec% of a small clause (i$e$ a sub6ec%-5re#ica%e cons%ruc%ion 9i%hou% a co5ular verb/ bein! assi!ne# #ifferen% cases #e5en#in! on %he con%e;%3 %he nomina%ive license# b0 %he Tense of %he co5ula (see (1/b/ (%he co5ula is anal0Ae# as %a-in! a small clause as a com5lemen% 9hose sub6ec% raises %o %he s5ecifier of %he co5ula/ %he accusa%ive assi!ne# b0 %he verb of %he main clause (%he so-calle# 7C: cons%ruc%ion/ (see (1/c/$ In (1/#-e %he sub6ec% is a PRG coreferen%ial 9i%h an ar!umen% of %he clause in 9hich %he small clause is embe##e#$
(1/ b$ Femeia era %WnLrL 9oman-%he 9as 0oun!$FSG >%he 9oman 9as 0oun!? c$ 7l o consi#era EncL %WnLrL he her consi#ere# s%ill 0oun!$FSG >Oe consi#ere# her s%ill 0oun!? #$ `ncL %WnLr Geor!e nu obosea #eloc s%ill 0oun!$:SG Geor!e no% !o%-%ire# a%-all (5re#ica%ive af%er co5ula/ (5re#ica%e of ob6ec% small clause/ (5re#ica%e of a#6unc% small clause/
2==
The A#6ec%ive >S%ill 0oun!$ Geor!e #i#n?% !e% %ire# a% all? e$ L-am cunoscu% %WnLr him-have$+ -no9n 0oun!$:SG >I?ve -no9n him 0oun!?
As %o %he 5recise 5osi%ion of %he sub6ec% of small clauses %here are %9o curren% formaliAa%ions3 s5ecifier of AP or s5ecifier of a func%ional ca%e!or0 Pre#$ A#o5%in! %he secon# al%erna%ive %he s%ruc%ural re5resen%a%ions of %he e;am5les (1/b-e are %he follo9in! (for #e%ails see Volume II cha5%er on Small Clauses/3
(1/_ b$ Yfemeiai era YPre#P %i YPre# YAP %WnLrLZZZZZ c$ Yel oi consi#era (%i/ YPre#P %i YPre# YAP %WnLrLZZZZ #$ YTPYPre#P PRGi Y(EncL/ Pre# YAP %WnLrZZZYTP Geor!ei$$$ZZ e$ Yli-am cunoscu% YPre#P PRGi YPre# YAP %WnLrZZZ
7ven 9hen use# as an a#6unc% a small clause base# on an a#6ec%ive re@uires a case licensor for %he sub6ec% if %he sub6ec% is no% PRG$ Thus %he inser%ion of %he co5ula (in %he Gerun# form/ is nee#e# in (1+/a in or#er %o case-license %he sub6ec%$ In (1+/b i% is no% necessar0 %o inser% %he co5ula since %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h? 9hich in%ro#uces %he small clause can caselicense %he sub6ec% (as accusa%ive/3
(1+/ a$ Co5ilul X(fiin#/ bolnav am 5leca% mai %WrAiu chil#-%he bein! sichave lef% more la%e >The chil# bein! sic- 9e lef% la%er? b$ Se mai cear%L 5en%ru fleacuri cu co5ilul bolnavd R7FL s%ill fi!h% for %rifles 9i%h chil#-%he sic>The0 are s%ill fi!h%in! over no%hin! 9i%h %heir chil# sic-d?
In %he a#nominal use %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives (%hose a#6ec%ives %ha% can have a 5re#ica%ive use havin! %he #is%ribu%ion in (1// is i#en%ifie# 9i%h %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he noun resul%in! in a se%-in%ersec%ion in%er5re%a%ion (see sec%ion 1 for #e%ails/$ 1.2.2. Se6ant./ /o00elates of t8e a37e/t.2e@2e0b 3.st.n/t.on. T8e as5e/t1al 50o5e0t.es of a37e/t.2es The mos% obvious seman%ic #is%inc%ion be%9een verbs an# a#6ec%ives is %ha% verbs ma0 e;5ress #0namic 5re#ica%es (5rocesses accom5lishmen%s achievemen%s/ 9hile 5rimar0 (un#erive#/ a#6ec%ives can onl0 e;5ress s%a%es$ Thus in or#er %o refer %o 6o0 one ma0 use %he a#6ec%ive vesel >cheerful? %o refer %o %he s%a%e bu% for %he 5rocess of !e%%in! in%o %his s%a%e one mus% use a verbal cons%ruc%ion P ei%her an inchoa%ive verb #erive# from %he a#6ec%ive a se nveseli >%o cheer u5? or %he verb become combine# 9i%h a small clause base# on %he a#6ec%ive vesel P a deveni $ se face vesel >%o become/!e% cheerful?$ S%a%es also inclu#e #is5osi%ions so %ha% a#6ec%ives can also #eno%e #is5osi%ional 5ro5er%ies 9hich are manifes%e# in #0namic even%s P for ins%ance abil >s-illful? iute >fas%?$ :an0 a#6ec%ives #erive# from #0namic verbs have a #is5osi%ional meanin! P e$!$ nori aductori de ploaie >clou#s(:/ brin!ADN$:PL of rain? "clou#s 9hich can/9ill 5robabl0 brin! rain& P al%hou!h in some cases %he0 are almos% as5ec%uall0 in#is%in!uishable from %he corres5on#in! #0namic verb as in cresctor >!ro9in!? (temperatur cresctoare >!ro9in! %em5era%ure? [ "%em5era%ure 9hich is/9as !ro9in! (ri!h% no9 / a% %he even% %ime/&/$ 'ecause causa%ion 5resu55oses a #0namic even% %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of a#6ec%ives lac-s a Causer or A!en%$ Pursuin! our e;am5le %he causer of a cheerfulness even% 9ill be
2=+
The A#6ec%ive
e;5resse# insi#e a verbal s%ruc%ure ei%her usin! a causa%ive verb #erive# from %he a#6ec%ive a nveseli >%o cheer u5 (somebo#0/? or %he causa%ive li!h% verb face >ma-e? follo9e# b0 a small clause base# on %he a#6ec%ive P a face pe cineva vesel >ma-e somebo#0 cheerful?$ This 5rovi#es an e;5lana%ion for %he s0n%ac%ic #ifference 9i%h res5ec% %o ar!umen% mar-in! no%ice# in +$1$+3 since a#6ec%ives #o no% have a causal com5onen% %he0 have a sim5ler ar!umen% s%ruc%ure (lac-in! %he Causer/A!en% role/$ Therefore %here is no nee# for %hem %o buil# u5 an e;%en#e# 5ro6ec%ion 9here ar!umen%s can be mar-e# b0 #ifferen% s%ruc%ural cases$ Verbs on %he o%her han# use %he s0s%em of s%ruc%ural cases (nomina%ive/accusa%ive in nomina%ive lan!ua!es %o 9hich Romanian belon!s/ %o e;5ress %he o55osi%ion be%9een %he Causer/A!en% an# %he Theme$ Ano%her as5ec%ual #is%inc%ion amon! 5re#ica%es is %ha% be%9een in#ivi#ual-level an# s%a!e-level 5re#ica%es$ S%a!e-level 5re#ica%es are %em5orar0 5re#ica%es 9hich a55l0 %o an in#ivi#ual onl0 in a circumscribe# si%ua%ion (a s%a!e of i%s e;is%ence/ 9hile in#ivi#ual5re#ica%es #o no% ma-e reference %o an0 si%ua%ion bein! 5ermanen% 5ro5er%ies or e;%en#in! over ver0 lon! 5erio#s in an in#ivi#ual?s life-s5an$ This #is%inc%ion cu%s across %he #is%inc%ions be%9een le;ical ca%e!ories P a#6ec%ives verbs an# nouns can be ei%her in#ivi#uallevel or s%a!e-level (al%hou!h nouns are more of%en in#ivi#ual-level/$ For a#6ec%ives %his #is%inc%ion is illus%ra%e# in con%ras%s such as (11/-(12/3 in#ivi#ual-level 5re#ica%es canno% occur in 5erce5%ual re5or%s (see (11// or %em5oral clauses in%ro#uce# b0 &!en% &!enever (see (12//$
(11/ a$ mL-am vLAu% 5e bLia% en!leA (unless referin! %o a 5ar% in a 5la0 e%c$/ him-have$+ seen DG: bo0 7n!lish b$ L-am vLAu% 5e bLia% furios CL$ACC-have$+ seen DG: bo0 an!r0 >I sa9 %he bo0 an!r0? a$ gCWn#/ Gri#ecW%eorih es%e gnervos / Xin%eli!en%/ XruMinosh Ion se com5or%L ciu#a%$ 9hen 9henever is ma# in%elli!en% sh0 Ion R7FL behaves o##l0 >Uhen(ever/ he is an!r0/ in%elli!en%/sh0 Ion behaves o##l0$ b$ Gri#ecW%eori es%e XEnal%L/Xmo#ernL/cura%L/vo5si%L 5roas5L% clL#irea ara%L foar%e bine$ 9henever is %all mo#ern clean 5ain%e# freshl0 buil#in!-%he loo-s ver0 !oo# >Uhen i% is %all/mo#ern/clean/recen%l0 5ain%e# %he bui#in! loo-s ver0 !oo#$?
(12/
1.2.3. 'e0bal fo06s D.t8 a37e/t.2al 3.st0.b1t.on. Pa0t./.5les 2s. a37e/t.2es. Par%ici5les a% leas% in some of %heir uses have an a#6ec%ival #is%ribu%ion (%his hol#s for %he Romanian 5as% 5ar%ici5le e;ce5% for %he 5erfec% %ense/3
(14/ a$ scrisorile /.t.te cu voce %are (a#nominal a!reein! 9i%h %he hea# noun/ le%%ers(F/-%he rea#$FPL 9i%h voice lou# >le%%ers rea# ou% lou#? b$ Scrisorile erau /.t.te cu voce %are (5re#ica%ive 5os%co5ular 5osi%ion a!reein! le%%ers(F/-%he 9ere rea#$FPL 9i%h voice lou# 9i%h %he sub6ec%/ >The le%%ers 9ere rea# ou% lou#$? c$ G voi face .1b.t: #e %oRi (5re#ica%e of ob6ec% small clause a!reein! her 9ill$+SG ma-e love#$FSG b0 all 9i%h %he sub6ec% of %he small clause/ >I 9ill ma-e her love# b0 ever0one? #$ As/1ltat: cu a%enRie melo#ia #evenea mai in%eresan%L (5re#ica%e of lis%ene#$FSG 9i%h a%%en%ion melo#0( F/-%he became more in%eres%in! a#6unc% small clause/ >Lis%ene# carefull0 %he son! became more in%eres%in!$? e$ 7l a veni% NnsoA.t #e 5rie%eni (5re#ica%e of a#6unc% small clause/ he has come accom5anie#$ :SG b0 frien#s >Oe came accom5anie# b0 frien#s$?
2=1
The A#6ec%ive f$ :unca era f:/1t: En !rabL 9or--%he 9as #one in hurr0 >The 9or- 9as bein! #one in a hurr0 / ha# been #one in a hurr0?
The 5ar%ici5le forms 9i%h %he #is%ribu%ion in (14/ are ambi!uous be%9een an even%ive rea#in! charac%eris%ic of 5assive confi!ura%ions an# a resul%a%ive rea#in! ( cu voce tare in (14/a-b forces %he even%ive in%er5re%a%ionI on %he o%her han# in an e;am5le li-e (14/f %here is an even%-resul% ambi!ui%0/$ The !erun# is onl0 e;ce5%ionall0 use# as an ac%ive 5ar%ici5le (see cha5%er C *2$,/$ 'esi#es #is%ribu%ion 5as% 5ar%ici5les also resemble a#6ec%ives mor5holo!icall0 P %he0 have %he same number-!en#er-case inflec%ions as a#6ec%ives$
Par%ici5les are %herefore consi#ere# a #ual/mi;e# ca%e!or0 in %ra#i%ional !rammar bo%h verbal an# nominal 9hence %heir name3 La%in participium is #erive# from particeps "5ar%a-in!& %ransla%in! %he Gree- metoc!\0
Par%ici5les can be a#6ec%iviAe#$ Oavin! %he same en#in!s a#6ec%iviAe# 5ar%ici5les canno% be formall0 #is%in!uishe# from verbal ones$ 'u% %here are s0n%ac%ic %es%s #is%in!uishin! be%9een %he %9o$ Thus onl0 a#6ec%ives allo9 #e!rees of com5arison (such as mai000dect >more^ %han? foarte >ver0?/$ Dsin! %his %es% 9e can conclu#e %ha% a#6ec%iviAe# 5ar%ici5les have onl0 %he s%a%ive rea#in!s P %he0 are ei%her buil% on s%a%ive verbs or have a resul%a%ive rea#in! (if %he0 are buil% on #0namic verbs/ (%herefore resul%a%ive 5as% 5ar%ici5les are also -no9n as a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5les/$ Thus (1,/a has %9o rea#in!s3 >%he bo0 is bein! bea%en no9? (%he even%ive/#0namic rea#in!/ an# >%he bo0 has been bea%en (s%ill bears/suffers %he effec%s of %he bea%in!/?$ In (1,/b 9here %he 5ar%ici5le is mo#ifie# b0 %he #e!ree 9or# mai >more? onl0 %he secon# rea#in! survives$ This e;am5le canno% mean >%he bo0 is bein! bea%en har#er?$ No such con%ras% can be seen in (1./ 9here %he verb is s%a%ive$
(1,/ a$ 'Lia%ul e bL%u% bo0-%he is bea%en >The bo0 is bea%en? b$ 'Lia%ul e mai bL%u% bo0-%he is more bea%en >The bo0 is more (severel0/ bea%en? a$ Sona%a as%a e mai cunoscu%L$ sona%a-%he %his is more -no9n >This sona%a is be%%er -no9n? b$ :aria e foar%e iubi%L$ :aria is ver0 love# >:aria is ver0 love#$?
(1./
Secon#l0 a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5les #o no% allo9 %he a!en% PP hea#e# b0 de ctre >b0? (li%$ >of %o9ar#s?/$ 'ase# on %his %es% 9e can conclu#e %ha% 5ar%ici5les #erive# from s%a%ive verbs 9i%h an e;5eriencer sub6ec% can be verbal (see iubit in (1</a from iubi >love?/ bu% 5ar%ici5les #erive# from verbs 9i%h an e;5eriencer ob6ec% are a#6ec%ival (see ncntat >charme# #eli!h%e#? in (1charm #eli!h%?/3
(1</ a$ :aria e iubi%L #e cL%re %oRi :aria is love# of %o9ar#s all$:PL >:aria is love# b0 ever0bo#0? b$ :aria e EncWn%a%L #e (XcL%re/ Ion :aria is charme# of %o9ar#s Ion >:aria is #eli!h%e# 9i%h Ion?
2=2
The A#6ec%ive
Ui%h #0namic verbs a fur%her %es% 9hich #is%in!uishes resul%a%ive from even%ive 5ar%ici5les is %he 5ossibili%0 %o a55ear as 5re#ica%es af%er rmne >remain?I no%ice %ha% %he a!en% PP is e;clu#e# 9i%h %he resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5le (9hich allo9s rmne/ 9hich su55or%s %he i#ea %ha% resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5les are a#6ec%ival3
(1B/ a$ DMa a rLmas #eschisL (X#e cL%re Ion/ (resul%a%ive/ #oor-%he has remaine# o5ene# of %o9ar#s Ion >The #oor remaine# o5ene# (Xb0 Ion/? b$ DMa ga fos% / Xa rLmash #eschisL #e cL%re Ion (even%ive/ #oor-%he has been has remaine# o5ene# of %o9ar#s Ion
1.3. A37e/t.2es as a ne4at.2el9 3ef.ne3 /ate4o09 In %he !enera%ive %ra#i%ion a#6ec%ives use# %o be #escribe# as YHN HVZ$ :ore recen%l0 i% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% a#6ec%ives can be ne!a%ivel0 #efine# as non-nouns an# non-verbs$ In a binar0 s0s%em of ca%e!orial fea%ures usin! YH/- NZ an# YH/- VZ a#6ec%ives 9oul# %hus be #efine# as Y-N -VZ$ This charac%eriAa%ion is su55or%e# b0 %he com5arison 9i%h nouns an# verbs 5resen%e# above3 unli-e nouns %he0 #o no% #eno%e i#en%if0in! conce5%s an# %herefore %he0 lac- %he abili%0 %o %a-e #e%erminers an# (in%er5re%able/ numberI %he0 have a 5oorer func%ional s%ruc%ure %han verbs lac-in! Tense :oo# As5ec% an# %he ca5aci%0 %o formall0 license sub6ec%s an# ob6ec%sI correla%ivel0 on %he seman%ic si#e %he0 lac- %he #0namic an# causal com5onen%s 9hich can be foun# in verbs$ Gn %he o%her han# a#6ec%ives #o have one 5osi%ive 5ro5er%0 %he abili%0 %o %a-e #e!rees of com5arison 9hich is share# 9i%h a#verbs an# some 5re5osi%ions bu% is no% foun# 9i%h nouns an# verbs$ 1.$. A37e/t.2es an3 a32e0bs '0 %he 5ro5er%0 of func%ionin! as mo#ifiers a#6ec%ives resemble a#verbs %he %9o ca%e!ories #ifferin! b0 %he na%ure of %he cons%i%uen% %he0 mo#if0 P a#6ec%ives are mo#ifiers in nominal 5ro6ec%ions a#verbs are mo#ifiers in verbal or a#6ec%ival 5ro6ec%ions$ Correla%ivel0 a#verbs lac- nominal fea%ures (!en#er number case/ bein! an uninflec%e# 5ar% of s5eech (in Romanian #e!rees of com5arison are e;5resse# b0 in#e5en#en% 9or#s/$ A fur%her #ifference be%9een a#6ec%ives an# a#verbs is %he fac% %ha% a#verbs canno% a55ear in co5ular confi!ura%ions an# small clauses$ Oo9ever because man0 5ro5er%ies can a55l0 bo%h %o en%i%ies (in#ivi#uals/ an# even%s an# even%s can also be referre# %o b0 nouns #erive# from verbs %here is a close rela%ionshi5 be%9een a#6ec%ives an# a#verbs3 man0 le;ical elemen%s %ha% func%ion as a#6ec%ives can also be inser%e# in a#verbial con%e;%s$ In some lan!ua!es a s5ecial mor5holo!0 is use# in %his case (French -ment 7n!lish -ly/$ In Romanian li-e in German %he normal si%ua%ion is %ha% %he a#6ec%ive a55ears in an unmar-e# form$ For Romanian %his form is %he masculine sin!ular form3
(1C/ a$ Gm frumos / urW% / 5ros% / rLu human-bein!(:/ beau%iful u!l0 s%u5i# ba# b$ 7l scrie frumos / urW% /5ros% /rLu he 9ri%es beau%iful u!l0 s%u5i# ba# >Oe 9ri%es beau%ifull0/u!lil0/s%u5i#l0/ba#l0
As 9e have seen in +$+ above (see (+./-(+</ %he unmar-e# form is #is%inc% from %he 2=4
The A#6ec%ive
masculine sin!ular form in %he case of %he a#6ec%ive bun >!oo#? (9i%h %he unmar-e# form bine/$ 7;5ec%e#l0 i% is bine 9hich is use# an a#verb (>9ell?/$ For a minori%0 of a#6ec%ives %he a#verbial form is #is%inc%3 %he a#6ec%ives in %he suffi; -esc obli!a%or0 a## an -e 0iel#in! (b0 a re!ular 5hone%ic al%erna%ion/ %he form -ete3
(2=/ a$ accen% mol#ovenesc accen% :ol#avian b$ vorbeM%e mol#oveneM%e s5ea-s :ol#avian-ete
The s%rin! -ete has been reanal0Ae# as an a#verbial suffi; 9hich can a%%ach %o nouns an# ori!in a#6ec%ives3
(2+/ a$ 7 american Mi vorbeM%e americLneM%e is American an# s5ea-s American- ete >(S/he?s American an# s5ea-s 9i%h an American accen%? b$ Se 5oar%L 5rie%eneM%e R7FL behaves frien#-ete >(S/he behaves frien#l0?
The a#verbial suffi; -mente a mo#ern borro9in! is use# 9i%h ver0 fe9 a#6ec%ives (e$!$ necesarmente "necessaril0& absolutamente >absolu%el0?I for %he la%%er %he unmar-e# form absolut can also be use# a#verbiall0/$ A fur%her similari%0 be%9een a#6ec%ives an# a#verbs alrea#0 allu#e# %o is %he 5ossibili%0 %o receive #e!rees of com5arison$
(21/ a$ Ion alear!L re5e#e/ mai re5e#e/ mai 5uRin re5e#e/ foar%e re5e#e/cel mai re5e#e Ion runs fas% more fas% more li%%le fas% ver0 fas% %he more fas% >Ion runs fas%/fas%er/less fas%/ver0 fas%/%he fas%es%K b$ co5il(ul/ #eM%e5%/ mai #eM%e5%/mai 5uRin #eM%e5%/ foar%e #eM%e5%/cel mai #eM%e5%$ chil#(%he/ smar% more smar% more li%%le smar% ver0 smar% %he more smar% >(a/%he/ smar%/smar%er/less smar%/ver0 smar%/%he smar%es% chil#?
'esi#es a#6ec%ives an# a#verbs #e!ree cons%ruc%ions are also foun# 9i%h some s5a%ial PPs 9hich func%ion as a#verbs (see (i// an# PPs 9i%h an i#ioma%ic meanin! corres5on#in! %o a @uali%0 a#6ec%ive (see (ii//$ (i/ e mai En faRL / cel mai En faRL is more in fron% %he more in fron% (ii/ As%a e mai fLrL 5er#ea %his is more 9i%hou% cur%ain >This is more in#ecen%?
2. Classes of a37e/t.2es. Se6ant./ t95es of a37e/t.2es an3 t8e.0 3.st0.b1t.on

The a#6ec%ive is no% a uni%ar0 ca%e!or0 from ei%her a seman%ic or a s0n%ac%ic 5oin% of vie9$ 'ecause %he #is%ribu%ional classes of a#6ec%ives are #irec%l0 correla%e# 9i%h %heir seman%ics 9e 9ill #escribe %he ma6or classes of a#6ec%ives consi#erin! %heir seman%ics an# %heir #is%ribu%ion a% %he same %ime$ 2.1. D.st0.b1t.onal /lasses If 9e %a-e in%o accoun% onl0 %he #is%ribu%ion 9e can #ivi#e a#6ec%ives in%o %he follo9in! 2=,
The A#6ec%ive
classes3 (i/ Ui%h res5ec% %o %he ca5aci%0 of a55earin! in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions a#6ec%ives can be #ivi#e# in%o %9o %05es3 a#6ec%ives 9hich can a55ear as 5re#ica%es an# a#6ec%ives 9hich are onl0 a#nominal (see also (+/-(1/ above/3 (a/ a#nominal-5re#ica%ive3
(22/ a$ aces%a es%e am5lu %his is 9i#e b$ un 5roiec% am5lu a 5ro6ec% 9i#e
(b/ a#nominal-onl03
(24/ a$Xaces%a es%e fos% %his is former b$ un fos% 5roiec% a former 5ro6ec%
(ii/ A#nominal a#6ec%ives can be of %hree %05es3 (a/ onl0 5os%nominal3

(2,/ un 5rofesor universi%ar / Xun universi%ar 5rofessor a 5rofessor aca#emic a aca#emic 5rofessor
(b/ onl0 5renominal3

(2./ un fos% 5rofesor / Xun 5rofesor fos% a former 5rofessor a 5rofessor former
(c/ allo9in! bo%h or#ers3

(2</ un am5lu 5roiec% / un 5roiec% am5lu a 9i#e 5ro6ec% a 5ro6ec% 9i#e
As 9e 9ill see in sec%ion 2$+ %he 5osi%ion before or af%er %he noun is almos% al9a0s correla%e# 9i%h meanin! #ifferences$ (iii/ Ui%h res5ec% %o %he ca5aci%0 of combinin! 9i%h #e!rees 9or#s a#6ec%ives s5li% in%o %9o classes a #ifference #irec%l0 correla%e# 9i%h %heir seman%ics3 (a/ scalar or radable a#6ec%ives 9hich e;5ress scalar 5ro5er%ies allo9 #e!ree 9or#sI (b/ non-scalar or nonradable ad+ectives 9hich e;5ress non-scalar 5ro5er%ies canno% combine 9i%h #e!ree 9or#s3
(2B/ a$ o casL mai mare / foar%e mare a house more bi! ver0 bi! b$ Xo ho%LrWre mai !uvernamen%alL / foar%e !uvernamen%alL a #ecision more !overnmen%al ver0 !overnmen%al
Gra#able a#6ec%ives an# %he #e!ree cons%ruc%ions %he0 license 9ill be e;amine# in sec%ion 4$ 2.2. Inte0se/t.2e 2s. non+.nte0se/t.2e a37e/t.2es As 9e sai# %he #is%ribu%ional #ifferences be%9een a#6ec%ives are correla%e# 9i%h seman%ic #ifferences$ In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill sho9 ho9 %he #is%ribu%ional #ifferences no%ice# in %he 2=.
The A#6ec%ive
5revious sec%ion un#er (i/ an# (ii/ are rela%e# %o %he #eno%a%ion of a#6ec%ives$ Ue 9ill s%ar% 9i%h (i/ %he mos% !eneral #is%ribu%ional #ifference3 9h0 is i% %ha% some a#6ec%ives can a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions an# o%hers are res%ric%e# %o %he a#nominal 5osi%ionK Cons%i%uen%s 9hich a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions #eno%e b0 #efini%ion 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#uals3 %he0 mus% combine 9i%h an en%i%0-#eno%in! e;5ression %he sub6ec% %o 0iel# a com5le%e 5ro5osi%ion P in %echnical %erms %he0 #eno%e func%ions from en%i%ies (%05e eef/ %o 5ro5osi%ions (or %ru%h values %05e e%f/$ This #eno%a%ional %05e is no%a%e# ee %f$ Ue can %hus conclu#e %ha% 9hen %he0 a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions a#6ec%ives more 5recisel0 ad+ectival p!rases P APs P #eno%e 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#uals (or first-order properties/3
(2C/ CuRi%ul es%e roMu -nife-%he is re# roMu [ ;$;Deef$re# (;/ 3 %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! re# cuRi%ul [ ;$ cuRi%(;/ >%he uni@ue in#ivi#ual 9hich (in %he !iven con%e;%/ is a -nife? CuRi%ul es%e roMu [ roMu(cuRi%ul/ [ (;$;De$re#(;//(;$ -nife(;// [ re#(;$-nife(;//
Ue e;5ec% %hese a#6ec%ives %o -ee5 %his %05e of in%er5re%a%ion 9hen %he0 a55ear in a#nominal 5osi%ion$ This e;5ec%a%ion is confirme# b0 e;aminin! %he meanin! of (4=/3
(4=/ a$ Aces%a es%e un cuRi% roMu %his is a -nife re# b$ Pe masL e un cuRi% roMu on %able is a -nife re#
The meanin! of %hese e;am5les can be 5ara5hrase# b0 (4+/ 9here %he 5ro5er%ies e;5resse# b0 %he a#nominal a#6ec%ive an# %he noun are in#e5en#en%l0 5re#ica%e# on %he referen% an# rela%e# b0 con6unc%ion3
(4+/ a$ Aces%a es%e un cuRi% Mi es%e roMu %his is a -nife an# is re# b$ Pe masL e ceva care e cuRi% Mi care e roMu on %able is some%hin! 9hich is -nife an# 9hich is re#
In o%her 9or#s for a#6ec%ives #eno%in! 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#uals %he meanin! of YYNPZYAPZZ is a com5le; 5ro5er%0 forme# b0 rela%in! %he %9o 5ro5er%ies b0 con6unc%ion$ Uri%in! %he %9o 5ro5er%ies in lamb#a-%erms 9e have3
(41/ If %he #eno%a%ion of YNPZ is ;$N(;/ an# %he #eno%a%ion of YAPZ is ;$A(;/ %he #eno%a%ion of YNPZYAPZ is ;$(N(;/ l A(;//
Pro5er%ies are curren%l0 re5resen%e# in se%-%heore%ical %erms as se%s of ob6ec%s com5ose# b0 all an# onl0 %he ob6ec%s 9hich have %ha% 5ro5er%0 P %hus cuit >-nife? #eno%es %he se% of -nifes an# rou >re#? %he se% of re# ob6ec%s$ A#o5%in! %his re5resen%a%ion %he com5le; 5ro5er%0 forme# b0 con6oinin! %9o 5ro5er%ies is %he intersection of %he %9o se%s #eno%e# b0 %he %9o 5ro5er%ies3
2=<
The A#6ec%ive (42/
re# -nife re# -nife
Therefore firs%-or#er 5ro5er%0 a#6ec%ives 9hen a55earin! in a#nominal 5osi%ion can be calle# intersective ad+ectives$ This %erm can be e;%en#e# for convenience %o %he 9hole le;ical class of firs%-or#er 5ro5er%0 a#6ec%ives irres5ec%ive of %he 5osi%ion %he0 occu50$ A#nominal-onl0 a#6ec%ives are non-intersective$ Thus %he inference in (44/ is no% vali# unli-e %he inference from (4=/ %o (4+/3
(44/ 7l e un fos% 5rofesor -/-f 7l e fos% Mi el e 5rofessor >Oe is a former 5rofessor? -/-f >Oe is former an# he is a 5rofessor?
Generall0 s5ea-in! an a#6ec%ive is non-in%ersec%ive if (NHA/(;/ is no% 5ara5hrasable b0 (N(;/ l A(;//$ Non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives #o no% func%ion as firs%-or#er 5re#ica%es i$e$ 5re#ica%es a55lie# %o en%i%ies bu% ra%her as secon#-or#er 5ro5er%ies i$e$ 5re#ica%es a55lie# %o 5ro5er%ies3 %he0 %a-e as an ar!umen% %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 %he NP %he0 combine 9i%h$ Thus fost >former? is a55lie# %o %he 5ro5er%0 profesor >5rofessor %eacher? an# 0iel#s %he com5le; 5ro5er%0 >;$ %here is a 5revious %ime % so %ha% ; 9as a 5rofessor a% %?$ The le;ical en%r0 of fost mus% %hus si!nal %ha% i% mus% combine 9i%h a 5ro5er%0 of in#ivi#uals (%05e ee %f/$ Post #eno%es %hus a func%ion from 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#uals in%o 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#uals P a %05e 9hich is no%a%e# eee %f ee %ff$
A more accura%e re5resen%a%ion of fost mus% also in%ro#uce %he %ime in%ervals a% 9hich %he 5ro5er%ies are a55lie#$ The #eno%a%ion of %he NP before as 9ell as af%er %he a55lica%ion of fost is no% sim5l0 ee %f bu% ei ee %ff a 5ro5er%0 of in#ivi#uals rela%iviAe# %o %ime (an in#ivi#ual can be 5rofessor a% a %ime % an# ma0 no% be 5rofessor a% a #ifferen% %ime %_/3 (4,/ fos% [ P$ % Di$ ; Deef $ Y }P(; %/ l %_ Di %_e%$ P(; %_/Z fos% (N/ [ >%he 5ro5er%0 9hich a55lie# %o an in#ivi#ual ; a% a %ime % s%a%es %ha% ; is no% N a% % an# %here is a %ime %_ 5revious %o % so %ha% ; 9as N a% %_? (in formal %erms % Di$ ; De$ Y} P(; %/ l %__ Di %_e%$ P(; %_/Z /
Since %he0 a55l0 %o nominal 5ro5er%ies ra%her %han %o referen%s non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives #eno%e second-order properties$
An ol#er 9or#in! for %he #is%inc%ion in%ersec%ive vs$ non-in%ersec%ive is referent-modification vs$ reference-modification 3 non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives have also been calle# reference-modifiers 9hich %ransla%es %he i#ea %ha% %he0 mo#if0 %he >reference? of %he NP i$e$ %he class or func%ion %ha% %he NP e;5resses$ In%ersec%ive (or a#nominal-5re#ica%ive/ a#6ec%ives have been calle# referent-modifiers because %he0 #irec%l0 e;5ress a 5ro5er%0 of %he referen% of %he DP$ G%her researchers 5ro5ose# %he names intensional (for reference-mo#ifier or non-in%ersec%ive/ an# e'tensional (for referen%-mo#ifier or in%ersec%ive/$ Follo9in! a more recen% %erminolo!0 9e 9ill res%ric% here %he %erm >in%ensional? %o a sub-%05e of non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives (see * 1$4$4/$
2=B
The A#6ec%ive
Ue shoul# ho9ever no%ice %ha% some a#6ec%ives 9hich are non-in%ersec%ive accor#in! %o %he %es% in (4=/-(4+/-(44/ ((NHA/(;/ w N(;/ l A(;/ / can never%heless a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion in cer%ain con%e;%s3
(4./ (4</ Ar#ealul es%e un %eri%oriu naRional w Ar#ealul es%e un %eri%oriu Mi Ar#ealul es%e naRional Ar#eal-%he is a %erri%or0 na%ional Ar#eal-%he is a %erri%or0 an# Ar#eal-%he is na%ional Aces% %eri%oriu es%e naRional This %erri%or0 is na%ional
Oo9 can 9e e;5lain %his fac%K Firs% no%ice %ha% %hese a#6ec%ive canno% a55ear in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions 9i%h 6us% an0 -in# of sub6ec%3
(4B/ KK Aces%a es%e naRional This is na%ional
Uha% ma-es %he #ifference be%9een %he e;am5les (4B/ an# (4</ is %ha% %he noun teritoriu a55ears insi#e %he sub6ec% in (4./$ Ue can %hus e;5lain %he 9ellforme#ness of (4</ as follo9s3 %he a#6ec%ive naional belon!s %o %he class of rela%ional a#6ec%ives 9hich 9ill be #escribe# in #e%ail in sec%ion 1$4$1 belo9$ These a#6ec%ives have a ver0 !eneral meanin! P in %his case >rela%e# %o na%ion? P 9hich !e%s s5ecific onl0 in combina%ion 9i%h a noun P %hus >na%ional %erri%or0? is a %erri%or0 9hich belon!s %o a na%ion >na%ional la9? is %he la9 of %he na%ion >na%ional cos%ume? is a cos%ume 9hich belon!s %o %he %ra#i%ions of a na%ion e%c$ This nee# of a nominal conce5% can be formaliAe# b0 #escribin! rela%ional a#6ec%ives as %a-in! %he nominal 5ro5er%0 (%he nominal conce5%/ as an ar!umen% P %he0 9oul# %hus be of %he %05e eee %f ee %ff li-e all non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives (in sec%ion 1$4$1 9e 9ill ma-e %his anal0sis more 5recise/$ Ue ma0 assume %ha% 9hen %he nominal conce5% is 5resen% insi#e %he sub6ec% as in (4</ i% can be recovere# insi#e %he 5re#ica%e so %ha% %he a#6ec%ive can fulfill i%s in%er5re%a%ive re@uiremen%s insi#e %he 5re#ica%e$ The e;am5le (4</ is %hus in%er5re%e# as
(4C/ Aces% %eri%oriu es%e (un/ %eri%oriu naRional This %erri%or0 is a %erri%or0 na%ional
In o%her 9or#s %he a55aren% 5re#ica%ive use in (4</ is #ue %o elli5sis$ Uhe%her %his is re!ular noun elli5sis or %he resul% of a s5ecial in%er5re%a%ive s%ra%e!0 charac%eris%ic of rela%ional a#6ec%ives is a com5le; issue 9hich 9ill no% be a##resse# here$ Uh0 can?% %his s%ra%e!0 rescue an a#6ec%ive such as fost >former? in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ionK The reason ma0 be %ha% for %his a#6ec%ive (NHA/(;/ #oes no% im5l0 N(;/ P fost profesor >former %eacher? is no% a %eacher$ Therefore %he noun canno% be 5re#ica%e# alone on %he referen% in %he same con%e;% in 9hich (NHA/(;/ is 5re#ica%e# on %he referen% so %ha% 9e canno% use %he noun alone insi#e %he sub6ec% li-e in (4</-(4C/$ Ue can %hus see %ha% a #is%inc%ion can be #ra9n insi#e non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives be%9een a#6ec%ives for 9hich (NHA/(;/ im5lies N(;/ an# a#6ec%ives for 9hich %his im5lica%ion is no% %rue$ The firs% %05e has been calle# subsective 9hich reflec%s %he i#ea %ha% %he a#6ec%ive a55lie# %o %he NP crea%es a se% inclu#e# in %he NP-class a >sub-sec%ion? of %his class3 %hus a na%ional %erri%or0 is s%ill a %erri%or0 al%hou!h i% is no% some%hin! na%ional (i% ma-es no sense %o a55l0 %he a#6ec%ive >na%ional? #irec%l0 %o %he referen%/ 9hile a former 5rofessor is nei%her former nor a 5rofessor$ Rela%ional a#6ec%ives are subsec%ive$ Ue can conclu#e %ha% %he 5seu#o-5re#ica%ive use base# on elli5sis or recover0 of a nominal conce5% is onl0 5ossible for subsec%ive a#6ec%ives$
Re!ar#in! %he rule of seman%ic com5osi%ion use# for a#nominal in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives %he s%an#ar#
2=C
The A#6ec%ive
a55roach uses a s5ecial rule of set intersection (or predicate modification/3 if %9o cons%i%uen%s of %he same seman%ic %05e 9hich are func%ions on en%i%ies are combine# %he resul%in! cons%i%uen% is a func%ion on en%i%ies 9hich is forme# b0 %he %9o func%ions e;5resse# b0 %he %9o cons%i%uen%s rela%e# b0 con6unc%ion3 (i/ For D ee f D ee f an# such %ha% imme#ia%el0 #omina%es bo%h an# YY ZZ [ ;$ (YYZZ (;/ an# YYZZ (;//$ This rule 9as firs% 5ro5ose# un#er %he name :!eta-identification3 %he i#ea 9as %ha% %9o unsa%ura%e# e;5ressions of %he same %05e are combine# b0 identifyin t!e variable (%he unsa%ura%e# 5osi%ion/ i$e$ b0 a55l0in! %he %9o 5ro5er%ies (#eno%e# b0 an# / %o %he same variable$ This rule allo9s us %o main%ain a uniform seman%ic re5resen%a%ion of in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives (namel0 as ee %f func%ions/ in all con%e;%s in 9hich %he0 a55ear 5re#ica%ive as 9ell as a#nominal$ In %he ini%ial version of %he :on%a!ovian com5osi%ional seman%ics %his %05e of rule coul# no% be formula%e# %he onl0 a#missible combina%ion rule bein! functional application3 in o%her 9or#s if cons%i%uen%s an# combine one of %hem mus% be a func%ion o5era%in! on %he o%her (%he resul%in! cons%i%uen% bein! %hus in%er5re%e# ei%her as YYZZ(YYZZ/ or as YYZZ(YYZZ//$ Dn#er %his a55roach in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ive 9ere consi#ere# %o have #ifferen% seman%ic re5resen%a%ions in a#nominal an# 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions P bein! eee %f ee %ff in a#nominal 5osi%ion (func%ions from NP-#eno%a%ions in%o NP-#eno%a%ions/ an# ee %f in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion$ This a55roach 9as foun# %o be 5roblema%ic no% onl0 because of %he massive ambi!ui%0 i% in%ro#uce# P %he same class havin! #ifferen% #eno%a%ions accor#in! %o %he environmen% P bu% also because i% overloo-e# %he #is%inc%ion amon! a#nominal a#6ec%ives be%9een in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives an# non-in%ersec%ive ones such as former 9hich as 9e have seen are al9a0s eee %fee %ff an# %herefore canno% a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions$
2.3. -1al.t9 a37e/t.2es In%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives rou!hl0 corres5on# %o %he class of >@uali%0? or >@uali%a%ive? a#6ec%ives in %he !ramma%ical %ra#i%ion3 a#6ec%ives #eno%in! various 5ro5er%ies of en%i%ies P 5h0sical 5ro5er%ies such as sha5e siAe color a!e %em5era%ure (e$!$ solid >soli#? rece >col#? lun >lon!? scurt >shor%? nalt >%all hi!h? reu >heav0? rotund >roun#? alb >9hi%e?/ men%al an# moral 5ro5er%ies s%a%es an# #is5osi%ions (e$!$ inteli ent >in%elli!en%? trist >sa#? modest >mo#es%? / evalua%ive 5ro5er%ies (e$!$ bun >!oo#? ru >ba#? frumos >beau%iful?/ e%c$ :os% un#erive# a#6ec%ives belon! %o %his %05e$ This class cons%i%u%es %hus %he 5ro%o%05ical %05e of a#6ec%ives$ Crosslin!uis%icall0 if a lan!ua!e has a#6ec%ives a% all i% 9ill have @uali%0 a#6ec%ives$ 2.3.1 #0a3ab.l.t9. -1al.t9 a37e/t.2es .n t8e 5os.t.2e 3e40ee 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives are of%en !ra#able$ Tha% is %he referen% #oes no% merel0 have a cer%ain 5ro5er%0 or no% bu% ra%her i% has %ha% 5ro5er%0 %o a cer%ain #e!ree$ Therefore %hese a#6ec%ives in or#er %o 0iel# a 5ro5osi%ion re@uire before bein! a55lie# %o a referen%ial e;5ression %o be s5ecifie# for #e!ree$ De!rees can be seen as ar!umen%s of %hese a#6ec%ives$ The mo#el comes from measurable a#6ec%ives 9here one can s5ecif0 a numeric value for %he #e!ree3
(,=/ Aces% #ula5 e Enal% #e 12= #e cen%ime%ri$ %his 9ar#robe is %all of 12= of cen%ime%ers >This 9ar#robe is 12= cm %all?
Thus such a#6ec%ives have a% leas% %9o ar!umen%s combinin! firs% 9i%h an ar!umen% from %he #omain of #e!rees an# %hen 9i%h %heir e;%ernal ar!umen% 9hich belon!s %o %he #omain of en%i%ies Oence %he0 are of %05e e# ee %ff$ I% is im5or%an% %o s%ress %ha% %he classifica%ion of %hese a#6ec%ives as in%ersec%ive or firs%-or#er P %05e ee %f P refers no% %o %he %05e %he a#6ec%ive has in %he le;icon bu% %o %he #eno%a%ion of %he 9hole AP$ Insi#e %he AP @uali%0 a#6ec%ives can have com5lemen%s in a##i%ion %o %he #e!ree ar!umen% havin! %hus %he %05e ee ee %ff or ee e# ee %fff3 2+=
The A#6ec%ive
(,+/
a$ :ihai Ei es%e foar%e #ra! Luciei :ihai her$DAT is ver0 #ear Lucia$DAT >:ihai is ver0 #ear %o Lucia? b$ un oraM a5ro5ia% #e mare a ci%0 close of sea >a ci%0 close %o %he sea?
So i% is more accura%e %o a55l0 %he %erm >in%ersec%ive? %o APs ra%her %han a#6ec%ives$ 'u% one can e;%en# %his %erm %o a#6ec%ives as a shor%han# e;5ression in or#er %o refer %o a#6ec%ives 9hose ma;imal 5ro6ec%ion is of %05e ee %f$ The #e!ree ar!umen% allo9s a#6ec%ives %o en%er com5arison rela%ions P receivin! %hus #e!ree cons%ruc%ions such as mai000dect >more^%han? la fel de000ca >asâs? mai puin000dect >less^%han? cel maiGdintre >%he mos%/%he -s% $$$ of?$ A55ro;ima%ion mo#ifiers (aproape >almos%? cu totul >com5le%el0?/ an# absolu%e (i$e$ non-rela%ional/ #e!ree 9or#s such as foarte >ver0? prea >%oo? are also s5ecifica%ion of %he #e!ree variable$ A 5resen%a%ion of #e!ree cons%ruc%ions is !iven in sec%ion 4$ Uhen i% is no% s5ecifie# (%he so-calle# >5osi%ive #e!ree?/ %he #e!ree is un#ers%oo# as bi!!er %han a cer%ain s%an#ar# vali# for %he en%i%0 un#er #iscussion$ De5en#in! on %he 9a0 of es%ablishin! %his s%an#ar# !ra#able a#6ec%ives are of %9o %05es P relative an# absolute$ Rela%ive a#6ec%ives re@uire %he consi#era%ion of a com5arison class a se% of en%i%ies 9hose avera!e #e!ree of 5ossessin! %he 5ro5er%0 is com5are# %o %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he en%i%0 un#er consi#era%ion 5ossesses %he 5ro5er%0$ Thus nalt >%all? a55lie# %o a 5erson means %ha% %he hei!h% of %ha% 5erson e;cee#s %he avera!e hei!h% for his/her se; an# a!e$ :os% of %he %ime %he com5arison class is obvious so %ha% i% is no% e;5resse#$ Dsuall0 %he noun %ha% %he a#6ec%ive mo#ifies or %he noun insi#e %he sub6ec% %o 9hich i% is 5re#ica%e# if i% is a common noun 5rovi#es %he com5arison class (e$!$ o insect mare >a bi! insec%? is an en%i%0 bi! for an insec%/$ 'u% %he com5arison class can also be over%l0 e;5resse# b0 a PP 9i%h pentru >for?3
(,1/ IonuR es%e Enal% 5en%ru un co5il #e vWrs%a lui IonuR is %all for a chil# of a!e-%he his >IonuR is %all for a chil# of his a!e?
The consi#era%ion of %he com5arison class e;5lains 9h0 some%imes @uali%0 a#6ec%ives seem %o be non-in%ersec%ive or %o 0iel# 9ron! resul%s usin! inferences base# on %he in%ersec%ivi%0 %es%3
(,2/ a$ :aria e o fe%iRL Enal%L s a_$ :aria e o fe%iRL Mi :aria e Enal%L >:aria is a %all !irl? >:aria is a !irl an# :aria is %all? b$ Geor!e e un bLrba% scun# s b_$ Geor!e e un bLrba% Mi Geor!e e scun# >Geor!e is a shor% man? >Geor!e is a man an# Geor!e is shor%? a$ ; e un elefan% mic s a_$ ; e un elefan% Mi ; e mic >; is a small ele5han%? >; is an ele5han% an# ; is small? b$ ; e un animal >; is an animal? PPP c$ ; e un animal mic >; is a small animal?
(,4/
If one %a-es 5ro5er%ies absolu%el0 9i%hou% consi#erin! %he com5arison class one ma0 conclu#e 5u%%in! %o!e%her (,2/a_-b_ %ha% since :aria is %all an# Geor!e is shor% Geor!e is shor%er %han :aria$ 'u% %his is no% 9ha% (,2/a-b sa0 so i% loo-s as if %he a#6ec%ives are no% in%ersec%ive$ Li-e9ise from (,4/a_ an# (,4/b one can conclu#e (,4/c 9hich is no% %rue$ 'u% 2++
The A#6ec%ive
if 9e %a-e in%o consi#era%ion %he com5arison class an# %a-e care %ha% i% remains %he same in %he in%ersec%ivi%0 %es% %his 9ron! im5ression #isa55ears3
(,2/_ a$ :aria e o fe%iRL Enal%L (5en%ru o fe%iRL/ s a_$ :aria e o fe%iRL Mi :aria e Enal%L (5en%ru o fe%iRL/ >:aria is a %all !irl (for a !irl/? >:aria is a !irl an# :aria is %all (for a !irl/? b$ Geor!e e un bLrba% scun# (5en%ru un bLrba%/ s b_$ Geor!e e un bLrba% Mi Geor!e e scun# (5en%ru un bLrba%/ >Geor!e is a shor% man (for a man/? >Geor!e is a man an# Geor!e is shor% (for a man/? a$ ; e un elefan% mic (5en%ru un elefan%/ s a_$ ; e un elefan% Mi ; e mic (5en%ru un elefan%/ >; is an ele5han% small for an ele5han%? >; is an ele5han% an# ; is small for an ele5han%? b$ ; e un animal >; is an animal? PPP c$ ; e un animal mic 5en%ru un elefan% > ; is an animal small for an ele5han%?
(,4/_
For absolu%e a#6ec%ives %he s%an#ar# #oes no% #e5en# on a com5arison class$ For e;am5le some%hin! is charac%eriAe# as &et or dry #e5en#in! on %he 5ercen%a!e of 9a%er i% con%ains in#e5en#en%l0 on %he avera!e 9e%ness of similar en%i%ies$ Absolu%e a#6ec%ives are #is%in!uishe# from rela%ive a#6ec%ives b0 havin! closed scales3 %heir scales con%ain a ma;imal #e!ree or a minimal #e!ree or bo%h$ The e;is%ence of a ma;imal #e!ree is si!nale# b0 mo#ifiers such as complet >com5le%el0? cu totul >%o%all0? pe deplin >full0?3
(,,/ 7 com5le% cura% / usca% / 5lin is com5le%el0 clean #r0 full
The e;is%ence of a minimal #e!ree is si!nale# b0 %he mo#ifiers uor% un pic >sli!h%l0?3
(,./ :asa e un 5ic mur#arL %able-%he is a li%%le #ir%0
A 5ro5er%0 associa%e# %o !ra#abili%0 is %he e;is%ence of an%on0mic 5airs P nalt >%all hi!h? scund >shor%? mare >bi!? mic >small? rece >col#? cald >9arm? frumos >beau%iful? urt >u!l0? curat >clean? murdar >#ir%0? e%c$ 2.3.2. -1al.t9 a37e/t.2es D.t8 a &ua-N 0ea3.n4 Ano%her si%ua%ion in 9hich @uali%0 a#6ec%ives are sensi%ive %o %he noun %he0 mo#if0 so %ha% %he0 seem %o be non-in%ersec%ive is 9hen %he a#6ec%ive can be 5ara5hrase# b0 >$$ as a N?$ Consi#er %he follo9in! sen%ences3
(,</ (,B/ 'Lrbulescu e un 5rofesor bun 'Lrbulescu is a 5rofessor !oo# >'Lrbulescu is a !oo# 5rofessor? 'Lrbulescu e un 5rofesor Mi 'Lrbulescu e bun 'Lrbulescu is a 5rofessor an# 'Lrbulescu is !oo# >'Lrbulescu is a 5rofessor an# 'Lrbulescu is !oo#?
The a#6ec%ive bun in (,</ has %9o rea#in!s3 >!oo# as a 5rofessor? an# >!oo# as a 5erson -in#hear%e#?$ Gnl0 in %he secon# rea#in! #oes %his e;am5le allo9 %he 5ara5hrase in (,B/ so i%
2+1
The A#6ec%ive
loo-s as if %his a#6ec%ive 9as in%ersec%ive in onl0 one of i%s rea#in!s$ Oo9ever bun in %he firs% rea#in! #oes no% a55ear %o be non-in%ersec%ive3 %he meanin! >9hich 5erforms 9ell i%s func%ion? can a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions (see (,C// an# #oes no% seem %o #e5en# on %he nominal conce5% li-e in %he case of rela%ional a#6ec%ives$
(,C/ Aces% cuRi% es%e bun This -nife is !oo#
:oreover in a con%e;% 9here 9e -no9 %ha% 'Lrbulescu an# Po5escu are 5rofessors 9e can use %he a#6ec%ive ood in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion 9i%h %he rea#in! >!oo# as a 5rofessor?3
(.=/ 'Lrbulescu e mai bun #ecW% Po5escu 'Lrbulescu is more !oo# %han Po5escu >'Lrbulescu is be%%ern %han Po5escu?
All %hese fac%s in#ica%e %ha% %he meanin! >!oo# as a V? belon!s %o %he in%ersec%ive %05e even 9hen a55lie# %o humans$ Thus %he ambi!ui%0 of (,</ is no% #ue %o %he 5resence of %9o #is%inc% #eno%a%ional %05es of %he AP$ Ue can ins%ea# assume %ha% >!oo#? comes 9i%h a hi##en a##i%ional ar!umen% 9hich s5ecifies %he #omain in 9hich %ha% en%i%0 is !oo# P %he func%ion 9hich i% 5erforms 9ell$ No%e in#ee# %ha% %his ar!umen% can be over%l0 e;5resse# b0 5hrases such as ca F >as an V?3
(.+/ 'Lrbulescu e bun ca 5rofessor 'Lrbulescu is !oo# as 5rofessor >'Lrbulescu is !oo# as a 5rofessor?
A final ar!umen% for %he in%ersec%ive s%a%us of bun in %he rea#in! >!oo# as a V? is %he fac% %ha% %his meanin! can be foun# in %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion (see (.1/a/ a cons%ruc%ion 9hich is im5ossible 9i%h non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives in Romanian (see (<,/ belo9 an# (.1/b/3
(.1/ a$ 5rofesorul cel bun 5rofessor-%he %he !oo# >%he !oo# 5rofessor? b$ X5rofesorul cel fos% / 5re%ins / universi%ar 5rofessor-%he %he former alle!e# aca#emic
Ue ma0 conclu#e %ha% %he ambi!ui%0 in (,</ is #ue %o %he 5ossibili%0 %o in%er5re% %his a##i%ional ar!umen% as profesor >5rofessor? or om >human bein!? %he s5ecial meanin! >-in#hear%e#? bein! a conven%ionaliAe# meanin! for >!oo# as a human bein!? as illus%ra%e# in (.2/b3
(.2/ a$ 'Lrbulescu e bun ca 5rofessor 'Lrbulescu is !oo# as 5rofessor >'Lrbulescu is !oo# as a 5rofessor? b$ 'Lrbulescu e bun ca om 'Lrbulescu is !oo# as man >'Lrbulescu is !oo# as a human bein!?
Accor#in! %o ano%her anal0sis 5ro5ose# in %he li%era%ure %he ambi!ui%0 in >!oo# %eacher? is no% #ue %o an a##i%ional ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive bu% %o %he 5ossibili%0 of %he a#6ec%ive %o mo#if0 an even% variable 9hich is 5rovi#e# b0 %he seman%ic re5resen%a%ion of func%ion nouns$ Thus teac!er is anal0Ae# as e;$ ; %eaches in eI a% some level in %he NP %his even% variable is boun# b0 a !eneric o5era%or
2+2
The A#6ec%ive
(teac!er is %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! a 5erson 9ho !enerall0/re!ularl0 %eaches/$ If %he a#6ec%ive ood is a%%ache# belo9 %his level i% 9ill a55l0 %o %he even% variable %he resul%in! in%er5re%a%ion bein! >5erson 9ho !enerall0 %eaches 9ell?$ If %he a#6ec%ive is a%%ache# above %his level i% 9ill a55l0 %o %he onl0 unsa%ura%e# variable a% %his 5oin% 9hich is %he in#ivi#ual variable resul%in! in %he rea#in! >!oo# 5erson 9ho !enerall0 %eaches?$ If %his anal0sis is a#o5%e# for %he 5ossibili%0 of %he rea#in! >!oo# as a %eacher? in (.=/ 9e 9oul# have %o assume %ha% a noun teac!er is recovere# in %he 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion$ This anal0sis 5re#ic%s %ha% a#6ec%ives 9i%h %he >as a N? in%er5re%a%ion occu50 a lo9er 5osi%ion %han %hose a55lie# %o %he in#ivi#ual variable$ In Romanian %his is no% al9a0s %he case3 an a#6ec%ive a55lie# %o %he en%i%0 can be closer %o %he N %han %he @uali%0 a#6ec%ive 9i%h %he as-an-3 rea#in! P %hus bun in (i/ can have %he rea#in! >!oo# as a %eacher? al%hou!h i% is hi!her %han an a#6ec%ive 9hich is in#is5u%abl0 a55lie# %o %he in#ivi#ual (>of French ori!in?/ (for %he lineariAa%ion of 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives see sec%ion 2/3 (i/ un 5rofesor franceA bun a 5rofessor French !oo#
The even%-mo#ifica%ion rea#in! 9as also 5ro5ose# for a#6ec%ives 9hich are clearl0 non-in%ersec%ive accor#in! %o our cri%eria such as oca(ional >occasional?$ Dnli-e bun% %his a#6ec%ive can never a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion an# #oes no% allo9 a qua- 5hrase (>as a NP?/ as sho9n in (ii/b-#$ This clearl0 sho9s %ha% i% belon!s %o a #is%inc% class 5robabl0 %he in%ensional %05e (see 1$4$4 belo9/$ (ii/ a$ Ion e un fumL%or ocaAional Ion is a smo-er occasional >Ion is an occasional smo-er? b$ XIon e ocaAional (ca fumL%or/ Ion is occasional as smo-er c$ XAces% fumL%or e ocaAional This smo-er is occasional #$ XIon e ocaAional ca fumL%or Ion is occasional as smo-er
Those a#6ec%ives %ha% have a qua-3/ rea#in! are evalua%ive3 bun% mare >!rea%? e'cepional >e;ce5%ional? remarcabil >remar-able? deosebit >s5ecial? an# %heir an%on0ms (ru% prost >ba#? e'ecrabil >$$$? e%c$/ 2.3.3 T8e 5os.t.ons of I1al.t9 a37e/t.2es .ns.3e t8e DP 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives can a55ear bo%h 5renominall0 an# 5os%nominall0$ The 5os%nominal 5osi%ion is normal %he 5renominal one is e;ce5%ional an# 0iel#s s5ecial rea#in!s as 9e 9ill see in sec%ion 2$ :os% @uali%0 a#6ec%ives a55earin! in %his 5osi%ion are non-res%ric%ive (see sec%ion 2$+$1 for %his %erm/$ A#6ec%ives 9i%h %he ambi!ui%0 6us% #escribe# (see (,<// -ee5 onl0 %he rea#in! >!oo# as a N? in %his 5osi%ion3
(.4/ 'Lrbulescu e un bun 5rofessor$ >'Lrbulescu is a !oo# 5rofessor? [ 'Lrbulescu e bun ca 5rofessor$ >'Lrbulescu is !oo# as a 5rofessor? w 'Lrbulescu e 5rofesor Mi bun ca om$ >'Lrbulescu is a 5rofessor an# he is a !oo# man?
I% is li-el0 %ha% in %his case %he0 are assimila%e# %o %he class of non-in%ersec%ive 5renominal a#6ec%ives (%he %05e former/ an# %hus %a-e %he NP as an ar!umen%$ This ma0 e;5lain 9h0 %he0 are %he onl0 5renominal @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9hich ma0 be res%ric%ive as 5roven b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o have !eneric rea#in!s (see sec%ion 2$+$1 for #e%ails/3
2+4
The A#6ec%ive (.,/ :arii bucL%ari sun% !reu #e !Lsi% as%LAi !rea%-%he$:PL chefs are har# SDP fin#$SDP %o#a0 >Grea% chefs are har# %o fin# no9a#a0s?
Summin! u5 @uali%0 a#6ec%ives are in%ersec%ive e;ce5% 9hen %he0 occur 5renominall0 9i%h a s5ecial >@ua NP? rea#in! P a %05e 9hich 9e ma0 call subsective quality ad+ectives$ This allo9s us %o formula%e %he !eneraliAa%ion %ha% 5renominal in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives are al9a0s non-res%ric%ive$ 2.$. Non+.nte0se/t.2e a37e/t.2es 2.$.1. TDo t95es of non+.nte0se/t.2e a37e/t.2es? 0elat.onal an3 .ntens.onal a37e/t.2es Amon! non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives 9e can #is%in!uish %9o ver0 #ifferen% ca%e!ories$ (i/ Oelational ad+ectives are a#6ec%ives 9hich canno% func%ion in#e5en#en%l0 as 5re#ica%es of en%i%ies because %heir meanin! is s%ron!l0 #e5en#en% on %he meanin! of %he noun %he0 mo#if0 e$!$ teritoriu naional >na%ional %erri%or0? in (4./-(4</ above$ Dsuall0 #erive# from nouns %hese a#6ec%ives have a ver0 !eneral meanin! >rela%e# %o N? (9here N is %he noun %he0 are #erive# from/ (hence %he %erm >rela%ional?/$ This meanin! becomes full0 s5ecifie# onl0 9hen %he a#6ec%ive is a55lie# %o a noun$ For e;am5le atomic >a%omic? means (a/ >9hich is abou% a%oms? 9hen i% is a55lie# %o abs%rac% ob6ec%s such as teorie >%heor0? as in teorie atomic (b/ >charac%eriAin! a%oms? 9hen a55lie# %o 5h0sical 5ro5er%ies such as ener ie as in ener ie atomic >a%omic ener!0?I (c/ >9hich uses %he ener!0 involve# in %ransforma%ions of a%oms? 9hen a55lie# %o ar%ifac%s such as bomb >bomb? in bomb atomic >a%omic bomb?$ The 9a0 in 9hich %he a#6ec%ive is %o be un#ers%oo# is %hus s5ecifie# b0 %he noun$ This can be re5resen%e# b0 %rea%in! %hese a#6ec%ives as some sor% of com5lemen%s 9hich charac%eriAe an im5lici% variable 5rovi#e# b0 %he le;ical-conce5%ual re5resen%a%ion of %he noun P for ins%ance %he ins%rumen% of an ar%ifac% in bomb atomic %he con%en% of an abs%rac% en%i%0 in teorie atomic e%c$ The com5lemen% s%a%us is clear 9hen %he noun has com5lemen%s an# %he a#6ec%ive 5rovi#es a charac%eriAa%ion of %hese com5lemen%s in 9hich case 9e %alabou% t!ematic ad+ectives3
(../ a$ a%acul !erman [ a%acul !ermanilor a%%ac--%he German a%%ac--%he Germans-%he$ G7N >%he German a%%ac-? >%he Germans? a%%ac-? b$ fecior Em5LrL%esc [ fecior #e Em5Lra% / al unui Em5Lra% bo0 im5erial bo0 of em5eror G7N a$G7N em5eror >im5erial son? >son of an em5eror? c$ creaRia 5eisa!is%icL [ creaRia #e 5eisa6e crea%ion lan#sca5e$ADN crea%ion of lan#sca5es >lan#sca5e (#e5ic%in!/ crea%ion? >crea%ion of lan#sca5es?
(ii/ >ntensional ad+ectives such as fost >former? #iffer from rela%ional a#6ec%ives in %ha%3 (i/ %heir meanin! is %o%all0 in#e5en#en% of %he noun an# (ii/ %he0 are func%ions 9hich %a-e %he NP as an ar!umen% 9hereas rela%ional a#6ec%ives can be vie9e# as ar!umen%s or @uasiar!umen%s of %he N$ In%ensional a#6ec%ives mo#if0 %he %ime an# 9orl# variables of %he 5re#ica%e #eno%e# b0 %he NP3 %hus fost >former? viitor >fu%ure? pre(ent >5resen%? s5ecif0 %he %ime variable o%her a#6ec%ives such as posibil >5ossible? probabil >5robable? pretins >alle!e#? s5ecif0 %he 9orl# variable3
2+,
The A#6ec%ive (.</ alle!e# (NP/ [ ;$ ; is NP in 9orl#s 9 9hich are accor#in! %o 9ha% somebo#0 (con%e;%uall0 s5ecifie#/ sa0
The close seman%ic rela%ion be%9een rela%ional a#6ec%ives an# %he noun has %he conse@uence %ha% %hese a#6ec%ives are closes% %o %he noun$ :oreover %he @uasi-com5lemen% s%a%us e;5lains %he fac% %ha% %he0 are al9a0s 5os%nominal3
(.B/ a$ un a%ac !erman violen% a a%%ac- German violen% >a German violen% a%%ac-? b$ Xun a%ac violen% !erman a a%%ac- violen% German c$ Xun !erman a%ac a German a%%ac-
'0 con%ras% in%ensional a#6ec%ives #o no% sho9 %hese res%ric%ions3 %he0 can be hi!her %han @uali%0 a#6ec%ivesI some can be 5lace# ei%her before or af%er %he noun 9hile o%hers are al9a0s 5renominal (see sec%ion 1$4$4 for #e%ails/$ The 5re#ilec%ion for a 5renominal 5osi%ion can be e;5laine# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he0 are func%ions 9hich %a-e %he NP as an ar!umen%$
(.C/ a$ un 5osibil can#i#a% / un can#i#a% 5osibil a 5ossible can#i#a%e a can#i#a%e 5ossible b$ un fos% can#i#a% / Xun can#i#a% fos% a former can#i#a%e a can#i#a%e former c$ un fos% Y5reMe#in%e franceAZ a former 5resi#en% French #$ un fos% Y5ro5rie%ar bo!a%Z a former o9ner rich
Uhile for rela%ional a#6ec%ives %he inference from (AHN/(;/ %o N(;/ is al9a0s vali# (%hese a#6ec%ives bein! %hus subsec%ive or accor#in! %o ano%her %erminolo!0 >affirma%ive?/ for in%ensional a#6ec%ives %his inference is of%en no% vali#3 because %he0 charac%eriAe %he %ime or 9orl# variable of %he 5re#ica%e #eno%e# b0 %he NP %he resul% of %heir a55lica%ion ma0 be %ha% %he NP 5ro5er%0 is no% %rue of %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he DP a% %he %ime an#/or 9orl# of %he sen%ence as is clear from %he e;am5les in (.C/$
(<=/ a$ ; is an a%omic %heor0/bomb s ; is a %heor0/bomb b$ ; is a former/5ossible can#i#a%e s ; is a can#i#a%e
A common 5ro5er%0 of %he %9o classes of non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives is %he lac- of !ra#abili%03
(<+/ a$ X7 o bombL foar%e/mai a%omicL is a bomb ver0 more a%omic b$ Xun mai/ foar%e 5re%ins 5rofessor a more ver0 alle!e# 5rofessor
For rela%ional a#6ec%ives %his is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he bases %he0 are #erive# from mos%l0 nominal are no% !ra#able (so %ha% one canno% sa0 for e;am5le %ha% a cer%ain %heor0 is abou% a %05e of en%i%ies 9hich are more a%omic %han o%hers e%c$/$ For in%ensional a#6ec%ives %he lac- of !ra#abili%0 is some%imes mo%iva%e# b0 %he meanin! (as in pretins >alle!e#? or fost >former?/$ Oo9ever in%ensional a#6ec%ives #o no% 2+.
The A#6ec%ive
allo9 #e!ree e;5ressions even 9hen %heir seman%ics is com5a%ible 9i%h !ra#a%ion$ Thus 9hen a55lie# %o sen%ences %he mo#al mo#ifier probabil allo9s !ra#a%ion %he scale bein! cons%i%u%e# b0 %he or#erin! of 9orl#s base# on %he similari%0 9i%h %he real 9orl#3
(<1/ Cel mai 5robabil va veni mWine %he more 5robable 9ill come %omorro9 >I% is mos% li-el0 %ha% he 9ill come %omorro9?
Oo9ever 9hen use# as an a#6ec%ive 9i%h %he non-in%ersec%ive rea#in! >en%i%0 9hich is li-el0 %o have %he 5ro5er%0 NP? probabil #oes no% allo9 !ra#a%ion3
(<2/ a$ Ionescu Mi Po5escu vor fi foar%e 5robabil can#i#aRi anul Ls%a Ionescu an# Po5escu 9ill be ver0 5robable can#i#a%es 0ear-%he %his >Ionescu e% Po5escu 9ill be mos% li-el0 can#i#a%es %his 0ear? b$ XFoar%e 5robabilii can#i#aRi sun% aM%e5%aRi sL #ea #eclaraRii Ver0 5robable-%he$:PL can#i#a%es are e;5ec%e# SD'N !ive #eclara%ions
Gn %he o%her han# as can be seen in (<4/ %he a#6ec%ive probabil can also mo#if0 %he even% e;5resse# b0 %he DP if %he noun is even%ive$ In %his case i% is in%ersec%ive as 5roven b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o be use# as a 5re#ica%e (see (<4/b/$ Correla%ivel0 !ra#a%ion is 5ossible in %his case (see (<4/a/3
(<4/ a$ Foar%e 5robabila ma6orare a %a;elor va a5Lsa Mi mai mul% economia ver0 5robable-%he raise of %a;es-%he$ G7N 9ill 5ress even more much econom0-%he >The ver0 li-el0 %a; raise 9ill affec% %he econom0 even more? b$ :a6orarea %a;elor es%e (foar%e/ 5robabilL En aces% momen% raise-%he %a;es-%he$G7N is ver0 5robable in %his momen% >The %a; raise is ver0 li-el0 ri!h% no9?
Ano%her 5ro5er%0 9hich !rou5s %o!e%her rela%ional an# in%ensional a#6ec%ives o55osin! %hem %o @uali%0 a#6ec%ives is %he im5ossibili%0 %o combine 9i%h %he ar%icle cel >%he? in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion in %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion (for %his cons%ruc%ion see sec%ion 2$2/3
(<,/ a$ can#i#a%ul cel %WnLr / Enal% / nou can#i#a%e-%he %he 0oun! %all ne9 >%he 0oun!/%all/ne9 can#i#a%e? b$ Xcan#i#a%ul cel 5osibil / fos% can#i#a%e-%he %he 5ossible former c$ socie%a%ea cea veche / nouL socie%0-%he %he ol# ne9 >%he ol#/ne9 socie%0? #$ Xsocie%a%ea cea as%ronomicL / comercialL socie%0-%he %he as%ronomical comercial
2.$.2. Relat.onal a37e/t.2es As men%ione# above rela%ional a#6ec%ives o5era%e on %he le;ical conce5%ual s%ruc%ure of %he (hea#-/noun charac%eriAin! im5lici% variables in %he le;ical-conce5%ual s%ruc%ure of %he noun$ Le%?s no9 illus%ra%e %his i#ea 9i%h more e;am5les$ The cleares% case is 9hen %he noun is a 5re#ica%e 9i%h more %han one 5lace havin! %hus in%ernal ar!umen%s illus%ra%e# alrea#0 in (../ above$ Since seman%ic ar!umen%s are also referre# %o as %hema%ic-roles such a#6ec%ives are calle# t!ematic$ Oere are some e;am5les of %he %hema%ic roles %o 9hich a#6ec%ives can be rela%e# for nouns 9i%h a verbal basis or an
2+<
The A#6ec%ive
even%ive rea#in!3
(<./ a$ 5ro5unerea ruseascL A!en% 5ro5osal-%he Russian >%he Russian 5ro5osal? b$ 5ro#ucRia cerealierL Theme 5ro#uc%ion-%he cereal$ADN >cereal 5ro#uc%ion? c$ locuinRL lacus%rL Place lo#!e la-e$ADN >la-e lo#!e? #$ #rum aerian Pa%h 9a0 air$ADN >air 9a0? e$ #is5u%L 5oli%icL Theme ([about ;/ #is5u%e 5oli%ical >5oli%ical #is5u%e? f$ 5oli%ica euro5eanL a Rusiei Theme ([ &it! re ard to ;/ 5olic0-%he 7uro5ean of Russia-%he$G7N >Russia?s 7uro5ean 5olic0? !$ cri%ic eminescian Theme cri%ic 7minescu$ADN >cri%ic s5ecialiAe# on 7minescu?
Ui%h nouns #eno%in! 5ro5er%ies %he a#6ec%ive can e;5ress %he bearer of %ha% 5ro5er%0 (9hich can also be consi#ere# an ins%ance of %he Theme role/3
(<</ a$ echilibru sufle%esc ([echilibrul sufle%ului/ balance soul$ADN balance-%he soul-%he$G7N >5eace of min#? ([ balance of %he soul/ b$ 5u%ere cor5oralL ([5u%erea cor5ului/ 5o9er bo#0$ADN 5o9er-%he bo#0-%he$G7N >bo#0 5o9er? ([5o9er of %he bo#0/
Thema%ic a#6ec%ives bloc- %he realisa%ion of %he corres5on#in! %hema%ic role b0 a DP$ Oo9ever %he0 #o no% in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen% %hemselves3 %he0 canno% be reffere# bacb0 ana5hors #on?% allo9 rela%ive clauses an# canno% ac% as bin#ers$
(<B/ a$ X5ro5unerea ruseascL a lui Siseleff 5ro5osal-%he Russian G7N G'L Siseleff b$ Xo5inia americanL #es5re ei EnMiMi o5inion-%he American abou% %he0 %hemselves c$ XPro5unerea ruseascLi nu a fos% acce5%a%L aMa cL ei i s-au re%ras 5ro5osal-%he Russian no% has been acce5%e# so %ha% %he0 R7FL-have 9i%h#ra9n #e la conferinRL$ from conference
Ue can conclu#e %ha% %hema%ic a#6ec%ives are no% com5lemen%s$ This is in line 9i%h %he canonical s0n%ac%ic s%a%us of a#6ec%ives 9hich is %ha% of a mo#ifier (a#6unc%/$ I% is in%eres%in! %o no%ice %ha% 9i%h several %hema%ic a#6ec%ives %he or#er of %he a#6ec%ives corres5on#s %o %he or#er of %he res5ec%ive %hema%ic roles P %hus %hemes are closer %o %he noun %han a!en%s3
2+B
The A#6ec%ive (<C/ Pro#ucRia cerealierL bul!arL 5ro#uc%ion-%he cereal$ADN 'ul!arian >'ul!arian cereal 5ro#uc%ion?
For nouns 9hich #eno%e one-5lace 5re#ica%es %he im5lici% variables rela%ional a#6ec%ives refer %o canno% be %he in%ernal ar!umen%s of %he noun$ Oo9ever i% has been sho9n %ha% even %hese nouns come 9i%h a com5le; le;ico-conce5%ual s%ruc%ure 9hich con%ains 5re#ica%es an# ar!umen%s of %hese 5re#ica%es$ For e;am5le an ar%ifac% is an en%i%0 5ro#uce# b0 somebo#0 an# 9hich has a cer%ain 5ur5ose$ Ph0sical ob6ec%s are cons%i%u%e# of a cer%ain ma%erial an# so on$ These elemen%s of %he conce5%ual s%ruc%ure of a noun are -no9n as qualia (sin!ular quale a La%in 9or# meanin! >9ha% sor% of?/$ Four qualia have been 5ro5ose# corres5on#in! %o %he four Aris%o%elian >causes? (mo#es of e;5lana%ion/ P formal (%he formal or s%ruc%ural @uale/ ma%erial (%he cons%i%u%ive @uale/ efficien% (%he a!en%ive @uale/ an# final (%he %elic or func%ional @uale/$
The four basic (!rou5s of/ roles %ha% cons%i%u%e %he qualia s%ruc%ure 8 of a le;ical i%em can be informall0 5resen%e# as follo9s3 a/ ,onstitutive fea%ures3 %he rela%ion be%9een an ob6ec% an# i%s cons%i%uen%s or 5ro5er 5ar%s (meron0m0/ 5lacemen% in s5ace essen%ial for ma%erial ob6ec%s 5lacemen% in %ime (essen%ial for even%s/ b/ Pormal (s%ruc%ural/ qualia3 %ha% 9hich #is%in!uishes %he ob6ec% 9i%hin a lar!er #omainI 5ro5er%ies 9hich i#en%if0 a conce5% amon! i%s co-h05on0ms$ c/ Punctional or telic qualia3 %hese refer %o %he 5ur5ose an# func%ion of %he ob6ec%$ Func%ional informa%ion is obli!a%or0 for ar%ifac%s bu% i% is an in%e!ral 5ar% for o%her %05es of nominal conce5%s as 9ell (such as na%ural -in#s/$ #/ A entive qualia3 %hese refer %o %he fac%ors (even%s an# ac%ors/ involve# in %he ori!in or "brin!in! abou%& of an ob6ec%$ The 5resence of %hese fea%ures in %he le;ical s%ruc%ure of nouns is imme#ia%el0 a55aren% in e;am5les li-e :!e &riter be an t!is novel in t!e follo&in year $ The a!en%ive @uale of %he noun novel has %he form >; 9ri%es 0? an# %his is 5recisel0 %he even% 9hich is im5lici% in %he sen%ence above 9hich means :!e &riter be an &ritin t!e novel in t!e follo&in year$
Rela%ional a#6ec%ives ma0 mo#if0 various com5onen%s of %he @ualia s%ruc%ure of a noun$ Thus ar%ifac%s have a telic quale P %he 5ur5ose for 9hich %he ob6ec% is buil% %he func%ion i% 5erforms$ A#6ec%ives 9hich can be 5ara5hrase# b0 >for N? are a#6ec%ives 9hich mo#if0 %he %elic @uale3
(B=/ a$ cons%rucRie in#us%rialL cons%ruc%ion in#us%rial >in#us%rial cons%ruc%ion? b$ ma%erial #i#ac%ic ma%erial #i#ac%ic >%eachin! ma%erial? c$ u%ila6 a!ricol %ool a!ricul%ural >a!ricul%ural %ool/#evice?
The a#6ec%ive can also refer %o 5ar%ici5an%s %o %he even% b0 9hich %he en%i%0 came in%o bein! (%he so-calle# a entive quale/ P %he a!en% 9ho ma#e %he ob6ec% (see (B=/a/ or %he 5roce#ure b0 9hich %he ob6ec% 9as ma#e (B=/b/3
(B+/ a$ maMinL chineAeascL machine Chinese >Chinese machine? b$ bLu%urL sin%e%icL #rin- s0n%he%ic
2+C
The A#6ec%ive >s0n%he%ic #rin-?
The a#6ec%ive can also refer %o %he ins%rumen% b0 9hich %he noun realiAes i%s func%ion3
(B1/ a$ a5ara% elec%ric machine elec%ric >elec%ric machine? b$ mo%or 5neuma%ic en!ine 5neuma%ic >5neuma%ic en!ine?
Ui%h nouns e;5ressin! 5ro5osi%ional or informa%ional ob6ec%s a#6ec%ives can s5ecif0 %he %heme or con%en% 9ha% %he 5ro5osi%ional ob6ec% is abou%3
(B2/ a$ %eorie muAicalL / li%erarL %heor0 musical li%erar0 >musical/li%erar0 %heor0? b$ har%L mari%imL / economicL ma5 sea$ADN economical >econom0/sea ma5? c$ s%u#iu financiar s%u#0 financial >financial s%u#0? #$ #icRionar mi%olo!ic #ic%ionar0 m0%holo!ical >#ic%ionar0 of m0%holo!0? e$ chimie biolo!icL chemis%r0 biolo!ical >chemis%r0 #ealin! 9i%h %he subs%ances of livin! or!anisms?
The same nouns can be mo#ifie# b0 a#6ec%ives s5ecif0in! %he a!en% 9ho 5ro#uce# %hem3
(B4/ a$ %eoria -an%ianL %heor0-%he San%ian >San%?s %heor0? b$ har%L veneRianL ma5 Vene%ian >Vene%ian ma5? c$ s%u#iu american s%u#0 American >s%u#0 9hose au%hor is an American?
A#6ec%ives referrin! %o ori!in can also a55ear 9i%h %hin!s no% ma#e b0 man3
(B,/ a$ mun%e volcanic moun%ain volcanic >volcanic moun%ain? b$ rocL se#imen%arL roc- se#imen%ar0 >se#imen%ar0 roc-? c$ 5ro#us biolo!ic 5ro#uc% biolo!ical >biolo!ical 5ro#uc%?
21=
The A#6ec%ive
The >cons%i%u%ive? @uale 0iel#s %he follo9in! rea#in!s of a#6ec%ives3 %he com5osin! 5ar%s 9i%h nouns #eno%in! collec%ions or !rou5s (see (B.// %he ma%erial for 5h0sical ob6ec%s (see (B<//3
(B./ a$ orches%rL s%u#enReascL orches%ra s%u#en%$ADN >s%u#en% orches%ra? b$ buche% floral bou@ue% floral >bou@ue% of flo9ers? (B</ a$ obiec% me%alic ob6ec% me%allic >me%al-ma#e ob6ec%? b$ calo%L !laciarL ca5 ice$ADN >ice ca5?
Ano%her fea%ure 9hich has been inclu#e# in %he cons%i%u%ive @uale is loca%ion$ A#6ec%ives ma0 s5ecif0 %he s5a%ial (see (BB// %em5oral (see (BC// or abs%rac% (see/ loca%ion3
(BB/ a$ s%rLAi moscovi%e s%ree%s :osco9$ADN >s%ree%s of :osco9? b$ faunL marinL fauna sea$ADN >sea fauna? c$ curen% oceanic curren% ocean$ADN >ocean curren%? (BC/ a$ ac%ivi%a%e ma%inalL ac%ivi%0 mornin!$ADN >mornin! ac%ivi%0? b$ 5limbare noc%urnL 9alnoc%urnal >noc%urnal/ ni!h% 9al-? (C=/ a$ 5ersona6 mi%ic charac%er m0%hical >charac%er from a m0%h? b$ me%o#L M%iin%ificL me%ho# scien%ific >me%ho# use# in science scien%ific me%ho#?
Some%imes %he basis of %he a#6ec%ive or a noun #erive# from %he a#6ec%ive #eno%es i%self a sub-#omain or sub--in# of %he mo#ifie# noun or a 9i#er #omain 0iel#in! a sub--in# of %he mo#ifie# noun b0 in%ersec%ion$ These a#6ec%ives #is5la0 %he im5lica%ion ; is (NHA/ s ; is A$
(C+/ a$ li%era%ura e5icL [ !enul e5ic e5icul >e5ic li%era%ure? >%he e5ic !enre %he e5ic? b$ reli!ia creM%inL [ creM%inismul >Chris%ian reli!ion? >Chris%ianism? c$ %eorie filoAoficL [ %eorie care face 5ar%e #in filoAofie es%e filoAofie >5hiloso5hical %heor0? >%heor0 9hich belon!s %o 5hiloso5h0 is 5hiloso5h0?
21+
The A#6ec%ive #$ creaRie ar%is%icL [ creaRie care face 5ar%e #in ar%L care es%e ar%L >ar%is%ic crea%ion? >crea%ion %ha% belon!s %o ar% is ar%? e$ rol a!en%iv [ rol care es%e a!en%ul >a!en%ive role? >role %ha% is %he a!en%? f$ s5eculaRie me%afiAicL [ s5eculaRie care face 5ar%e #in me%afiAicL es%e me%afiAicL >me%a5h0sical s5ecula%ion? >s5ecula%ion %ha% belon!s %o me%a5h0sics is me%a5h0sics?
Rela%ional a#6ec%ives of%en 0iel# es%ablishe# sub-classes or sub--in#s of %he mo#ifie# noun$ Therefore %he0 have been calle# classificatory or classifyin a#6ec%ives$ Oo9ever %he use of an a#6ec%ive or ano%her %o refer %o an es%ablishe# sub--in# #e5en#s ver0 much on e;%ralin!uis%ic fac%ors (enc0clo5e#ic -no9le#!e/ an# is no% #irec%l0 reflec%e# in %he seman%ic %05e of %he a#6ec%ive$ Therefore %he ca5aci%0 of 0iel#in! sub--in#s shoul# no% be use# as a fea%ure #efinin! a lin!uis%ic class$ No%e %ha% even @uali%0 a#6ec%ives ma0 be use# 9i%h a classifica%or0 func%ion P as in pepene verde >melon !reen? [ "9a%er melon& $ pepene alben >melon 0ello9? [ "0ello9 melon&$ These are ho9ever ins%ances of i#ioma%ic meanin!$ Tha%?s 9h0 %he a#6ec%ive in %his case #oes no% behave as a @uali%0 a#6ec%ives (i% #oesn?% allo9 !ra#a%ion an# canno% be 5lace# before %he noun behavin! %hus li-e rela%ional a#6ec%ives/3 X un pepene mai verde >a melon more !reen? - albenul pepene >0ello9-%he melon?$ Some%imes rela%ional a#6ec%ives es5eciall0 9hen %he0 are use# as classifica%or0 en%er in%o colloca%ions3
(C1/ a$ lanR mun%os chain moun%ain$ADN >chain of moun%ains? b$ !lob ocular !lobe ocular >ocular !lobe? c$ curen% elec%ric curren% elec%ric >elec%ric 5o9er? #$ 5ol ma!ne%ic 5ole ma!ne%ic >ma!ne%ic 5ole?
As 9e no%ice# in 1$1 (e;am5le (4</ re5ea%e# belo9/ rela%ional a#6ec%ives can some%imes a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion 5rovi#e# %ha% %he noun %o 9hich %he0 a55l0 can be con%e;%uall0 recovere#$
(4</ Aces% %eri%oriu es%e naRional %his %erri%or0 is na%ional >This %erri%or0 is na%ional?
This 5ossibili%0 is no% foun# 9i%h all rela%ional a#6ec%ives$ The reason is %ha% %his cons%ruc%ion re@uires %he 5ossibili%0 %o use %he noun alone in %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion as in (4</$ If %he a#6ec%ive is %hema%ic (as in (C2/a/ or forms a colloca%ion 9i%h %he noun (as in (C2/b/ %he noun in %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion is no% enou!h sufficien%l0 s5ecifie# %o be able %o be use# alone 9i%hou% %he a#6ec%ive$ Oence %he im5ossibili%0 of %he e;am5les such as3
(C2/ a$ XAceas%L 5ro#ucRie es%e cerealierL %his 5ro#uc%ion is cereal$ADN b$ XAces% curen% es%e elec%ric %his curren% is elec%ric
211
The A#6ec%ive
As no%ice# in 1$4$+ (see e;$ (.B/ an# (C4/ belo9/ rela%ional a#6ec%ives normall0 5rece#e 5os%nominal @uali%0 a#6ec%ives
(C4/ a$ 5ro#ucRie cerealierL bo!a%L 5ro#uc%ion cereal$ADN rich a_$ X5ro#ucRie bo!a%L cerealierL 5ro#uc%ion rich cereal$ADN b$ creaRie simfonicL imensL crea%ion s0m5honic hu!e b_$ XcreaRie imensL simfonicL crea%ion hu!e s0m5honic
The observe# or#erin! of a#6ec%ives is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% rela%ional a#6ec%ives s5ecif0 %he NP 5ro5er%0 b0 charac%eriAin! im5lici% variables in %he le;ical-conce5%ual s%ruc%ure of %he noun or even ar!umen%s (for %hema%ic a#6ec%ives/ or b0 s5ecif0in! sub--in#s 9hile @uali%0 a#6ec%ives e;5ress in#e5en#en% 5ro5er%ies of %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he NP 9hich are rela%e# b0 con6unc%ion 9i%h %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 %he NP$ Several rela%ional a#6ec%ives ma0 be s%ac-e# in 9hich case %he or#er is some%imes fi;e#3 %hose %ha% #elimi% sub--in#s form colloca%ions or e;5ress lo9er ar!umen%s such as %he Theme mus% come before %he o%hersI %hose e;5ressin! %he a!en% (or causer/ or %he loca%ion are a%%ache# hi!her3
(C,/ a$ lanR mun%os volcanic chain moun%ain$ADN volcanic >chain of volcanic moun%ains? a_$ XlanR vulcanic mun%os chain volcanic moun%ain$ADN b$ criAa economicL mon#ialL crisis-%he economic !lobal >!lobal economic crisis? b_ KKcriAa mon#ialL economicL crisis-%he !lobal economic c$ ener!ie elec%ricL eolianL ener!0 elec%ric eolian >eolian elec%ric ener!0? c_$ KK ener!ie eolianL elec%ricL ener!0 eolian elec%ric
Some%imes %he rela%ive or#er of rela%ional a#6ec%ives is es%ablishe# accor#in! %o %he con%e;%3 if %he class YN A+Z cons%i%u%es a #iscourse %o5ic an# a fur%her a#6ec%ive A 1 is a##e# %he or#er NA+-A1 9ill be use# even if in a neu%ral con%e;% %he o%her or#er is 5referre#3
(C./ a$ scrierea hiero!lificL hi%%i%L 9ri%in!-%he hiero!l05hic Oi%%i%e b$ scrierea hi%%i%L hiero!lificL 9ri%in!-%he Oi%%i%e hiero!l05hic (C</ a$ li%era%ura franceAL me#ievalL li%era%ure-%he French me#ieval b$ li%era%ura me#ievalL franceAL li%era%ure-%he me#ieval French (GS if hiero!l05hic 9ri%in! is a #iscourse %o5ic an# in neu%ral con%e;%s/ (GS if Oi%%i%e 9ri%in! is a #iscourse %o5ic/ (GS if French li%era%ure is a #iscourse %o5ic/ (GS if me#ieval li%era%ure is a #iscourse %o5ic/
The class of rela%ional a#6ec%ives is vas% a lo% of i%s members are %echnical %erms an# ne9 212
The A#6ec%ive
members are of%en a##e# es5eciall0 in %echnical #iscourse$ The0 re5resen% a 9a0 of crea%in! ne9 conce5%s (un#er %he classif0in! use/$ Rela%ional a#6ec%ives are 5ara5hrasable b0 de H bare noun an# some%imes b0 com5oun# %ermsI %he secon# 5ossibili%0 is illus%ra%ive for %he classif0in! use3
(CB/ a$ can%inL s%u#enReascL [ can%inL #e/5en%ru s%u#enRi can%een s%u#en%$ADN can%een of/for s%u#en%s >s%u#en% can%een?[ >can%een fon s%u#en%s? b$ mo%or elec%ric [ elec%romo%or en!ine elec%ric elec%ric-mo%or
In lan!ua!es 9i%h 5ro#uc%ive com5oun#in! Romanian rela%ional a#6ec%ives are of%en %ransla%e# b0 NHN com5oun#s$ If %he a#6ec%ive is #erive# from a 5ro5er name (inclu#in! names of na%ions/ %he a#6ec%ive ma0 be 5ara5hrase# b0 a !eni%ive DP3
(CC/ a$ cons%i%uRia a%enianL [ cons%i%uRia A%enei cons%i%u%ion-%he A%henian cons%i%u%ion-%he A%hens-%he$ G7N >%he A%henian cons%i%u%ion? >%he cons%i%u%ion of A%hens? b$ 5oli%ica americanL [ 5oli%ica Americii 5oli%ics-%he American 5oli%ics-%he America-%he$ G7N >American 5oli%ics? >%he 5oli%ics of America?
As 9e no%ice# above mos% rela%ional a#6ec%ives are ul%ima%el0 #enominal al%hou!h %he #eriva%ion some%imes %oo- 5lace no% in Romanian bu% in a forei!n lan!ua!e from 9hich Romanian borro9e# %he %erm (see %he case of militar >mili%ar0? above/$ 7;ce5%ionall0 %he a#6ec%ive #oes no% ul%ima%el0 come from a nominal base (%hus catolic >ca%holic? nonanal0Aable in Romanian comes from Gree- #at!oli#Zs >universal? 9hich is #erive# from %he PP #at!.!Zlou >in !eneral universal(l0/? from !Zlos >en%ire 9hole?/$ Summin! u5 rela%ional a#6ec%ives are calle# so because %he0 !enerall0 e;5ress a rela%ion be%9een %he mo#ifie# noun N+ P more 5recisel0 %he >referen%? of %he DP i$e$ %he e;%ernal variable of %he NP ; P an# %he nominal base of %he a#6ec%ive N 1 bu% %his is no% a sufficien% con#i%ion %o classif0 an a#6ec%ive as >rela%ional? because a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! such rela%ions can also be in%ersec%ive (see nisipos >con%ainin! san# / com5ose# of san#?/$ An a#6ec%ive belon!s %o %he class of rela%ional a#6ec%ives #efine# as non-in%ersec%ive if %he rela%ion is 5rovi#e# no% b0 %he a#6ec%ive bu% b0 %he mo#ifie# noun N+$ Uhen %his ha55ens %he a#6ec%ive canno% a55l0 %o a referen% in#e5en#en%l0 of a nominal conce5%$ Therefore %he 5re#ica%ive use is rule# ou% e;ce5% 9hen %he nominal conce5% can be imme#ia%el0 recovere# (as in (4<//$ This rela%ion can be %he mo#ifie# noun i%self or a %he%a-role %hereof as in %he case of %hema%ic a#6ec%ives or an im5lici% rela%ion in %he @ualia s%ruc%ure of %he noun (such as a!en% 5ur5ose e%c$/$
Le% us no9 briefl0 illus%ra%e %he seman%ic com5osi%ion involvin! a rela%ional a#6ec%ive$ For sim5lici%0 le% us %a-e an a#6ec%ive #erive# from a 5ro5er name 9hich means %ha% %he nominal base (N 1/ is a cons%an% of %he en%i%0 %05e3 eminescian #erive# from Eminescu %he name of a 5oe%$ A55lie# %o %he noun poe(ie >5oem 5oe%r0? (poe(ie eminescian/ 9hich #esi!na%es an ar%is%ic ob6ec% %he a#6ec%ive 9ill refer %o %he a!en%ive rela%ion$ The a#6ec%ive mo#ifies %hus %he a!en%ive @uale$ Le%?s assume %ha% %his @uale is in%er5re%e# as a rela%ional 5ar% of %he meanin! of N con%e;%uall0 ac%iva%e#3 (i/ poe(ie [ 0;(5oem(;/ A!en%(0 ;// The a#6ec%ive eminescian is %rea%e# as con%ainin! an uns5ecifie# rela%ion 8$ This rela%ion is a55lie# %o %he @ualia s%ruc%ure of %he noun3 in %his 5ar%icular case 8 is i#en%ifie# 9i%h %he A!en% rela%ion3 (ii/ eminescian [ 8;$Y8(7minescu/(;/Z
214
The A#6ec%ive
poe(ie eminescian [ 8;$Y8(7minescu/(;/Z (0;(5oem(;/ A!en%(0 ;///[ [ ;$Y (0;(5oem(;/ A!en%(0 ;/// (7minescu/(;/Z [ ;$Y ;(5oem(;/ A!en%(7minescu ;///(;/Z [ ;$Y(5oem(;/ A!en%(7minescu ;/Z Accor#in! %o %his anal0sis %he a#6ec%ive has %he %05e eee ee %ff ee %ff 5ro6ec%in! a rela%ion in%o a 5ro5er%0 of in#ivi#uals$ For a#6ec%ives #erive# from common nouns %he nominal base is no% an in#ivi#ual bu% a 5ro5er%0 (ee %f/ or 5erha5s a -in# (%05e e-f/ (if one a#o5%s %he vie9 %ha% nominal conce5%s #eno%e in %he firs% 5lace #inds P na%ural classes un#ers%oo# as in#ivi#uals 9i%h 5ar%s sca%%ere# in %ime an# s5ace/$ In %his case %he seman%ic %05e of %he rela%ional a#6ec%ive 9oul# 5ro6ec% a rela%ion be%9een %9o 5ro5er%ies or a -in# an# a 5ro5er%0 in%o a 5ro5er%0 of in#ivi#uals bein! %hus of %05e eeee %f ee %ff ee %ff or eeee %ff ee %ff$ Since %he rela%ional 5ar% of %he meanin! of N (%he @uale/ combines 9i%h %he nominal 5re#ica%e b0 con6unc%ion (see %he en%r0 in (i// 9e ob%ain %he im5lica%ion (NHA/(;/ s N(;/ (>subsec%ivi%0?/ 9hich as 9e have seen #is%in!uishes rela%ional a#6ec%ives from %he o%her %05e of non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives %he in%ensional ones$ (iii/
2.$.3. Non+0elat.onal 3eno6.nal a37e/t.2es No% all #enominal a#6ec%ives are rela%ional accor#in! %o our cri%eria (9hich inclu#e nonin%ersec%ivi%0/$ Some #enominal a#6ec%ives have a meanin! 9hich is less #e5en#en% or even in#e5en#en% of %he meanin! of %he mo#ifie# noun3 (i/ A#6ec%ives #erive# from names of 5laces re!ions na%ions an# 5erio#s3 %he0 refer %o %he ori!in or %he loca%ion of %he ob6ec% or %o %he coun%r0 or 5eo5le 9ho 5ro#uce# or 5ossess %he ob6ec%$ In %his case #enominal a#6ec%ives #evelo5 in%ersec%ive rea#in!s (ee %f/$ The e;is%ence of an in%ersec%ive rea#in! is si!nale# b0 %he 5ossibili%0 of a55l0in! %he a#6ec%ive (b0 5re#ica%ion or mo#ifica%ion/ %o an in#efini%e 5ronoun %ha% lac-s an0 nominal conce5% such as )tot* ceea ce >(ever0%hin! / some%hin!/ %ha%$$$?% ceva >some%hin!? nimic >no%hin!? orice >an0%hin!?$
(+==/ a$ `mi 5lace %o% ceea ce es%e 6a5oneA / me#ieval me$DAT li-es ever0%hin! %ha% is Na5anese / me#ieval >I li-e ever0%hin! %ha% is Na5anese/me#ieval? b$ Pare a fi ceva me%alic seems %o be some%hin! me%allic >I% loo-s li-e some%hin! me%allic?
In (+==/a +apone( >Na5anese? is un#ers%oo# as >5ro#uce# in Na5an / b0 Na5anese? for concre%e ob6ec%s or >charac%eris%ic of Na5anese cul%ure or cus%oms? for abs%rac% as 9ell as concre%e ob6ec%s$ 5edieval >me#ieval? refers %o %he %ime 9hen a concre%e ob6ec% 9as 5ro#uce# or 9hen an ins%i%u%ion e;is%e# e%c$ These a#6ec%ives canno% be un#ers%oo# as havin! a meanin! s5ecific %o 5ar%icular classes of nouns such as %heme (sub6ec% ma%%er/ of a 5ro5osi%ional / informa%ional ob6ec% P %hus tot ceea ce este +apone( >ever0%hin! Na5anese? #oes no% inclu#e studii +apone(e >Na5anese s%u#ies? 9i%h %he meanin! >s%u#ies abou% Na5an?$ This %05e of in%ersec%ive #enominal a#6ec%ives #iffers from 5ro%o%05ical @uali%0 a#6ec%ives in %ha% i% is no% !ra#able$ Correla%ivel0 i% #oes no% allo9 %he 5renominal 5osi%ion (see 2$+$1 for %he !ra#abili%0 con#i%ion on 5renominal @uali%0 a#6ec%ives/$ (ii/ Some #enominal a#6ec%ives es5eciall0 ori!in a#6ec%ives can also #evelo5 5urel0 @uali%0 rea#in!s P >%05ical of $$$? >havin! %he charac%eris%ic 5ro5er%ies of $$$?$ In %his case %he0 are !ra#able3
(+=+/ a$ mai ca%olic #ecW% 5a5a more ca%holic %han Po5e-%he b$ com5or%amen% foar%e franceA
21,
The A#6ec%ive behavior ver0 French
Ui%h some bases %here is more %han one #erive# a#6ec%ive one form bein! also use# as a noun an# of%en borro9e# as such (militar in (+=1/ >mili%ar0? is a mo#ern borro9in! from La%in militaris% French militaireI %his a#6ec%ive is rela%e# in La%in %o a nominal base P miles% militis >sol#ier?/ an# %he o%her one bein! #erive# b0 a##in! a common a#6ec%ival suffi; %o i% such as -esc$ In %his case %here is of%en a meanin! #ifference be%9een %he %9o forms3 %he form #erive# b0 -esc an# similar suffi;es %en#s %o have a @uali%0 rea#in!3
(+=1/ a$ cercul mili%ar / Xmili%Lresc circle-%he mili%ar0 mili%ar0 b$ com5or%amen% mili%Lresc / KK mili%ar behavior mili%ar0 mili%ar0 (+=2/ a$ li%era%ura romWnL / romWneascL li%era%ure-%he Romanian Romanian b$ com5or%amen% foar%e romWnesc / XromWn behavior ver0 Romanian Romanian
(iii/ There are #enominal a#6ec%ives 9hich onl0 e;5ress 5ro5er%ies in#e5en#en% of %he noun %he0 are a55lie# %o bein! %hus 5urel0 in%ersec%ive3 such are a#6ec%ives #escribin! sha5e 9hich belon!s %o %he !eneral ca%e!ories of ob6ec%s (dreptun !iular >rec%an!ular? sferic >s5herical? e%c$/ a#6ec%ives #eno%in! com5osi%ion 9hich can be !ra#able (nisipos >san#0?/ an# a#6ec%ives #eno%in! a resemblance 9i%h %he base noun 9hich are also normall0 !ra#able (uleios >oil0? e ulei >oil? bos >s%iff ri!i# arro!an%? e b >s%ic-?I %he resemblance is of%en in color P viiniu >cherr0-coloure#? e viin >sour cherr0? cenuiu >(#ar-/ !ra0? e cenu >ash?/$ 2.$.$. Intens.onal a37e/t.2es In%ensional a#6ec%ives #irec%l0 %a-e %he NP 5ro5er%0 as %heir ar!umen% an# refer %o %he %em5oral an# mo#al coor#ina%es un#er 9hich %he NP 5ro5er%0 is 5re#ica%e# on %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he noun 5hrase (%he >referen%? of %he DP/$ 'ecause %hese coor#ina%es are !eneral an# #o no% #e5en# on %he 5ar%icular nominal conce5% #eno%e# b0 N or NP such a#6ec%ives are no% #e5en#en% on %he meanin! of %he mo#ifie# noun (as are rela%ional a#6ec%ives/ bu% can a%%ach %o an0 NP cons%i%uen% a% an0 level (i$e before or af%er %he combina%ion of %he NP 9i%h o%her mo#ifiers/3
(+=4/ a$ un fos% Y5rofesor bo!a%Z a former 5rofessor rich b$ un Yfos% 5rofesorZ bo!a% a former 5rofessor rich c$ un 5re%ins Ye;celen% #oc%or #e co5iiZ an alle!e# e;cellen% #oc%or of chil#ren
The e;ac% re5resen%a%ion of temporal a#6ec%ives such as fost >former? viitor >fu%ure? mus% %a-e in%o accoun% %he %ime variable3 %he0 are func%ions from 5ro5er%ies rela%iviAe# %o %ime in%o 5ro5er%ies rela%iviAe# %o %ime or e ei ee %ff ei ee %ff f as illus%ra%e# in (+=,/ for fost >former?$
(+=,/ fost >former? (YYNPZZ/ [ % Deif$ ; Deef $(}YYNPZZ(; %/ l %_ Deif %_e%$ YYNPZZ(; %_/ /
The %ime variable of NPs is normall0 con%e;%uall0 sa%ura%e#3 %he in%erval of %he clause in 9hich %he NP is embe##e# is inclu#e# in %he in%erval in%ernal %o %he NP P e$!$ in Acolo am
21.
The A#6ec%ive
ntlnit un profesor >There I me% a %eacher? %he 5erson I me% 9as a 5rofessor a% %he %ime I me% him$ 5odal a#6ec%ives such as3 posibil >5ossible? probabil >5robable? aparent >seemin!?% pretins >alle!e#? aa-(is >so-calle#? can be re5resen%e# as in (+=./$
(+=./ pretins >alle!e#? (YYNPZZ/ [ 9$ ;$ ; is NP in 9orl#s 9_ 9hich corres5on# %o 9ha% someone sa0s in 9
This class inclu#es a fe9 a#6ec%ives 9hich e;5ress sub6ec%ive commen%s on %he a55lica%ion of %he 5ro5er%0 NP %o %he referen% of %he DP such as simplu >mere? adevrat >real?3 %he0 resemble %em5oral an# mo#al a#6ec%ives in %ha% %he0 are al9a0s 5renominal 9i%h %his meanin! (in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion %he0 have o%her meanin!s see sec%ion 2$+/ an# are no% in%ersec%ive bu% %a-e %he NP 5ro5er%0 as %heir ar!umen% ins%ea#3
(+=</ simplu (soldat/ [ 9$ P$ ;$ Y:AV(9?$ P(9?/(;//(9/Z(sol#a%/ [ 9$ ;$ :AV(9?$ sol#a%(9?/(;//(9/ ; is a sol#ier an# %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! a sol#ier is %he s%ron!es% one %ha% ma-es %he sen%ence %rue from a 5ra!ma%icall0 salien% se% of al%erna%ives (9here %he al%erna%ives or#er 5ro5er%ies on a scale of value/ im5or%ance/$ This is %he asser%e# com5onen%3 ; #oes no% have a hi!her mili%ar0 ran-$ The meanin! of simplu >mere? also inclu#es a 5resu55ose# con#i%ion :IN(9?$ sol#a%(9?/(;//(9/ sa0in! %ha% %he 5ro5er%0 un#er consi#era%ion has a lo9 5osi%ion on %he scale of value$
In%ensional a#6ec%ives are 5ara5hrasable b0 a#verbs mo#al verbs or %ense forms insi#e a rela%ive clause 9hich has %he NP as i%s 5re#ica%e3
(+=B/ a$ un 5osibil can#i#a% [ cineva care 5oate fi can#i#a% >a 5ossible can#i#a%e? >someone 9ho /an be a can#i#a%e? b$ un sim5lu 6un!hi [ ceva care e 3oa0 un 6un!hi >a sim5le ache? >some%hin! %ha% is 6e0el9 an ache? c$ o a#evLra%L nenorocire [ ceva care e /1 a3e2:0at o nenorocire >a real #isas%er? >some%hin! %ha% is 0eall9 a #isas%er? #$ foM%ii amici [ cei care a1 fost amici >%he former frien#s? >%hose %ha% 8a2e been frien#s? e$ 5robabilul cWM%i!L%or [ cel care 50obab.l va cWM%i!a >%he 5robable 9inner? >%he one 9ho 9ill 50obabl9 9in?
This clearl0 sho9s %ha% %he a#6ec%ive %ransla%es as a func%or o5era%in! on %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he NP$
Ue have seen %ha% an NP con%ainin! in%ersec%ive mo#ifiers %ransla%es as a con6unc%ion of 5re#ica%es$ In%eres%in!l0 an in%ensional a#6ec%ive a%%ache# above a com5le; NP of %his %05e ma0 be un#ers%oo# as referrin! no% onl0 %o bo%h 5re#ica%ions bu% also %o %he 5re#ica%ion e;5resse# b0 %he mo#ifier alone$ Thus >former? in (i/ can be un#ers%oo# as a55l0in! ei%her %o >flourishin! ci%0? or %o >flourishin!? alone (i$e$ %he en%i%0 can s%ill be a ci%0 bu% no% flourishin! an0 lon!er/$ (i/ un fos% oraM Enflori%or a former ci%0 flourishin! If %he seman%ics of fost is li-e in (+=,/ %his 5ossibili%0 follo9s from %he seman%ics of con6unc%ion3 9ha% is ne!a%e# is %he con6unc%ion of ora (; %/ l nfloritor (; %/ an# is enou!h %ha% one of %he con6unc%s is no% %rue for %he ne!a%e# con6unc%ion %o be %rue$ This ambi!ui%0 can be observe# no% onl0 9i%h in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives bu% also 9i%h 5ossessor DPs3
21<
The A#6ec%ive
(ii/ fos%a maMinL a lui Vic%or former-%he car G7N G'L Vic%or >Vic%or?s former car?
:os% in%ensional a#6ec%ives are al9a0s 5renominal$ Gnl0 %he a#6ec%ives rela%e# %o a#verbs 9i%h mo#al meanin! posibil >5ossible? probabil >5robable? ma0 also a55ear af%er %he noun3
(+=C/ Dn can#i#a% 5osibil/ 5robabil la 5reMe#inRie es%e Florescu a can#i#a%e 5ossible 5robable %o 5resi#enc0 is Florescu >A 5ossible/5robable can#i#a%e for 5resi#enc0 is Florescu?
Ui%h nouns #eno%in! even%s or fac%s/s%a%es-of-affairs a#6ec%ives referrin! %o %ime or mo#ali%0 can be foun# in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion as re!ular in%ersec%ive (@uali%0/ a#6ec%ives3 since %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he noun is an even% or fac% an# %hese a#6ec%ives are 5re#ica%es of even%s or fac%s %he0 can combine 9i%h %he noun b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion$ See also (<4/b re5ea%e# belo9 as (i/c for %he 5re#ica%ive use of %hese a#6ec%ives 9hich sho9s %ha% %he0 are in%ersec%ive$ (i/ a$ En%Wm5lLrile %recu%e Mi vii%oare even%s-%he 5as% an# fu%ure >5as% an# fu%ure even%s? b$ caAuri 5osibile cases 5ossible >5ossible cases? c$ :a6orarea %a;elor es%e (foar%e/ 5robabilL En aces% momen% raise-%he %a;es-%he$G7N is ver0 5robable in %his momen% >The %a; raise is ver0 li-el0 ri!h% no9?
3. A37e/t.2e 5la/e6ent .ns.3e t8e DP

This sec%ion is concerne# 9i%h %9o ma6or issues3 (i/ %he 5rinci5les 9hich #e%ermine %he 5lacemen% of a#6ec%ives 9i%h res5ec% %o %he noun an# (ii/ %he 5rinci5les 9hich #e%ermine %he rela%ive or#er of several a#6ec%ives in case of s%ac-in!$ Ue 9ill also su!!es% a s0n%ac%ic accoun% of %he observe# fac%s$ 3.1. P0eno6.nal 2s. 5ostno6.nal a37e/t.2es From %he #escri5%ion of %he seman%ic classes of a#6ec%ives in %he 5revious sec%ion 9e can alrea#0 es%ablish a !eneraliAa%ion 9hich 9ill be fur%her su55or%e# in %his sec%ion3 %he 5renominal 5osi%ion of a#6ec%ives is mar-e# bein! rela%e# %o s5ecial in%er5re%a%ions$ 'ase# on %his 9e 5ro5ose %ha% 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives are a#6unc%s an# %he lineariAa%ion 5arame%er for a#6unc%s is se% hea#-firs% in Romanian nominal 5ro6ec%ions$ '0 con%ras% %he s5ecial in%er5re%a%ions 9hich %he 5renominal 5osi%ion im5oses can be accoun%e# for b0 anal0Ain! 5renominal a#6ec%ives as s5ecifiers of o5%ional (minor/ func%ional 5ro6ec%ions$ The 5renominal 5osi%ion follo9s %hus from %he fac% %ha% s5ecifiers are lineariAe# %o %he lef% in Romanian$ The necessi%0 of 5osi%in! several o5%ional func%ional hea#s 9as ar!ue# for in Cha5%er 2$ Oavin! a#o5%e# %his anal0sis %he res%ric%ion of %he 5renominal 5osi%ion %o 5ar%icular meanin!s can be formaliAe# b0 in%ro#ucin! null func%ional hea#s 9hich selec% s5ecifiers 9i%h %he res5ec%ive meanin!$ Ue 9ill ar!ue in favor of anal0Ain! 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives as a#6unc%s in sec%ion 2$1 9here 9e #iscuss %he rela%ive or#er of s%ac-e# a#6ec%ives$ 3.1.1. Classes of 50eno6.nal a37e/t.2es Prenominal a#6ec%ives belon! %o %he follo9in! classes3
21B
The A#6ec%ive
(a/ In%ensional a#6ec%ives (see sec%ion 1$4$4/ mos% of 9hich are al9a0s 5renominal ( fost >former? pretins >alle!e#? aa-(is >so-calle#?/$ Some of %he a#6ec%ives %ha% can have an in%ensional meanin! ma0 also be use# in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion bu% 9i%h a si!nifican% meanin! #ifference 9hich en%i%les one %o %hin%ha% %he %9o uses reflec% #is%inc% le;ical uni%s3
(++=/ a$ o 5oves%e a#evLra%L a s%or0 %rue >a %rue s%or0? (%he con%en% of %he s%or0 is %rue/ b$ o a#evLra%L %ra!e#ie a %rue %ra!e#0 >a real %ra!e#0? (some%hin! %ha% reall0 is a %ra!e#0/ (+++/ a$ o En%rebare sim5lL a @ues%ion sim5le >a sim5le (eas0/ @ues%ion? b$ o sim5lL En%rebare a sim5le @ues%ion >a mere @ues%ion? (onl0 a @ues%ion/
In %he (a/ e;am5les of (++=/-(+++/ %he a#6ec%ives are 5os%nominal an# have in%ersec%ive meanin!s 9hereas in %he (b/ e;am5les %he same a#6ec%ives have in%ensional meanin!s 9hich correla%e 9i%h %heir 5renominal 5osi%ion$ (b/ A#6ec%ives 9i%h meanin!s rela%e# %o %he #e%erminer s0s%em$ Li-e for in%ensional a#6ec%ives %he same form ma0 also a55ear 5os%nominall0 as a @uali%0 a#6ec%ive 9i%h a #ifferen% al%hou!h rela%e# meanin!3 - reference %o o%her members of %he class (%he %05e of meanin! foun# 9i%h %he al%erna%ive %he i#en%i%0 #e%erminer an# or#inals/3
(++1/ a$ o nouL car%e a ne9 boo>a ne9 boo-? [ >(0e%/ ano%her boo-? b$ o car%e nouL a boo- ne9 >a ne9 boo-? [ >a boo- %ha% is ne9? (++2/ a$ #iferi%e 5oveM%i #ifferen% s%ories >various s%ories? b$ 5oveM%i #iferi%e s%ories #ifferen% >#ifferen% s%ories?
- e;5ressin! @uan%i%03
(++4/ a$ numeroasele familii numerous-%he families >%he man0 families? b$ familiile numeroase families-%he numerous >%he families 9i%h man0 members? (++,/ a$ o bunL 5ar%e a !oo# 5ar% >a !rea% #eal?
21C
The A#6ec%ive b$ o 5ar%e bunL a 5ar% !oo# >a 5ar% 9hich is !oo#?
- focal 5ar%icle meanin!3

(++./ a$ sin!ura femeie / o sin!urL femeie sin!le-%he 9oman a sin!le 9oman >%he onl0 9oman / onl0 one 9oman? b$ femeia sin!urL / o femeie sin!urL 9oman-%he sin!le a 9oman sin!le >%he lonel0 9oman / a lonel0 9oman?
:ore sel#om %he 5os%nominal form is a rela%ional (classif0in!/ a#6ec%ive 9i%h an i#ioma%ic meanin!3 - or#inal a#6ec%ive (in 5renominal 5osi%ion/3
(++</ a$ un 5rim reAul%a% a 5rime resul% >a firs% resul%? b$ un numLr 5rim a number 5rime >a 5rime number?
- @uali%0-#eic%ic/ana5horic3
(++B/ a$ o asemenea Ai a such #a0 >such a #a0 a #a0 li-e %his? b$ %riun!hiuri asemenea %rian!les similar >similar %rian!les?
(c/ 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9i%h a @ua-NP rea#in! 9hich becomes obli!a%or0 in 5renominal 5osi%ion 9hich su!!es%s %ha% in %his case %he0 are non-in%ersec%ivel0 cons%rue# bein! assimila%e# %o %05e (a/3
(++C/ a$ un bun 5rofessor a !oo# 5rofessor onl03 >(somebo#0/ !oo# as a %eacher? b$ un 5rofesor bun a 5rofessor !oo# >(somebo#0/ !oo# as a %eacher / a %eacher 9ho is a !oo# 5erson?
Some a#6ec%ives 9hich 5robabl0 belon! %o %his class are res%ric%e# %o 5ar%icular meanin!s 9hich ma0 be foun# as an o5%ion in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion alon!si#e a more concre%e meanin! (see (+1=// or ma0 be absen% al%o!e%her (see (+1+//3
(+1=/ a$ marii 5oeRi marile o5ere !rea%-%he$:PL 5oe%s !rea%-%he$FPL 9or-s of ar% >%he !rea% 5oe%s / 9or-s of ar%? b$ o5erele mari
22=
The A#6ec%ive 9or-s of ar%-%he !rea% >%he !rea%/bi! 9or-s of ar%? (+1+/ a$ un Enal% #emni%ar a hi!h official >a hi!h official? b$ un #emni%ar Enal% a official hi!h >a %all official?
The use of nalt in (+1+/a is res%ric%e# %o cer%ain nouns so %ha% %his cons%ruc%ion ma0 be anal0Ae# as a colloca%ion$ This re5resen%s an e;ce5%ional case in Romanian$ Noun-a#6ec%ive colloca%ions 9hich are fre@uen% almos% al9a0s involve 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives as 9e have seen in %he sec%ion #e#ica%e# %o rela%ional a#6ec%ives (1$4$1 above/$ The a#6ec%ives vec!i >ol#? an# nou >ne9? have a s5ecial non-in%ersec%ive rea#in! in 9hich %he0 e;5ress %he %ime ela5se# since %he referen% has %he 5ro5er%0 NP (i% is onl0 9i%h %his rea#in! %ha% %he0 can be a55lie# %o anima%e bein!s/$ Li-e for mos% a#6ec%ives of %his class %his rea#in! is available bo%h in 5re- an# 5os%nominal 5osi%ion$ Uha% is im5or%an% is %ha% 9i%h %his rea#in! %he0 ma0 a55ear in 5renominal 5osi%ion 9i%hou% bein! non-res%ric%ive (on %he nonres%ric%ive rea#in! of s%an#ar# @uali%0 (firs%-or#er/ a#6ec%ives in 5renominal 5osi%ion see 2$+$1 belo9/3
(+11/ a$ un vechi 5rie%en a ol# frien# >an ol# frien#? b$ o maMinL veche a car ol# >an ol# car?
(#/ 8uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9hich re%ain %heir ee %f %05e rea#in! bu% are in%er5re%e# as nonres%ric%ive (a55osi%ive/3
(+12/ a$ funcRionarii bo!aRi civil-servan%s-%he rich >%hose officials (civil servan%s/ 9hich are rich? b$ bo!aRii funcRionari rich-%he civil-servan%s >(%he/ officials (civil servan%s/ 9hich are rich? (+14/ a$ ToRi fericiRii 5acienRi ai #oc%orului au fos% vin#ecaRi all ha550-%he 5a%ien%s G7N #oc%or-%he$G7N have been cure# >All %he #oc%or?s 5a%ien%s 9ho 9ere/are ha550 9ere cure#$? b$ To%i 5acienRii fericiRi ai #oc%orului au fos% vin#ecaRi$ all 5a%ien%s-%he ha550 G7N #oc%or-%he$G7N have been cure# >All %hose of %he #oc%or?s 5a%ien%s 9ho 9ere/are ha550 9ere cure#?$
3.1.2. Non+0est0./t.2e Ea55os.t.2eF 2s. 0est0./t.2e The %erm >non-res%ric%ive? (or >a55osi%ive?/ refers %o mo#ifiers 9hich are 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#uals (%05e ee %f/ an# are in%er5re%e# ou%si#e %he res%ric%ion of %he #e%erminer as in#e5en#en% 5re#ica%es of %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he DP formin! an in#e5en#en% asser%ion 9hich is con6oine# 9i%h %he main 5re#ica%ion of %he clause or ra%her 9i%h %he s5eech-ac% of %he main clauseI %he0 are e@uivalen% %o si#e-remar-s or 5aren%he%icals3
22+
The A#6ec%ive (+1,/ Casa Po5orului cons%rui%L #e CeauMescu es%e as%LAi se#iul house-%he 5eo5le-%he$G7N buil% b0 CeauMescu is %o#a0 resi#ence-%he Parlamen%ului RomWniei Parliamen%-%he$G7N Romania-%he$G7N >The Peo5le?s Oouse buil% b0 CeauMescu is no9a#a0s %he resi#ence of %he Romanian Parliamen%? [ Casa Po5orului es%e as%LAi se#iul Parlamen%ului RomWniei house-%he 5eo5le-%he$G7N is %o#a0 resi#ence-%he Parliamen%-%he$G7N Romania-%he$G7N Mi a fos% cons%rui%L #e CeauMescu an# has been buil% b0 CeauMescu ([ Casa Po5orului es%e as%LAi se#iul Parlamen%ului RomWnieiI house-%he 5eo5le-%he$G7N is %o#a0 resi#ence-%he Parliamen%-%he$G7N Romania-%he$G7N ea a fos% cons%rui%L #e CeauMescu/ she has been buil% b0 CeauMescu >The Peo5le?s Oouse is no9a#a0s %he resi#ence of %he Romanian Parliamen% an# has been buil% b0 CeauMescu?([ >The Peo5le?s Oouse is no9a#a0s %he resi#ence of %he Romanian Parliamen%I i% has been buil% b0 CeauMescu?
A non-res%ric%ive mo#ifier can be omi%%e# 9i%hou% chan!in! %he %ru%h-value of %he clause$ Thus if (+1./a is %rue (+1./b is also %rue$ Com5are %he res%ric%ive use in (+1</3 here %he (a/ e;am5le #oes no% im5l0 (b/$
(+1./ a$ Celebrele muAee floren%ine a%ra! En%o%#eauna viAi%a%ori famous-%he museums Floren%ine a%%rac% al9a0s visi%ors >The famous Floren%ine museums al9a0s a%%rac% visi%ors? s b$ :uAeele floren%ine a%ra! En%o%#eauna viAi%a%ori$ museums-%he Floren%ine a%%rac% al9a0s visi%ors >Floren%ine museums al9a0s a%%rac% visi%ors? (+1</ a$ :uAeele floren%ine celebre a%ra! En%o%#eauna viAi%a%ori museums-%he Floren%ine famous a%%rac% al9a0s visi%ors >Famous Floren%ine museums al9a0s a%%rac% visi%ors? s b$ :uAeele floren%ine a%ra! En%o%#eauna viAi%a%ori museums-%he Floren%ine a%%rac% al9a0s visi%ors >Floren%ine museums al9a0s a%%rac% visi%ors?
This is because (+1./a is e@uivalen% %o %he sen%en%ial con6unc%ion (+1./_ 9hich is no% %he case for (+1</ 9here %he con6unc%ion of 5re#ica%es occurs un#er %he #e%erminer as sho9n in (+1</ _$
(+1./_ :uAeele floren%ine sun% celebre Mi a%ra! En%o%#eauna viAi%a%ori$ museums-%he Floren%ine are famous an# a%%rac% al9a0s visi%ors >Floren%ine museums are famous an# al9a0s a%%rac% visi%ors? (+1</_ (%he ma;imal sum of ;3 Y; is a Floren%ine museum an# ; is famousZ/ al9a0s a%%rac% visi%ors
The %erm >res%ric%ive? is use# here for an0 mo#ifier 9hich is in%er5re%e# insi#e %he res%ric%ion of %he #e%erminer$
Ano%her acce5%a%ion of %he %erm >res%ric%ive? is >(mo#ifier/ 9hich forms a subse% of %he mo#ifie# N(P/? i$e$ 9hich >restricts %he class #eno%e# b0 %he NP %o a cer%ain sub-se%?$ This #efini%ion onl0 a55lies %o subsec%ive mo#ifiers i$e$ %hose for 9hich %he im5lica%ion (AHN/(;/ s N(;/ hol#s$ Dn#er %his #efini%ion @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9hen %he0 are no% use# non-res%ric%ivel0 rela%ional a#6ec%ives an# nonin%ersec%ive @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9i%h a @ua-NP rea#in! (%05e (c/ in 2$+$+ above/ are res%ric%ive bu% in%ensional a#6ec%ives are no%$ Oere 9e #o no% a#o5% %his acce5%a%ion bu% %a-e as a s%ar%in! 5oin% %he 5osi%ive #efini%ion of >non-res%ric%ive? as 5re#ica%e of an in#e5en#en% asser%ion an# call >res%ric%ive?
221
The A#6ec%ive
all mo#ifiers 9hich are non-res%ric%ive$ Dn#er %his #efini%ion in%ensional a#6ec%ives are res%ric%ive$ For mo#ifiers 9hich form a subse% of %he mo#ifie# N(P/ 9e use %he %erm >subsec%ive?$ Ano%her %erm use# in %he li%era%ure is >affirma%ive? (as o55ose# %o >5riva%ive? 9hich charac%eriAes in %his %erminolo!0 in%ensional a#6ec%ives/$
The non-res%ric%ive rea#in! is no% a le;ical seman%ic 5ro5er%0 of a#6ec%ives bu% a con%e;%ual 5ro5er%0 9hich can be foun# 9i%h an0 firs%-or#er mo#ifier$ This 5ro5er%0 is unambi!uousl0 mar-e# b0 %he s0n%a; in %9o 9a0s3 b0 %he 5renominal 5osi%ion of @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9hich is #iscusse# here or b0 %he comma in%ona%ion before 5os%nominal mo#ifiers (9hich are usuall0 heav0 in %his case3 rela%ive clauses small clauses com5le; APs/3
(+1B/ a$ :uAeele floren%ine celebre #in%o%#eauna a%ra! mulRi viAi%a%ori museums-%he Floren%ine famous al9a0s a%%rac% man0 visi%ors >Floren%ine museum al9a0s famous a%%rac% man0 visi%ors$ b$ Ion / 7l su5Lra% 5e 5rie%enii sLi a 5leca% En !rabL Ion/ Oe u5se% 9i%h frien#s-%he his has lef% in hurr0 >D5se% 9i%h his frien#s Ion/he lef% in a hurr0$? c$ Sona%a 21 care a fos% com5usL En +B11 Encheie seria sona%elor sona%a 21 9hich has been com5ose# in +B11 closes series-%he sona%as-%he$ G7N #e 5ian bee%hoveniene of 5iano 'ee%hoven$ADN >Sona%a 21 9hich 9as com5ose# in +B11 closes %he 'ee%hoven 5iano sona%a series$?
The 5ossibili%0 %o combine 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns an# 5ro5er nouns (see (+1B/b/ in#ica%es %ha% 5os%nominal non-res%ric%ive mo#ifiers se5ara%e# b0 comma are DP-a#6unc%s$ In %his case %he non-res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion follo9s from %he s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure because %he mo#ifier is no% insi#e %he com5lemen% of %he #e%erminer bu% above %he YD(NP/Z cons%i%uen%$ '0 con%ras% 5renominal non-res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives are a case of s0n%a; - seman%ics misma%ch3 al%hou!h %he0 clearl0 occur in %he com5lemen% of D se5ara%in! D from %he noun %he0 are in%er5re%e# ou%si#e %he com5lemen% of D above %he DP$ The #efini%ion of >non-res%ric%ive? 9e have assume# im5lies %ha% onl0 referen%ial DPs allo9 such mo#ifiers$ In#ee# a !oo# %es% for es%ablishin! 9he%her a mo#ifier is nonres%ric%ive or no% is %o see 9he%her i% is allo9e# in @uan%ifica%ional DPs$ Such DPs #o no% %olera%e non-res%ric%ive mo#ifiers3
(+1C/ a$ X Grice s%u#en% care e in%eli!en% EnvaRL bine an0 s%u#en% 9ho is in%elli!en% s%u#ies 9ell b$ X Grice in%eli!en% s%u#en% EnvaRL bine an0 in%elli!en% s%u#en% s%u#ies 9ell
As for !eneric DPs %he0 allo9 non-res%ric%ive 5os%-mo#ifiers se5ara%e# b0 comma (a55osi%ions/ (see (+2=/c__/ bu% e;clu#e non-res%ric%ive mo#ifiers insi#e %he DP such as 5renominal non-res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives$ The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %ha% in%ersec%ive @uali%0 a#6ec%ives canno% a55ear before %he noun in !eneric DPs bu% onl0 af%er %he noun3
(+2=/ a$ XFi#elul #isci5ol ascul%L #e maes%ru$ fai%hful-%he #isci5le obe0s %o mas%er a_$ Disci5olul fi#el ascul%L #e maes%ru$ #isci5le-%he fai%hful obe0s %o mas%er >The fai%hful #isci5le obe0s %he mas%er$? b$ XIn%eli!en%ul s%u#en% es%e cel care EnvaRL$ in%elli!en%-%he s%u#en% is %he one 9ho s%u#ies b_$ S%u#en%ul in%eli!en% es%e cel care EnvaRL$
222
The A#6ec%ive s%u#en%-%he in%elli!en% is %he one 9ho s%u#ies >The in%elli!en% s%u#en% is %he one 9ho s%u#ies$? c$ XRoMul sWn!e conRine hemo!lobinL re#-%he bloo# con%ains hemo!lobin c_$ SWn!ele roMu conRine hemo!lobinL bloo#-%he re# con%ains hemo!lobin >Re# bloo# con%ains hemo!lobin$? c__ SWn!ele care es%e 5rinci5alul mi6loc #e %rans5or% al subs%anRelor bloo#-%he 9hich is main-%he means of %rans5or%a% G7N subs%ances-%he$G7N En or!anism conRine hemo!lobinL in bo#0 con%ains hemo!lobin >The bloo# 9hich is %he main means of subs%ance %rans5or% in %he bo#0 con%ains hemo!lobin$?
'0 con%ras% in%ensional a#6ec%ives an# @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9i%h a non-in%ersec%ive in%er5re%a%ion P %05es (a/ an# (c/ in %he classifica%ion in 2$+$+ above P can a55ear in !eneric an# @uan%ifica%ional DPs 9hich sho9s %ha% %he0 are no% non-res%ric%ive3
(+2+/ a$ FoM%ii miniM%ri sun% bo!aRi$ former-%he minis%ers are rich >Former minis%ers are rich$? b$ `nalRii #emni%ari sun% bine 5lL%iRi$ hi!h-%he officials are 9ell 5ai# >Oi!h officials are 9ell-5ai#$? c$ A#evLraRii 5rofesori sun% rari$ %rue-%he %eachers are rare >True %eachers are rare$? #$ Dn bun s%u#en% nu face aMa ceva$ a !oo# s%u#en% no% #oes as some%hin! >A !oo# s%u#en% never #oes some%hin! li-e %his$? e$ :arii 5oeRi sun% rari En Ailele noas%re$ !rea%-%he 5oe%s are rare in #a0s ours >Grea% 5oe%s are rare no9a#a0s$? f$ Grice veche cunoM%inRL #e-a lui ERi 5oa%e s5une as%a$ an0 ol# ac@uain%ance of-his 0ou can sa0 %his >An0 ol# ac@uain%ance of his can %ell 0ou %his$? !$ Niciun nou minis%ru nu a reAolva% 5roblemele sis%emului$ no ne9 minis%er no% has solve# 5roblems-%he s0s%em-%he$ G7N >No ne9 minis%er solve# %he 5roblems of %he s0s%em$?
Ano%her %es% 9hich i#en%ifies non-res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives is %he im5ossibili%0 %o a55ear in con%ras%ive con%e;%s i$e$ un#er a focus 9hich e;clu#es N3 %his is because in %he nonres%ric%ive rea#in! %he N(P/ suffices %o i#en%if0 %he referen% 9hich means %ha% no o%her referen% in %he #iscourse con%e;% can fall un#er %he N(P/ conce5%$ The non-res%ric%ive A is %hus 5re#ica%e# of all %he referen%s 9hich fall un#er %he N(P/ in %he con%e;%$ There is no o%her referen% 9hich falls un#er N(P/ 9hich can receive an a#6ec%ive A 1 bu% no% A 0iel#in! %hus a con%ras% be%9een YA N(P/Z an# YA1 N(P/Z3
(+21/ a$ Calcula%orul V7COI se s%ricL #es nu cel nou$ com5u%er-%he ol# R7FL brea-s of%en no% %he ne9 >I% is %he ol# com5u%er %ha% !oes ou% of or#er of%en no% %he ne9 one$? b$ XV7COIDL calcula%or se s%ricL #es nu cel nou$ ol#-%he com5u%er R7FL brea-s of%en no% %he ne9
224
The A#6ec%ive
Al%hou!h 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives are normall0 res%ric%ive some%imes %he con%e;% forces a non-res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion of a @uali%0 5os%nominal a#6ec%ive$ In li%erar0 %e;%s a#6ec%ival mo#ifiers are of%en use# in or#er %o #escribe alrea#0 es%ablishe# #iscourse referen%s or associa%ive ana5horae 9hich can be i#en%ifie# 9i%hou% %he use of %hese mo#ifiers$ Such mo#ifiers are non-res%ric%ive accor#in! %o our #efini%ion$ Some%imes %hese a#6ec%ives are 5os%nominal3
(+22/ Sus 5e coas%a unui #eal #e la #rea5%a :urLMului e mLnLs%irea minoriRilor ves%i%a :aria Ra#na$ Din %urnurile bisericii 6a0. C. f016oase se vL# 5e :urLM la #eal ruinele aco5eri%e cu muMchi ale ce%LRii #e la ioimoM$ (Slavici 5ara I/ >D5 on a hill on %he ri!h% ban- of %he :ureM river lies %he :inori%es? monas%er0 %he famous :aria Ra#na$ From %he %o9ers of %he b.4 an3 bea1t.f1l church one can see u5hill on %he :ureM %he mosse# ruins of %he ioimoM for%ress?
In (+22/ %he a#6ec%ives 9hich charac%eriAe %he church are no% use# %o i#en%if0 %he referen% because i% is -no9n %ha% monas%eries have onl0 one church$ Oere are o%her e;am5les in 9hich 9orl# -no9le#!e forces a non-res%ric%ive rea#in! even if %he a#6ec%ive is 5os%nominal3
(+24/ a$ :L 5rivea fi; cu ochii sLi ne!ri me loo-e#$2SG s%rai!h% 9i%h e0es-%he his blac>Oe 9as loo-in! s%rai!h% a% me 9i%h his blac- e0es$? b$ VLAuse mul%e En viaRa sa lun!L$ sa9$2SG man0 in life-%he his lon! >Oe ha# seen a lo% of %hin!s in his lon! life$?
The non-res%ric%ive rea#in! of a 5os%nominal a#6ec%ive is some%imes har# %o ob%ain$ I% is facili%a%e# b0 %he 5resence of a 5ossessive or a #emons%ra%ive 9hich in#ica%es %he referen% as alrea#0 i#en%ifie# (see (+2,/c com5are# %o bI (+2,/a sho9s %ha% %he 5roblem 9i%h (+2,/b is no% %he fac% %ha% %he ana5horic DP is in%ro#uce# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle/3
(+2,/ a$ Am 5rimi% ca#ou Y#ouL romane #e Tols%oiZ i$ Am lua% cLrRilei cu mine have$+ recevive# !if% %9o novels b0 Tols%o0 have$+ %a-en boo-s-%he 9i%h me En conce#iu$ on vaca%ion >I 9as offere# %9o novels b0 Tols%o0$ I %oo- %he boo-s 9i%h me on vaca%ion$? b$ Am 5rimi% ca#ou Y#ouL romane #e Tols%oiZi$ KK Am lua% YcLrRile foar%e buneZ i have$+ recevive# !if% %9o novels b0 Tols%o0 have$+ %a-en boo-s-%he ver0 !oo# cu mine En conce#iu$ 9i%h me on vaca%ion c$ Am 5rimi% ca#ou Y#ouL romane #e Tols%oiZi$ Am lua% Yaces%e cLrRi foar%e buneZ i have$+ receive# !if% %9o novels b0 Tols%o0 have$+ %a-en %hese boo-sver0 !oo# cu mine En conce#iu$ 9i%h me on vaca%ion
Ano%her cons%ruc%ion %ha% facili%a%es a non-res%ric%ive rea#in! of a 5os%nominal a#6ec%ive is %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion (NH#ef - cel - AP/ 9hich 9ill be #iscusse# in sec%ion 2$2 belo9$ Thus if %he cas%le in (+2./ has onl0 one hall (+2./a seems more a55ro5ria%e %han (+2./b$
(+2./ a$ Pe acolo am in%ra% En sala cea mare (a cas%elului/
22,
The A#6ec%ive on %here have$+ en%ere# in room-%he C7L bi! G7N cas%le-%he$G7N >Ue en%ere# %he bi! room (of %he cas%le/ %ha% 9a0$? b$ Pe acolo am in%ra% En sala mare (a cas%elului/ on %here have$+ en%ere# in room-%he bi! G7N cas%le-%he$G7N
This ma0 be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% a#6ec%ives in %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion of%en e;5ress bac-!roun# informa%ion (see 2$2 belo9 on %he familiari%0 fea%ure e;5resse# b0 %his cons%ruc%ion/$ The 5renominal 5lacemen% of @uali%0 a#6ec%ives (9i%h no @ua-NP rea#in!/ #oes no% onl0 mar- a non-res%ric%ive rea#in! bu% involves an a##i%ional affec%ive fea%ure e;5ressin! some -in# of sub6ec%ive evalua%ion$ An in#ica%ion for %his is %he fac% %ha% @uali%0 5renominal a#6ec%ives mus% be !ra#able an# moreover %he0 5referabl0 e;5ress sub6ec%ive 5ro5er%ies such as siAe an# evalua%ion (e$!$ >hu!e? >small? >beau%iful? >u!l0? >s5len#i#? e%c$/$
(+2</ Privea la Enal%ele / imensele / KK ro%un#ele / Xcircularele %urnuri ale cas%elului loo-$I:PF$2SG a% hi!h-%he hu!e-%he roun#-%he circular-%he %o9ers G7N cas%le-%he$G7N >Oe 9as loo-in!# a% %he hi!h/hu!e/roun#/circular %o9ers of %he cas%le$?
The e;is%ence of an affec%ive fea%ure is also su55or%e# b0 %he behavior of 5as% 5ar%ici5les3 9hile non mo#ifie# 5ar%ici5les are banne# from %his 5osi%ion %he0 become acce5%able if %he0 are mo#ifie# b0 an a#verb$ Such a#verbs usuall0 have a scalar com5onen% or a% leas% an inheren% su5erla%ive meanin! (see venic >al9a0s? in (+2B/#/3
(+2B/ a$ X un numi% #irec%or an a55oin%e# #irec%or a_$ un 5roas5L% numi% #irec%or a recen%l0 a55oin%e# #irec%or b$ KKo #ecora%L camerL a #ecora%e# room b_$ o fas%uos #ecora%L camerL a sum5%uousl0 #ecora%e# room c$ Xun amWna% evenimen% a 5os%5one# even% c_$ un #eseori amWna% evenimen% an of%en 5os%5one# even% #$ Kun !rLbi% 5rofesor a hurr0in! 5rofessor #_$ un veMnic !rLbi% 5rofesor an e%ernall0 hurr0in! 5rofessor
A fe9 @uali%0 a#6ec%ives are res%ric%e# %o %he 5renominal non-res%ric%ive use$ The0 all have a clear affec%ive fea%ure3 biet >5oor? in %he sense of >5i%iful? co eamite% ditamai >ver0 bi!?$ The la%%er %9o are 5eculiar in %ha% %he0 are uninflec%e# an# %he0 al9a0s 5rece#e %he se@uence NHsuffi;al #efini%e ar%icle al%hou!h %he0 ma0 a% %he same %ime follo9 %he in#efini%e ar%icle$ All %he o%her a#6ec%ives receive %he suffi;al ar%icle %hemselves 9hen %he0 are 5renominal (see Cha5%er 2 sec%ion B/3
(+2C/ a$ un #i%amai %rofeul a hu!e %ro5h0-%he >a hu!e %ro5h0? b$ #i%amai/co!eami%e bLia%ul hu!e hu!e bo0-%he
22.
The A#6ec%ive >a hu!e bo0?
The a#6ec%ive srac has %he affec%ive meanin! >5i%iful? 9hen use# in 5renominal 5osi%ion an# %he meanin! >5oor? in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion3
(+4=/ a$ bLia%ul sLrac bo0-%he 5oor >%he 5oor bo0? b$ sLracul bLia% 5oor-%he bo0 >%he 5i%iful bo0?
Uhen combinin! 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 5renominal affec%ive a#6ec%ives bear %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle an# re@uire %he inser%ion of de >of? before %he 5ronoun3
(+4+/ a$ bie%ul/ sLracul frumosul #e el 5oor-%he 5oor-%he han#some-%he of him b$ bia%a/ sLraca 5roas%a #e mine 5oor-%he 5oor-%he s%u5i#-%he of me
This is 5robabl0 #ue %o %he fac% %ha% 5ersonal 5ronouns #o no% allo9 an0 DP-in%ernal (a#nominal/ ma%erial (see Cha5%er , sec%ion + P Personal Pronouns/ bu% ra%her cons%i%u%e a 9hole DP embe##e# un#er %he DP in%ro#uce# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle$ Therefore %he binominal @uali%a%ive >N-de-N? s%ruc%ure is use# (see Cha5%er +2 *1/$ 3.1.3 Con/l1s.on. P0eno6.nal a37e/t.2es /o65a0e3 D.t8 5ostno6.nal a37e/t.2es Summin! u5 %he 5renominal 5osi%ion correla%es 9i%h s5ecial in%er5re%a%ive cons%rain%s3 i% allo9s ei%her a#6ec%ives 9hich %a-e %he NP as %heir ar!umen% combinin! b0 func%ional a55lica%ion (%05es (a/-(c/ in 2$+$+ above/ P inclu#in! in%ensional a#6ec%ives @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9i%h an obli!a%or0 qua-NP rea#in! an# a#6ec%ives 9i%h a #e%erminer-li-e meanin! P or nonres%ric%ive @uali%0 a#6ec%ives$ I% #isallo9s a#6ec%ives 9hich combine 9i%h %he NP b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion as 9ell as a#6ec%ives 9i%h ac% as @uasi-ar!umen%s of %he N or s5ecif0 im5lici% variables of %he le;ical-conce5%ual s%ruc%ure of %he N (i$e$ rela%ional a#6ec%ives/$ The anal0sis accor#in! %o 9hich 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives are a#6unc%s an# 5renominal a#6ec%ives are s5ecifiers of o5%ional func%ional 5ro6ec%ions 5rovi#es an accoun% for %his !eneraliAa%ion un#er %he assum5%ion %ha% 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion charac%eriAes a#6unc%ion s%ruc%ures$ As for rela%ional a#6ec%ives %heir obli!a%or0 5os%nominal 5lacemen% can be e;5laine# as follo9s3 for %hose s5ecif0in! variables from %he @ualia s%ruc%ure un#er %he anal0sis 5ro5ose# in sec%ion 1$4$1 above %he las% s%e5 of %he seman%ic com5osi%ion is 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion (be%9een %he @uale 5re#ica%e an# %he N/ so %ha% %he0 fall un#er %he !eneraliAa%ion concernin! a#6ec%ives combine# b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion$ Thema%ic a#6ec%ives an# a#6ec%ives s5ecif0in! sub--in#s are similar %o com5lemen%s P %he0 are license# b0 %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure or 5ar%icular seman%ic s5ecifica%ions of %he hea# N P an# i% is reasonable %o assume %ha% %his re@uires %ha% %he0 shoul# be 5ro6ec%e# insi#e %he le;ical 5ro6ec%ion %he NP$ As %he0 are no% referen%ial ar!umen%s (see 1$4$1/ %he0 canno% occu50 %he S5ecNP 5osi%ion 9hich if 5ro6ec%e# is 5robabl0 #e#ica%e# %o ar!umen%s$ Therefore %he0 are a%%ache# %o %he N(P/ as a#6unc%s$ Since NP-a#6unc%s are lineariAe# %o %he ri!h% %heir obli!a%or0 5os%nominal 5osi%ion is e;5laine#$ 'ecause %heir meanin! is s%ron!l0 #e5en#en% on %he meanin! of %he hea# N %he0 canno% occur in func%ional 5ro6ec%ions hi!her %han NP$ This e;5lains 9h0 %he0 canno% be 5renominal if 9e a#o5% %he 5ro5osal %ha% 5renominal a#6ec%ives are s5ecifiers of func%ional 5ro6ec%ions$ 22<
The A#6ec%ive
The fac% %ha% 5os%nominal @uali%0 a#6ec%ives e;ce5%ionall0 allo9 a non-res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion ma0 be an effec% of inferences base# on %he con%e;% an# 9orl#--no9le#!e no% enco#e# in %he s0n%ac%ic/LF s%ruc%ure$ Dn#er %his vie9 %he a#6ec%ives in (+22/ (+24/ (+2,/b (+2./a are combine# 9i%h %he N b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion li-e res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives an# %he fac% %ha% %he0 #o no% ac%uall0 res%ric% %he e;%ension of %he NP is no% reflec%e# in s%ruc%ure$ 'esi#es %he seman%ic 5rinci5les 9hich !overn a#6ec%ive 5lacemen% %ha% have been e;amine# %here are also some 5urel0 formal cons%rain%s 9hich 5robabl0 belon! %o %he mor5ho-5honolo!ical com5onen%3 (i/ a !eneral rule also foun# in o%her hea#-ini%ial lan!ua!es re@uires 5re-hea# mo#ifiers %o en# in %he le;ical hea#$ Thus a#6ec%ives 9hich have com5lemen%s are %o%all0 e;clu#e# from %he 5renominal 5osi%ion (no%e %ha% %he same cons%rain% a55lies in 7n!lish al%hou!h %he normal 5osi%ion of a#6ec%ives in %his lan!ua!e is 5renominal/3
(+41/ a$ un mWn#ru soare / mWn#rul soare a 5rou#/s5len#i# sun 5rou#/s5len#i#-%he sun b$ X un mWn#ru #e fiii sLi %a%L / X mWn#rul #e fiii sLi %a%L a 5rou# of sons-%he his fa%her 5rou#-%he of sons-%he his fa%her
(ii/ Pos%nominal a#6ec%ives 5rece#e !eni%ives an# PPsI %he0 can follo9 %hem onl0 if %he0 are >heav0? P i$e$ if %he0 have mo#ifiers or com5lemen%s P or %he0 are 5rece#e# b0 cel in %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ionI mar!inall0 %he0 ma0 also a55ear in %his 5osi%ion un#er heav0 s%ress3
(+42/ a$ car%ea nouL a :ariei boo--%he ne9 G7N :aria$G7N >:aria?s ne9 boo-? b$ X car%ea :ariei nouL boo--%he :aria$G7N ne9 c$ car%ea :ariei cea nouL boo--%he :aria$G7N %he ne9 #$ K car%ea :ariei NGDa boo--%he :aria$G7N ne9 (+44/ a$ 5ar%ea oraMului 5linL #e !unoaie 5ar%-%he ci%0-%he$G7N full of !arba!e >%he 5ar% of %he ci%0 full of !arba!e? b$ un 5lan al oraMului foar%e mare a 5lan G7N ci%0-%he$G7N ver0 bi!
This cons%rain% #oes no% a55l0 if %he PP is com5ose# b0 de follo9e# b0 a bare noun (a noun 9i%hou% #e%erminer/3
(+4,/ a$ o rochie #e searL nouL a #ress of evenin! ne9 >a ne9 evenin! #ress? b$ o casL #e lemn Enal%L a house of 9oo# %all >a %all 9oo#en house?
Ue ma0 conclu#e %ha% sim5le a#6ec%ives an# PPs com5ose# of deHNP are li !t p!rases 9hile o%her PPs an# !eni%ives coun% as heav0 an# a !eneral or#erin! 5rinci5le 9hich ma0 belon! %o %he lineariAa%ion mo#ule im5oses %he or#er li!h% before heav0 in %he 5os%nominal fiel#$
22B
The A#6ec%ive
3.2 Relat.2e o03e0 of sta/>e3 a37e/t.2es. Ue s5ea- of stac#ed modifiers 9hen one of %hem is a%%ache# as a sis%er %o a 5hrase con%ainin! %he hea# noun an# %he o%her mo#ifier as re5resen%e# belo93
(+4./ YYN ($$/ A+Z A1Z a$ YYuniunea bancarLZ euro5eanLZ union financial 7uro5ean b$ un Yfos% Ymare 5oe%ZZ a former !rea% 5oe%
In %his s%ruc%ure A1 is sai# %o a%%ach (or be/ !i !er %han A+ or %o ta#e scope over A+$ Conversel0 A+ is lo&er %han A1$ In %his sec%ion 9e are in%eres%e# in %he rela%ive or#er of a#6ec%ives in case of s%ac-in!$ Firs% i% shoul# be s%resse# %ha% %he linear or#er of a#6ec%ives in Romanian #irec%l0 reflec%s %heir hierarchical or#er P i$e$ if A1 is hi!her %han A+ A+ is closer %o %he noun %han A13
(+4</ a$ YA1 YA+ N ZZ b$ YYN A+Z A1ZZ
Thus %here is no nee# %o use movemen% o5era%ions in or#er %o #erive %he rela%ive or#er of a#6ec%ives$ Al%hou!h %his ma0 seem evi#en% %his 5oin% shoul# be s%resse# because a number of researchers have 5ro5ose# %ha% %he 5os%nominal 5osi%ion of a#6ec%ives in Romance lan!ua!es is #erive# from a cons%ruc%ion 9here a#6ec%ives are 5renominal li-e in 7n!lish b0 raisin! of %he noun$ If %his 9ere %rue in %he or#er N-A +-A1 A1 9oul# be lo9er %han A+$ 'u% %his is never %he case3 ever0 %ime 9e can in#e5en#en%l0 es%ablish %he rela%ive sco5e of A 1 an# A+ on seman%ic !roun#s or base# on com5arison 9i%h 7n!lish an# o%her lan!ua!es 9i%h 5renominal a#6ec%ives 9e fin# %ha% A1 is hi!her %han A+ in %he N-A+-A1 or#er$ The rea#er ma0 easil0 chec- %his claim b0 e;aminin! %he seman%ics an# a% %he 7n!lish %ransla%ions of %he various e;am5les %hrou!hou% %his sec%ion$ The rela%ive or#er of a#6ec%ives is some%imes im5ose# b0 seman%ics$ In o%her cases %he seman%ic combina%ion or %he in%er5re%a%ion #o no% im5ose a cer%ain hierarchical or#er bu% s%ill %here is a 5reference for a cer%ain or#er in case of s%ac-in! #e5en#in! on finer seman%ic #is%inc%ions amon! a#6ec%ives belon!in! %o %he same #eno%a%ional %05e$ Finall0 %here are cases in 9hich %he or#er is es%ablishe# accor#in! %o %he con%e;%$ E.F Relat.2e o03e0 .65ose3 b9 se6ant./s$ A#6ec%ives belon!in! %o #is%inc% #eno%a%ional %05es (see %he ma6or seman%ic %05es #iscusse# in sec%ion 1 an# %he con%e;%ual classifica%ion res%ric%ive/non-res%ric%ive #iscusse# in 2$1 above/ can never be coor#ina%e# an# sho9 a ri!i# or#er in s%ac-in! #ue %o %he #eno%a%ional re@uiremen%s Thus for %he 5os%nominal fiel# rela%ional a#6ec%ives 9hich s5ecif0 variables in %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure or in %he @ualia s%ruc%ure of %he noun or e;5ress sub--in#s or form colloca%ions 9i%h %he noun (see 1$4$1 above/ are e;5ec%e#l0 closer %o %he N (i$e$ lo9er/ %han @uali%0 a#6ec%ives3
(+4B/ a$ can%inL s%u#enReascL mare can%een s%u#en%$ADN bi! a_$ KKcan%inL mare s%u#enReascL can%een bi! s%u#en%$ADN a__$ X can%inL mare Mi s%u#enReascL can%een bi! an# s%u#en%$ADN
22C
The A#6ec%ive b$ lanR mun%os Enal% chain moun%ain$ADN hi!h b_$ XlanR Enal% mun%os chain hi!h moun%ain$ADN b__$ XlanR Enal% Mi mun%os chain hi!h an# moun%ain$ADN
In sec%ion 1$4$1 9e have seen %ha% co-occurrin! rela%ional a#6ec%ives are normall0 s%ac-e# an# of%en ri!i#l0 or#ere#$ This is e;5ec%e# since %he0 refer %o #ifferen% seman%ic #imensions of %he noun P for ins%ance #ifferen% ar!umen%s (in %he case of %hema%ic a#6ec%ives/ or @ualia$ The more %he meanin! of a rela%ional a#6ec%ive is #e5en#en% on %he meanin! of %he noun %he closer i% comes %o %he noun$ Thema%ic a#6ec%ives sho9 %he familiar hierarchical rela%ions amon! ar!umen% roles (e$!$ a!en%s are hi!her %han %hemes/$
(+4C/ a$ sis%emul filoAofic he!elian s0s%em-%he 5hiloso5hical Oe!elian a_$ X sis%emul he!elian filoAofic s0s%em-%he Oe!elian 5hiloso5hical a__$ X sis%emul he!elian Mi filoAofic s0s%em-%he Oe!elian an# 5hiloso5hical b$ a%acul nuclear american a%%ac--%he nuclear American b_$ X a%acul american nuclear a%%ac--%he American nuclear b__$ X a%acul american Mi nuclear a%%ac--%he American an# nuclear
In %he 5renominal fiel# 9e fin# %he follo9in! or#er 9hich is im5ose# b0 seman%ics3
(+,=/ non-res%ric%ive Y in%ensional Y @uali%0 9i%h a qua- NP rea#in!
Thus bun in (+,+/a canno% be un#ers%oo# as >!oo# as a %eacher?$ '0 con%ras% in (+,+/b %his is %he onl0 5ossible rea#in!$
(+,+/ a$ un bun Yfos% 5rofesorZ a !oo# former %eacher b$ un fos% Ybun 5rofesorZ a former !oo# %eacher
Since non-res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives in%ro#uce an in#e5en#en% asser%ion re!ar#in! %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he DP %he0 canno% a55ear insi#e %he NP 9hich is %a-en as an ar!umen% b0 %he in%ensional a#6ec%ive (if %he0 9ere %he0 9oul# con%ribu%e %o %he com5le; 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he NP ra%her %han 5rovi#in! an in#e5en#en% 5re#ica%e/$ This also hol#s for %he 5os%nominal fiel#3 if an a#6ec%ive in %his fiel# is use# non-res%ric%ivel0 i% mus% come af%er all %he o%her a#6ec%ives$ :oreover %he non-res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion re@uires mar-in! b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle cel in %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion3
(+,1/ a$ funcRionarii euro5eni cei bo!aRi civil servan%s-%he 7uro5ean %he rich b$ funcRionarii euro5eni bo!aRi civil servan%s-%he 7uro5ean rich ( res%ric%ive/ (onl0 res%ric%ive/
24=
The A#6ec%ive
The rela%ive or#er be%9een in%ensional an# @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9i%h a qua-NP rea#in! in#ica%e# in (+,=/ is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he 5ro5er%ies e;5resse# b0 %he 5hrases Yin%ensional A H NPZ canno% P in %he !eneral case Pfunc%ion as qua- ar!umen%sI onl0 9ell es%ablishe# func%ions an# roles can #o so3 %hus %he a55lica%ion of an evalua%ive a#6ec%ive %o %he 5ro5er%0 ?former %eacher? is un#efine#$ There is no e;cellence cri%erion for a former %eacher$ To %he e;%en% 9e can conceive such 5ro5er%ies as func%ions 9hich can be 5erforme# in cer%ain 9a0s %he or#er @ua-NP-a#6ec%ive f in%ensional is 5ossible$ Thus if %o be a >former 5resi#en%? im5lies a cer%ain behavior 9e can sa0 %ha% >V is a !oo# former 5resi#en%?3
(+,2/ Nu M%iu cum a fos% ca 5reMe#in%e #ar e un bun fos% 5reMe#in%e no% -no9$+SG ho9 has been as 5resi#en% bu% is a !oo# former 5resi#en% >I #on?% -no9 ho9 he 9as as a 5resi#en% bu% he is a !oo# former 5resi#en%$?
Ue come %hus %o ano%her 9a0 in 9hich seman%ics can #e%ermine or#er3 9i%h a#6ec%ives 9hich %a-e %he NP as an ar!umen% %he s%ruc%ures YYN A+ZA1Z an# YYN A1Z A+Z are no% %ru%hcon#i%ionall0 e@uivalen% P because %he 5ro5er%ies %o 9hich %he0 a55l0 in %he %9o cases are #ifferen%$ Thus %he sco5e of %he a#6ec%ive is 5ar% of %he in%en#e# meanin! of %he sen%ence (%herefore %hese a#6ec%ives are calle# scope-%a-in! a#6ec%ives/ an# %he s5ea-er chooses %he or#er 9hich reflec%s %he in%en#e# sco5e rela%ion (in %he case of a#6ec%ives li-e for mo#ifiers in !eneral %he sco5e e;5resse# in %he surface s%ruc%ure canno% be reverse# b0 cover% o5era%ions/$ Therefore %he rela%ive or#er amon! co-occurrin! in%ensional a#6ec%ives is #ic%a%e# b0 sco5e (no%e %ha% (+,4/a an# b #o no% e;5ress %he same 6u#!men%/3
(+,4/ a$ un fos% 5re%ins criminal a former alle!e# criminal b$ un 5re%ins fos% criminal a alle!e# former criminal
Li-e9ise if an in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ive is %o be un#ers%oo# as bein! ou%si#e %he sco5e of an in%ensional a#6ec%ive i% mus% be a%%ache# above i% (un#er %he anal0sis of 5renominal a#6ec%ives 5ro5ose# in 2$+$+ above %his 9oul# be a 5osi%ion of a#6unc% %o %he func%ional 5ro6ec%ion in 9hich %he in%ensional a#6ec%ive is in%ro#uce#/3
(+,,/ YYfoM%ii 5reMe#inRiZ sLraciZ former-%he 5resi#en%s 5oor
E..F Relat.2e o03e0 a6on4 .nte0se/t.2e a37e/t.2es. As 9e have seen in sec%ion 1 in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives combine 9i%h %he mo#ifie# NP b0 con6unc%ion of 5re#ica%es$ The or#er in 9hich con6unc%s combine #o no% 0iel# an0 meanin! #ifference (con6unc%ion is commu%a%ive/ P %hus N(;/ ) A +(;/ ) A1(;/ N(;/ ) A1(;/ ) A+(;/ A+ (;/ ) N(;/ ) A1(;/ e%c$ Therefore seman%ics #oes no% im5ose a cer%ain or#er amon! several in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives (nei%her #eno%a%ional %05es nor %he in%en#e# sco5e im5ose an0 or#er/$ Oo9ever i% has been no%ice# %ha% %he rela%ive or#er amon! @uali%0 a#6ec%ives is no% free bu% is !overne# b0 some !eneral rules 9hich ma-e reference %o finer seman%ic #is%inc%ions amon! @uali%0 a#6ec%ives$ These rules ma0 be #erive# from a !eneral co!ni%ive 5rinci5le 9hich seems %o be universal$ The research on lan!ua!es 9i%h more ri!i# or#er li-e 7n!lish has le# %o com5le; hierarchies of rela%ive or#er 9hich ma-e reference %o classes insi#e @uali%0 a#6ec%ives (%he si!n >f? shoul# be rea# >%a-es sco5e over / is hi!her %han?/3
24+
The A#6ec%ive (+,./ YSP7AS7R-GRI7NT7D Sub6ec%ive Commen% f 7vi#en%ialZ f Y SCALAR POqSIC PRGP7RTq SiAe f Len!%h fOei!h% fS5ee# fDe5%h f Ui#%hZf Y:7ASDR7 Uei!h%f Tem5era%ure f A!eZ f YNGN-SCALAR POqSICAL PRGP7RTq Sha5e f Colour f Na%ionali%0 /Gri!in f :a%erialZ
The !eneral 5rinci5le 9hich un#erlies %hese or#erin! 5a%%erns an# 9hich has been sho9n %o hol# in various lan!ua!es 9hich are no% #irec%l0 rela%e# is %ha% a#6ec%ives 9hich e;5ress more >ob6ec%ive? or inheren% 5ro5er%ies a55ear closer %o %he noun %han %hose %ha% e;5ress more >sub6ec%ive? or e;%ernal 5ro5er%ies$ Inheren% 5ro5er%ies are %hose 9hich #e5en# less on e;%ernal consi#era%ions such as com5arison or evalua%ion b0 a sen%ien% bein!$ Thus siAe 9hich involves com5arison is more sub6ec%ive/e;%ernal %han sha5e$ Gra#able 5ro5er%ies in !eneral re@uire as 9e have seen com5arison classes$ Therefore !ra#able a#6ec%ives %en# %o a55ear hi!her %han non-!ra#able ones as can be seen in (+,./$ Al%hou!h Romanian #oes no% im5ose a ri!i# or#er amon! @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9e fin# %he effec%s of %his !eneral 5rinci5le in %his lan!ua!e %oo$ Thus evalua%ive a#6ec%ives (such as >beau%iful? >!oo#?/ an# %hose e;5ressin! conven%ional 5ro5er%ies (such as >chea5?/ are hi!her in %he unmar-e# or#er %han %hose 9hich e;5ress 5h0sical 5ro5er%ies3
(+,</ a$ o YYsalL uriaMLZ s5len#i#LZ a room hu!e s5len#i# b$ o YY!ean%L nea!rLZ scum5LZ a 5urse blac- e;5ensive
Amon! 5h0sical 5ro5er%ies siAe 9hich re@uires a com5arison class is hi!her %han sha5e3
(+,B/ o YYsalL 5L%ra%LZ uriaMLZ a room s@uare hu!e
Color a#6ec%ives %en# %o a55ear lo9er %han %hose e;5ressin! s5a%ial 5ro5er%ies in case of s%ac-in!3
(+,C/ a$ o YYbluAL roMieZ lun!LZ a shir% re# lon! b$ o YY5a%L roMieZ ro%un#LZ a s5o% re# roun#
A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! a!e %en# %o a55ear hi!her %han %hose e;5ressin! 5ro5er%ies 9hich are more li-el0 %o be cons%i%u%ive for %he ob6ec% such as color an# sha5e3
(+.=/ a$ YYcovor roMuZ nouZ car5e% re# ne9 b$ YYmasL 5L%ra%LZ vecheZ %able s@uare ol#
A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! ori!in an# ma%erial 9hich cons%i%u%e an in%erme#ia%e class be%9een @uali%0 an# rela%ional a#6ec%ives (bein! non-!ra#able an# al9a0s 5os%nominal li-e rela%ional a#6ec%ives bu% bein! in%ersec%ive li-e @uali%0 a#6ec%ives/ normall0 are lo9er %han o%her in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives3
(+.+/ a$ YY5rofesor americanZ blon#Z 5rofessor American blon#e b$ YYsol nisi5osZ 5or%ocaliuZ soil san#0 oran!e
241
The A#6ec%ive
Oo9ever i% is common for a#6ec%ives 9hich are inclu#e# in #ifferen% classes in fine-!raine# hierarchies such as (+,./ %o a55ear coor#ina%e# (ei%her in 5ara%a;is or 9i%h a con6unc%ion/3
(+.1/ a$ o min!e mare Mi roMie a ball bi! an# re# b$ ochii frumoMi ne!ri ai :onicLi e0es-%he beau%iful blac- G7N :onica$G7N >:onica?s beau%iful blac- e0es? c$ Pur%a o bluAL lun!L roMie 9ear$I:PF$2SG a shir% lon! re# >She 9as 9earin! a lon! re# shir%? #$ A a#us o !ean%L scum5L viMinie has brou!h% a 5urse e;5ensive 5ur5le >She brou!h% an e;5ensive 5ur5le 5urse$? e$ 7ra un %WnLr Enal% Mi brune% 9as$2SG a 0oun!-man %all an# #ar--haire# >Oe 9as a %all #ar--haire# 0oun! man$?
:oreover some of %he or#erin! rules s%a%e# above are onl0 5references 9hich #o no% com5le%el0 e;clu#e %he reverse or#er (see (+.2/a/$ A#6ec%ives 9hich are of%en use# %o charac%eriAe a cer%ain -in# of ob6ec%s %en# %o a55ear closer %o %he noun %han o%hers even if %he0 are 5lace# hi!her on %he !eneral hierarch0 as can be seen in (+.2/b3
(+.2/ a$ o hainL veche cenuMie a coa% ol# !ra0 b$ o rochie lun!L nea!rL a #ress lon! blac-
Uhen a#6ec%ives are use# in #escri5%ions ra%her %han %o i#en%if0 a se% or an ob6ec% i% is usual %ha% a hi!her a#6ec%ive accor#in! %o %he co!ni%ive 5rinci5le a55ears in %he 5renominal 5osi%ion s5ecialiAe# for non-res%ric%ive mo#ifiers3
(+.4/ a$ o micL floare roMie a small flo9er re# b$ o %WnLrL femeie blon#L a 0oun! 9oman blon# c$ o oribilL rochie veche a horrible #ress ol# #$ o veche rochie roMie a ol# #ress re#
This com5lies 9i%h %he !eneral 5rinci5le because i% is reasonable %o assume %ha% %he 5osi%ion #e#ica%e# %o non-res%ric%ive rea#in!s is hi!her %han all 5os%nominal ma%erial (see %he #iscussion above on %he seman%ic !roun#s for %he hi!h 5osi%ion of non-res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives/$ Pra!ma%ic consi#era%ions can al9a0s %ri!!er e;ce5%ions %o %he or#erin! 5references s%a%e# above3 if %he class YN A+Z is a #iscourse %o5ic an# a fur%her #ivision is o5era%e# on %his class b0 usin! an a#6ec%ive A1 (9hich is #iscourse-ne9/ %hen %he brac-e%in! YYN A +Z A1Z ma0 be use# even if A1 is lo9er %han A+ on %he !eneral hierarch0$ This brac-e%in! has %he a#van%a!e %ha% i% -ee5s %he #iscourse %o5ic as a cons%i%uen%3
242
The A#6ec%ive (+.,/ a$ rochiile scum5e ne!re #resses-%he e;5ensive blacb$ casele frumoase noi houses-%he beau%iful ne9 (GS 9hen %al-in! abou% e;5ensive #resses/ (GS 9hen %al-in! abou% beau%iful houses/
Some researchers have 5ro5ose# %ha% %he or#erin! rela%ions e;5resse# b0 hierarchies such as (+,./ shoul# be enco#e# in s0n%a; b0 %rea%in! a#6ec%ives as s5ecifiers of func%ional 5ro6ec%ions #e#ica%e# %o %he res5ec%ive seman%ic %05es (e$!$ SiAeP ColorP e%c$/ an# re5resen%in! %he or#erin! rela%ions b0 means of selec%ion (e$!$ SiAeP 9oul# selec% Color in (+,.//$ The #a%a of Romanian are 5roblema%ic for %his h05o%hesis3 9e have seen %ha% in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives belon!in! %o #ifferen% minor classes can be coor#ina%e# or #isobe0 %he !eneral hierarch0 for various reasons$ This h05o%hesis is also unli-el0 on lo!ical !roun#s as %he 5ossible 5ro5er%ies an ob6ec% can have #e5en# on i%s class so %ha% no% all nouns can have siAe color sha5e 9e%ness e%c$ (e$!$ 9in#s i#eas #o no% have color siAe or sha5e chairs #o no% have s5ee# e%c$/$ Ue have also seen %ha% rela%ional a#6ec%ives are s%ron!l0 #e5en#en% on %he meanin! of %he noun so %ha% %heir rea#in! as 9ell as %he number of co-occurrin! a#6ec%ives is no% es%ablishe# in#e5en#en%l0 of %he hea# noun$ Therefore %he0 canno% be accommo#a%e# in%o universal func%ional 5ro6ec%ions$
Ui%h even% nouns %he hierarchical or#er of a#6ec%ives reflec%s %he hierarchical or#er of a#verbs in %he clause3 %hus manner a#6ec%ives are lo9er %han evalua%ive sub6ec%-orien%e# a#6ec%ives 9hich in %urn are lo9er %han evalua%ive s5ea-er-orien%e# a#6ec%ives3
(+../ a$ reacRia !rLbi%L s%Wn!ace a 5reMe#in%elui YY$$ :annerZ Sub6ec%-Grien%e#ZZ reac%ion-%he has%0 clums0 G7N 5resi#en%-%he$G7N b$ s%Wn!acea reacRie !rLbi%L a 5reMe#in%elui clums0-%he reac%ion has%0 G7N 5resi#en%-%he$G7N (+.</ a$ reacRia s%Wn!ace sur5rinAL%oare a 5reMe#in%elui YY$$Sub6ec%-Gr$ Z S5ea-er-Grien%e#ZZ reac%ion-%he clums0 sur5risin! G7N 5resi#en%-%he$G7N b$ sur5rinAL%oarea reacRie s%Wn!ace a 5reMe#in%elui sur5risin!-%he reac%ion clums0 G7N 5resi#en%-%he$G7N
3.3 T8e 3o1ble 3ef.n.teness /onst01/t.on Al%hou!h %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion is no% res%ric%e# %o a#6ec%ival mo#ifiers i% is #iscusse# here because i%s #escri5%ion ma-es reference %o %he seman%ic ca%e!ories 5resen%e# in %his cha5%er an# also because i% occurs mos% of %he %ime 9i%h a#6ec%ives$ In %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion DPs hea#e# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle con%ain a 5os%nominal mo#ifier 5rece#e# b0 %he s%ron! form of %he #efini%e ar%icle (cel% cea% cei% cele/3
(+.B/ a$ co5acii Ycei EnalRiZ %rees-%he %he %all >%he %all %rees? b$ vremurile Ycele #e #emul%Z %imes-%he %he of a 9hile a!o >%he lon! !one %imes? c$ bluAa mea Ycea roMieZ shir%-%he m0 %he re# >m0 re# shir%?
This cons%ruc%ion is sub6ec% %o various cons%rain%s$ (i/ The mo#ifier mus% be in%ersec%ive$ Rela%ional a#6ec%ives as 9ell as in%ensional ones are e;clu#e#3
244
The A#6ec%ive (+.C/ a$ X li%era%ura cea bele%ris%icL li%era%ure-%he %he belle%ris%ic b$ X invaAia cea 6a5oneAL invasion-%he %he Na5anese c$ X conce5%ul cel american conce5%-%he %he American #$ X 5reMe#inRii cei foM%i 5resi#en%s-%he %he former
(ii/ The noun canno% be 5rece#e# b0 non-res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives or #e%erminer-li-e a#6ec%ives3

(+<=/ a$ rochia lun!L cea nouL #ress-%he lon! %he ne9 b$ X lun!a rochie cea nouL lon!-%he #ress %he ne9 c$ X frumoasa rochie cea lun!L beau%iful-%he #ress %he lon! #$ X sin!ura fa%L cea sLracL onl0-%he !irl %he 5oor
Gnl0 in%ensional 5renominal a#6ec%ives are acce5%able3

(+<+/ foM%ii ac%ori cei bo!aRi former-%he ac%ors %he rich
(iii/ Demons%ra%ive #e%erminers ei%her 5re- or 5os%nominal are e;clu#e#3

(+<1/ a$ X casele acelea cele vechi houses-%he %hose %he ol# b$ X acele case cele vechi %hose houses %he ol#
Gr#inals (al%hou!h %he0 %oo can in%ro#uce #efini%e DPs/ are also e;clu#e#3
(+<2/ a$ X al #oilea co5ac cel bL%rWn %he secon# %ree %he ol# b$ X 5rimele Aile cele !rele firs%-%he #a0s %he har#
(iv/ The YcelHA#6/PPZ cons%i%uen% canno% be follo9e# b0 o%her a#6ec%ives P an0 o%her a#6ec%ival mo#ifiers mus% a55ear before cel3
(+<4/ a$ casa veche cea frumoasL house-%he ol# %he beau%iful a_$ X casa cea frumoasL veche house-%he %he beau%iful ol# b$ casele frumoase cele vechi houses-%he beau%iful %he ol# b_$ X casele cele vechi frumoase houses-%he %he ol# beau%iful
(v/ :ore %han %9o #efini%e ar%icles 5er DP are e;clu#e#$ In o%her 9or#s %here can be a% mos% 24,
The A#6ec%ive
one celcons%i%uen% insi#e a DP$ Thus Romanian has onl0 >#ouble? no% >mul%i5le #efini%eness? as has for ins%ance (mo#ern/ Gree-$
(+<,/ a$ X casa cea nouL cea mare house-%he %he ne9 %he bi! b$ X RLranii cei bL%rWni cei EnRele5Ri 5easan%s-%he %he ol# %he 9ise
Dnli-e li!h% a#6ec%ives YcelHAZ cons%i%uen%s can a55ear af%er !eni%ives an# PPs embe##in! full DPs bu% can also 5rece#e %hem3
(+<./ a$ rochia bunicii KK (cea/ nouL #ress-%he !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N %he ne9 b$ rochia cea nouL a bunicii #ress-%he %he ne9 G7N !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N
As 9e have seen in 2$+$1 celHAP cons%i%uen%s allo9 a non-res%ric%ive rea#in! more easil0 %han o%her 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives (%his is ano%her fea%ure 9hich #is%in!uishes %he Romanian #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion from Gree- 5ol0#efini%es 9hich are necessaril0 res%ric%ive/$ Oo9ever %he0 ma0 also have a res%ric%ive rea#in! P as sho9n belo9 %he0 can a55ear in con%ras%ive con%e;%s bein! use# %o 5ic- u5 an in#ivi#ual3
(+<</ Calcula%orul C7L V7COI s-a s%rica% nu cel nou com5u%er-%he %he ol# R7FL-has bro-en no% %he ne9 >I% is %he ol# com5u%er %ha% bro-e #o9n no% %he ne9 one$?
Given %ha% 5os%nominal @uali%0 a#6ec%ives 9i%hou% cel also allo9 a res%ric%ive an# a nonres%ric%ive rea#in! al%hou!h %he res%ric%e# rea#in! is more limi%e# one ma0 9on#er 9h0 %here is %he 5ossibili%0 %o choose be%9een %hese %9o cons%ruc%ions (as in (+<B//$ Is %here an0 meanin! #ifference be%9een %hemK
(+<B/ a$ maMina nouL car-%he ne9 b$ maMina cea nouL car-%he %he ne9
Al%hou!h %his issue is no% com5le%el0 clear 0e% i% seems %ha% %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion 5resu55oses familiari%0 9i%h %he sub-se% 9hich %he AP in%ro#uce# b0 cel crea%es insi#e %he NP class$ Thus for (+<B/b %o be use# i% is necessar0 %ha% %he s5ea-er an# hearer have some share# -no9le#!e abou% %he e;is%ence of a car 9hich can be i#en%ifie# as bein! ne9 in o55osi%ion 9i%h o%her cars$ This #oes no% mean %ha% %he DPs 9i%h #ouble #efini%eness mus% be #iscourse-!iven3 %he0 can be ne9 in %he #iscourse$ Uha% seems %o be re@uire# is share# -no9le#!e abou% %he referen% 9hich is no% necessaril0 ac%ive in %he con%e;%$ Y,el-APZ cons%i%uen%s %hus resemble #emons%ra%ives in %heir evoca%ive use$ This ma0 also e;5lain 9h0 celcons%i%uen%s an# #emons%ra%ives are mu%uall0 e;clusive$ Uhile %he #emons%ra%ive in#ica%es %he 5ossibili%0 of i#en%if0in! %he referen% b0 i%s 5resence in %he con%e;% (#eic%ic use/ or reac%iva%ion from %he memor0 (evoca%ive use/ %he cel-AP cons%i%uen% in#ica%es a% %he same %ime familiari%0 an# %he 5ro5er%0 9hich serves %o i#en%if0 %he referen%$ In %he same 9a0 %he incom5a%ibili%0 9i%h or#inals ma0 be e;5laine#3 since or#inals i#en%if0 a referen% in a series a fur%her i#en%if0in! mo#ifier is im5ossible (i% canno% a55ear above %he or#inal because %he referen% is alrea#0 i#en%ifie#I i% canno% a55ear belo9 i% because i% 0iel#s a referen% an#
24.
The A#6ec%ive
or#inals re@uire a se% from 9hich %he0 can selec% a referen%/$ Uhen a#6ec%ives are a55lie# %o humans in or#er %o choose amon! familiar in#ivi#uals %he use of cel is s%ron!l0 5referre# as in (+<C/$ No%e %ha% in %his e;am5le %he e;is%ence of a sin!le en%i%0 sa%isf0in! %he 5ro5er%0 is also ensure# b0 9orl# -no9le#!eI even if %he referen% (%he son/ is no% i%self familiar i% s%ill is i#en%ifiable b0 associa%ive ana5hora via %he rela%ion >son of? i% en%er%ains 9i%h a familiar in#ivi#ual$
(+<C/ fiul lui K(cel/ mic son-%he his %he li%%le
'ecause %he sub-se% crea%e# b0 %he a#6ec%ive is sufficien% %o i#en%if0 a familiar in#ivi#ual i% is of%en %he case %ha% %here are o%hers 5ro5er%ies 9hich can serve %o i#en%if0 familiar in#ivi#uals insi#e %he NP class P in %he sim5les% case %his ma0 be %he absence or %he o55osi%e of %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 %he a#6ec%ive$ Thus if maina cea nou >%he ne9 car? in (+<B/b is a familiar referen% maina cea vec!e >%he ol# car? is 5robabl0 a familiar referen% %oo$ This means %ha% celcons%i%uen%s of%en have a con%ras%ive rea#in!$ 'u% %he con%ras%ive rea#in! is no% obli!a%or0$ As 9e have sho9n in 2$+$1 above celcons%i%uen%s ma0 have a non-res%ric%ive rea#in! in 9hich case con%ras% is e;clu#e# b0 #efini%ion3
(+B=/ Pa%ria noas%rL cea frumoasL coun%r0-%he our %he beau%iful
Turnin! no9 %o %he s0n%ac%ic anal0sis of %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion %he familiari%0 fea%ure an# %he res%ric%ion %o one celcons%i%uen% 5er 5hrase su!!es% %ha% %he func%ional s%ruc%ure of %he DP is involve# P %he D level an# 5ossibl0 minor (o5%ional/ func%ional 5ro6ec%ions belo9 D see cha5%er 2 are %he #omain %o 9hich referen%ial fea%ures belon!$
The e;is%ence of minor func%ional 5ro6ec%ions hos%in! referen%ial fea%ures in Romanian is su!!es%e# b0 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ives$ As sho9n in cha5%er 2 (see sec%ion B/ Romanian has a 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive 9hich follo9s %he noun suffi;e# 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle3 (i/ rochia aceea a bunicii #ress-%he %ha% G7N !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N
I% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% %he #emons%ra%ive occu5ies a s5ecifier 5osi%ion of a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion #e#ica%e# %o #ei;is imme#ia%el0 before D$ Assumin! %ha% %he suffi;a%ion of %he ar%icle is %he resul% of N-%o-D raisin! %he #emons%ra%ive canno% be a hea# because if i% 9ere i% 9oul# 5reven% raisin! of N %o D3 (ii/ YDP NHD YF#ei;P YDemZ YF#ei; YNP %NZZZZ
Ue have seen above %ha% cel-cons%i%uen%s have a func%ion similar %o %ha% of #emons%ra%ives an# %herefore %he0 canno% co-occur 9i%h %hem$ I% seems %hus reasonable %o assume %ha% %he %9o cons%ruc%ions also have %he same or a similar un#erl0in! s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure 9i%h %he celHAP/PP cons%i%uen% occu50in! %he s5ecifier of %his #eic%ic 5ro6ec%ion3 (iii/ YDP NHD YF#ei;P Ycel-APZ YF#ei; YNP %NZZZZ
No%e ho9ever %ha% cel-VP cons%i%uen%s ma0 be 5rece#e# b0 o%her mo#ifiers an# com5lemen%s (see (+<./a/ 9hile %he 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive can onl0 be 5rece#e# b0 %he hea# N alone3 (iv/ a$ car%ea #e %elefon cea nouL boo--%he of %ele5hone %he ne9
24<
The A#6ec%ive
b$ X car%ea #e %elefon aceea boo--%he of %ele5hone %ha% a$ maMina 5rofesorului cea veche car-%he 5rofessor-%he$G7N %he ol# b$ XmaMina 5rofesorului aceea car-%he 5rofessor-%he$G7N %ha%
(v/
In or#er %o reconcile %hese #a%a 9i%h %he i#ea %ha% %he celcons%i%uen% belon!s %o %he func%ional #omain i% mus% be assume# %ha% an en%ire NP 5ro6ec%ion can raise %o S5ecDP P 9i%h #efini%eness bein! mar-e# as a fea%ure on %he hea# N ra%her %han b0 a mor5heme inser%e# in D3 (vi/ YDP YNP maMinaYH#efZ 5rofesoruluiZ YYDH#efZ YF#ei;P Ycea vecheZ YF#ei; %NPZZZZ
Ano%her o5%ion is %o consi#er cel i%self as %he #e%erminer of %he en%ire DP in %his case 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive occu50in! %he s5ecifier of F#ei; imme#ia%el0 belo9$ This #e%erminer 9oul# have %9o s5ecial 5ro5er%ies3 %ha% of selec%in! an FP 9i%h a s5ecifier 9hich 5rovi#es %he i#en%ifica%ion of a familiar referen% an# %ha% of a%%rac%in! an NP cons%i%uen% in%o i%s s5ecifier$ :oreover li-e in (vi/ 9e nee# %o assume %ha% in or#er %o occu50 S5ecDP %his NP mus% have %he hea# (%he N/ inflec%ionall0 mar-e# for #efini%eness3 (vii/ YDP YNP maMinaYH#efZ 5rofesoruluiZ YYDceaZ YF#ei;P YnouLZ YF#ei; %NPZZZZ
An a#van%a!e of %he anal0sis in (vii/ is %ha% cel occu5ies a #e%erminer 5osi%ion (9hile in (vi/ i%s s%a%us insi#e %he s5ecifier is unclear/$ The 5roblem is %he #ouble mar-in! of #efini%eness a% %he DP level3 if cel occu5ies D i% is no% clear 9h0 i% is necessar0 %o raise ano%her cons%i%uen% mar-e# for #efini%eness %o S5ecDP$ This mechanism of #efini%eness mar-in! is o%her9ise use# onl0 9hen %he D 5osi%ion is em5%0 (9i%h 5renominal or#inals !eni%ives APs see cha5%er 2 sec%ion B/$ I% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% 9ha% raises in %he s%ruc%ure in (vii/ is no% an NP bu% a DP hea#e# b0 a D 9hich is si%ua%e# belo9 %he F 9hich hos%s %he a#6ec%ive in i%s s5ecifier3 (viii/ YDP YDP maMinaYH#efZ 5rofesoruluiZ YYDceaZ YF#ei; YnouLZ YF#ei; %DPZZZZ
The 5roblem is %ha% %he i#en%if0in! mo#ifier can be use# res%ric%ivel0 re@uirin! %he e;is%ence of a se% from 9hich %he referen% is chosen$ Therefore %he NP canno% 0iel# a #efini%e DP 9i%hou% %he a#6ec%ive because %he uni@ueness con#i%ion is no% fulfille# (see (+<</3 since %here are several familiar com5u%ers a #efini%e DP calculatorul >com5u%er-%he? canno% be use# in %his con%e;%/$
$. #0a3at.on. De40ee e<50ess.ons= 3e40ees of /o65a0.son.

$.1 #0a3ab.l.t9. T8e 3e40ee a0416ent an3 s/ales. T05ical @uali%0 a#6ec%ives are radable predicates$ Seman%icall0 !ra#able a#6ec%ives can be informall0 #efine# as 5re#ica%ive e;5ressions 9hose #omains can be 5ar%iall0 or#ere# accor#in! %o some 5ro5er%0$ For e;am5le %he #omain of %he a#6ec%ive nalt >%all? can be or#ere# accor#in! %o a measure of hei!h% %he #omain of %he a#6ec%ive dens >#ense? can be or#ere# accor#in! %o a measure of #ensi%0$ In con%ras% lemnos >9oo#en? octa onal >oc%o!onal? #o no% in%ro#uce %he same -in# of or#erin! of %heir #omains$ Gra#able a#6ec%ives #iffer from non-!ra#able ones b0 combinin! 9i%h de ree &ords3
(+B+/ a$ :a%erialul aces%a es%e gfoar%e/ cam / mai / 5reah scum5$ ma%erial-%he %his is ver0 ra%her more %oo e;5ensive >This ma%erial is ver0/ra%her/more/%oo e;5ensive$? b$ X:a%erialul aces%a es%e gfoar%e/ cam / mai / 5reah lemnos$ ma%erial-%he %his is ver0 ra%her more %oo 9oo#0
24B
The A#6ec%ive
Some #e!ree 9or#s in%ro#uce com5lemen%s an# mo#ifiers of %heir o9n cons%i%u%in! 9ha% is -no9n as de ree constructions3
(+B1/ a$ Aces% 5roiec% es%e 6a. ief%in O3e/Kt celLlal%P$ %his 5ro6ec% is more chea5 %han %he-o%her >This 5ro6ec% is chea5er %han %he o%her one$? b$ Plane%a Venus es%e tot aCa #e luminoasL Y/a Plane%a :ar%eZ$ 5lane%-%he Venus is 6us% as of bri!h% as 5lane%-%he :ars >Plane% Venus is 6us% as bri!h% as Plane% :ars$? c$ Aces% vehicul es%e 50ea len% Y5ent01 a 5arcur!e #rumul En #ouL oreZ$ %his vehicle is %oo slo9 for %o cover roa#-%he in %9o hours >This vehicle is %oo slo9 %o cover %he roa# in %9o hours$? #$ Aces% vehicul es%e 3est1l #e ra5i# Y5ent01 a 5arcur!e #rumul En #ouL oreZ$ %his vehicle is enou!h of fas% for %o cover roa#-%he in %9o hours >This vehicle is fas% enou!h %o cover %he roa# in %9o hours$? e$ Aces% vehicul es%e aCa ra5i# YNn/Kt 5arcur!e #is%anRa En #ouL oreZ$ %his vehicle is so fas% %ha% covers #is%ance-%he in %9o hours >This vehicle is so fas% %ha% i% covers %he #is%ance in %9o hours$?
Gra#able a#6ec%ives are !enerall0 vie9e# as #eno%in! rela%ions be%9een in#ivi#uals/ ob6ec%s an# abs%rac% re5resen%a%ions of measuremen% or #e!rees i$e$ 5oin%s or in%ervals %o%all0 or#ere# alon! some #imension (e$!$ hei!h% cos% e%c$/$ The se% of or#ere# #e!rees is a scale SA full0 or#ere# b0 an as0mme%ric or#erin! rela%ion RA$ The en%i%ies of %he scales are #e!rees or#ere# b0 %he rela%ion $ Accor#in! %o one of %he anal0ses of !ra#able a#6ec%ives 9hich 9e 9ill follo9 here %he #e!ree is an ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive 9hich combines 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive before %he e;%ernal ar!umen% P i$e$ a#6ec%ives become 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#uals %05e ee %f onl0 af%er %he s5ecifica%ion of %he #e!ree$ S%an#ar# @uali%0 a#6ec%ives such as scump >e;5ensive? are %hus of %05e e# ee %ff3
(+B2/ YYscum5ZZ [ #D#$ ;De$ e;5ensive (#/(;/
Ui%h a#6ec%ives 9hich also have in%ernal ar!umen%s such as mndru )de* "5rou# (of/& i% is assume# %ha% %he #e!ree ar!umen% is a%%ache# af%er %he in%ernal ar!umen% (%he com5lemen%/$ Such a#6ec%ives are %hus of %05e ee e# ee %fff3
(+B4/ YYmWn#ruZZ [ ; De$ # D#$ 0 De$ 5rou# (0/(#/(;/
If 9e assume %ha% 9i%h 5re#ica%ive a#6ec%ives %he e;%ernal ar!umen% is !enera%e# insi#e %he 5ro6ec%ion of %he a#6ec%ive (see #iscussion in +$1$+ above/ an# 9e anal0Ae #e!ree 9or#s as func%ional hea#s (De!/ in %he e;%en#e# 5ro6ec%ion of %he a#6ec%ive (see 4$4 belo9/ 9e mus% conclu#e %ha% %he e;%ernal ar!umen% is !enera%e# in an a#6ec%ival func%ional 5ro6ec%ion hi!her %han De!$ Ue ma0 call %his 5ro6ec%ion aP follo9in! %he no%a%ion vP for %he 5ro6ec%ion in 9hich %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of verbs is !enera%e#$ The or#er of ar!umen%s in (+B4/ 9oul# %hen corres5on# %o %he follo9in! s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure (9here 7A is for >e;%ernal ar!umen%? an# IA for >in%ernal ar!umen%?/3 (i/ YaP 7A YDe!P De! YAP A IAZZZ
$.2 Anton96./ 5a.0s= 5os.t.2e an3 ne4at.2e te06s. An%on0mic a#6ec%ives share %he same scale bu% %he or#erin! rela%ion is reverse# as can be seen from e@uivalences such as3 24C
The A#6ec%ive
(+B,/ Ion e mai Enal% #ecW% :aria [ :aria e mai scun#L #ecW% Ion Ion is more %all %han :aria :aria is more shor% %han Ion >Ion is %aller %han :aria? >:aria is shor%er %han Ion$?
As 9e have seen in 1$2$+ %he 5osi%ive form of a !ra#able a#6ec%ive 9i%h no #e!ree s5ecifica%ion refers %o a 5ro5er%0 9hose #e!ree is !rea%er %han a s%an#ar# (%he s%an#ar# can be con%e;%uall0 es%ablishe#/3
(+B./ YYEnal%ZZ [ ;$ # #f#s%an#ar# ; is #-%all
Uhen %he #e!ree is s5ecifie# b0 a measure 5hrase or b0 a com5ara%ive rela%ion %he s%an#ar# is no lon!er involve#3 %hus a man can be ;m]7 tall al%hou!h 9i%h %his hei!h% he 9oul# no% be consi#ere# sim5l0 >%all?$ Li-e9ise he can be taller t!an ano%her one measurin! onl0 +m,<$ There are also #e!ree e;5ressions 9hich ma-e reference %o %he s%an#ar# e;5ressin! 5ro;imi%0 %o i% (almost tall% sli !tly tall/$ In an an%on0mic 5air usuall0 onl0 %he >5osi%ive? member of %he 5air can be use# 9i%h measure 5hrases3
(+B</ 7 Enal% #e + me%ru .= / X 7 scun# #e + me%ru .= is %all of + me%er .= is shor% of + me%er .=
7;5ec%e#l0 %he abs%rac% noun #erive# from %he 5osi%ive %erm #eno%es %he #imension in !eneral 9hile %he ne!a%ive %erm onl0 refers %o %he 5ro5er%0 of havin! a #e!ree of %he #imension smaller %han %he s%an#ar#$
(+BB/ a$ Aces% obiec% are glLRimea / lun!imea / !rosimea h #e 4= #e cen%ime%ri %his ob6ec% has 9i#%h-%he len!%h-%he %hic-ness-%he of 4= of cen%ime%ers b$ XAces% obiec% are gEn!us%imea / scur%imea / subRirimea h #e 4= #e cen%ime%ri %his ob6ec% has narro9ness-%he shor%ness-%he %hinness-%he of 4= of cen%ime%ers
In com5arison rela%ions %he 5osi%ive %erm #oes no% im5l0 %ha% %he en%i%0 has %he 5ro5er%0 in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree (see (+BC//$ The ne!a%ive %erm on %he con%rar0 im5lies some%imes %ha% %he en%i%0 has %he 5ro5er%0 in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree P es5eciall0 9i%h %he com5ara%ive of e@uali%0 an# in #e!ree @ues%ions (see (+C=/b-c/$ Ui%h %he com5ara%ive of ine@uali%0 %here is no im5lica%ion %o %he 5osi%ive #e!ree (see (+C=/a/$
(+BC/ a$ :aria e mai Enal%L ca Ro#ica wf :aria e Enal%L :aria is more %all %han Ro#ica :aria is %all >:aria is %aller %han Ro#ica? >:aria is %all$? b$ :aria e la fel #e Enal%L ca Ro#ica wf :aria e Enal%L :aria is e@uall0 %all as Ro#ica :aria is %all >:aria is as %all as Ro#ica? >:aria is %all$? c$ CW% #e Enal%L e Ro#icaK wf Ro#ica e Enal%L ho9-much of %all is Ro#ica Ro#ica is %all >Oo9 %all is Ro#ica? >Ro#ica is %all$? (+C=/ a$ :aria e mai scun#L ca Ro#ica wf :aria e scun#L :aria is more shor% %han Ro#ica :aria is shor% >:aria is shor%er %han Ro#ica? >:aria is shor%$? b$ :aria e la fel #e scun#L ca Ro#ica s :aria e scun#L :aria is e@uall0 shor% as Ro#ica :aria is shor% >:aria is as shor% as Ro#ica? >:aria is shor%?
2,=
The A#6ec%ive c$ CW% #e scun#L e Ro#icaK s Ro#ica e scun#L ho9-much of shor% is Ro#ica Ro#ica is %all >Oo9 shor% is Ro#ica? >Ro#ica is shor%$?
The res%ric%ion of measure 5hrases %o 5osi%ive %erms has been e;5laine# b0 conce5%ualiAin! #e!rees as in%ervals on %he scale ra%her %han 5oin%s on %he scale$ These in%ervals 9oul# have %he minimum of %he scale as %he s%ar%in! 5oin% an# %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he en%i%0 5ossesses %he 5ro5er%0 as %he en# 5oin%3 (i/ = %all(;/ 4= cm$
Ne!a%ive %erms have as %he s%ar%in! 5oin% as %he sense of %he scale is reverse#$ Therefore %he in%ervals %o 9hich an en%i%0 5ossesses %he 5ro5er%0 are no% fini%e havin! as %heir s%ar%in! 5oin% so %he0 are no% measurable$ (ii/ = 4= cm$ shor%(;/
For man0 a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! measurable 5ro5er%ies nei%her %erm can be use# 9i%h measure 5hrases3
(+C+/ a$ XCar%e gscum5L / ief%inLh #e +== #e lei boo- e;5ensive chea5 of +== of lei b$ XA5L gcal#L/ rece h#e 2= #e !ra#e$ 9a%er 9arm col# of 2= of #e!rees c$ XSac g !reu/ uMorh #e += -ilo!rame sac- heav0 li!h% of += -ilo!rams #$ XGm g%WnLr/ bL%rWnh #e .= #e ani man 0oun! ol# of .= of 0ears
Follo9in! %he anal0sis re5resen%e# in (i/-(ii/ above %he incom5a%ibili%0 be%9een some a#6ec%ives an# measure 5hrases has been e;5laine# b0 usin! %he #is%inc%ion be%9een de rees as points on a scale an# intervals$ I% 9as been 5ro5ose# %ha% %he #e!ree ar!umen% of a#6ec%ives is normall0 a 5oin% no% an in%erval an# %he a#6ec%ives 9hich allo9 measure mo#ifiers un#er!o a %05e-shif%in! rule (in %he le;icon/ 9hich re5laces %he 5unc%ual #e!ree ar!umen% from %he a#6ec%ive?s %he%a !ri# b0 an o5en 5osi%ion referrrin! %o %he in%erval on %he scale 9hich has %ha% #e!ree as one en# an# %he minimum of %he scale as %he o%her en#$ I% has also been no%ice# %ha% %here are lan!ua!es 9here no a#6ec%ive can receive measure mo#ifica%ion 9hich 9oul# follo9 from %he absence of such a %05e shif%in! rule in %he lan!ua!e$ No%ice %ha% %he in%en#e# meanin! of (+C+/ can be e;5resse# usin! abs%rac% nouns base# on %he roo% of %he a#6ec%ive or on a #ifferen% roo%$ Ano%her 5ossibili%0 is %o use %he measure 5hrase as a mo#ifier/5re#ica%e of %he noun in 9hich case %he scalar 5ro5er%0 9hich is mean% is ma#e clear b0 %he measure uni% use# (see e;am5les a_ b_ belo93 (i/ a$ Car%e En valoare #e +== #e lei boo- of value of +== of lei >a boo- 9or%h +== lei$? a_$ Car%e #e +== #e lei boo- of +== of lei > a boo- of +== lei? b$ A5L cu %em5era%ura #e 2= #e !ra#e 9a%er 9i%h %em5era%ure-%he of 2= of #e!rees >9a%er of 2= #e!rees %em5era%ure?
2,+
The A#6ec%ive
b_$ A5L #e 2= #e !ra#e / A5a era #e 2= #e !ra#e / A5a avea 2= #e !ra#e 9a%er of 2= of #e!rees 9a%er-%he 9as of 2= of #e!rees 9a%er-%he has 2= of #e!rees ?2= #e!rees 9a%er/The 9a%er 9as of 2= #!rees/The 9a%er ha# 2= #e!rees$?
All a#6ec%ives inclu#in! %hose 9hich #o no% allo9 #irec% measure mo#ifica%ion can receive measure 5hrases in %he com5ara%ive #e!ree e;5resin! %he #ifference be%9een %he %9o #e!rees 9hich are com5are# (%he so-calle# >#ifferen%ial ar!umen%? see 4$,$1 belo9/$
(+C1/ a$ Car%e cu Aece lei mai scum5L boo- 9i%h %en lei more e;5ensive >a %en lei more e;5ensive boo-$? b$ A5L cu %reiAeci #e !ra#e mai cal#L 9a%er 9i%h %hir%0 of #e!rees more 9arm >%hir%0 #e!rees 9armer 9a%er$? c$ Sac cu Aece -ilo!rame mai !reu sac- 9i%h %en -ilo!rams more heav0 >a %en -ilos heavier sac-$? #$ Gm cu Aece ani mai %WnLr man 9i%h %en 0ears more 0oun! >a %en 0ears 0oun!er man$?
In %he anal0sis base# on %he #ifference be%9een 5oin%s an# in%ervals 9e can sa0 %ha% %he com5ara%ive al9a0s in%ro#uces an interval as one of i%s ar!umen%s (%he in%erval be%9een %he %9o com5are# #e!rees/$
$.3 T95es of 40a3able a37e/t.2es 3e5en3.n4 on t8e st01/t10e of t8e s/ales $.3.1 Relat.2e 2s. absol1te a37e/t.2es As 9e have seen in 1$2$+ for some a#6ec%ives %he s%an#ar# involve# in %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he 5osi%ive #e!ree is es%ablishe# con%e;%uall0 b0 consi#erin! a comparison class$ For e;am5le %he s%an#ar# of hei!h% for buil#in!s is #ifferen% from %he s%an#ar# of hei!h% for men 9hich in %urn is #ifferen% from %he s%an#ar# of hei!h% of < 0ears ol# chil#ren e%c$ These a#6ec%ives are calle# relative ad+ectives$ '0 con%ras% for o%her a#6ec%ives such as full% flat% closed e%c$ %he s%an#ar# is no% #e5en#en% on a com5arison class$ Such a#6ec%ives are calle# absolute ad+ectives$ Rela%ive a#6ec%ives are reco!niAable b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o over%l0 e;5ress %he com5arison class b0 a pentru- (>for?/ 5hrase$ Such 5hrases are no% allo9e# 9i%h absolu%e a#6ec%ives3
(+C2/ a$ Co5ilul es%e gEnal% / voinic / vorbLreR h 5en%ru #oi ani cW% are$ chil#-%he is %all robus% lo@uacious for %9o 0ears ho9-much has >The chil# is %all/robus%/lo@uacious for his %9o 0ears of a!e$? b$ :asa es%e gneobiMnui%L / scun#Lh 5en%ru o masL #e sufra!erie$ %able-%he is unusual shor% for a %able of #inin! room >The %able is unusual/shor% for a #inin! room %able$? c$ Problema es%e #ificilL 5en%ru clasa a #oua$ 5roblem-%he is #ifficul% for !ra#e secon# >The 5roblem is #ifficul% for secon# !ra#e$? #$ A5ar%amen%ul es%e mic 5en%ru o familie a%W% #e numeroasL$ a5ar%men%-%he is small for a famil0 so numerous >The a5ar%men% is small for such a numerous famil0$? (+C4/ a$ X DMa es%e EnchisL 5en%ru o uML #e bisericL$ #oor-%he is close# for a #oor of church b$ X Paharul es%e 5lin 5en%ru un 5ahar #e vin$
2,1
The A#6ec%ive !lass-%he is full for a !lass of 9ine
For an%on0mic 5airs gA 'h of absolu%e a#6ec%ives %he ne!a%ion of A en%ails ' (see (+C,//I for rela%ive a#6ec%ives %his is no% %rue (see (+C.//$
(+C,/ a$ DMa nu es%e #eschisL s DMa es%e EnchisL >The #oor is no% o5en? >The #oor is close#? b$ Paharul nu es%e u# s Paharul es%e usca% >The !lass is no% 9e%? >The !lass is #r0? c$ Co5ilul nu es%e %reaA s Co5ilul es%e a#ormi% >%he chil# is no% a9a-e? >The chil# is aslee5? (+C./ a$ :usafirul nu es%e bL%rWn f :usafirul es%e %WnLr >The !ues% is no% ol#? >The !ues% is 0oun!? b$ :asa nu a fos% scum5L f :asa a fos% ief%inL >The %able 9as no% e;5ensive? >The %able 9as chea5?
There are ho9ever some an%on0mic 5airs of absolu%e a#6ec%ives such as plin$ ol >full/em5%0?% for 9hich %he ne!a%ion of A #oes no% en%ail '$ These are a#6ec%ives associa%e# %o full0 close# scales 9here bo%h members have a ma;imum s%an#ar# (for %hese no%ions see %he ne;% sec%ion/$
Ui%h rela%ive a#6ec%ives i% is 5ossible %o se@uen%iall0 #escribe an ob6ec% in %erms of bo%h members of an an%on0mic 5air in a sin!le con%e;% since %he s%an#ar# of %he secon# a#6ec%ive is #is6oin% from %he s%an#ar# of %he firs% a#6ec%ive3
(+C</ a$ :ercur es%e o 5lane%L micL #ar es%e %o%uMi foar%e mare$ >:ercur0 is a small 5lane% bu% i%?s s%ill ver0 bi!$? b$ Aceas%L e;5e#iRie a fos% foar%e scum5L #ar es%e %o%uMi ief%inL 5rin com5araRie cu e;5e#iRiile 5rece#en%e$ >This e;5e#i%ion 9as ver0 e;5ensive bu% i% 9as chea5 com5are# %o %he 5revious ones$?
In con%ras% an%on0ms 9i%h con%e;% in#e5en#en% s%an#ar#s canno% be felici%ousl0 5re#ica%e# of %he same ob6ec% in %he same sen%ence3
(+CB/ a$ KKAs%a es%e o salL 5linL #eMi es%e EncL !oalL %his is a hall full al%hou!h is s%ill em5%0 >This is a full hall al%hou!h i%?s s%ill em5%0$? b$ KKS%u#enRii sun% %re6i #ar sun% a#ormiRi 5en%ru niM%e %ineri care ar %rebui s%u#en%s-%he are a9a-e bu% are aslee5 for some 0oun!-men 9hich 9oul# mus% sL fie foar%e a%enRi$ SD'N be$2 ver0 a%%en%ive >The s%u#en%s are a9a-e bu% are aslee5 for some 0oun! 5eo5le 9ho shoul# be ver0 a%%en%ive?
$.3.2. Absol1te a37e/t.2es an3 t8e st01/t10e of t8e s/ale The #ifference be%9een absolu%e an# rela%ive a#6ec%ives is correla%e# 9i%h a #ifference in %he s%ruc%ure of %he scale #eno%e# b0 %he a#6ec%ive3 absolu%e a#6ec%ives have closed scales i$e scales 9i%h a minimal or a ma;imal #e!ree (or bo%h/ (see fi!ure (+CC//$ I% is %his #is%in!uishe# #e!ree %ha% 5rovi#es a con%e;%-in#e5en#en% s%an#ar#$ '0 con%ras% rela%ive a#6ec%ives have o5en scales$ The s%ruc%ure of %he scale #oes no% 5rovi#e a #is%in!uishe# #e!ree %herefore com5arison classes are necessar0 %o 5rovi#e a s%an#ar#$
(+CC/ PPPPPPPPPPPPPPfPPPPPPPPPPPPPP PPPPPPPPPPPPPPfPPPPPPPPPPPPPP PPPPPPPPPPPPPPfPPPPPPPPPPPPPP 3 o5en scale 3 lo9er close# scale 3 u55er close# scale
2,2
The A#6ec%ive PPPPPPPPPPPPPPfPPPPPPPPPPPPP 3 full0 close# scale
The ma;imal #e!ree is in#ica%e# b0 %he mo#ifiers perfect >5erfec%l0? complet >com5le%el0? pe deplin >full0?$ Ue can %hus es%ablish 9he%her an a#6ec%ive has a ma'imum standard b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o combine 9i%h %hese mo#ifiers (9hich ma0 be calle# ma'imality modifiers/ (on %he #ifference be%9een perfect an# complet see 4$2$2 belo9/3
(1==/ a$ S%icla e com5le% 5linL bo%%le-%he is com5le%el0 full >The bo%%le is com5le%el0 full? b$ Linia e 5erfec% #rea5%L line-%he is 5erfec%l0 s%rai!h% >The line is 5erfec%l0 s%rai!h%? c$ cor5 5erfec% ro%un# bo#0 5erfec%l0 roun# >5erfec%l0 roun# bo#0?
The e;is%ence of a ma;imum #e!ree means %ha% %he scale is upper closed (or upper bounded/$ A ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive is %hus al9a0s associa%e# 9i%h an u55er close# scale$ There are also a#6ec%ives 9i%h a minimum standard$ The hallmar- for a minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive is %he 5ossibili%0 %o combine 9i%h %he mo#ifier uor >sli!h%l0? 9hich in%ro#uces an in%erval imme#ia%el0 above %he lo9er boun#3
(1=+/ a$ CLmaMa e uMor mur#arL / Xcura%L shir%-%he is sli!h%l0 #ir%0 clean >The shir% is sli!h%l0 #ir%0/Xclean? b$ Ar!umen%ul es%e uMor vicia% / X vali# ar!umen%-%he is sli!h%l0 fla9e# vali# >The ar!umen% is sli!h%l0 fla9e#/ Xvali#? c$ 'orcanul es%e uMor crL5a%/ XEn%re! 6ar-%he is sli!h%l0 crac-e# in%ac% >The 6ar is sli!h%l0 crac-e# /Xin%ac%? #$ Co5ilul es%e uMor bolnav/ XsLnL%os$ chil#-%he is sli!h%l0 sicheal%h0 >The chil# is sli!h%l0 sic-/Xheal%h0? e$ 'LRul e uMor s%rWmb / X#re5% s%ic--%he is sli!h%l0 ben% s%rai!h% >The s%ic- is sli!h%l0 ben%/Xs%rai!h%?
In an an%on0mic 5air of absolu%e a#6ec%ives usuall0 one %erm is a ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive an# %he o%her one is a minimal s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive$ This is because an%on0ms share %he same scale an# #iffer onl0 b0 %he or#erin! rela%ion$ Therefore %he ma;imal #e!ree of one member of %he 5air corres5on#s %o %he minimal #e!ree of %he o%her member$ Thus if in an an%on0mic 5air gA+ A1h A+ has a ma;imal #e!ree A1 9ill have a minimal #e!ree$ 7;am5les (1=+/ sho9 %ha% %he an%on0ms of minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives #o no% allo9 uor hence %he0 are no% minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives$ A55l0in! %he %es% of mo#ifica%ion b0 %he ma;imali%0 mo#ifier perfect% 9e can see %ha% %he0 have a ma;imum s%an#ar#3
(1=+/_ a$ CLmaMa e 5erfec% cura%L/Xmur#arL >The shir% is 5erfec%l0 clean/X#ir%0? b$ Ar!umen%ul es%e 5erfec% vali#/Xvicia% >The ar!umen% is 5erfec%l0 vali#/Xfla9e#?
2,4
The A#6ec%ive c$ 'orcanul es%e 5erfec% En%re!/XcrL5a% >The 6ar is 5erfec%l0 in%ac%/Xcrac-e#? #$ Co5ilul es%e 5erfec% sLnL%os/Xbolnav >The chil# is 5erfec%l0 heal%h0/X sic-? e$ 'LRul es%e 5erfec% #re5%/ Xs%rWmb >The s%ic- is 5erfec%l0 s%rai!h%/Xben%?
Ano%her %es% #is%in!uishin! ma;imum from minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives is %he mo#ifica%ion b0 aproape >almos%?$ Aproape is full0 acce5%able 9i%h ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives 9hereas 9i%h minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives i% is acce5%able onl0 in res%ric%e# con%e;%s3
(1=1/ a$ CLmaMa e a5roa5e usca%L / K u#L shir%-%he is almos% #r0 9e% >The shir% is almos% #r0/K9e%? b$ 'LRul e a5roa5e #re5% / KK s%rWmb s%ic--%he is almos% s%rai!h% ben% >The s%ic- is almos% s%rai!h%/KKben%?
Given an an%on0mic 5air gAmin Ama;h for %he minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive Amin %he use of almost im5lies nei%her Amin(;/ nor Ama;(;/$ '0 con%ras% almost Ama;(;/ im5lies Amin(;/ (see %he b-b_ e;am5les in (i/-(ii//3 (i/ a$ Proso5ul es%e a5roa5e u# s Proso5ul nu es%e nici u# nici usca% >The %o9el is almos% 9e%? >The %o9el is nei%her 9e% nor #r0? a_$ mProso5ul es%e usca% #ar es%e a5roa5e u# >mThe %o9el is #r0 bu% i%?s almos% 9e%? b$ Proso5ul es%e a5roa5e usca% s Proso5ul es%e u# >The %o9el is almos% #r0? >The %o9el is 9e%? b_$ Proso5ul es%e EncL u# #eMi es%e a5roa5e usca%$ >The %o9el is s%ill 9e% al%hou!h i%?s almos% #r0? a$ Sun% a5roa5e bolnav s Nu sun% nici bolnav nici sLnL%os >I am almos% sic-? >I am nei%her sic- nor heal%h0? a_$ m Sun% EncL sLnL%os #ar a5roa5e bolnav >mI am s%ill heal%h0 bu% almos% sic-? b$ Sun% a5roa5e sLnL%os s Sun% bolnav >I am almos% heal%h0? >I am sic-? b_$ Sun% EncL bolnav #ar a5roa5e sLnL%os$ >I am s%ill sic- bu% almos% heal%h0?
(ii/
These fac%s can be e;5laine# as follo9s3 %he mo#ifier almost is u55er- orien%e#3 i% #eno%es a shor% in%erval in %he scale SA 9hich is #is6oin% from %he #eno%a%ion of A bu% a#6acen% %o i% from belo9$ Therefore i% is al9a0s acce5%able 9i%h ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives since %heir scale has an u55er boun#$ I% is mar!inal 9i%h minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives because %he0 normall0 have %he s%an#ar# a% %he minimum 5oin% of %he scale (e$!$ no amoun% of 9a%er for >9e%? no amoun% of illness for >heal%h0?/$ For e;am5les such as (i/a-(ii/a 9here aproape >almos%? is acce5%able 9i%h minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives 9e ma0 assume %ha% %he minimum s%an#ar# of %he a#6ec%ive is a% a small #is%ance above %he minimum 5oin% of %he scale$ See %he follo9in! illus%ra%ion 9here S ma; is %he s%an#ar# of %he ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive an# Smin is %he s%an#ar# of %he minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive ( almost &et is %rue if %he #e!ree is in be%9een Sma; an# Smin ver0 close %o Smin/3 (iii/ --- #r0 (Ama;/ ---f PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP e --- 9e% (Amin/ --= mois%ure Smin Sma; -------- &et ---------------------------------------------------------- almost &et dry
2,,
The A#6ec%ive
Given an an%on0mic 5air gAma; Aminh ' is almost Ama; en%ails ' is sli !tly Amin3
(1=2/ a$ CLmaMa e a5roa5e usca%L [ CLmaMa e uMor ume#L >The shir% is almos% #r0? >The shir% is sli!h%l0 9e%? b$ 'LRul e a5roa5e #re5% [ 'LRul e uMor s%rWmb >The s%ic- is almos% s%rai!h%? >The s%ic- is almos% ben%?
:inimum s%an#ar# an# ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives !ive rise %o s5ecial en%ailmen%s 9hen use# in com5ara%ives 9hich are no% foun# 9i%h rela%ive a#6ec%ives$ Thus for a minimal s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive A ' is A-er t!an y en%ails %ha% ' is A because for an0 #e!ree hi!her %han %he minimal 5oin% of %he scale ' is A is %rue3
(1=4/ Car%ea e mai ume#L #ecW% caie%ul [ Car%ea e ume#L >The boo- is 9e%%er %han %he no%eboo-? >The boo- is 9e%?
For a ma;imal s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive ' is A-er t!an y en%ails %ha% y is no% A (i% can be almost A bu% no% perfectly A/3
(1=,/ Scaunul e mai usca% #ecW% masa [ :asa nu e usca%L >The chair is #rier %han %he %able? >The %able is no% #r0?
Rela%ive a#6ec%ives #o no% allo9 %hese en%ailmen%s3

(1=./ a$ Ion e mai frumos/urW% #ecW% Cris%ina w Ion e frumos/urW% >Ion is more han#some/u!lier %han Cris%ina? >Ion is han#some/u!l0? b$ Ion e mai frumos/urW% #ecW% Cris%ina w Cris%ina nu e frumoasL/urW%L >Ion is more han#some/u!lier %han Cris%ina? >Cris%ina is no% han#some/u!l0?
Scales can be ei%her close# a% one en# ( partially closed scales/ or a% bo%h en#s (fully closed scales/$ Ui%h 5ar%iall0 close# scale since %here is onl0 one boun# %ha% can serve as an absolu%e s%an#ar# necessaril0 one member of an an%on0mic 5air is a ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive an# %he o%her one is a minimum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ive$ This is %he si%ua%ion illus%ra%e# b0 %he con%ras% in (1=+/-(1=1/ above3
(1=</ a$ CuRi%ul e 5erfec%/a5roa5e #re5% / KK s%rWmb >The -nife is 5erfec%l0/almos% s%rai!h%/KKben%? a_$ CuRi%ul e uMor s%rWmb / X#re5% >The -nife is sli!h%l0 ben%/Xs%rai!h%? drept 3 ma;imum s%an#ar# (u55er close# scale/ strmb 3 minimum s%an#ar# (lo9er close# scale/ b$ CLmaMa e 5erfec% usca%L / Xume#L >The shir% is 5erfec%l0 #r0/X9e%? b_$ CLmaMa e uMor ume#L / Xusca%L >The shir% is sli!h%l0 9e%/X#r0? uscat 3 ma;imum s%an#ar# (u55er close# scale/ umed 3 minimum s%an#ar# (lo9er close# scale/
In %he case of full0 close# scales 9e fin# an%on0mic 5airs of ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives as sho9n b0 %he %es%s3
(1=B/ a$ Paharul e a5roa5e 5lin / !ol >The !lass is almos% full/em5%0?
2,.
The A#6ec%ive b$ XSala e uMor 5linL / !oalL >XThe room is sli!h%l0 full/em5%0?
A#6ec%ives associa%e# %o full0 close# scales allo9 proportional modifiers3 )pe* +umtate >half? pe sfert$ pe trei sferturi >a @uar%er / %hree @uar%ers? n cea mai mare parte$ n mare msur$ n ansamblu Bmos%l0 /mos% of %he 9a0?3
(1=C/ a$ Paharul es%e g5e 6umL%a%e / En mare mLsurLh 5lin$ >The !lass is half/lar!el0 full? b$ DMa era g5e 6umL%a%e/ 5e %rei sfer%uri/ o %reimeh #eschisL$ >The #oor 9as half/ %hree-@uar%er/ one %hir# o5en? c$ Aces%e ima!ini sun% g5e 6umL%a%e/ En cea mai mare 5ar%e/ En mare mLsurLh inviAibile$ >These ima!es are half/ mos%l0/ lar!el0/ %o a lar!e e;%en% invisible?
Pro5or%ional mo#ifiers are associa%e# %o full0 close# scales because %heir in%er5re%a%ion ma-es reference %o bo%h %he u55er boun# an# %he lo9er boun# of %he scale$
Assumin! %ha% pe +umtate >half? n cea mai mare parte/ msur >mos%l0/ mos% of %he 9a0? have in%er5re%a%ions alon! %he lines of (i/-(ii/ 9here SG is a scale associa%e# 9i%h a !ra#able a#6ec%ive G an# #iff is a func%ion %ha% re%urns %he #ifference be%9een %9o #e!rees %he0 are compatible only &it! ad+ectives t!at map t!eir ar uments onto scales &it! a ma'imal and a minimal element 3 (i/ half [ G ; # Y#iff (ma; (SG// (#/ [ #iff (#/( min (SG// G (#/(;/Z (%he #ifference be%9een %he ma;imum #e!ree of %he scale an# %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 hol#s is e@ual %o %he #ifference be%9een %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 hol#s an# %he minimum of %he scale %herefore %he #e!ree is 5lace# mi#9a0 be%9een %he ma;imum an# %he minimum of %he scale/$ (ii/ mos%/ mos% of %he 9a0 [ G ; # Y#iff (ma; (SG// (#/ e #iff (#/ (min (SG// G (#/(;/Z (%he #ifference be%9een %he ma;imum #e!ree of %he scale an# %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 hol#s is smaller %han %he #ifference be%9een %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 hol#s an# %he minimum of %he scale/ i$e$ %he relevan% #e!ree is closer %o %he ma;imum of %he scale/$
G5en scale a#6ec%ives allo9 nei%her ma;imali%0 nor 5ro5or%ional mo#ifiers3

(1+=/ a$ X Cu%ia e com5le% mare / micL bo;-%he is com5le%el0 bi!/ small b$ X :obila e 5erfec% nouL / veche furni%ure-%he is 5erfec%l0 ne9/ ol# c$ X FrWn!hia es%e 5e 6umL%a%e lun!L/ scur%L ro5e-%he is half lon!/ shor% #$ KKDn cal En vWrs%L #e +, ani es%e 5e 6umL%a%e bL%rWn/ %WnLr a horse in a!e of +, 0ears is half ol# / 0oun!
The #is%inc%ion be%9een absolu%e a#6ec%ives 9i%h a minimum s%an#ar# (lo9er boun# scale/ an# absolu%e a#6ec%ives 9i%h a ma;imum s%an#ar# (u55er boun# scale/ corres5on#s %o %he #is%inc%ion be%9een partial an# total a#6ec%ives$ Par%ial a#6ec%ives have been #efine# as a#6ec%ives 9hich in#ica%e %he e;is%ence of some #e!ree of a 5ro5er%0 P 9hereas %heir an%on0m calle# a %o%al a#6ec%ive #eno%es %he absence of %his 5ro5er%0 P$ The com5le%e absence of 5ro5er%0 P serves as an absolu%e s%an#ar# 9hich is a minimum s%an#ar# for %he 5ar%ial a#6ec%ive an# a ma;imum s%an#ar# for %he %o%al a#6ec%ive$ Thus 9hile umed >9e%? can refer %o various 5ercen%a!es of 9a%er uscat >#r0? #esi!na%es absence of 9a%erI 9hile strmb >ben%? im5lies an!les of various #e!rees drept >s%rai!h%? #esi!na%es absence of an0 an!le$ Li-e9ise for periculos >#an!erous? an# si ur >safe?$ The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %ha% %o%al a#6ec%ives are ma;imum s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives an# 5ar%ial a#6ec%ives are minimal s%an#ar# a#6ec%ives3 (i/ a$ CLmaMa e g5erfec%/a5roa5eh gusca%L / KKume#Lh
2,<
The A#6ec%ive
>The shir% is 5erfec%l0/almos% #r0/KK9e%? b$ Lemnul eg 5erfec%/a5roa5eh g#re5% / KK s%rWmbh >The 9oo# is 5erfec%l0/almos% s%rai!h%/KKben%? a$ CLmaMa e uMor gume#L / Xusca%Lh >The shir% is sli!h%l0 9e%/X#r0? b$ Lemnul e uMor gs%rWmb / X#re5%h >The 9oo# is sli!h%l0 ben%/ Xs%rai!h%?
(ii/
The ma;imum s%an#ar# is no% al9a0s 5rovi#e# b0 %he absence of some 5ro5er%0I a#6ec%ives #eno%in! forms for ins%ance @ualif0 as %o%al a#6ec%ives$ The s%an#ar# in %heir case can be formula%e# b0 a ma%hema%ical #efini%ion3 (iii/ cor5 5erfec% ro%un# bo#0 5erfec%l0 roun# >5erfec%l0 roun# bo#0?
$.3.3 Close3 s/ale 6o3.f.e0s D.t8 3.st0.b1t.2e a37e/t.2es an3 t8e s5e/.al.Bat.on of 6a<.6al.t9 6o3.f.e0s Distributive ad+ectives #eno%e 5ro5er%ies %ha% can a55l0 no% onl0 %o an en%i%0 as a 9hole bu% also %o i%s 5ar%s$ These a#6ec%ives ma0 %a-e 5ro5or%ional mo#ifiers 9hich s5ecif0 %he 5ar% of %he en%i%0 %o 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 a55lies$ Ue can sa0 %ha% %hese a#6ec%ives are associa%e# 9i%h a scale 9hose s%ruc%ure is base# on %he 5ar% s%ruc%ure of %ha% en%i%0 (hence a full0 close# scale/$ Com5are3
(1++/ a$ KK AfarL e com5le% fierbin%e (no en%i%0 9i%h 5ar%-9hole s%ruc%ure/ ou%si#e is com5le%el0 ho% b$ FaRa co5ilului e com5le% fierbin%e (5ro5er%0 a55lie# %o %he 5ar%s of an en%i%0/ face-%he chil#-%he$G7N is com5le%el0 ho% >The chil#?s face is com5le%el0 ho%$? c$ X 7l e com5le% in%eli!en% (non-#is%ribu%ive a#6ec%ive/ he is com5le%el0 in%elli!en% (1+1/ Pere%ele e 5arRial / com5le% ver#e 9all-%he is 5ar%iall0 com5le%el0 !reen [ >Par%s of %he 9all are !reen / The 9hole of %he 9all is !reen?
No%e ho9ever %ha% even in cases such as (1++/b %he ma;imali%0 mo#ifier perfect >5erfec%l0? is no% allo9e#$ This sho9s %ha% scales base# on %he 5ar%-9hole rela%ion of %he en%i%0 %o 9hich an a#6ec%ival 5ro5er%0 a55lies remain lin!uis%icall0 #is%inc% from close# scales base# on %he in%rinsic na%ure of %he 5ro5er%0 P$
(1+2/ a$ X FaRa co5ilului e 5erfec% fierbin%e face-%he chil#-%he$G7N is 5erfec%l0 ho% b$ X Pere%ele e 5erfec% ver#e 9all-%he is 5erfec%l0 !reen
The ma;imali%0 mo#ifier complet is charac%eris%ic for scales base# on %he 5ar%-9hole rela%ion$ Ar!uabl0 %he an%on0mic 5air plin $ ol >full/em5%0? also has such a scale ( ' is fuller &it! y t!an ( if a bi!!er 5ercen%a!e of ; %han of A is fille# 9i%h 0/$ This can e;5lain 9h0 i% allo9s %he ma;imali%0 mo#ifier complet an# #isallo9s perfect >5erfec%l0?3
(1+4/ a$ Sala era com5le% 5linL room-%he 9as com5le%el0 full >The room 9as com5le%el0 full? a_$ XSala era 5erfec% 5linL
2,B
The A#6ec%ive room-%he 9as 5erfec%l0 full b$ Paharul e com5le% !ol$ !lass-%he is com5le%el0 em5%0 >The !lass is com5le%el0 em5%0? b_$ X Paharul e 5erfec% !ol !lass-%he is 5erfec%l0 em5%0
,omplet is e;clu#e# 9i%h scales 9hich are no% base# on %he 5ar%-9hole rela%ion such as strai !t or round3
(1+,/ a$ 'LRul e g5erfec% /Xcom5le%h #re5% s%ic--%he is 5erfec%l0 com5le%el0 s%rai!h% b$ Globul e g5erfec% /Xcom5le%h ro%un# Globe-%he is 5erfec%l0 com5le%el0 roun#
Ui%h a#6ec%ives such as dry or !ealt!y complet can be use# because %he 5ro5er%0 can be in%er5re%e# #is%ribu%ivel03 absence of mois%ure of %he 5ar%s of an ob6ec% or heal%h of %he 5ar%s (or!ans e%c$/ of a bo#03
(1+./ a$ CLmaMa e 5erfec%/ com5le% usca%L shir%-%he is 5erfec%l0 com5le%el0 #r0 >The shir% is 5erfec%l0/com5le%el0 #r0? b$ Sun% 5erfec%/ com5le% sLnL%os am 5erfec%l0 com5le%el0 heal%h0 >I am 5erfec%l0/com5le%el0 heal%h0?
$.3.$ S/ala0 50o5e0t.es of 3e2e0bal a37e/t.2es In %he ca%e!or0 of close# scales base# on #is%ribu%ive 5ro5er%ies 9e can inclu#e %he scales associa%e# 9i%h 5ar%ici5les #erive# from verbs 9i%h incremen%al %hemes$ These verbs are charac%eriAe# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he %heme is 5ro!ressivel0 mo#ifie# b0 %he even% e;5resse# b0 %he verb (in formal %erms for an0 sub-even%s e_ of %he even% e inclu#in! e i%self if ; is %he %heme of e_ an# e__ is inclu#e# in e_ %hen a 5ar% of ; P ;_ inclu#e# in ; P is %he %heme of %he sub-even% e__/$ Since %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 %he resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5le can be a55lie# ei%her %o %he 9hole ob6ec% or %o a 5ar% of i% i% can %a-e 5ro5or%ional mo#ifiers 9hich s5ecif0 %he 5ar% of %he en%i%0 %o 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 a55lies$ The ma;imal #e!ree refers %o %he mo#ifica%ion of %he 9hole en%i%03
(1+</ a$ car%e 5arRial ci%i%L boo- 5ar%iall0 rea# b$ fruc%e 5e 6umL%a%e mWnca%e frui% half ea%en c$ 5ala% com5le% renova% 5alace com5le%el0 renova%e#
Pa%hs can also be incremen%al ar!umen%s3 in %his case %he 5a%h is 5ro!ressivel0 covere# b0 an ar!umen% 9hich chan!es i%s loca%ion$ 7;5ec%e#l0 resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5les a55lie# %o %he 5a%h allo9 5ro5or%ional mo#ifiers3
(1+B/ a$ %raseu com5le% 5arcurs roa# com5le%el0 crosse# b$ #eMer% 5arRial %raversa% #eser% 5ar%iall0 crosse#
2,C
The A#6ec%ive c$ scarL 5e 6umL%a%e coborW%L s%air9a0 half !one-#o9n
Since %hese scales are base# on %he #is%ribu%ive na%ure of %he 5ro5er%0 %he ma;imali%0 mo#ifier perfect is no% allo9e#3
(1+C/ a$ m car%e 5erfec% ci%i%L boo- 5erfec%l0 rea# b$ m #eMer% 5erfec% %raversa% #eser% 5erfec%l0 crosse# (9i%h perfect [ >full0 com5le%el0?/ (9i%h perfect [ >full0 com5le%el0?/
/erfect ma0 also func%ion as a manner a#verb meanin! >5erfec%l0?$ In %his case i% can of course a55ear 9i%h %hese 5ar%ici5les bu% is #is%in!uishe# from %he ma;imali%0 mo#ifier b0 %he fac% %ha% i% is 5os%5ose# %o %he 5ar%ici5le in %he unmar-e# or#er3 (i/ Car%e ci%i%L 5erfec% boo- rea# 5erfec%l0 >boo- 5erfec%l0 rea#? Ano%her %05e of incremen%al chan!e involves %he 5ro!ression of %he #e!ree of %he 5ro5er%0 9hich %he %heme ac@uires$ In %his case i% is %he scalar na%ure of %he 5ro5er%0 9hich e;5lains %he mo#ifiers allo9e# b0 %he resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5le$ Thus if %he 5ro5er%0 9hich %he %heme ac@uires (9hich can be e;5resse# b0 an a#6ec%ive from 9hich %he verb is #erive#/ has an u55er close# scale %he 5ar%ici5le 9ill allo9 u55er close# scale mo#ifiers inclu#in! %he ma;imali%0 mo#ifier perfect3 (ii/ a$ clL#ire 5erfec% securiAa%L buil#in! 5erfec%l0 secure# b$ fir 5erfec% En%ins %hrea# 5erfec%l0 ali!ne# c$ #inRi 5erfec% En#re5%aRi %ee%h 5erfec%l0 s%rai!%hene#
'esi#es incremen%al ar!umen%s %here are o%her !ra#able 5arame%ers in a verb?s seman%ics 9hich ma0 su55l0 a scalar #imension %o %he #erive# a#6ec%ive$ The number of sub-even%s inclu#e# in a 5lural even% %05icall0 5rovi#es a scale for %he #erive# a#6ec%ive$ This %05e of scale is also base# on #is%ribu%ivi%0 %he #is%ribu%ion bein! no9 over sub-even%s or %imes3
(11=/ car%e foar%e cLu%a%L boo- ver0 searche# >boo- searche# b0 a lo% of 5eo5le / man0 %imes? (number of even%s/ (11+/ au%or foar%e 5omeni% au%hor ver0 men%ione# >au%hor ver0 of%en men%ione#? (number of even%s/
Some verbs #eno%e !ra#able 5re#ica%es in 9hich %he #e!ree corres5on#s %o %he in%ensi%0 of some 5ro5er%0$ This 5ro5er%0 can be a 5s0cholo!ical s%a%e (see (111/b-c/ bu% also a 5h0sical 5ro5er%0 9hich can var0 in in%ensi%0 (see (111/a/$ This 5rovi#es a scalar #imension for %he #erive# a#6ec%ive3
(111/ a$ Terenul e foar%e lumina% lan#-%he is ver0 li% >The lan# is ver0 9ell illumina%e#? b$ 7ra mai iubi%L #ecW% Cleo5a%ra 9as more love# %han Cleo5a%ra >She 9as more love# %han Cleo5a%ra?
2.=
The A#6ec%ive c$ 7 5rea a#mira%L is %oo a#mire# >She is %oo amire#?
A !eneral 5ro5er%0 of #everbal a#6ec%ives is %ha% %he0 are absolu%e a#6ec%ives$ If %he scale is base# on incremen%al ar!umen%s %he #everbal a#6ec%ive has a ma;imum s%an#ar# 9hich is 5rovi#e# b0 %he a55lica%ion of %he 5ro5er%0 %o %he 9hole %heme$ This can be sho9n b0 a55l0in! %he %es%s in 4$2$13
(112/ a$ roman a5roa5e scris novel almos% 9ri%%en b$ in%erval com5le% s%rLbL%u% in%erval com5le%el0 covere#
Uhen %he scale is 5rovi#e# b0 a mul%i5lici%0 of even%s or %imes (as in (114/a/ or is #ue %o %he !ra#able na%ure (in%ensi%0/ of %he verbal 5re#ica%e i%self (as in (114/b// %he #everbal a#6ec%ive has a minimum s%an#ar#3 no ma%%er ho9 small is %he #e!ree of %he 5ro5er%0 %he %heme ac@uires or ho9 sel#om %he %heme 5ar%ici5a%es in %he even% or ho9 li%%le %he 5ar% of %he %heme involve# in %he even% is %he %heme s%ill @ualifies as 5ar%ici5a%in! %o %he even%$ (The minimal #e!ree corres5on#s %o %he ne!a%ion of %he 5ar%ici5a%ion of %he %heme %o %he even%$/ Therefore %he en%ailmen%s in (114/ hol#3
(114/ a$ Car%ea as%a e mai cLu%a%L #ecW% celal%L [ Car%ea as%a e cLu%a%L boo--%he %his is more searche# %han %he-o%her boo--%he %his is searche# >This boo- is more in #eman# %han %he o%her one? >This boo- is in #eman#? b$ Ion e mai a#mira% #ecW% :aria [ Ion e a#mira% >Ion is more a#mire# %han :aria? >Ion is a#mire#?
These %05es of scales lac- an u55er boun# %herefore ma;imali%0 mo#ifiers an# almost are no% allo9e#3
(11,/ a$ KK 7 g5arRial / com5le% / 5erfec% h iubi%L is 5ar%iall0 com5le%el0 5erfec%l0 love# b$ KK Car%e gcom5le% / a5roa5eh cLu%a%L boo- com5le%el0 almos% searche#(in #eman#/
Verbs 9i%hou% incremen%al ar!umen%s 9hich can be mo#ifie# b0 completely or partially such as #no& (see (11.// rel0 on %he #is%ribu%ive na%ure of %he 5ro5er%03 -no9in! an ob6ec% involves -no9in! i%s 5ar%s$ Thus partially $ totally #no&n can refer %o %he 5ro5or%ion of %he ob6ec% 9hich is -no9n$
(11./ Aceas%L limbL e g5arRial/ com5le% h cunoscu%L %his lan!ua!e is 5ar%iall0 com5le%el0 -no9n >This lan!ua!e is 5ar%iall0/com5le%el0 (9ell-/-no9n$?
$.$. T8e s9nta< of t8e De40ee P80ase As 9e have seen #e!ree 9or#s are no% res%ric%e# %o a#6ec%ival 5hrases3 %he0 can also combine 9i%h a#verbs an# PPs in%er5re%e# as loca%ive (see (11</c/ or manner (see (11</#/ a#verbs$
(11</ a$ Vine gmai/ foar%eh #evreme comes more ver0 earl0
2.+
The A#6ec%ive >Oe comes earlier/ver0 earl0? b$ Scrie gmai/ foar%eh re5e#e 9ri%es more ver0 fas% >Oe 9ri%es fas%er/ver0 fas%? c$ 7 gmai/foar%ehgEn faRL / la #rea5%ah is more ver0 in fron% %o ri!h%-%he >Oe is fur%her/ver0 much in fron%/%o %he ri!h%? #$ As%a e mai fLrL 5er#ea %his is more 9i%hou% cur%ain >This is more cru#e?
Ue chose never%heless %o %rea% %hese e;5ressions in %he cha5%er #e#ica%e# %o a#6ec%ives because %he seman%ics of !ra#a%ion has been #iscusse# in connec%ion 9i%h !ra#able a#6ec%ives$ De!ree 9or#s (9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of #e!ree 5re#ica%es see 4$4$1 belo9/ cons%i%u%e close# classes 9hich su55or%s %he i#ea %ha% %he0 are functional ca%e!ories$ As e;5ec%e# for a func%ional ca%e!or0 %he0 al9a0s a55ear before %he a#6ec%ive/a#verb$
An a55aren% e;ce5%ion is 5rovi#e# b0 aa$atta >li-e %ha% %ha%? in #eic%ic use3 (i/ a$ 7s%e lun! a%W%a is lon! li-e-%ha% >I% is %ha% lon!? b$ un bLR lun! cam aMa a s%ic- lon! aroun# li-e-%ha% >a s%ic- more or less %ha% lon!? (9i%h a !es%ure/ (9i%h a !es%ure/
Ue consi#er %ha% in %his case 9e are #ealin! 9i%h a measure 5hrase for 9hich atta$aa are #eic%ic 5roforms$ For %he s0n%a; of measure 5hrases see sec%ion 4$++$
De!ree 9or#s can be classifie# accor#in! %o %he follo9in! cri%eria3 (i/ 9he%her %he0 %ri!!er %he inser%ion of %he elemen% de (li%$ >of?/ be%9een %hem an# %he a#6ec%ive/a#verbI (ii/ 9he%her %he0 can a55ear in o%her con%e;%s %han before a#6ec%ives/a#verbsI (iii/ 9he%her %he0 co-occur 9i%h o%her #e!ree 9or#s$ Ue 9ill 5rocee# %o %he #escri5%ion of #e!ree 9or#s follo9in! %he firs% cri%erion #iscussin! firs% #e!ree 9or#s 9hich a55ear #irec%l0 before %he a#6ec%ive or a#verb an# %hen %hose 9hich re@uire %he inser%ion of %he elemen% de before %he a#6ec%ive/a#verb$ $.$.1. De40ee 8ea3s The #e!ree 9or#s 9hich #o no% %ri!!er %he inser%ion of de form a close# class3 mai >more -er? foarte >ver0?% prea >%oo?% aa >so?% ce >ho9? tare >ver0? (mos%l0 e;clama%ive/$
(11B/ a$ gfoar%e/5rea/mai/ aMahfrumoasL ver0 %oo more so beau%iful b$ Ce frumoasL e rochiad ho9 beau%iful is #ress-%he >Oo9 beau%iful is %he #ress? c$ Tare 5ros% e omul aces%ad ver0 s%u5i# is man-%he %his >This is such a s%u5i# man?
Some of %hese 9or#s can a55ear in o%her environmen%s$ Ue 9ill #iscuss %he non-a#6ec%ival con%e;%s of %hese i%ems in sec%ion 4$4$2$
2.1
The A#6ec%ive
Follo9in! %he anal0sis of o%her func%ional i%ems P #e%erminers in %he nominal #omain au;iliaries in %he verbal #omain P as func%ional hea#s i% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% #e!ree 9or#s hea# a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion calle# De!P 9hich %a-es APs an# A#vPs as i%s com5lemen%$ In Romanian %he obli!a%or0 5re-a#6ec%ival 5osi%ion of #e!ree 9or#s su55or%s anal0Ain! %hem as func%ional hea#s$ Func%ional hea#s are obli!a%oril0 5re5ose# because Romanian is a hea#-ini%ial lan!ua!e (see also #e%erminers in %he nominal #omain cha5%er 2 sec%ion +/$ :o#ifiers are normall0 freel0 allo9e# in 5os%5osi%ion (mos% a#verbial classes/ or even 5refer 5os%5osi%ion (see %he #iscussion on a#6ec%ive 5lacemen% insi#e DP in sec%ion 2/$ Dsin! %he De!P-anal0sis %he #e!ree hea#s (class (I/ in 4$4$+ above/ can be anal0Ae# as occu50in! De!= a func%ional hea# %a-in! AP or A#vP as i%s com5lemen%3
(11C/ De!P 3 De! AP/A#vP/8P mai bun foar%e mWn#ru #e co5iii sLi 5rea re5e#e aMa bine
>more !oo# [ be%%er? >ver0 5rou# of his chil#ren? >%oo fas%? >so !oo#?
A similar #is%ribu%ion is also sho9n b0 cam >@ui%e rou!hl0? 9hich e;5resses closeness %o %he s%an#ar# of com5arison of %he 5osi%ive #e!ree (in e;am5les such as (12=/ %he use of cam su!!es%s %ha% %he 5resence of %he 5ro5er%0 in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree is no% #esirable/3
(12=/ cam mare @ui%e bi!
Oo9ever havin! a !eneral meanin! of a55ro;ima%ion (>rou!hl0?/ cam can combine 9i%h o%her #e!ree 9or#s 9hich in#ica%es %ha% i% #oes no% occu50 %he De! 5osi%ion3
(12+/ a$ cam 5rea mare rou!hl0 %oo bi! b$ cam aMa #e lun! rou!hl0 %ha% of lon!
Gran%in! %ha% %he (o%her/ #e!ree 9or#s occu50 %he De! = 5osi%ion cam can be anal0Ae# ei%her as a mo#ifier or as a hi!her hea# A55ro;=$ $.$.2. T8e /onst01/t.on D.t8 de A charac%eris%ic 5ro5er%0 of Romanian is %ha% some #e!ree 9or#s a55ear in a cons%ruc%ion 9here %he0 are se5ara%e# from %he a#6ec%ive/a#verb b0 %he #umm0 elemen% de >of?3
(121/ a$ 5robleme ga%W% / #eosebi%h #e !rele 5roblems so es5eciall0 de har# b$ la fel #e frumoasL ca sora ei e@uall0 de 5re%%0 as sis%er-%he her
The i%em de is a mul%ifunc%ional elemen%3 i% can be a 5re5osi%ion a case mar-er (mar-in! %he !eni%ive of bare nouns see Cha5%er . sec%ion 2/ a @uan%i%a%ive hea# a55earin! af%er some car#inals an# o%her @uan%i%0 e;5ressions (see Cha5%er 2 sec%ion +$,/$ A#6ec%ives 5rece#e# b0 de s%ill a!ree 9i%h %he hea# noun or %he sub6ec% 9hich means %ha% de unli-e 5re5osi%ions or com5lemen%iAers is %rans5aren% for a!reemen% an# %he le;ical hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion is %he 2.2
The A#6ec%ive
a#6ec%ive3
(122/ a$ o ocaAie #es%ul #e bunL an occasion(F/ enou!h de !oo#$FSG b$ munRi e;%raor#inar #e EnalRi moun%ains(:/ e;%raor#inar0 de hi!h$:PL
7;%rac%ion fac%s sho9 %ha% de forms a cons%i%uen% 9i%h %he follo9in! a#6ec%ive/a#verb an# no% 9i%h %he 5rece#in! #e!ree 9or#3 some #e!ree 9or#s 9hich %ri!!er de inser%ion (att% ct/ can be e;%rac%e# 9hen %he a#6ec%ival 5hrase is in 5os%co5ular 5osi%ion an# in %his case de remains 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive3
(124/ a$ gcW%/ a%W%h era #e lun!d ho9 so 9as de lon! >Oo9 lon! i% 9as/I% 9as %ha% lon!? b$ 7;%raor#inar era #e frumoasLd e;%raor#inaril0 9as de beau%iful(F/ >She 9as e;%raor#inaril0 beau%iful?
The follo9in! %hree classes of 9or#s can be foun# in %he cons%ruc%ion 9i%h de0 All of %hese classes can also a55ear as a#verbs in %he verbal #omain$ (I/ @uantity adverbs3 att >so/%ha% much?% ct >ho9 much?% orict >no ma%%er ho9 much?% destul% suficient% ndea+uns >enou!h?$
(12,/ a$ a5ar%amen%e ga%W%/ oricW% / #es%ul / suficien%h #e mari a5ar%men%s so ho9ever-much enou!h sufficien%l0 de bi! b$ CW% #e mari erau caseleK ho9 de bi! 9ere houses-%he >Oo9 bi! 9ere %he housesK? c$ RarL En#ea6uns #e bo!a%L 5en%ru a hrLni o 5o5ulaRie numeroasL coun%r0 sufficien%l0 de rich for %o fee# a 5o5ula%ion numerous >a coun%r0 sufficien%l0 rich %o fee# a numerous 5o5ula%ion?
A charac%eris%ic of @uan%i%0 9or#s (or >@uan%i%a%ives?/ 9hich 9e fin# across lan!ua!es (see 7n!lish muc!% French beaucoup% asse(% combien% I%alian molto% tanto% e%c$/ is %ha% %he0 occur bo%h as a#6unc%s in %he verbal #omain an# as func%ional i%ems in %he nominal #omain (see cha5%er 2 sec%ion +$,/$ In Romanian 9e fin# all of %he i%ems lis%e# in (I/ as a#verbial @uan%i%0 mo#ifiersI in %he nominal #omain %he firs% %hree ones a55ear no% onl0 in %he de cons%ruc%ion bu% also as func%ional elemen%s sho9in! a!reemen% 9i%h %he noun3
(12./ a$ VorbeM%e #es%ul / a%W%(a/ / oricW% %al-s enou!h %ha%-much no-ma%%er-ho9-much >Oe %al-s enou!h/so much/no ma%%er ho9 much? b$ A mWnca% En#ea6uns/sufficien% has ea%en enou!h sufficien%l0 >(S/Oe a%e enou!h/sufficien%l0? c$ CW% vorbeM%eK ho9 much %al-s >Oo9-much #oes (s/he %al-K? #$ #es%ule / a%W%ea / cW%e / oricW%e En%rebLri enou!h$FPL so-much$FPL ho9-much$FPL no-ma%%er-ho9-much$FPL @ues%ions >enou!h/%ha% man0/ho9 man0/no ma%%er ho9 man0 @ues%ions?
2.4
The A#6ec%ive
The a#6ec%ive/a#verb suficient >sufficien%? 9hich has a @uan%i%a%ive use in 9hich i% is s0non0mous 9i%h destul >enou!h? 5a%%erns 9i%h destul in %he #e!ree cons%ruc%ion bu% #iffers from %he o%her @uan%i%a%ives in %ha% i% is no% full0 !ramma%icaliAe# as a func%ional i%em in %he nominal #omain3 i% #oes no% seem %o be able %o occu50 %he D-5osi%ion or license N-elli5sis3 (i/ a$ 7s%e suficien% #e mare is sufficien%l0 de bi! b$ Des%ui / KK SuficienRi co5ii se EmbolnLviserL enou!h$:PL sufficien%$:PL chil#ren(:/ R7FL !o%-sic>enou!h/KKsufficien% chil#ren ha# !o% sic-? c$ Au veni% #es%ui / KK suficienRi have come enou!h$:PL sufficien%$:PL
The %hir# i%em in %his series ndea+uns >enou!h? is onl0 a#verbial (i% re5resen%s %he le;icaliAa%ion of a PP3 n J de J a+uns/$
8uan%i%a%ives can also a55ear in measure 5hrases3

(12</ #rum #e a%W% / #e cW% roa# of %ha%-much of ho9-much
Gn %he use of @uan%i%a%ives as mo#ifiers of o%her #e!ree 9or#s func%ionin! as #ifferen%ials see 4$,$1 belo9$ Gn %heir use in measure 5hrases see 4$+=$
The @uan%i%a%ives lis%e# in I above func%ion as #e!ree 9or#s an# as such canno% combine 9i%h o%her #e!ree 9or#s3 (i/ a$ X Va vorbi gmai/5rea/foar%eh ga%W%/ oricW%/ #es%ulh 9ill %al- more %oo ver0 %ha%-much ho9ever-much enou!h b$ X gmai/ 5rea/foar%e/ aMah ga%WRi / cWRi / #es%uih oameni more %oo ver0 so %ha%-much$:PL ho9-much$:PL enou!h$:PL 5eo5le(:/
Dse# as #e!ree 9or#s %hese @uan%i%a%ives bin# %he #e!ree variable in %he same 9a0 as %he0 bin# %he @uan%i%0 variable 9i%h verbs an# nouns$ Such a 5arallelism is 5ossibl0 #ue %o %he fac% %ha% #e!rees are @uan%i%ies of 5ro5er%ies$ No%e %ha% %he @uan%i%a%ives mult >man0 much? an# puin >li%%le fe9? can combine 9i%h #e!ree 9or#s such as mai$prea$foarte (9i%hou% de/ or 9i%h att% ct% destul (follo9e# b0 de/$ As sho9n in (.,/ %he #e!ree cons%ruc%ions of %he %05e att% ct% destul JdeJ mult can be 5ara5hrase# b0 att% ct% destul in %heir a#verbal an# a#nominal uses3 (ii/ a$ Va vorbi gmai/ 5rea/foar%eh gmul%/ 5uRinh 9ill$2SG %al- more %oo ver0 much li%%le >(S/he 9ill %al- more/less /%oo much/%oo li%%le /ver0 much/ver0 li%%le? b$ g:ai/Prea/Foar%e/AMah gmulRi/ 5uRinih oameni more %oo ver0 so much$:PL li%%le$:PL 5eo5le(:/ >:ore/%oo/ver0/so man0/fe9 5eo5le? a$ Au veni% a%WRia [ Au veni% a%W% #e mulRi have$2PL come so-much$:PL have$2PL come so-much de much$:PL >so man0 have come? b$ CW% a #ormi% [ CW% #e mul% a #ormi% ho9-much has sle5% ho9 de much has sle5% >ho9 much #i# he slee5? c$ #es%ule 5robleme [ #es%ul #e mul%e 5robleme enou!h$FPL 5roblems(F/ enou!h de much$FPL 5roblems(F/ >enou!h 5roblems? #$ oricW%e femei [ oricW% #e mul%e femei ho9ever-much$FPL 9omen(F/ ho9ever-much de much$FPL 9omen(F/ >no ma%%er ho9 man0 9omen?
(iii/
2.,
The A#6ec%ive
No%ice %ha% 7n!lish #oes no% use a sin!le 9or# for att an# ct bu% a #e!ree hea# H %he scalar @uan%i%a%ives muc!% many (att ^ so$t!at$as muc!$many ct ^ !o& muc!$many/$
(II/ >diomatic //s reanaly(ed as adverbs3 la fel >e@uall0? (li%$ >a% sor%?/ deopotriv >e@uall0? (ede o potriv >of one ma%ch?/ e;5ressin! %he e@ua%ive com5arison (see 4$<$+ for #e%ails/3
(12B/ la fel #e bun ca :aria a% sor% of !oo# as :aria >as !oo# as :aria?
La fel can also be use# as an a#verbial or 5re#ica%ive PP meanin! >li-e9ise ali-e?3

(12C/ a$ Se 5oar%L la fel ac%s a% sor% >(S/he ac%s in %he same 9a0/ali-e? b$ CLrRile sun%/ara%L la fel boo-s-%he are loo- a% sor% >The boo-s are/loo- ali-e?
R7FL
S0nchronicall0 la fel is le;icaliAe# as a 9or#-li-e uni% li-e deopotriv 9hose base (ol# Rom$/ potriv protiv >member of a 5air %he ma%ch of some%hin! corres5on#ence? is no lon!er use# as a noun$ Oo9ever because fel is s%ill a re!ular noun meanin! >sor% -in#? %he or%ho!ra5hic norm main%ains %he se5ara%e 9ri%in! la fel$ Probabl0 on %he mo#el of i%s s0non0m att %he a#verb aa >so?% 9hich can a55ear before %he AP/A#vP 9i%hou% de bein! %hus inclu#e# in %he ca%e!or0 of #e!ree hea#s (see 4$4$+ above/ can also be use# in %he de- cons%ruc%ion3
(14=/ case aMa (#e/ mari houses so de bi!
(III/ De ree predicates )attitude predicates*$ Uhereas all %he 9or#s lis%e# un%il no9 form close# classes elemen%s belon!in! %o an o5en class can also a55ear in %he de-cons%ruc%ion3 a#6ec%ival-a#verbial 5re#ica%es can be use# %o @ualif0 %he #e!ree of %he 5ro5er%0$ This @ualifica%ion im5lies a hi!h #e!ree an# e;5resses %he s5ea-er?s a%%i%u#e %o9ar#s %his #e!ree (hence %he %erm >a%%i%u#e 5re#ica%es?/3
(14+/ a$ ge;%rem / e;%raor#inar / incre#ibil / fan%as%ich #e frumoasL e;%reme e;%raor#inar0 incre#ible fan%as%ic de beau%iful$FSG b$ 5lLcere e;%remL / e;%raor#inarL / incre#ibilL / fan%as%icL 5leasure(F/ e;%reme$FSG e;%raor#inar0$ FSG incre#ible$FSG fan%as%ic$FSG c$ Scrie e;%raor#inar / incre#ibil / fan%as%ic 9ri%es e;%raor#inar0 incre#ible fan%as%ic >Oe 9ri%es e;%raor#inaril0/incre#ibl0 / fan%as%icall0?
Al%hou!h no% all a#6ec%ives can be use# as #e!ree 5re#ica%es %his 5ossibili%0 is no% res%ric%e# %o a close# lis%3 an0 a#6ec%ive 9hich can e;5ress %he effec% of a hi!h #e!ree (mos% of%en 5s0cholo!ical/ can be use# as a #e!ree 5re#ica%e3 e$!$ teribil >%errible? nfricotor >fri!h%enin!? nspimnttor >fri!h%enin!? nemaiau(it >unhear#-of? surprin(tor >sur5risin!? copleitor >over9helmin!? aiuritor >be9il#erin!? e%c$ Turnin! no9 %o %he s0n%ac%ic anal0sis 9e ma0 assume %ha% %he #e!ree 9or#s a55earin! in %he de cons%ruc%ion are no% func%ional hea#s bu% ra%her occu50 %he s5ecifier
2..
The A#6ec%ive
5osi%ion of a 5ro6ec%ion hea#e# b0 de$ This vie9 is su55or%e# b0 %he a#verbial s%a%us of %he i%ems a55earin! before de$ Since %he !eneral meanin! of %he cons%ruc%ion is %he s5ecifica%ion of #e!ree 9e %a-e de %o occu50 %he De!= 5osi%ion3
(141/ 3 8P #es%ul a%W% cW% (142/ De!P De!_ 2 De!= AP #e frumoasL (classes II an# III/ (class I/ >enou!h/so/ho9 de beau%iful?
De!P 3 A#vP De!_ 2 la fel De!= AP #eo5o%rivL aMa #e frumoasL e;%raor#inar
>e@uall0/so/e;%raor#inaril0 de beau%iful?
There is an obvious connec%ion be%9een %his cons%ruc%ion an# @uan%i%0 cons%ruc%ions in %he nominal #omain3 %he same elemen% de is use# af%er measure 5hrases nominal @uan%i%a%ives an# non-a!reein! car#inals (see cha5%er +2 *+ an# an# cha5%er 2 *,/3
(144/ a$ %rei -ilo!rame #e mere %hree -ilos de a55les >%hree -ilos of a55les? b$ o mulRime #e oameni a cro9# de 5eo5le >a lo% of 5eo5le? c$ #ouLAeci #e s%u#enRi %9en%0 de s%u#en%s >%9en%0 s%u#en%s?
Ue can %hus sa0 %ha% in Romanian %he #e!ree is %rea%e# %o a cer%ain e;%en% as a @uan%i%0 (a @uan%i%0 of %he 5ro5er%0/$ No%ice ho9ever %ha% in %he 5resen%-#a0 lan!ua!e %he i%ems a55earin! in %he s5ecifier of #e!ree de are no% onl0 @uan%i%a%ive 5hrases (%05e I belo9/3 classes II an# III (e@ua%ive a#verbials an# #e!ree 5re#ica%es/ #o no% have a @uan%i%a%ive use ou%si#e %he H de H AP/A#vP con%e;%$ Therefore 9e #i# no% anal0Ae %hem as 8Ps bu% ra%her as A#vPs$ Ue can sa0 %ha% %he0 ac@uire a @uan%i%a%ive meanin! (measurin! or charac%eriAin! a @uan%i%0 of %he 5ro5er%0/ onl0 b0 func%ionin! as s5ecifiers of %he De! hea# de$ No%e %ha% %he #e!ree hea#s foarte an# tare 9hich #o no% %ri!!er de inser%ion 9ere once #e!ree
5re#ica%es li-e %hose of class III (foarte comes from %he La%in a#6ec%ive fortis >s%ron!? tare is s%ill an a#6ec%ive/a#verb meanin! >har# s%ron!?/$ Oo9ever %he0 #o no% %ri!!er de inser%ion$ This sho9s %ha% in %he 5as% #e!ree 5re#ica%es e;5ressin! a hi!h #e!ree #i# no% %ri!!er de inser%ion$ Ue can %hus su55ose %ha% de inser%ion 9as ori!inall0 res%ric%e# %o i%ems of class (I/ 9hich are %rue @uan%i%a%ives$ As for class (II/ %he s0non0m0 be%9een att an# la fel% deopotriv >as? 5robabl0 le# %o %he e;%ension of %he de cons%ruc%ion %o %he la%%er elemen%s$
Fur%her evi#ence for %he 5hrasal s%a%us of %he i%ems 5rece#in! de is %ha% %he0 allo9 e;%rac%ion (see (124/ above/ 9hich is a 5ro5er%0 of 5hrasal cons%i%uen%s as o55ose# %o 2.<
The A#6ec%ive
func%ional hea#s$ I% is in%eres%in! %o no%ice %ha% %he &!- #e!ree 9or# ce anal0Ae# as a #e!ree hea# (since i% #oes no% %a-e de/ canno% be e;%rac%e# alone 9hereas %he o%her &!- #e!ree 9or# ct 9hich %a-es de can be e;%rac%e#$ This #ifference confirms %he fac% %ha% ce is a #e!ree hea# 9hereas ct occu5ies a 5hrasal 5osi%ion ra%her %han a hea# 5osi%ion3
(14,/ a$ CW% era #e frumoasLd ho9 9as$2SG de beau%iful$FSG >Oo9 beau%iful she 9asd? a_$ CW% #e frumoasL erad ho9 de beau%iful$FSG 9as$2SG b$ XCe era frumoasLd 9ha% 9as$2SG beau%iful$FSG b_$ Ce frumoasL erad 9ha% beau%iful$FSG 9as$2SG >Oo9 beau%iful she 9as?
The same con%ras% ob%ains be%9een aa 9i%hou% de an# aa 9i%h de3

(14./ a$ AMa era #e lun!d so 9as de lon! a_$ AMa #e lun! erad so de lon! 9as b$ X AMa era lun!d so 9as lon! b_$ AMa lun! erad so lon! 9as >I% 9as so lon!?
No%e finall0 %ha% de also a55ears if a com5ara%ive clause is 5re5ose#$ Com5ara%ive clauses 9hich #irec%l0 s5ecif0 %he #e!ree li-e measure 5hrases normall0 a55ear af%er %he a#6ec%ive$ Uhen %he0 are 5re5ose# %he0 are em5ha%ic3
(14</ `nal% cW% casa %all as house-%he (14B/ CW% casa #e Enal% ho9 house-%he de %all >as %all as %he house? (Neu%ral or#er/ (7m5ha%ic/
The !eneral s%ruc%ure 5ro5ose# for %he de cons%ruc%ion can cover %his case3
(14C/ De!P 3 CP#e!
cW% casa
De!_ 2 De!= AP 5 #e Enal%
The em5ha%ic fea%ure %hese fron%e# elemen%s bear ma-es %hem similar %o #e!ree 5re#ica%es (class III/$ No%ice no9 %ha% a#verbial mo#ifiers 9hich #o no% refer %o %he #e!ree can a55ear before a#6ec%ives 9i%hou% %ri!!erin! %he inser%ion of de 9hich confirms %he vie9 %ha% de si!nals a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion #e#ica%e# %o #e!rees3 2.B
The A#6ec%ive
(1,=/ Domain 5re#ica%es3 a$ si%uaRie Ylo4./ 5osibilLZ si%ua%ion lo!icall0 5ossible b$ 5ersoanL Yf.B./ sLnL%oasLZ Y5s.8./ anormalLZ 5erson 5h0sicall0 heal%h0 5s0cholo!icall0 abnormal (1,+/ :o#al 5re#ica%es3 a$ oameni Ya5a0ent bolnaviZ 5eo5le a55aren%l0 sicb$ 5ersoanL Y0eal6ente ferici%LZ 5erson reall0 ha550
In sec%ion 4$2 9e have also seen various mo#ifiers charac%eriAin! absolu%e a#6ec%ives P a55ro;ima%ion ma;imali%0 5ro5or%ional mo#ifiers$ These mo#ifiers a55ear before %he a#6ec%ive 9i%hou% %ri!!erin! de inser%ion3
(1,1/ a$ 5erfec% cura% 5erfec%l0 clean b$ a5roa5e usca% almos% #r0 c$ uMor s%rWmb sli!h%l0 %9is%e# #$ 5e 6umL%a%e / 5arRial #eschis half 5ar%iall0 o5en
Ue conclu#e %ha% %he De! 5ro6ec%ion charac%eriAes rela%ive a#6ec%ives$ The mo#ifiers of absolu%e a#6ec%ives in s5i%e of %he obli!a%or0 5re5ose# 5osi%ion are no% %o be anal0Ae# as func%ional hea#s because %he0 are i%ems belon!in! %o o5en classes (s5a%ial a#verb3 aproape a#6ec%ive-a#verbs3 perfect% complet% uor/ or %he0 are 5hrasal (see %he PP pe +umtate/$ Finall0 o%her mo#ifiers %ha% #o no% re@uire de are mo#ifiers e;5ressin! a small @uan%i%0 P uns%resse# puin >a li%%le?% un pic >a bi%? P 9hich a55l0 %o o5en scale a#6ec%ives in or#er %o sho9 5ro;imi%0 on %he scale %o %he minimum #e!ree necessar0 for %he use of %he a#6ec%ive in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree3
(1,2/ Nu mi se 5o%riveM%e bluAa as%a e g5uRin/ un 5ich mare no% me$DAT R7FL fi%s shir%-%he %his is li%%le a bi% lar!e >This shir% #oesn?% sui% me i%?a a li%%le/a bi% lar!e?
$.$.3. Const01/t.ons D.t8 puin an3 mult The @uan%i%a%ives puin >fe9 li%%le? an# mult >much? 9hich #o no% bin# %he @uan%i%0/#e!ree variable (%he0 can combine %hemselves 9i%h #e!ree 9or#s see 4$4$1 above/ have some s5ecial uses as func%ional 9or#s rela%e# %o %he e;5ression of #e!rees3 - /uin >fe9 li%%le? reverses %he scale conver%in! an a#6ec%ive in%o i%s an%on0m$ In %he 5osi%ive i% is na%ural onl0 if %he a#6ec%ive #oes no% have a le;ical an%on0m (see (1,4// o%her9ise i% is acce5%able onl0 9i%h some a#6ec%ives 9hich e;5ress 5osi%ive evalua%ion (see (1,,/-(1,.//3
(1,4/ A5a e 5uRin a#WncL 9a%er-%he is li%%le #ee5 >The 9a%er is no% so #ee5? (1,,/ X:asa e 5uRin lun!L$ %able-%he is li%%le lon!
2.C
The A#6ec%ive (1,./ a$ :aria e 5uRin in%eli!en%L / EncreAL%oare (1,</ :aria is li%%le in%elli!en% confi#en% >:aria is no% so in%elli!en%/confi#en%? b$ KK :aria e 5uRin frumoasL / bo!a%L :aria is li%%le beau%iful rich
This use of puin is #is%in!uishe# b0 s%ress from %he use as a @uan%i%a%ive s5ecif0in! %he #e!ree3 in %he scale-reversin! use puin is s%resse#$ In %he @uan%i%a%ive use 9here i% e;5resses %ha% %he #e!ree of %he a#6ec%ive is close %o %he minimum #e!ree 9hich allo9s %he use of %he 5osi%ive form puin #oes no% bear a s5ecial s%ress so %he main s%ress falls na%urall0 on %he en# of %he a#6ec%ival 5hrase3
(1,B/ a$ A5a e PDjIN a#WncL s A5a nu e a#WncL 9a%er-%he is li%%le #ee5 9a%er-%he no% is #ee5 >The 9a%er is li%%le #ee5? >The 9a%er is no% #ee5? b$ A5a e 5uRin ADkNCa s A5a e a#WncL 9a%er-%he is li%%le #ee5 9a%er-%he is #ee5 >The 9a%er is a li%%le #ee5? >The 9a%er is #ee5?
Prece#e# b0 #e!ree 9or#s scale-reversin! puin becomes more acce5%able3

(1,C/ a$ :aria e gfoar%e / 5reah 5uRin in%eli!en%L / frumoasL / EncreAL%oare $$$$$$ :aria is ver0 %oo li%%le in%elli!en% beau%iful confi#en% b$ :aria e ga%W% #e / #es%ul #e / e;%rem #eh 5uRin in%eli!en%L :aria is so de enou!h de e;%remel0 de li%%le in%elli!en%
Ui%h %he #e!ree 9or# mai %he cons%ruc%ion is no% res%ric%e# an# is use# %o e;5ress %he com5ara%ive of inferiori%0 see sec%ion 4$.$ - 5ult >much? is use# af%er %he com5ara%ive 9or# mai in a s5ecial com5ara%ive cons%ruc%ion 9hen %he a55licabili%0 of %9o #ifferen% 5ro5er%ies %o an en%i%0 is com5are# (see sec%ion 4$B/3
(1.=/ a$ :asa e mai mul% la%L #ecW% Enal%L %able-%he is more much 9i#e %han hi!h >The %able?s 9i#%h e;cee#s i%s hei!h%? b$ :aria e mai mul% naivL #ecW% 5roas%L :aria is more much nave %han s%u5i# >:aria?s naiveness e;cee#s her s%u5i#i%0?
Le% us no9 #iscuss %he s0n%ac%ic anal0sis of %hese cons%ruc%ions$ The s5ecial meanin! (scale reversal/ an# %he obli!a%or0 5osi%ion before %he a#6ec%ive/a#verb su!!es% a func%ional hea# s%a%us of puin$ Oo9ever puin is no% res%ric%e# %o #e!ree environmen%s bu% has %he 9i#er #is%ribu%ion of @uan%i%a%ives (a#-nominal a#-verbal measure 5hrases see 4$4$+ above/$ Since #e!ree hea#s (inclu#in! de/ also combine 9i%h @uan%i%a%ives 9e can anal0Ae puin as a 5hrase occu50in! a s5ecifier or a#6unc% 5osi%ion 9i%h %he #e!ree 9or#s 5rece#in! puin belon!in! %o %he De!ree 5ro6ec%ion of puin$ Oere are some e;am5les in 9hich %he puin- 5hrase occu5ies %he s5ecifier of an em5%0 func%ional hea# F3
(1.+/ a$ YFP Y 8P 5uRinZ Y YFQZYAP amabilLZZ b$ YFP YDe!P foar%e 5uRinZ Y YFQZYAP amabilLZZ c$ YFP YDe!P e;%rem #e 5uRinZ Y YFQZYAP amabilLZZ
Ano%her 5ossibili%0 is %ha% puin re5resen%s here a func%ional hea# %ha% %a-es an AP
2<=
The A#6ec%ive
com5lemen% as re5resen%e# belo93

(1.1/ De!P 3 De!= FP 3 foar%e F= AP mai 5rea 5uRin amabilL De!P 3 8P/A#vP De!_ 3 a%W% De!= FP #es%ul 3 e;%rem #e F= 5uRin
>ver0 li%%le/less/%oo li%%le -in#?
(1.2/
AP amabilL
>so li%%le/ra%her li%%le/e;%remel0 li%%le -in#?
Given %he an%on0mic 5air puin$mult one can assume %ha% all De! hea#s %a-e in fac% an FP com5lemen% an# mult occurrin! in F or S5ecF is silen% (has a null realiAa%ion/ before a#6ec%ives an# a#verbs$ Thus bo%h #e!ree hea#s (class I/ an# 5hrases %a-in! %he De! hea# de (classes II III an# V/ 9oul# a55ear in %he follo9in! confi!ura%ions3 (i/ Dn#er anal0sis (1.+/3 a$ YFP YDe!P mai/foar%e/5rea/aMa/ce Y8P QZZ Y YFQZ APZZ b$ YFP YDe!P Y(8HDe!/P/A#vP a%W%/aMa/cW%/#es%ul/la fel /e;%remZ YYDe! #eZ Y8 QZZZ Y YFQZ APZZ (ii/ Dn#er anal0sis (1.1/-(1.2/3 a$ YDe!P mai/foar%e/5rea/aMa/ce YFP YF QZ APZZ b$ YDe!P Y(8HDe!/P/A#vP a%W%/aMa/cW%/#es%ul/la fel /e;%remZ YYDe! #eZ YFPYF QZ APZZZ
$.$.$. Ot8e0 /onst.t1ents l./ense3 b9 3e40ee Do03s Some #e!ree 9or#s in%ro#uce a##i%ional ar!umen%s 9hich are normall0 5lace# af%er %he a#6ec%ive3 - The com5ara%ive mai an# %he e@ua%ives )tot* aa$att% la fel% deopotriv license a PP or CP e;5ressin! %he s%an#ar# of com5arison P %he so-calle# >com5ara%ive com5lemen%? (see 4$,$+ for #e%ails/3
(1.4/ a$ mai Enal% Y#e #oi me%riZ / Y#ecW% Ro#icaZ / Y#ecW% mi-ai s5usZZ more %all of %9o me%ers %han Ro#ica %han me$ DAT-has sai# >%9o me%ers %aller %han Ro#ica/%han 0ou %ol# me? b$ la fel #e frumoasL Yca FlaviaZ / Ycum a fos% En%o%#eaunaZ e@uall0 of beau%iful as Flavia ho9 has been al9a0s >as beau%iful as Flavia/as ever?
- The sufficienc0 #e!ree 9or#s destul% suficient% ndea+uns >enou!h? 9hich in#ica%e %ha% %he #e!ree is a% leas% as !rea% as %he minimum #e!ree necessar0 %o ob%ain some resul% or %o obe0 some norm in%ro#ucin! an ar!umen% referrin! %o %he resul% or norm e;5resse# b0 a 5ur5ose or resul% clause$ This cons%i%uen% obli!a%oril0 follo9s %he AP3
(1.,/ a$ Ion e #es%ul #e mare 5en%ru a mer!e sin!ur Ion is enou!h de ol# for %o 9al- alone
2<+
The A#6ec%ive >Ion is ol# enou!h %o 9al- on his o9n? b$ A5a e suficien% #e cal#L ca sL 5u%em in%ra 9a%er-%he is sufficien%l0 de 9arm %ha% SD'N can$+PL en%er >The 9a%er is sufficien%l0 9arm for us %o !e% in? c$ :ihai a fos% #es%ul #e 5ros% EncW% sL-l crea#L :ihai has been enou!h de s%u5i# so SD'N-him believe >:ihai 9as s%u5i# enou!h %o believe him?
- The #e!ree hea# prea >%oo? 9hich in#ica%es %ha% %he #e!ree e;cee#s %he ma;imum #e!ree nee#e# %o ob%ain some resul% %o fulfill some !oal or %o obe0 %o some norm in%ro#uces an ar!umen% referrin! %o %his resul% !oal or norm e;5resse# b0 a 5ur5ose or resul% clause3
(1../ a$ 7 5rea bL%rWn ca sL mai cLlL%oreascL aMa #e5ar%e is %oo ol# %ha% SD'N more %ravel so far >Oe is %oo ol# %o %ravel so far? b$ Ches%iunea e 5rea am5lL 5en%ru a 5u%ea fi #iscu%a%L aici issue-%he is %oo 9i#e for %o can be #iscusse# here >The issue is %oo 9i#e %o be #iscusse# here?
If %he #e!ree onl0 sli!h%l0 e;cee#s %he ma;imum #e!ree nee#e# %o ob%ain some resul% or %o obe0 %o some norm %he 9or# cam >@ui%e? %rea%e# above as an a55ro;ima%ion mo#ifier can license an ar!umen% referrin! %o %his resul% or norm behavin! similarl0 %o prea3
(1.</ a$ 7 cam frumoasL 5en%ru a 6uca aces% rol is %oo beau%iful for %o 5la0 %his role >She is %oo 5re%%0 %o 5la0 %his 5ar%? b$ 7 cam mare 5en%ru a EncL5ea En ba!a6 is %oo bi! for %o fi% in lu!!a!e >I% is %oo bi! %o fi% in %he lu!!a!e?
Uhen license# b0 #e!ree hea#s %hese ar!umen%s can be anal0Ae# as com5lemen%s of De! a%%ache# above %he AP %o %he ri!h%3
(1.B/ a$ YDe!P YDe!_ mai YAP frumoasLZZ Y#ecW% Ro#icaZZ >more 5re%%0 %han Ro#ica? b$ YDe!P YDe!P_ 5rea YAP mareZZ Yca s-o 5o% cu5rin#eZZ >%oo bi! for me %o hol# i%? (1.C/ De!P 3 De!_ PP / CP 2 6 De!= AP #ecW% Ro#ica ca s-o 5o% cu5rin#e mai frumoasL 5rea mare
No%e ho9ever %ha% %hese cons%i%uen%s can also a55ear 9i%h #e!ree 9or#s %ri!!erin! deinser%ion (see e@ua%ives P (1.4/b P an# sufficienc0 #e!ree 9or#s P (1.,// 9hich have been anal0Ae# as s5ecifiers of De!P$ In %his case an anal0sis as in (1.C/ is no lon!er available because i% is no% %he #umm0 de bu% ra%her %he elemen% in i%s s5ecifier 9hich seman%icall0 selec%s %he cons%i%uen%$ A 5ossible 9a0 %o #erive 9or# or#er is %o assume e;%ra5osi%ion 9hich 9oul# be ma#e obli!a%or0 in %his case b0 consi#era%ions belon!in! %o Uei!h% Theor0 (9hich re@uires in hea#-ini%ial cons%ruc%ions heavier cons%i%uen%s %o follo9 li!h%er ones/$ The base 5osi%ion of %he com5lemen% 9oul# onl0 be illus%ra%e# b0 cons%ruc%ions such as (1<1/ 2<1
The A#6ec%ive
mar!inall0 5ossible 9i%h e@ua%ives3

(1<=/ 3 8P De!P 3 De!P
PP([PHCP/
De!_ 2 2 8= %PP De!= AP #es%ul #e mare Y5en%ru a mer!e sin!urZ >ol# enou!h %o 9al- on his o9n?
(1<+/
PP 3 A#vP De!_ 2 2 A#v %PP De!= AP la fel #e #eM%e5% Yca :ariaZ
De!P 3 De!P
>as smar% as :aria?
(1<1/ la fel ca %ine #e #eM%e5% e@uall0 as 0ou de smar% >as smar% as 0ou?
Ano%her 5ossibili%0 is %ha% com5ara%ive com5lemen%s an# 5ur5ose PP/CPs license# b0 #e!ree 9or#s are no% s0n%ac%icall0 selec%e# as com5lemen%s bu% mer!e in %heir surface 5osi%ion an# are onl0 seman%icall0 license# b0 %he #e!ree 9or#$ This %05e of anal0sis has been 5ro5ose# for e;am5les such as > !ave a _better` opinion about ?oan _t!an you seem to !ave` 9here %he #e!ree com5lemen%s a55ear ou%si#e %he a#6ec%ival 5ro6ec%ion$ - The com5ara%ive of ine@uali%0 can also license an ar!umen% e;5ressin! %he #ifference be%9een %he %9o com5are# #e!rees P %he so-calle# >#ifferen%ial?$ This ar!umen% a55ears before %he #e!ree hea# mai so 9e ma0 %a-e i% %o occu50 S5ecDe!P$ This cons%ruc%ion 9ill be anal0Ae# in #e%ail in 4$,$1 belo9$
(1<2/ g(cu/ mul% / cu %rei me%rih mai mare 9i%h much 9i%h %hree me%ers more bi! >a lo%/%hree me%eres bi!!er?
$.$.%. De40ee 8ea3s .n non+a37e/t.2al en2.0on6ents. Researchers 9or-in! on o%her lan!ua!es (7n!lish French Du%ch/ have no%ice# %ha% some #e!ree 9or#s are res%ric%e# %o APs an# A#vPs 9hile o%hers can also combine 9i%h o%her scalar 5re#ica%es such as verbs$ The0 5ro5ose# %ha% onl0 %hose #e!ree 9or#s res%ric%e# %o APs an# A#vPs are func%ional hea#s base# on %he i#ea %ha% func%ional hea#s selec% for s5ecific le;ical ca%e!ories$ Those #e!ree 9or#s %ha% can also combine 9i%h verbs 9oul# be a#6unc%s$ In Romanian %he forms func%ionin! as #e!ree 9or#s 9i%hou% de can a55ear in o%her environmen%s bu% of%en 9i%h s5ecial meanin!s or im5osin! s5ecial cons%rain%s$ :oreover %he0 #o no% have %he same #is%ribu%ion as mo#ifiers bu% sho9 s5ecial res%ric%ions in 5lacemen% in#ica%in! %ha% %he0 are func%ional i%ems (formin! a close# class/$ 2<2
The A#6ec%ive
(I/ In a#nominal use #e!ree 9or#s can e;ce5%ionall0 be foun# if %he nominal 5ro5er%0 is in%er5re%e# as a !ra#able 5ro5er%0 (a @uali%0/$ If %he noun receives such #e!ree 9or#s i% canno% occur in an ar!umen% 5osi%ion bu% onl0 in 5re#ica%ive an# a#nominal con%e;%s i$e$ i% !e%s an a#6ec%ival #is%ribu%ion3
(1<4/ a$ 7 foar%e cucoanL is ver0 la#0 b$ 7 5rea co5il is %oo chil# (1<,/ a$ XAm vorbi% cu o foar%e cucoanL have$I %al-e# 9i%h a ver0 la#0 b$ XA invi%a% 5rea co5ii has invi%e# %oo chil#ren
This behavior can be e;5laine# if #e!ree 9or#s are no% merel0 mo#ifiers bu% func%ional hea#s realiAin! a sor% of conversion of %he ca%e!orial na%ure of %he 5hrase from nominal %o a#6ec%ival3
(1<./ YDe!P foar%e YNP cucoanLZZ
(II/ In a#-verbal use mos% of %hese i%ems can a55ear bu% some%imes 9i%h a %o%all0 #ifferen% meanin! 9hich su!!es%s %he e;is%ence of a homon0mical 5air$ - prea >%oo? can a55ear before %he verb 9i%h rou!hl0 %he same meanin! in a fi;e# 5osi%ion imme#ia%el0 5rece#in! %he >verbal com5le;? (con%ainin! %he verb an# %he elemen%s cli%iciAe# on%o i%/I in ne!a%ive clauses i% can also occur insi#e %his com5le; in %he 5osi%ion of cli%ic a#verbs i$e$ before le;ical verbs (inclu#in! fini%e ones/ bu% af%er au;iliaries an# has %he s5ecial meanin! >(no%/ @ui%e reall0?3
(1<</ a$ :aria 5rea se a#mirL :aria %oo R7FL a#mires >:aria a#mires herself %oo much? b$ Nu 5rea M%ie no% %oo -no9s >Oe #oesn?% reall0 -no9? c$ N-am 5rea auAi% #e as%a no%-have$I %oo hear# of %his >I haven?% reall0 hear# abou% %his?
'ecause i% can co-occur 9i%h o%her #e!ree 9or#s %he a55ro;ima%ion mo#ifier cam >ra%her? 9as no% anal0Ae# as a De! hea#$ No%e ho9ever %ha% i% resembles func%ional elemen%s b0 %he fac% %ha% 9hen i% mo#ifies verbs i% occurs insi#e %he verbal com5le; in %he 5osi%ion of cli%ic a#verbs 9i%h a mo#aliAin! meanin! (>one can almos% sa0 %ha% 5?/3
(1<B/ a$ :aria se cam a#mirL :aria R7FL ra%her a#mires >Gne can almos% sa0 :aria a#mires herself/:aria -in# of a#mires herself$? b$ Am cam !reMi% have$+ ra%her mis%a-en >I 9as ra%her 9ron!/Gne can almos% sa0 I 9as 9ron!?
- mai >more? can be a cli%ic a#verb bu% 9i%h a @ui%e #ifferen% meanin!3 i% is ver0 of%en use# an# can be charac%eriAe# as a %em5oral a##i%ive in%ro#ucin! %he 5resu55osi%ion %ha% %here is
2<4
The A#6ec%ive
some o%her %em5oral in%erval a% 9hich %he even% hol#sI i% can be %ransla%e# as >a!ain? >s%ill? (9i%h ne!a%ion/ >an0 lon!er? (9i%h %he 5erfec%/ >alrea#0 (on some o%her occasion/?$ In %his case %he meanin! is sufficien%l0 #ifferen% %o consi#er %ha% %his is an ins%ance of homon0m0 (9hich #oes no% mean %ha% %he0 #on?% have %he same his%orical source 9hich in fac% %he0 #o P la%$ ma is/$ Ue can %hus conclu#e %ha% %he #e!ree 9or# mai is res%ric%e# %o a#6ec%ival an# a#verbial con%e;%sI - foarte >ver0? is %o%all0 e;clu#e# in %he a#-verbal environmen% in 5resen%-#a0 RomanianI i% 9as able %o mo#if0 %he verb in %he ol# lan!ua!eI - ce >ho9/9ha%? can a55ear 9i%h verbs an# nouns 9i%h an e;clama%ive value occu50in! %he sen%ence-ini%ial 5osi%ion charac%eris%ic of &!-i%emsI %he verbal com5le; usuall0 con%ains %he i%em mai in %his case (9hich in %his con%e;% loses i%s 5resu55osi%ional meanin!/3
(1<C/ a$ Ce mai scried ho9 more 9ri%es >Oo9 much (s/he?s 9ri%in!d? b$ Vai ce nin!ed 9o9 ho9 sno9s >Gh ho9 i% sno9sd?
Ui%h nouns i% a55ears as %he s5ecifier of %he 8uan%P (%he func%ional 5ro6ec%ion #e#ica%e# %o @uan%i%0/ 9hose hea# is occu5ie# b0 de3
(1B=/ Ce #e oameni au veni%d Oo9 de 5eo5le have come >Oo9 man0 5eo5le camed?
In %hese environmen%s i% can be anal0Ae# as a @uan%i%a%ive (8P/$ No%ice ho9ever %ha% 9hen use# 9i%h a#6ec%ives ce is %he onl0 @uan%i%a%ive %ha% #oes no% %ri!!er deinser%ion (e$!$ ce frumoas >ho9 beau%iful? see (11B/b/ a fac% %ha% su!!es%s %ha% i% occu5ies %he De!= 5osi%ion$ Possibl0 because i% lac-s -fea%ures %he over% 8uan% hea# de mus% be use# in a#-nominal 5osi%ions (see cha5%er 2 *,$1/$ ,e is also %he form of %he &!- neu%er 5ronoun >9ha%? 9hich 9e %rea% as an ins%ance of homon0m0$ - aa >so? has a much lar!er use %han %he #e!ree one3 i% is a !eneral 5ro-5re#ica%e e;5ression ana5horiAin! a#6ec%ives an# manner/5re#ica%ive a#verbs li-e 7n!lish so$ Summin! u5 #e!ree 9or#s 9i%hou% de have a res%ric%e# #is%ribu%ion ou%si#e a#6ec%ival an# a#verbial con%e;%s e;ce5% for aa an# ce3 %he0 ei%her a55ear in a fi;e# 5osi%ion close %o %he verb a behavior %ha% charac%eriAes a close# class an# %en# %o ac@uire a mo#aliAin! meanin! (cam% prea/ or are %o%all0 e;clu#e# in a#-verbal con%e;%s (mai% foarte/$ In %he a#nominal con%e;% %he0 can e;ce5%ionall0 be foun# bu% in such cases %he0 reca%e!oriAe %he 5ro6ec%ion in%o an a#6ec%ival one$ All %hese 5ro5er%ies are com5a%ible 9i%h an anal0sis of #e!ree 9or#s 9i%h APs an# A#vPs as func%ional hea#s De! formin! an e;%en#e# a#6ec%ival/a#verbial 5ro6ec%ion on a 5ar 9i%h #e%erminers for nouns an# au;iliaries an# %ense inflec%ions for verbs$ No%e no9 %ha% verbal 5re#ica%es can have a scalar com5onen% ei%her in%rinsic referrin! %o %he in%ensi%0 of a s%a%e or 5rocess (e$!$ love li !ten/ or s%emmin! from %he #e!ree or e;%ension of %he mo#ifica%ion of %he %heme or from %em5oral e;%ension$ The normal 9a0 %o e;5ress %his scalar com5onen% is b0 usin! @uan%i%0 5hrases 9hich allo9 #e!ree 9or#s (@uan%i%0 9or#s have an A/A#v-fea%ure 9hich allo9s %he 5ro6ec%ion of De!P/3
(1B+/ a$ G iubesc foar%e mul% / mai mul% #ecW% 5e al%ele
2<,
The A#6ec%ive her love$+SG ver0 much more much %han DG: o%hers-%he >I love her ver0 much/more %han I love %he o%hers$? b$ Doarme 5rea 5uRin slee5s %oo li%%le >(S/he slee5s %oo li%%le? c$ L-a curLRa% mai mul% #ecW% %rebuie CL$2SG-has cleane# more much %han mus% >(S/he cleane# i% more %han necessar0?
$.% T8e /o65a0at.2e of s15e0.o0.t9 The com5ara%ive hea# mai (>more? >-er?/ charac%eriAes %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 A hol#s as !rea%er %han ano%her #e!ree #_ (%he s%an#ar# of com5arison/ 9hich is an obli!a%or0 ar!umen% of %he com5ara%ive$ This ar!umen% ma0 remain im5lici% or ma0 be over%l0 e;5resse# b0 a com5lemen% 9hich 9ill be referre# %o as comparative complement3
(1B1/ ; is mai A %han #_ [ (#$A(#/(;// f #_ YYmaiZZ [ PDe#ee %ff$ #_D#$ ;De$ (#$A(#/(;// f #_ >%he #e!ree %o 9hich ; has %he 5ro5er%0 A is !rea%er %han #_? (9here ; is an en%i%0 an# #_ is a #e!reeI or#er of combina%ion3 As#_s;/
The seman%ic le;ical en%r0 of mai 9ill be mo#ifie# la%er 9hen 9e 9ill %a-e in%o accoun% %he sco5al 5ro5er%ies of #e!ree o5era%ors (see 4$4$4$, belo9/$
A common vie9 in formal seman%ics is %ha% if an en%i%0 has %he 5ro5er%0 P a% a #e!ree # i% also has %his 5ro5er%0 a% all #e!rees smaller %han # (e$! if ; is 1 me%er %all i% is also +$C= me%er %all +$B, me%er %all +$B= me%er %all an# so on/$ Dn#er %his anal0sis in %he formula (1B1/ mus% be un#ers%oo# as a ma;imali%0 o5era%or3 ma;g#3A(#/(;/h f #_$ Oo9ever %he em5irical evi#ence for %his anal0sis of #e!rees is no% conclusive$ Thus %his anal0sis claims %ha% measure mo#ifiers ac@uire an e;ac%l0in%er5re%a%ion via a scalar im5lica%ure$ 'u% %here are con%e;%s in 9hich im5lica%ures 5resumabl0 #o no% a55l0 an# 9hich never%heless #isallo9 an inference from # %o some #_ e #3 (i/ a$ Grice 5ersoanL Enal%L #e un me%ru Mi 6umL%a%e 5oa%e in%ra 5e uML >An0one 9ho is a me%er an# a half %all can en%er %he #oor? b$ Ion e Enal% #e #oi me%ri >Ion is %9o me%ers %all? wf Ion 5oa%e in%ra 5e uML >Ion can en%er %he #oor? Conclusion3 ' is n meter tall #oes no% im5l0 ' is i meter tall% &it! i1n a$ Nu am niciun s%u#en% Enal% #e un me%ru Mi 6umL%a%e >I have no s%u#en% 9ho is a me%er an# a half %all? b$ Ion e Enal% #e #oi me%ri >Ion is %9o me%ers %all? wf Ion nu Emi es%e s%u#en% >Ion is no% m0 s%u#en%?
(ii/
'ecause of %hese 5roblems 9e follo9 here %he sim5ler vie9 accor#in! %o 9hich %here is a sin!le #e!ree %o 9hich a 5ro5er%0 can hol# for an ob6ec% a% a !iven %ime$
The com5ara%ive ma0 also %a-e an ar!umen% charac%eriAin! %he #ifference be%9een %he #e!ree # of %he 5ro5er%0 A an# %he s%an#ar# of com5arison3 %his ar!umen% can be a differential P measurin! %he #ifference be%9een %he %9o #e!rees P or a factor P charac%eriAin! %he #e!ree # as a mul%i5le of %he s%an#ar# of com5arison #_$
(1B2/ a$ Ion e Y/1 1n /ent.6et01Z mai Enal% #ecW% sun% eu
2<.
The A#6ec%ive Ion is 9i%h one cen%ime%er more %all %han am I >Ion is one cen%ime%er %aller %han I am? b$ Casa e Y3e 3o1: o0.Z mai Enal%L #ecW% !ar#ul house-%he is of %9o %imes more %all %han fence-%he >The house is %9ice as hi!h as %he fence?
In 4$1 above 9e have sho9n %ha% %here are ar!umen%s for %rea%in! #e!rees as intervals on t!e scale ra%her %han as 5oin%s on %he scale (see %he #iscussion aroun# -/$ This anal0sis allo9s us %o re5resen% %he #ifferen%ial ar!umen% as an in%erval ob%aine# b0 subs%rac%in! %he com5arison #e!ree #_ (%he #e!ree re5resen%in! %he s%an#ar# of com5arison/ from %he #e!ree # of %he 5ro5er%0 A 9here for an0 %9o #e!rees i% is 5ossible %o i#en%if0 %heir #ifference se%%heore%icall0 as %he in%erval %ha% is con%aine# in one bu% no% %he o%her3 for an0 # + #1 in%ervals on a scale S #+ P #1 [ g5 S5 #+ 5 #1h$ Oere is %he #eno%a%ion of mai %a-in! a #ifferen%ial (9e bol#face# 9ha% 9e a##e# %o %he en%r0 in (1B1// 9here %he #ifferen%ial is charac%eriAe# as a 5ro5er%0 of #e!rees 9hich can be realiAe# as a measure 5hrase or a @uan%i%a%ive (see 4$,$1 belo9/3
(1B4/ YYmaiZZ [ PDe#ee %ff$ #_D#$ R DW3=tX$ ;De$ (#$A(#/(;// f #_ l REE 3.AE3FE<FF R 3YF. YYcu un cen%ime%ruZZ [ #$#[+ cm$ YYcu un cen%ime%ruZZ YYmai Enal% #ecW% sun% euZZ [ ;$ (#$%all(#/(;// f (#$%all(#/(S5ea-er// l (#$%all(#/(;// P (#$%all(#/(S5ea-er// [ +cm$
No%e %ha% b0 a#o5%in! %he re5resen%a%ion of #e!rees as in%ervals %he rela%ion >e? can be formaliAe# as inclusion3 ins%ea# of #f#_ 9e can 9ri%e #_ #$
$.%.1. T8e /o65a0at.2e /o65le6ent. The com5ara%ive com5lemen% can be of several %05es3 (i/ :easure Phrases in%ro#uce# b0 deI (ii/ free #e!ree rela%ives in%ro#uce# b0 de H ct >ho9?I (iii/ free #e!ree rela%ives 9i%h eli#e# verbs in%ro#uce# b0 de J ct or b0 caI (iv/ DPs in%ro#uce# b0 de J ct or b0 ca$ The s%rin! deJct is 9ri%%en in a sin!le 9or# accor#in! %o %he or%ho!ra5hic norm of Romanian bu% i% can be seman%icall0 an# s0n%ac%icall0 #ecom5ose# in%o deHct$ Ue 9ill some%imes use %he no%a%ion >#eYcW%$$Z?$ The #e!ree ac%in! as a s%an#ar# of com5arison P 9hich 9e call comparison de ree P is %he measure 5hrase or %he #e!ree #eno%e# b0 %he free #e!ree rela%ive P free rela%ives have sin!le%on/ma;imali%0 #eno%a%ions (see cha5%er C sec%ion 1$+$1/3
(1B,/ a$ Drumul e mai lun! #e += -ilome%ri (:easure Phrase/ roa#-%he is more lon! de += -ilome%ers >The roa# is lon!er %han += -ilome%ers? 3 Com5arison #e!ree [ += -ilome%ers b$ :aria e mai Enal%L #eYcW% sun% euZ (Free Rela%ive/ :aria is more %all de-ho9-much am I >:aria is %aller %han I am? 3 Com5arison #e!ree [ YcW% sun% eu #e Enal%Z [ #$%all(#/(S5ea-er/ c$ :i-a #a% un ca#ou mai frumos #ecW%/ca Rie [ (Free Rela%ive 9i%h eli#e# verb/ me$DAT-has !iven a 5resen% more 5re%%0 %han as 0ou$ DAT :i-a #a% un ca#ou mai frumos #ecW% YRi-a #a% RieZ me$DAT-has !iven a 5resen% more 5re%%0 %han 0ou$ DAT-has !iven 0ou$DAT >(S/he !ave me a 5re%%ier 5resen% %han %he (s/he !ave 0ou? 3 Com5arison #e!ree [ #$(he !ave 0ou a #-beau%iful 5resen%/
2<<
The A#6ec%ive
In some of %hose e;am5les in 9hich %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% con%ains a sin!le DP i% is no% necessar0 %o assume elli5sis3 %he com5arison #e!ree can be in%er5re%e# as %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he DP has %he 5ro5er%0 un#er #iscussion3
(1B./ A veni% o fa%L mai Enal%L #ecW% :onica has come a !irl more %all %han :onica >A !irl %aller %han :onica arrive#? 3 Com5arison #e!ree [ #$%all(#/(:onica/
A 5ara5hrase of %his e;am5le usin! a fini%e verbal form 9oul# involve %he co5ula3
(1B</ A veni% o fa%L mai Enal%L #ecW% es%e :onica has come a !irl more %all %han is :onica >A !irl 9ho is %aller %han :onica (is/ arrive#?
Since %he co5ula is no% 5resen% in %he ma%ri; clause in (1B./ i% a55ears %ha% (1B./ is no% #erive# from (1B</ b0 com5ara%ive #ele%ion (see belo9/$ Ue 5ro5ose %herefore %ha% )deJ*ct an# ca can also selec% DPs$ The free rela%ive ac%in! as a com5ara%ive com5lemen% usuall0 has ma%erial i#en%ical 9i%h ma%erial in %he main clause 9hich un#er!oes #ele%ion P %he so-calle# comparative deletion$ This #ele%ion is obli!a%or0 for a 5ar% of %he free rela%ive$ Thus %he a#6ec%ive %o 9hich %he #e!ree is a55lie# in %he com5ara%ive clause 9hich mus% be %he same as %he a#6ec%ive %a-en as a com5lemen% b0 %he com5ara%ive De! is obli!a%oril0 #ele%e#3
(1BB/ a$ :aria e mai Enal%L #ecW% sun% eu :aria is more %all %han am I >:aria is %aller %han I am? b$ X :aria e mai Enal%L #ecW% sun% eu #e Enal% :aria is more %all %han am I de %all
No%e %ha% (1BB/a mus% be in%er5re%e# as (1BB/b so 9e mus% assume %ha% elli5sis is involve# in com5ara%ive cons%ruc%ions$ The #e!ree o5era%or ct moves from %he De!P of %he erase# a#6ec%ive %o %he s5ecifier 5osi%ion of %he clause (S5ecCP/ b0 &!- movemen%3
(1BC/ Ymai YEnal%LZZ Y#e YcW%- Ysun% eu Y%- Y#e Enal%ZZZZZ
Fur%her i#en%ical ma%erial is o5%ionall0 #ele%e#$ The resul% of #ele%ion can be %ha% onl0 a nonverbal cons%i%uen% is lef% (as sho9n in (1C=/ i% can be an a#verb a PP or a 5re5osi%ional #irec% ob6ec%/$ In %his case %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% can also be in%ro#uce# b0 ca (see also (1B,/c/3
(1C=/ a$ Am cum5Lra% 5rL6i%uri mai bune #ecW%/ca ieri have$+ bou!h% coo-ies(F/ more !oo#$FPL %han as 0es%er#a0 [ Am cum5Lra% 5rL6i%uri mai bune #ecW% am cum5Lra% ieri have$+ bou!h% coo-ies(F/ more !oo#$FPL %han have$+ bou!h% 0es%er#a0 >I/Ue bou!h% be%%er coo-ies %han (I/9e bou!h%/ 0es%er#a0? b$ La facul%a%e am lua% no%e mai bune #ecW%/ca la liceu a% colle!e have$+ !o% !ra#es(F/ more !oo#$FPL %han as a% hi!hschool [ La facul%a%e am lua% no%e mai bune #ecW% am lua% la liceu a% colle!e have$+ !o% !ra#es(F/ more !oo#$FPL %han have$I !o% a% hi!hschool >In colle!e I/9e !o% hi!her !ra#es %han (I/9e !o%/ in hi!hschool? c$ :-a cer%a% mai rLu 5e mine #ecW%/ca 5e %ine
2(S/he scol#e me 9orse %han ((s/he scol#e#/ 0ou?
If %he sin!le cons%i%uen% lef% over% is a nominal 9hich 9oul# have nomina%ive case in %he com5ara%ive clause (%he sub6ec%/ i% 9ill a55ear in %he accusa%ive 9hich in#ica%es %ha% %he elemen%s )de*ct an# ca have ac@uire# a 5re5osi%ion-li-e behavior bein! able %o assi!n accusa%ive case3
(1C+/ a$ :aria a 5rimi% mai mul%e ca#ouri #ecW%/ ca mine :aria has receive# more man0 5resen%s %han as me$ ACC [ A 5rimi% mai mul%e ca#ouri #ecW% am 5rimi% eu has receive# more man0 5resen%s %han have receive# I >:aria receive# more 5resen%s %han me/%han I #i#? 3 Com5arison #e!ree [ #$(I receive# #-man0 5resen%s/ b$ X :aria a 5rimi% mai mul%e ca#ouri #ecW%/ca eu :aria has receive# more man0 5resen%s %han as I
I% is in%eres%in! %o no%e %ha% even in %hese e;am5les dect can be anal0Ae# as #ecom5osable in%o de J ct because ct i%self can in%ro#uce an accusa%ive DP even in %he absence of de P ctHDP can ac% as a measure mo#ifier or a com5lemen% of %he e@ua%ive3
(1C1/ a$ :aria e Enal%L cW% mine :aria is %all ct me$ACC >:aria is as %all as I am? b$ :aria e %o% a%W% #e Enal%L cW% mine :aria is 6us% so de %all ct me$ACC >:aria is 6us% as %all as I am?
Therefore 9e 5refer %o #ecom5ose dect in%o deJct 9hich allo9s %he !eneraliAa%ion %ha% %he com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 al9a0s has a com5lemen% hea#e# b0 de (deJ:easP deJctHFree Rela%ive deHctHDP/$
The i%ems ct an# ca behave li-e 5re5osi%ions in %ha% accusa%ive assi!nmen% is no% accom5anie# b0 %he use of %he ob6ec% mar-er pe 9hich is o%her9ise obli!a%or0 9i%h s%ron! 5ersonal 5ronouns3 (i/ a$ :aria m-a vLAu% X(5e/ mine :aria me-has seen DG: me$ACC >:aria sa9 me? b$ :aria e mai bo!a%L ca/#ecW% (X5e/ mine :aria is more rich as %han DG: me$ACC >:aria is richer %han me?
If %he sub6ec% of %he eli#e# com5ara%ive clause is no% %he sin!le cons%i%uen% lef% over% %hen i% a55ears in %he nomina%ive even if %here is no over% fini%e verbal form3
(1C2/ a$ :i-ai a#us lucruri mai frumoase #ecW% eu Rie / X#ecW% mine Rie me$DAT-have$1SG brou!h% %hin!s more 5re%%0 %han I 0ou$ DAT %han me$ACC 0ou$DAT >qou brou!h% me 5re%%ier %hin!s %han I brou!h% 0ou? b$ A avu% o cear%L mai mare cu 5rie%enul ei #ecW% eu cu An#reea / X#ecW% mine has ha# a fi!h% more bi! 9i%h frien#-%he her %han I 9i%h An#reea %han me$ ACC cu An#reea
2<C
The A#6ec%ive 9i%h An#reea c$ :ircea e mai En#rL!os%i% #e :aria #ecW% :aria #e :ircea :ircea is more in-love of :aria %han :aria of :ircea >:ircea is more in love 9i%h :aria %han :aria (is/ 9i%h :ircea?
The com5ara%ive clause can be e;%ra5ose# bein! se5ara%e# from De! an# %he a#6ec%ive b0 cons%i%uen%s 9hich are ou%si#e %he a#6ec%ival 5hrase3
(1C4/ I-am #a% ca#ouri Ymai frumoaseZ :onicLi Y#ecW% i-ai #a% %uZ CL$DAT-have$+ !iven 5resen%s more 5re%%0 :onica$ DAT %han her$DAT-have !iven 0ou >I/Ue !ave :onica 5re%%ier 5resen%s %han 0ou !ave her?
'esi#es deHct %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% can also be in%ro#uce# b0 %he com5ara%ive com5lemen%iAer ca 9hich as 9e have seen has %he 5eculiari%0 %ha% i% re@uires %ha% %he verb in %he com5ara%ive clause be eli#e#3
(1C,/ a$ A cum5Lra% lucruri mai scum5e ca mine$ has bou!h% %hin!s more e;5ensive ca me >(S/he bou!h% more e;5ensive %hin!s %han me? a_$ XA cum5Lra% lucruri mai scum5e ca am cum5Lra% eu has bou!h% %hin!s more e;5ensive ca have$+SG bou!h% I b$ Am cum5Lra% 5rL6i%uri mai bune ca ieri have$+ bou!h% coo-ies more !oo# ca 0es%er#a0 >I/Ue bou!h% be%%er coo-ies %han 0es%er#a0? b_$ X Am cum5Lra% 5rL6i%uri mai bune ca am cum5Lra% ieri have$+ bou!h% coo-ies more !oo# ca have$+ bou!h% 0es%er#a0
7;ce5%ionall0 %9o non-verbal cons%i%uen%s can be lef% over%I no%e %ha% if %he firs% one is %he sub6ec% i% can be mar-e# accusa%ive (see (i/a/ bu% can also a55ear in %he nomina%ive (see (i/b/3
(i/ a$ ARi
scos un %im5 mai bun ca mine ieri have$1PL !o% a %ime more !oo# ca me$ACC 0es%er#a0 >qou !o% a %ime be%%ern %han mine 0es%er#a0? b$ :-a con%raAis mai #es 5e mine ca eu 5e el me-has con%ra#ic%e# more of%en DG: me$ACC ca I DG: him >(S/he con%ra#ic%e# me more of%en %han I con%ra#ic%e# him?
Uhereas dect is res%ric%e# %o com5arison of ine@uali%0 ca is no%3 i% can a55ear in %he e@ua%ive cons%ruc%ion or 9i%hou% an0 #e!ree 9or# as a measure mo#ifier 9hich #irec%l0 s5ecifies %he #e!ree3
(1C./ a$ :aria e la fel #e %ris%L ca ieri :aria is e@uall0 de sa# ca 0es%er#a0 >:aria is as sa# as 0es%er#a0? b$ co5il EnRele5% ca un om mare chil# 9ise ca a man bi! >chil# as 9ise as a !ro9n-u5?
Finall0 a fe9 remar-s are in or#er re!ar#in! %he i%em de 9hich is use# %o in%ro#uce measure 5hrases an# ct-free rela%ives as com5lemen%s of %he su5eriori%0 #e!ree hea#$ Gne of %he func%ions 9hich %he i%em de has 9hich is %he ori!inal one is %ha% of an abla%ive (i$e$ source/ 5re5osi%ion P in %he 5resen%#a0 lan!ua!e onl0 in combina%ion 9i%h loca%ive or %em5oral e;5ressions3 (i/ A veni% #e 5e mun%e / #e la Paris / #e acolo / #e #imineaRL
2B=
The A#6ec%ive
has come de on moun%ain de a% Paris de %here de mornin! >(S/he has come from %he moun%ain/from Paris/from %here/since mornin!? The e;5ression of %he s%an#ar# of com5arison b0 an abla%ive e;5ression is one of %he several 5a%%erns a%%es%e# across lan!ua!es of %he 9orl#$ This 5a%%ern can be e;5laine# b0 usin! %he re5resen%a%ion of #e!rees as in%ervals on %he scale3 in %he com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 %here is a 5osi%ive in%erval startin at t!e upper limit of t!e comparison de ree 9hich is inclu#e# in %he #e!ree of %he a#6ec%ival 5ro5er%03 (ii/ #s%an#ar# # 33.f
In %he ol# lan!ua!e de coul# also %a-e DP-com5lemen%s e$!$ mai fricos de mpraii pmntului (/saltirea 9c!eian% <,$+2/ >more fri!h%ful %han %he em5erors of %he ear%h? mai minunaii de mine (Coresi% /saltirea 9lavo-Oomn% 1,,v/ >%hose more 9on#erful %han me?$
$.%.2. T8e 3.ffe0ent.al$ The rela%ion be%9een %he #e!ree of A an# %he com5arison #e!ree can fur%her be s5ecifie# b0 a :easure Phrase in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h? or b0 a va!ue @uan%i%a%ive e;5ression 9hich can be in%ro#uce# b0 cu or a55ear bare$ PPs are freel0 or#ere# 9i%h res5ec% %o %he maiJa#6ec%ive cons%i%uen% an# %he com5ara%ive com5lemen%$ The 5osi%ion before De! is 5referre#$ 8uan%i%a%ives 9i%hou% cu can onl0 occur before De!3
(1C</ a$ Casa e (cu %rei me%ri/ mai Enal%L (cu %rei me%ri/ #ecW% bra#ul house-%he is 9i%h %hree me%ers more %all 9i%h %hree me%ers %han %ree-%he (cu %rei me%ri/ 9i%h %hree me%ers >The house is %hree me%ers %aller %han %he %ree? b$ Vremea es%e (cu mul%/ mai urW%L (KKcu mul%/ #ecW% anul %recu% (KKcu mul%/ 9ea%her-%he is 9i%h much more u!l0 9i%h much %han 0ear-%he las% 9i%h much >The 9ea%her is a lo% u!lier %han las% 0ear? c$ Vremea es%e (mul%/ mai urW%L (Xmul%/ #ecW% anul %recu% (Xmul%/ 9ea%her-%he is much more u!l0 much %han 0ear-%he las% much >The 9ea%her is much u!lier %han las% 0ear?
This res%ric%ion seems %o in#ica%e %ha% bare @uan%i%a%ives are onl0 license# as s5ecifiers of De!P 9hile cu-PPs can also be a#6unc%s$ Some @uan%i%a%ives a55ear onl0 9i%hou% cu in #ifferen%ials3
(1CB/ a$ Acum vremea e gun 5ic/ cevah mai bunL no9 9ea%her-%he is a li%%le some%hin! more !oo# >The 9ea%her is a li%%le/some9ha% be%%er? b$ Acum vremea e gKKcu un 5ic/ Xcu cevah mai bunL no9 9ea%her-%he is 9i%h a li%%le 9i%h some%hin! more !oo#
A De!P base# on a scalar @uan%i%a%ive ma0 also a55ear as a #ifferen%ial (9hich is e;5ec%e# !iven %ha% De!Ps as e;%en#e# 5ro6ec%ions 5reserve %he #is%ribu%ion of %he com5lemen%s %he0 selec% APs A#vPs or 8Ps/ (in %he follo9in! e;am5le %he com5lemen% of prea i$e$ pentru a forma un cuplu frumos% has been e;%ra5ose# because onl0 li!h% cons%i%uen%s are allo9e# in S5ecDe!P/3
(1CC/ Ion es%e Y50ea 51A.nZ mai Enal% #ecW% :aria Y5ent01 a fo06a 1n /15l1 f016osZ Ion is %oo li%%le more %all %han :aria for %o form a cou5le 5re%%0
2B+
The A#6ec%ive >Ion is %aller %han :aria b0 %oo li%%le %o form a 5re%%0 cou5le?
The 9h-@uan%i%a%ive ct >ho9 much? has %o be 5rece#e# b0 cu 9hen func%ionin! as a #ifferen%ial$ This a55ears %o be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% i% mus% be e;%rac%e# from %he De!P 9hile absence of cu is onl0 license# in a 5osi%ion imme#ia%el0 before De!3
(2==/ OC1 /KtP. e aces% mun%e t. mai Enal% #ecW% :on% 'lancK 9i%h ho9-much is %his moun%ain more %all %han :on% 'lanc >'0 ho9 much is %his moun%ain hi!her %han :on% 'lancK?
:easure 5hrases 9i%hou% cu are onl0 allo9e# in #e!ree 5hrases base# on a#verbs3
(2=+/ a$ S-a o5ri% Aece me%ri mai #e5ar%e s%o55e# %en me%ers more far >(S/he s%o55e# %en me%ers far%her? b$ A veni% #ouL ore mai %WrAiu has come %9o hours more la%e >(S/he came %9o hours la%er?
R7FL-has
As 9i%h @uan%i%a%ives absence of cu is onl0 allo9e# before De!$

(2=1/ a$ A veni% mai %WrAiu cu #ouL ore has come more la%e 9i%h %9o hours >(S/he came %9o hours la%er? b$ XA veni% mai %WrAiu #ouL ore has come more la%e %9o hours
The #ifferen%ial can also be e;5resse# b0 a free #e!ree rela%ive in%ro#uce# b0 ct 9hich re@uires %he use of %he 5re5osi%ion cu3
(2=2/ 7s%e mai lun!L cu cW% ai vru% %u sL fie is more lon! 9i%h ho9-much have$1SG 9an%e# 0ou SD'N be$2 >I%?s as much lon!er as 0ou 9an%e# i% %o be?
The rela%ion be%9een %he %9o #e!rees can also be charac%eriAe# b0 %he number of in%ervals e@ual %o %he com5arison #e!ree in%o 9hich %he #e!ree of %he 5ro5er%0 A can be s5li% P %he factor 9hich is e;5resse# b0 Y#eHCar#inal H %he noun oarZ cons%i%uen%s$ This cons%i%uen% has %he 9or# or#er free#om charac%eris%ic of PPsI %he 5osi%ion before De! is 5referre#$
(2=4/ 7 (#e %rei ori/ mai lun!L (K#e %rei ori/ #ecW% ar fi %rebui% (K#e %rei ori/ is of %hree %imes more lon! of %hree %imes %han 9oul# PRF nee#e# of %hree %imes >I%?s %hree %imes lon!er %han i% shoul# have been?
In or#er %o e;5ress a small #ifferen%ial %he a#verb uor >sli!h%l0? can be use#I %his is %he mo#ifier 9hich e;5resses closeness %o %he minimum 5oin% 9i%h 5ar%ial a#6ec%ives (see 4$2$1 above/3
(2=,/ 7 uMor mai mare #ecW% celLlal% is sli!h%l0 more bi! %han %he-o%her >I%?s sli!h%l0 bi!!er %han %he o%her one?
$.%.3. Ot8e0 ele6ents t8at /an 6o3.f9 mai
2B1
The A#6ec%ive
The #ifferen%ial can also be charac%eriAe# as !rea%er %han a 5reviousl0 men%ione# #ifferen%ial or #e!ree b0 usin! %he focal 5ar%icle i >even? before De! (in o%her con%e;%s i ma0 mean >also? or >alrea#0?/3
(2=./ a$ A3 7 cu %rei 5a!ini mai lun! #ecW% %rebuie$ '3 Nu #e fa5% e Mi mai lun!$ is 9i%h %hree 5a!es more lon! %han mus% no in fac% is even more lon! >A3 I% is %hree 5a!es lon!er %han necessar0$ '3 No in fac% i%?s even lon!er? b$ Drumul cu %renul e mai scum5 #ecW% cu avionul$ roa#-%he 9i%h %rain-%he is more e;5ensive %han 9i%h 5lane-%he Drumul cu va5orul e Mi mai scum5$ roa#-%he 9i%h boa%-%he is even more e;5ensive >The %ri5 b0 %rain is more e;5ensive %han b0 5lane$ The %ri5 b0 boa% is even more e;5ensive? c$ Cas%anul e Enal% #e Aece me%ri$ Plo5ul e Mi mai Enal%$ ches%nu%-%he is %all of %en me%ers 5o5lar-%he is even more %all >The ches%nu% is %en me%ers %all$ The 5o5lar is even %aller?
The fac% %ha% %he focal 5ar%icle bears on %he #ifferen%ial e;5lains 9h0 i% is incom5a%ible 9i%h an over% #ifferen%ial3
(2=</ 7s%e (XMi/ cu #ouL su%e #e lei (XMi/ mai scum5 is even 9i%h %9o hun#re#s of lei even more e;5ensive >I%?s %9o hun#re# lei more e;5ensive?
Xi in#ica%es %ha% %he #e!ree of %he 5ro5er%0 e;cee#s %he %hreshol# nee#e# in or#er %o be use# in %he 5osi%ive form (%he use of mai 9i%hou% i #oes no% im5l0 %ha% %he en%i%0 has %he 5ro5er%0 in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree/$ The a#verb tot (li%$ >con%inuall0 s%ill?/ can 5rece#e mai in#ica%in! %ha% %here is a 5ro!ression in %he #e!ree (en!l$ >more an# more A?/3
(2=B/ a$ Co5iii %Li sun% %o% mai frumoMi chil#ren-%he 0our are tot more beau%iful >qour chil#ren are more an# more beau%iful? b$ Filele sun% %o% mai scur%e #a0s-%he are tot more shor% >The #a0s are shor%er an# shor%er? c$ :aria e %o% mai bolnavL :aria is tot more sic>:aria is !e%%in! more an# more sic-?
In %his case %he com5arison #e!ree is %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he ver0 same en%i%0 has %ha% 5ro5er%0 a% a 5revious %ime P 9e 9ill call %his %he pro ressive readin of %he com5ara%ive$ $.%.$. P0o40ess.2e /o65a0at.2e /o00elat.2es In %he 5ro!ressive rea#in! observe# in (2=B/ above 9e have encoun%ere# an ins%ance of an internal rea#in! of %he com5ara%ive in %he sense %ha% %he 5re#ica%ion con%ains a mul%i5lici%0 of even%s/s%a%es an# %he com5arison is es%ablishe# be%9een %he #e!rees some 5ro5er%0 has in #ifferen% even%s$ A similar rea#in! a55ears in com5ara%ive correla%ives a cons%ruc%ion 9hich e;5resses a correla%ion be%9een %9o 5ro!ressions or or#erin!s3
(2=C/ a$ Cu cW% maMina mer!e mai re5e#e cu a%W% mo%orul face un A!omo%
2B2
The A#6ec%ive 9i%h ho9-much car-%he !oes more fas% 9i%h %ha%-much en!ine-%he ma-es a noise mai 5u%ernic more s%ron! >The fas%er %he car !oes %he s%ron!er %he noise %he en!ine ma-es? b$ Cu cW% cineva e mai vesel cu a%W% e mai 5lLcu% celorlalRi 9i%h ho9-much somebo#0 is more merr0 9i%h %ha%-much is more 5leasan% %he$ DAT-o%hers >The merrier someone is %he more 5leasan% %he0 are for %he o%hers?
The >5ro!ression? here nee# no% be %em5oral$ In fac% all %ha% is re@uire# is %ha% %here is a mul%i5lici%0 of 5re#ica%ions of %he form A(#/(;/ in each sen%ence 9hich is 5rovi#e# b0 a mul%i5lici%0 of even%s (see (2=C/a/ 9hich can even involve #ifferen% sub6ec%s (see (2=C/a/$ The meanin! of %he correla%ive cons%ruc%ion can be ren#ere# usin! a con#i%ional3 if %9o si%ua%ions are such %ha% a 5ro5er%0 P has a !rea%er #e!ree in %he firs% %han in %he secon# %hen ano%her 5ro5er%0 8 also has a !rea%er #e!ree in %he firs% %han in %he secon#$ Ue e;em5lif0 %his for (2=C/a3
(2+=/ s+ s1 YY#(%he car !oes #-fas% in s+/ f #(%he car !oes #-fas% in s1/Z s Y#(%he mo%or ma-es a #lou# noise in s+/ f #(%he mo%or ma-es a #-lou# noise in s1/ZZ
'ase# on %his seman%ics 9e can #is%in!uish a protasis or an%ece#en% an# an apodosis or conse@uen%$ The 5ro%asis is in%ro#uce# b0 %he PP cu ct (li%$ >9i%h ho9-much?/ 9hich has %he form of a #ifferen%ial$ The a5o#osis normall0 con%ains %he >#ifferen%ial?-PP cu att (li%$ >9i%h %ha%-much?/ in %he firs% 5osi%ion$ Less 5ro#uc%ivel0 9e can fin# e;am5les such as (2=C/ 9hich lac- an0 in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% in %he a5o#osis3
(2++/ Cu cW% maMina mer!e mai re5e#e mo%orul face un A!omo% mai 5u%ernic 9i%h ho9-much car-%he !oes more fas% en!ine-%he ma-es a noise more s%ron! >As %he car !oes fas%er %he en!ine ma-es a s%ron!er noise?
'o%h clauses normall0 con%ain a com5ara%ive of ine@uali%0$ Oo9ever bo%h clauses can lac- a com5ara%ive if %he #e!ree re5resen%s a scalar #imension of %he verb P 5a%h/incremen%al %heme (see nainta in a-b/ %ime (see aler a in c/ in%ensi%0 (see prea in b re reta in #/3
(2+1/ a$ Cu cW% Enain%a cu a%W% i se 5Lrea mai 9i%h ho9-much a#vance$I:PF$2SG 9i%h %ha%-much CL$2SG$DAT R7FL seem$I:PF$2SG more !reu har# >The more (s/he a#vance# %he har#er i% seeme#? b$ Cu cW% Enain%a cu a%W% i se 5Lrea cL nu 9i%h ho9-much a#vance$I:PF$2SG 9i%h %ha%-much CL$2SG$DAT R7FL loo-e#$2SG %ha% no% are ros% has 5oin% >The more (s/he a#vance# %he more i% seeme# %o her/him %ha% %here 9as no 5oin%? c$ Cu cW% aler!a #evenea mai vioi 9i%h ho9-much run$I:PF$2SG become$I:PF$2SG more aler% >The more he ran %he more aler% he became? #$ Cu cW% se !Wn#ea mai mul% cu a%W% re!re%a ce 9i%h ho9-much R7FL %hin-$I:PF$2SG more much 9i%h %ha%-much re!re%$I:PF$2SG 9ha% fLcuse #o$PLPF$2SG >The more (s/he %hou!h% abou% i% %he more (s/he re!re%%e# 9ha% (s/he ha# #one?
2B4
The A#6ec%ive
As can be seen from %he e;am5les (2=C/ (2+1/# an# (2+2/ belo9 %he #ifferen%ial 5hrases 9hich mar- %he cons%ruc%ion (cu ct% cu att/ can a55ear se5ara%e# from %he com5ara%ive #e!ree hea#s su!!es%in! %ha% %he0 are e;%rac%e# from S5ecDe!P3
(2+2/ YYCu cW%Zi maMina mer!e Y%i mai re5e#eZ Ycu a%W%Z6 mo%orul face un A!omo% Y%6 mai 5u%ernicZ
Ue shoul# ho9ever no%e %ha% %he locali%0 res%ric%ions are rela;e# as com5are# %o o%her cases of e;%rac%ion$ Thus %he #ifferen%ials can be associa%e# 9i%h NP-in%ernal a#6ec%ives bu% ct in o%her cases canno% be e;%rac%e# from an a#nominal 5osi%ion3
(2+4/ a$ Ycu gcW%/ a%W%hZ mo%orul face Yun A!omo% Yr mai 5u%ernicZZ 9i%h ho9-much %ha%-much en!ine-%he ma-es a noise more s%ron! b$ XCW% face mo%orul Yun A!omo% Yr #e 5u%ernicZZK ho9-much ma-es en!ine-%he a noise of s%ron!
I% is also 5ossible %o fron% %he en%ire De!P$ No%e ho9ever %ha% in %his case %he usual locali%0 con#i%ions are obe0e# so %ha% %he De!P canno% be NP-in%ernal3
(2+,/ a$ Cu cW% mai mare e vi%eAa cu a%W% mai 5u%ernic e A!omo%ul 9i%h ho9-much more bi! is s5ee#-%he 9i%h %ha%-much more s%ron! is noise-%he >The hi!her %he s5ee# %he s%ron!er %he noise? b$ X Cu cW% mai mare are vi%eAL cu a%W% mai 5u%ernic face un A!omo% 9i%h ho9-much more bi! has s5ee# 9i%h %ha%-much more s%ron! ma-es a noise
Y,u attZ mus% occu50 %he clause-ini%ial 5osi%ion if %he com5ara%ive clause 5rece#es %he main clause$ I% canno% a55ear insi#e %he associa%e De!P if %he la%%er is no% fron%e# (as in (2+,/a/3
(2+./ X Cu cW% maMina mer!e mai re5e#e mo%orul face un A!omo% cu a%W% 9i%h ho9-much car-%he !oes more fas% en!ine-%he ma-es a noise 9i%h %ha%-much mai 5u%ernic more s%ron!
Y,u attZ can s%a0 in si%u if %he com5ara%ive clause follo9s (inclu#in! cases of e;%ra5osi%ion such as (2+</b/3
(2+</ a$ :unRii erau cu a%W% mai EnalRi cu cW% mer!eam mai s5re moun%ains-%he 9ere 9i%h %ha%-much more hi!h 9i%h ho9-much !o$ I:PF$+PL more %o9ar#s su# sou%h >The moun%ains 9ere !e%%in! hi!her as 9e 9ere !oin! fur%her sou%h? b$ 7ra un A!omo% cu a%W% mai 5u%ernic afarL cu cW% ne 9as a noise 9i%h %ha%-much more s%ron! ou%si#e 9i%h ho9-much R7FL$+PL a5ro5iam #e cen%ru !e%-close$I:PF$+PL of cen%er >The closer 9e 9ere !e%%in! %o %he cen%er %he s%ron!er %he noise ou%si#e?
If %he sub6ec% of %he com5ara%ive clause an# of %he ma%ri; De!P is %he same i% can be eli#e# %o!e%her 9i%h %he co5ula in %he com5ara%ive clauseI %he 5referre# or#er in %his case is cu ct000cu att3
(2+B/ :unRii erau cu cW% mai EnalRi cu a%W% mai EnAL5eAiRi moun%ains-%he 9ere 9i%h ho9-much more hi!h 9i%h %ha%-much more sno90
2B,
The A#6ec%ive >The hi!her %he moun%ains %he sno9ier %he0 9ere?
$.&. T8e /o65a0at.2e of .nfe0.o0.t9 Some lan!ua!es have a #e!ree hea# of %he %05e less (see fr$ moins i%$ meno e%c$/ 9hich e;5resses %he o55osi%e rela%ion %o more (Rom$ mai/ namel0 %he >#Ae#s%an#ar#? rela%ion$ Romanian #oes no% have such a hea# bu% uses ins%ea# puin >li%%le? in combina%ion 9i%h mai3
(2+C/ :aria e mai 5uRin Enal%L #ecW% An#reea :aria is more li%%le %all %han An#reea >:aria is less %all %han An#reea?
As 9e have seen in 4$4$+ an# 4$4$2 above %he @uan%i%a%ive puin 9hen s%resse# can also be use# 9i%h APs an# A#vPs as a scale-reversin! e;5ression (an e;5ression 9hich reverses %he orien%a%ion of %he scale/ in %he absence of mai3
(21=/ a$ A5a e PDjIN a#WncL 9a%er-%he is li%%le #ee5 >The 9a%er is li%%le/no% so #ee5? b$ :aria e foar%e 5uRin in%eli!en%L :aria is ver0 li%%le in%elli!en% >:aria is ver0 li%%le/no% a% all in%elli!en%?
'0 combinin! %his cons%ruc%ion 9i%h %he #e!ree hea# mai %he Romanian e@uivalen% of %he com5ara%ive of inferiori%0 in o%her lan!ua!es is ob%aine#$ $.(. T8e /o65a0at.2e of eI1al.t9 Et8e eI1at.2eF an3 ot8e0 /onst01/t.ons D.t8 att an3 aa Romanian #oes no% have a #e!ree hea# #e#ica%e# for %he com5ara%ive of e@uali%0$ The i%ems 9hich serve %o e;5ress %he com5arison of e@uali%0 are a#verbs or #e!ree 9or#s %ha% can be use# 9i%h a similar meanin! in o%her con%e;%s$ $.(.1. 'a fel The a#verb la fel >e@uall0? (li%$ >a% sor%?/ e;5resses %he com5ara%ive of e@uali%0 9hen i% a55ears in S5ecDe!P follo9e# b0 de3
(21+/ a$ :aria e la fel #e #eM%ea5%L ca An#reea :aria is e@uall0 de smar% as An#reea >:aria is as smar% as An#reea? b$ FL5a#a e la fel #e mare ca iarna %recu%L sno9-%he is e@uall0 de bi! as 9in%er-%he 5as% >The sno9 is as hi!h as las% 9in%er?
In o%her environmen%s i% can e;5ress com5arison be%9een even%s or en%i%ies as a VP-a#verb or an uninflec%e# a#6ec%ive in#ica%in! %ha% %9o even%s or en%i%ies have one or several 5ro5er%ies in common3
(211/ a$ Violonis%ul a cWn%a% la fel ca #a%a %recu%L$ violinis%-%he has sun! e@uall0 as %ime-%he las% >The violinis% 5la0e# 6us% li-e las% %ime? b$ Am o bluAL la fel
2B.
The A#6ec%ive have$+SG a shir% ali-e >I have an i#en%ical shir%? c$ ì a5recieA 5e %oRi la fel CL$ACC a55recia%e$+SG DG: all e@uall0 >I a55recia%e all 6us% as much?
'esi#es la fel >e@uall0 ali-e?% 9hich is %he curren% %erm in %he 5resen%-#a0 lan!ua!e %he li%erar0 re!is%er ma-es use of deopotrivI li-e la fel %his i%em can also func%ion as an a#verb or an uninflec%e# a#6ec%ive3 (i/ a$ Nico5ol era (^/ #eo5o%rivL #e Embie%or ca Grena#a (:ace#ons-i Hpere III 2+/ Nico5ol 9as e@uall0 de a%%rac%ive as Grena#a >Nico5ol 9as as a%%rac%ive as Grena#a? b$ Pe %oRi vL iubim #eo5o%rivL0 (DrL!hici R$ 4/4$/ DG: all 0ou(PL/$ACC love$+PL ali-e >Ue love 0ou all 6us% as much? c$ Are omul cinci #e!e%e la o mWnL Mi nu sun% %oa%e #eo5o%rivL0 (Fanne P$ II +=,/ has man-%he five fin!ers %o a han# an# no% are$2PL all ali-e >The man has five fin!ers %o his han# an# no% all of %hem are ali-e?
The com5ara%ive com5lemen% is usuall0 in%ro#uce# b0 ca (on %he 5ro5er%ies of ca-5hrases see 4$,$+ above/$ G%her in%ro#uc%or0 elemen%s 9hich are less fre@uen% %han ca are ct >ho9much? (follo9e# b0 a full clause an elli5%ical clause or an accusa%ive DP-cons%i%uen% see 4$,$+ above/ precum >preHho9? (follo9e# b0 a full clause an elli5%ical clause or an accusa%ive DP-cons%i%uen%/ an# cum >ho9? 9hich onl0 %a-es full clauses3
(212/ a$ 7 la fel #e Enal% ca/cW%/5recum %ine is e@uall0 de %all ca$ct$precum 0ou$ACC >Oe is as %all as 0ou (are/? b$ 7 la fel #e bun 5recum ara%L En ima!ine is e@uall0 de !oo# precum a55ears in ima!e >Oe is 6us% as !oo# as he loo-s in %he 5ic%ure? c$ Am fLcu%-o la fel #e lun!L cW%/cum ai fLcu%-o %u have$+ #one-i% e@uall0 de lon! ct$cum have$1SG #one-i% 0ou >I ma#e i% as lon! as 0ou ma#e i%?
,t is mos%l0 use# 9i%h measurable 5ro5er%ies 9hich su!!es%s %ha% ct re%ains i%s @uan%i%0 fea%ure here (unli-e in su5eriori%0 com5ara%ives 9here dect is e@uall0 fine 9i%h all 5ro5er%ies/$
(214/ 7 la fel #e gEnal%L / KKfrumoasLh cW% %ine is e@uall0 de %all beau%iful ct 0ou$ACC >She is as %all/KKas beau%iful as 0ou (are/?
There is also a #ifference be%9een ca- 5hrases in com5arison of e@uali%0 an# ca- 5hrases in com5arison of su5eriori%03 onl0 %he former allo9 %he in%er5ola%ion of %he focal 5ar%icle i >also? be%9een ca an# %he follo9in! cons%i%uen%3
(21,/ a$ 7 la fel #e Enal% ca Mi mine is e@uall0 de %all ca i me$ACC >Oe is as %all as me? b$ 7 mai Enal% ca (XMi/ mine is more %all ca i me$ACC >Oe is %aller %han me?
2B<
The A#6ec%ive
The 5ossibili%0 of usin! i in e@ua%ive com5ara%ives 5robabl0 follo9s from %he fac% %ha% %he #e!ree in %he main clause an# in %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% are %he same an# %he onl0 #ifferen% elemen% is %he cons%i%uen% lef% over% in %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% 9hich can %herefore receive %he focal 5ar%icle i >also?$ $.(.2. (tt an3 aa .n eI1at.2es The #e!ree 9or#s att >so/%ha%-much? an# aa >so? 5lace# before %he a#6ec%ive (att al9a0s %a-es deHAP aa allo9s bo%h absence an# 5resence of de see 4$4$+-4$4$1 above/ are use# %o e;5ress e@uali%0 be%9een #e!rees in %he follo9in! con#i%ions3 (a/ 5rece#e# b0 %he focal 5ar%icle tot3
(21./ a$ `n%Wlnirea a fos% %o% a%W% #e lun!L ca #a%a %recu%L mee%in!-%he has been tot att de lon! as %ime-%he las% a_$ `n%Wlnirea a fos% %o% aMa (#e/ lun!L ca #a%a %recu%L mee%in!-%he has been tot aa de lon! as %ime-%he las% >The mee%in! 9as 6us% as lon! as las% %ime? b$ Am cum5Lra% o maMinL %o% a%W% #e mare cW% (era/ cea veche have$+ bou!h% a car tot att de bi! ho9-much 9as %he ol# >I/Ue bou!h% a car 6us% as bi! as %he ol# one? c$ 7 %o% a%W% #e 5rice5u% g5recum era %a%Ll lui / 5recum ceilalRih is tot att de s-ille# precum 9as fa%her-%he his precum %he-o%hers >Oe is 6us% as s-illful as his fa%her/as %he o%hers? #$ 7 %o% a%W% #e abL%u% cum l-am !Lsi% #a%a %recu%L is tot att de sa# cum him-have$+ foun# %ime-%he las% #_$ 7 %o% aMa (#e/ abL%u% cum l-am !Lsi% #a%a %recu%L is tot aa de sa# cum him-have$+ foun# %ime-%he las% >Oe is 6us% as sa# as I/9e foun# him las% %ime?
As can be seen from %hese e;am5les %he elemen%s in%ro#ucin! %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% are %he same as 9i%h la fel an# have %he in%er5re%a%ive 5ro5er%ies #iscusse# in 4$<$+ above$ The focal 5ar%icle tot (9i%hou% an e;ac% 7n!lish corres5on#en%/ in#ica%es %ha% %he #eno%a%ion of %he focaliAe# cons%i%uen% is une;5ec%e#l0 %he same as %he one in %he an%ece#en%3
(21</ Ieri a vorbi% :aria$ Acum vorbeM%e %o% ea$ 0es%er#a0 has s5o-en :aria no9 s5ea-s tot her >qes%er#a0 :aria 9as %he one s5ea-in!$ No9 i%?s s%ill her?
In %he e@ua%ive use tot in#ica%es %ha% %he value of %he #e!ree variable is %he same as in %he com5ara%ive clause or PP 9hich is %a-en as %he an%ece#en%3
(21B/ %o% aMa #e bunL Yca era #-bunL ieriZ tot aa de !oo# as 9as !oo# 0es%er#a0 >6us% as !oo# as 0es%er#a0?
(b/ %he com5arison #e!ree is #eic%icI in %his case att$aa are s%resse#3
(21C/ a$ Am fLcu%-o ATkT #e mare have$+ #one-i% att de bi! >I/Ue ma#e i% %ha% bi! (as 0ou can see/?
2BB
The A#6ec%ive b$ 7ra AiA #e lun!L 9as$2SG aa #e lon >I% 9as %his lon!?
This use seems %o be rela%e# %o %he use of att (in %he au!men%e# form atta/ an# aa as measure 5hrases in 5os%5osi%ion #iscusse# in 4$4$+ above (see e;$ (i//3
(22=/ 7ra lun!L a%W%a/ aMa (9i%h a !es%ure/ 9as$2SG lon! att$ADG: aa >I% 9as %his lon!?
(c/ in #o9n9ar#-en%ailin! con%e;%s (such as un#er ne!a%ion in @ues%ions in %he res%ric%ion of a universal/ in 9hich case %he 9a0 in 9hich %he com5arison #e!ree is in%ro#uce# is no% res%ric%e# P i% can also be e;5resse# b0 a com5ara%ive com5lemen% in%ro#uce# b0 ca (see (22+// or i% can be ana5horic (a salien% #e!ree 5resen% in %he con%e;%I see (221//3
(22+/ a$ :onica nu e a%W% #e frumoasL ca Ro#ica :onica no% is att de beau%iful ca Ro#ica >:onica is no% as beau%iful as Ro#ica? b$ Cine e a%W% #e bun ca elK 9ho is att de !oo# ca el >Uho is as !oo# as himK? c$ Gricine e a%W% #e 5rice5u% ca el meri%L un 5remiu an0one is att de s-illful ca him #eserves a 5riAe >An0one 9ho is as s-illful as him #eserves a 5riAe? (221/ a$ :aria e frumoasL$ Ioana nu e a%W% #e frumoasL$ :aria is beau%iful Ioana no% is att de beau%iful >:aria is beau%iful$ Ioana is no% %ha% beau%iful? b$ Ion e Enal% #e 1 me%ri$ Cine mai e a%W% #e Enal%K Ion is %all de 1 me%ers 9ho more is att de %all >Ion is %9o me%ers %all$ Uho eslse is %ha% %allK?
In %his case %he cons%ruc%ion is orien%e# (%he com5arison %erm sa%isfies %he con#i%ion for %he use of %he a#6ec%ive in %he 5osi%ive form/$ Com5are %he e;am5le in (224/ 9hich lac-s %his %05e of en%ailmen%3
(222/ a$ :onica nu e a%W% #e Enal%L ca Ro#ica [f Ro#ica e Enal%L :onica no% is att de %all ca Ro#ica Ro#ica is %all >:onica is no% as %all as Ro#ica? >Ro#ica is %all? b$ Gricine e a%W% #e #eM%e5% ca el s-ar com5or%a aMa [f 7l e #eM%e5% an0one is att de smar% ca him R7FL-9oul# behave so Oe is smar% >An0one 9ho is as smar% as him 9oul# behave li-e %ha%? >Oe is smar%? (224/ :onica e gla fel/ %o% a%W%h #e Enal%L ca Ro#ica wf Ro#ica e Enal%L :onica is e@uall0 tot att de %all ca Ro#ica Ro#ica is %all >:onica is 6us% as %all as Ro#ica? >Ro#ica is %all?
The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %ha% if %he con#i%ions in (b/ or (c/ are no% fulfille# %he e@ua%ive use in %he absence of tot is no% acce5%able3
(22,/ a$ X 7 ga%W%/aMah #e #eM%ea5%L ca mama ei is att aa de smar% ca mo%her-%he her b$ X 7 ga%W%/ aMah #e Enal%L cW% :onica is att aa de %all ct :onica
2BC
The A#6ec%ive c$ X 7 aMa Enal% 5recum fra%ele sLu is aa %all precum bro%her-%he his
'ein! a @uan%i%a%ive att can be use# as an a#nominal or a#-verbal @uan%i%a%ive 9i%h an e@ua%ive meanin! in %he same con#i%ions as att-de-AP as an e@uivalen% of %he forms attJdeJmult$muli >so/as much/man0?$ In %his case %he #e!ree 9h- 9or# ct in%ro#ucin! %he com5ara%ive clause normall0 also %a-es %he inflec%e# forms3
(22./ a%WRi(a/ bLrbaRi [ a%W% #e mulRi bLrba Ri a%W%ea femei [ a%W% #e mul%e femei att$:PL$(ADG:/ men att de man0 men att$FPL 9omen att de man0 9omen a%WRia a%W%ea [ a%W% #e mulRi / mul%e att0:PL$ADG: att0FPL$ADG: att de man0$ :PL/man0$ FPL (22</ a$ Au fos% %o% ga%WRi/ a%WRiah s%u#enRi gcWRi / cW%h have$2PL been tot att$:PL att$:PL$ADG: s%u#en%s ho9-much$:PL ho9-much au fos% Mi #a%a %recu%L have$2PL been also %ime-%he las% >There 9ere 6us% as man0 s%u#en%s as las% %ime? b$ Au fos% %o% a%WRi(a/ s%u#enRi ca #a%a %recu%L have$2PL been tot att$:PL$(ADG:/ s%u#en%s ca %ime-%he las% >There 9ere 6us% as man0 s%u#en%s as las% %ime? c$ N-au fos% a%WRi(a/ s%u#enRi ca #a%a %recu%L no%-have$2PL been att$:PL$(ADG:/ s%u#en%s ca %ime-%he las% >There 9eren?% as man0 s%u#en%s as las% %ime?
As can be seen from %he e;am5les %he au!men%e# forms (in - a/ are no% res%ric%e# %o DPs 9i%hou% an over% noun unli-e for o%her nominal func%ional i%ems (see Cha5%er 2 sec%ion +$2 on au!men%e# forms/$ For %he feminine onl0 au!men%e# forms are use# P atta (sin!ular/ attea (5lural/$ $.(.3. Ot8e0 3e40ee /onst01/t.ons D.t8 att an3 aa (i/ Att an# aa can also charac%eriAe %he #e!ree as enou!h %o cause some even% in 9hich case %he0 %a-e as a com5lemen% a consecu%ive clause3
(22B/ a$ A5a era aMa (#e/ rece EncW% a %rebui% sL ieMim ime#ia% 9a%er-%he 9as aa de col# %ha% has nee#e# SD'N come-ou%$+PL imme#ia%el0 >The 9a%er 9as so col# %ha% 9e ha# %o come ou% imme#ia%el0? b$ Luna era a%W% #e s%rLluci%oare EncW% se 5u%ea ci%i la lumina ei moon-%he 9as atta de bri!h% %ha% R7FL coul# rea# a% li!h%-%he her >The moon 9as so bri!h% %ha% one coul# rea# in %he moonli!h%?
Consecu%ive clauses have a s5ecial com5lemen%iAer P nct P bu% can also be in%ro#uce# b0 %he !eneral in#ica%ive-%a-in! com5lemen%iAer c >%ha%?$ In %his cons%ruc%ion %he a#6ec%ive is orien%e# ((22B/a en%ails %ha% %he 9a%er 9as col# an# (22B/b P %ha% %he moon 9as bri!h%/$ (ii/ Att an# aa can charac%eriAe %he #e!ree as %he ob6ec% of a#mira%ion or as%onishmen% in e;clama%ive sen%ences3
(22C/ a$ 7ra aMa (#e/ frumoasLd 9as aa de beau%iful >She 9as so beau%ifuld?
2C=
The A#6ec%ive b$ 7M%i a%W% #e %WnLrd are$0ou att de 0oun! >qou are so 0oun!?
(iii/ As 9e have seen in 4$,$4 above %he PP cu att >li%$ 9i%h %ha%-much? a55ears in %he com5ara%ive correla%ive cons%ruc%ion in %he main clause associa%e# 9i%h a subor#ina%e clause in%ro#uce# b0 cu ct >li%$ 9i%h ho9-much?3
(24=/ Cu cW% sun% mai mici cu a%W% sun% mai valoroase cu ct are more small cu att are more valuable >The smaller %he0 are %he more valuable?
(iv/ The PP pe att can a55ear in an e@ua%ive correla%ive cons%ruc%ion 9hich rela%es #ifferen% 5ro5er%ies %o be #iscusse# in sec%ion 4$B$1 belo9$ $.(.$. On t8e se6ant./s of eI1at.2es. T8e .nte0nal 0ea3.n4 of eI1at.2es The s%an#ar# vie9 abou% %he seman%ics of e@ua%ives base# on o%her lan!ua!es (7n!lish in 5ar%icular/ is %ha% %he #e!ree o5era%or e;5resses %he rela%ion (>!rea%er or e@ual?/ an# %he >[? in%er5re%a%ion is %he resul% of an im5lica%ure (#+#1 means #+f#1 or #+[#1I if #+f#1 9ere %he case %he s5ea-er 9oul# have use# %he su5eriori%0 com5arisonI %herefore b0 5ra!ma%ic reasonin! i% is inferre# %ha% #+[#1/$ The evi#ence for %his 5ro5osal comes from %he fac% %he >a% leas%? in%er5re%a%ion a55ears in #o9n9ar# en%ailin! con%e;%s$ Thus (24+/ is no% %rue if Nohn is %aller %han Paul bu% onl0 if Nohn is shor%er %han Paul$ If %he e@ua%ive o5era%or ha# #eno%e# >[? %he sen%ence 9oul# also be %rue if Nohn 9as %aller %han Paul$
(24+/ Nohn is no% as %all as Paul
Li-e9ise %he !eneraliAa%ion in (241/a is abou% 5eo5le 9ho are a% leas% as rich as 'ill (i% inclu#es richer 5eo5le/I in (241/b %he s5ea-er as-s for a 5erson e@uall0 rich or richer %han 'ill$
(241/ a$ An0one as rich as 'ill can #o i%$ b$ Do 0ou -no9 an0one as rich as 'illK
The Romanian fac%s #o no% %o%all0 fi% in%o %his anal0sis$ I% a55ears %ha% %he at least in%er5re%a%ion in #o9n9ar#-en%ailin! con%e;%s is in#is5u%able onl0 for aa$att3
(242/ a$ Ion nu e aMa #e Enal% ca Paul s Paul e mai Enal% ca Ion Ion no% is aa de %all as Paul Paul is more %all %han Ion >Ion is no% as %all as Paul? >Paul is %aller %han Ion? b$ Cine e aMa #e bo!a% ca Ion K [ Cine e cel 5uRin aMa #e bo!a% ca IonK 9ho is aa de rich as Ion Uho is %he li%%le aa de rich as Ion >Uho is as rich as IonK? >Uho is a% leas% as rich as Ion? c$ 'locul nu e %o% aMa #e Enal% 5recum %urnul s 'locul e mai scun# #ecW% %urnul bloc--%he no% is tot aa de %all as %o9er-%he bloc--%he is more shor% %han %o9er-%he >The bloc- is no% as %all as %he %o9er? >The bloc- is shor%er %han %he %o9er?
The e;5ression la fel is of%en un#ers%oo# as >? in #o9n9ar# en%ailin! con%e;%s bu% i% is %he >f? com5onen% 9hich seems %o be an im5lica%ure since i% can be cancelle# in s5ecial con%e;%s es5eciall0 9i%h measurable 5ro5er%ies3
2C+
The A#6ec%ive (244/ a$ 'ara as%a nu e la fel #e lun!L ca aceea$ `mi %rebuia una LA F7L #e lun!L bar-%he %his no% is la fel de lon! as %ha% me$DAT nee#e# one la fel de lon! as%a e mai lun!L$ %his is more lon! >This bar is no% as lon! as %ha% one$ I nee#e# one e;ac%l0 as lon! (as %ha% one/ %his one is lon!er? b$ Cine e la fel #e Enal% ca mine nu 5oa%e fi 5rimi% En echi5a #e basche% 9ho is la fel de %all as me no% can be receive# in %eam-%he of bas-e%ball >Uhoever is as %all as me canno% be a#mi%%e# in %he bas-e%ball %eam?
Ano%her 5iece of evi#ence %ha% la fel (as 9ell as deopotriv/ can #eno%e e@uali%0 (ra%her %han !rea%er or e@ual/ is %he fac% %ha% i% can %a-e a 5lurali%0 as i%s onl0 ar!umen% 0iel#in! an >in%ernal? rea#in! in 9hich i% e;5resses a rela%ion be%9een (all/ en%i%ies inclu#e# in %ha% 5lurali%03
(24,/ a$ 7i sun% la fel #e #eM%e5Ri/ EnalRi %he0 are la fel de smar%$:PL %all$:PL >The0 are e@uall0 smar%/%all? b$ 'arele as%ea sun% la fel #e lun!i bars-%he$FPL %hese$FPL are la fel de lon!$FPL >These bars are e@uall0 lon!? c$ Cele #ouL ce%LRi erau #eo5o%rivL #e 5u%ernice %he$FPL %9o ci%a#els 9ere deopotriv de s%ron!$FPL >The %9o ci%a#els 9ere e@uall0 s%ron!?
A !eneral con#i%ion for %his use is %ha% %he rela%ion shoul# be s0mme%rical3
(24./ Ion e 5rie%en cu :aria (e[f :aria e 5rie%enL cu Ion/ [ Ion Mi :aria sun% 5rie%eni >Ion is frien#s 9i%h :aria (e[f :aria is frien#s 9i%h Ion/ [ Ion an# :aria are frien#s? Ion seamLnL cu :aria (e[f :aria seamLnL cu Ion/ [ Ion Mi :aria seamLnL >Ion resembles :aria (e[f :aria resembles Ion/ [ Ion an# :aria resemble each o%her? Ion e %a%Ll :ariei w :aria e %a%Ll lui Ion 3 m Ion Mi :aria sun% %aRi >Ion is :aria?s fa%her w :aria is Ion?s fa%her 3 m Ion an# :aria are fa%hers?
The rela%ion >? is no% s0mme%rical3 '0 #oes no% en%ail %ha% y;$ The rela%ion >[? is of course s0mme%rical$ Therefore %he e;am5les (24,/ can onl0 be e;5laine# if %he rela%ion 9hich la fel #eno%es is >[?$ In%eres%in!l0 %he i%ems 9hich al9a0s have %he >a% leas%? in%er5re%a%ion in #o9n9ar# en%ailin! con%e;%s namel0 att an# aa #o no% allo9 %he in%ernal rea#in! 9i%h 5lurali%ies even if %he0 are in a con%e;% 9hich allo9s %heir com5ara%ive use 9i%hou% tot (see 4$<$1 %05e c/3
(24</ a$ :ihai Mi :ircea nu sun% (%o%/ aMa #e EnalRi w :ihai nu e la fel #e Enal% ca :ircea :ihai an# :ircea no% are tot aa de %all :ihai no% is la fel de %all as :ircea >:ihai an# :ircea are no% e@uall0 %all w :ihai is no% as %all as :ircea? b$ X:ihai Mi :ircea sun% %o% aMa #e EnalRi$ :ihai an# :ircea are tot aa de %all
To conclu#e Romanian has bo%h 5urel0 e@ua%ive #e!ree 9or#s ( la fel% as 9ell as %he some9ha% less fre@uen% deopotriv/ an# #e!ree 9or#s 9hich e;5ress %he >!rea%er or e@ual? rela%ion an# receive %he e@ua%ive in%er5re%a%ion b0 an im5lica%ure (aa% att/$
2C1
The A#6ec%ive
$.). Co65a0.n4 3.ffe0ent 50o5e0t.es The com5ara%ive cons%ruc%ions #iscusse# so far involve com5arison be%9een #e!rees of %he same 5ro5er%0$ There are ho9ever com5ara%ive cons%ruc%ions in 9hich are com5are# %he #e!rees %o 9hich #ifferen% 5ro5er%ies a55l0 %o %he same en%i%0 or %o #ifferen% en%i%ies$ This %05e of com5arison can be in%er5re%e# in %9o 9a0s3 (i/ Direct comparison bet&een de rees3 if %he 5ro5er%ies are commensurable P involve %he same 5h0sical ma!ni%u#e charac%eriAe# b0 %he same measure uni%s P an# have %he same orien%a%ion %he #e!rees of %he %9o 5ro5er%ies can be #irec%l0 com5are#3
(24B/ a$ Camera e mai mul% Enal%L #ecW% la%L room-%he is more much %all %han 9i#e >The hei!h% of %he room e;cee#s %he 9i#%h of %he room? b$ 'iroul e la fel #e Enal% cW% es%e #e la% #es--%he is e@uall0 de %all ho9-much is de 9i#e >The hei!h% of %he #esis %he same as %he 9i#%h of %he #es-? c$ Camera es%e %o% a%W% #e En!us%L cW% es%e #e 6oasL room-%he is tot %ha%-much de narro9 ho9-much is de lo9 >The 9i#%h of %he room is %he same as %he hei!h% of %he room?
(ii/ 5etalin uistic comparison3 %he cons%ruc%ion >; is more P %han 8? can mean "i% is more a55ro5ria%e %o #escribe ; b0 usin! 5ro5er%0 P %han b0 usin! 5ro5er%0 8&$ This im5lies %ha% ; is no% ac%uall0 8 9hereas i% is 5lausible %ha% P hol#s of ;$ The com5ara%ive of e@uali%0 >; is as P as (i% is/ 8? can be use# as a rhe%orical #evice %o s%ress %ha% ; has bo%h 5ro5er%ies %o a consi#erable #e!ree$ In %his me%alin!uis%ic use %he a#6ec%ives nee# no% be commensurable$ Never%heless %here mus% be some com5a%ibili%0 be%9een %hem P ei%her %he0 are bo%h evalua%ive (see (24C/b#/ or %he0 cons%i%u%e #ifferen% 9a0s %o charac%eriAe %he same as5ec% or manifes%a%ion of an en%i%0 (see (24C/a c/$
(24C/ a$ As%a e mai mul% ver#e #ecW% albas%rL %his is more much !reen %han blue >This is more !reen %han (i% is/ blue? b$ 7ra mai mul% frumoasL #ecW% #eM%ea5%L 9as more much beau%iful %han smar% >She 9as more beau%iful %han (she 9as/ smar%? c$ 7ra mai mul% a%rL!L%oare #ecW% frumoasL 9as more much a%%rac%ive %han beau%iful >She 9as more a%%rac%ive %han (she 9as/ beau%iful? #$ 7 %o% a%W% #e 5roas%L 5e cW% e #e urW%L is tot %ha%-much de s%u5i# on ho9-much is de u!l0 >She is 6us% as s%u5i# as (she is/ u!l0? e$ KK 7 mai mul% ro%un#L #ecW% 5es%riRL is more much roun# %han varie!a%e# f$ KK 7 %o% a%W% #e ver#e 5e cW% e #e mare is tot %ha%-much de !reen on ho9-much is de bi!
(iii/ ,omparison of deviation3 in %he e@ua%ive cons%ruc%ion %he com5are# a#6ec%ives can also be an%on0ms a55lie# %o #ifferen% en%i%ies3
(2,=/ a$ :aria e %o% a%W% #e #eM%ea5%L 5e cW% e fra%ele ei #e 5ros% :aria is tot %ha%-much de smar% on ho9-much is bro%her-%he her de s%u5i#
2C2
The A#6ec%ive >:aria is 6us% as smar% as her bro%her is s%u5i#? b$ Sun% acum %o% a%W% #e slab 5e cW% #e !ras eram anul %recu% am no9 tot %ha%-much de %hin on ho9-much de fa% 9as 0ear-%he las% >I am 6us% as much %hin no9 as I 9as fa% las% 0ear?
I% has been claime# %ha% 9ha% is com5are# in %his case is %he #e!ree %o 9hich %he %9o ob6ec%s e;cee# %he s%an#ar# value associa%e# 9i%h %heir res5ec%ive 5ro5er%ies (hence %he name >com5arison of #evia%ion?/I %hus (2,=/a 9oul# mean %ha% %he #e!ree %o 9hich :aria?s in%elli!ence e;cee#s %he s%an#ar# value for in%elli!ence is %he same as %he #e!ree %o 9hich her bro%her?s s%u5i#i%0 e;cee#s %he con%e;%uall0 vali# s%an#ar# value for s%u5i#i%0$ In 7n!lish %his cons%ruc%ion is also available 9i%h com5arison of ine@uali%0$ In Romanian i% is onl0 5ossible 9i%h e@ua%ives$ $.).1. T8e /o65a0at.2e of s15e0.o0.t9 is buil% 9i%h mai mult >more much? ins%ea# of sim5l0 mai an# %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% canno% be in%ro#uce# b0 ca bu% onl0 b0 dect3
(2,+/ a$ 7ra mai mul% Mirea%L g#ecW%/Xcah #eM%ea5%L$ 9as more much cunnin! dect ca smar% >She 9as more cunnin! %han smar%? b$ Camera e mai mul% Enal%L g#ecW%/Xcah la%L$ room-%he is more much %all dect ca 9i#e >The room?s hei!h% e;cee#s i%s 9i#%h?
In %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% verbs a55ear %o be #isallo9e# es5eciall0 in %he me%alin!uis%ic com5arison cons%ruc%ion 9hich ma0 in#ica%e %ha% %he s5ecial seman%ics of %his cons%ruc%ion briefl0 5resen%e# above is also associa%e# 9i%h a s5ecial s%ruc%ure in 9hich %here is no clausal s%ruc%ure P an# 5robabl0 also no #e!ree o5era%or P in %he com5ara%ive com5lemen%3
(2,1/ a$ KK Camera e mai mul% Enal%L #ecW% e la%L room-%he is more much %all %han is 9i#e b$ X :aria e mai mul% frumoasL #ecW% e #eM%ea5%L :aria is more much beau%iful %han is smar%
As sho9n in (2,2/a an# (2,4/ Romanian #oes no% allo9 %he com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 be%9een %9o 5ro5er%ies if %he %9o 5ro5er%ies a55l0 %o #ifferen% en%i%ies$ 7;am5le (2,2/(b/ sho9s %ha% 7n!lish allo9s %his %05e of cons%ruc%ion 9i%h commensurable a#6ec%ives3
(2,2/ a$ X 'iroul e mai (mul%/ lun! #ecW% e masa (#e/ la%L #es--%he is more much lon! %han is %able-%he de 9i#e b$ The #esis lon!er %han %he %able is 9i#e$ (2,4/ X :aria e mai (mul%/ frumoasL #ecW% e Ioana (#e/ #eM%ea5%L :aria is more much beau%iful %han is Ioana de smar%
The cons%ruc%ion mai mult 00 dect can also a55l0 %o verbs an# nominal 5re#ica%es 9i%h %he me%alin!uis%ic com5arison meanin! in#ica%in! %ha% 9hile 5ro5er%0 P can be a55lie# %o %he sub6ec% %he 5ro5er%0 8 canno%$ This use #oes no% even re@uire %ha% %he %9o 5ro5er%ies be !ra#able3 (i/ a$ :ai mul% mWA!WleM%e #ecW% #eseneaAL more much scribbles %han #ra9s b$ :ai mul% se %WrLM%e #ecW% mer!e more much R7FL cra9ls %han 9al-s
2C4
The A#6ec%ive
The sen%ence in (i/ can be 5ara5hrase# b0 >9ha% he is #oin! can be charac%eriAe# ra%her as scribblin! %han as #ra9in!?$ None of %he scalar #imensions of a verb (%ime incremen%al %heme 5a%h in%ensi%0/ is involve# here$ The %9o 5ro5er%ies en%er%ain ho9ever a rela%ion on an evalua%ive scale %he firs% one (%he one 9hich is com5are#/ bein! less value# %han %he secon# (%he s%an#ar# of com5arison/$
$.).2. For t8e /o65a0at.2e of eI1al.t9 %he same #e!ree e;5ressions as for %he s%an#ar# com5arison can be use# (see 4$<$+-4$<$1 above/I ho9ever %he s0n%a; of %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% is s5ecial3 i% mus% con%ain an over% co5ular verb an# %herefore i% canno% be in%ro#uce# b0 ca bu% onl0 b0 ct or pe ct (li%$ on ho9-much/W
(2,,/ a$ :asa es%e %o% a%W% #e lun!L (5e/ cW% es%e #e la%L %able-%he is 6us% %ha%-much de lon! pe ct is de 9i#e >The %able is 6us% as lon! as i% is 9i#e? b$ :asa es%e la fel #e lun!L (5e/ cW% es%e #e la%L %able-%he is e@uall0 de lon! pe ct is de 9i#e >The %able?s le!%h e@uals i%s 9i#%h? c$ X:asa es%e la fel #e lun!L ca la%L %able-%he is e@uall0 de lon! as 9i#e
'esi#es %his %here is a correla%ive cons%ruc%ion pe ct00pe att 9hich #iffers from %he cons%ruc%ions in (2,,/ in %ha% i% is al9a0s in%er5re%e# as me%alin!uis%ic com5arison$ I% is use# as a rhe%orical #evice %o s%ress %ha% an en%i%0 has %9o 5ro5er%ies %o a consi#erable #e!ree3
(2,./ a$ Pe cW% es%e #e 5ros% 5e a%W% es%e #e En!Wmfa% s 7s%e Mi 5ros% Mi En!Wmfa% pe ct is de s%u5i# pe att is de arro!an% is an# s%u5i# an# arro!an% >Oe is 6us% as s%u5i# as he is arro!an%? >Oe is bo%h s%u5i# an# arro!an%? b$ Camera era 5e cW% #e lun!L 5e a%W% #e Enal%L s Camera era Mi lun!L Mi Enal%L room-%he 9as pe ct de lon! pe att de %all room-%he 9as an# lon! an# %all >The room 9as 6us% as lon! as i% 9as %all? >The room 9as bo%h lon! an# %all?
The s0n%a; of %hese correla%ives is similar %o %he s0n%a; of com5ara%ive correla%ives #iscusse# in sec%ion 4$,$4$ If %he com5ara%ive clause 5rece#es %he main clause %he la%%er mus% con%ain Ype attZ fron%e# %o %he firs% 5osi%ion3
(2,</ a$ X Pe cW% era #e 5ros% era 5e a%W% #e En!Wmfa% pe ct 9as$2SG de s%u5i# 9as$2SG pe att de arro!an% b$ Pe cW% era #e 5ros% 5e a%W% era #e En!Wmfa% pe ct 9as$2SG de s%u5i# pe att 9as$2SG de arro!an% >Oe 9as 6us% as s%u5i# as he 9as arro!an%$? c$ Pe cW% era #e #eM%e5% fusese la McoalL 5e a%W% #e 5ros% era la facul%a%e pe ct 9as$2SG de smar% be$PLPF$2SG a% school pe att de s%u5i# 9as$2SG a% colle!e >Oe 9as as smar% in school as he 9as s%u5i# in colle!e?
The com5ara%ive can also a55ear insi#e %he ma%ri; clause imme#ia%el0 before Y pe attZ in case i% onl0 con%ains %he AP (pe ct de H AP %he sub6ec% an# verb bein! eli#e#/ as illus%ra%e# b0 (2,./b above$ If %he com5ara%ive com5lemen% follo9s Y pe attZ can be lef% in si%u P 9hich is a less fre@uen% or#er3
(2,B/ 7ra 5e a%W% #e 5ros% 5e cW% (era/ #e En!Wmfa% 9as$2SG pe att de s%u5i# pe ct 9as$2SG de arro!an% >Oe 9as as s%u5i# as he 9as arro!an%?
Dnli-e for %he com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 %he %9o 5ro5er%ies can be a%%ribu%e# %o #ifferen% 2C,
The A#6ec%ive
en%i%ies in %he case of %he correla%ive cons%ruc%ion (see (2,C/a-b/ or if %he 5ro5er%ies are commensurable (see (2,C/cI %his inclu#es %he com5arison of #evia%ion see (2,=/ above/3
(2,C/ a$ :aria e 5e a%W% #e 5roas%L 5e cW% e fra%ele ei #e #eM%e5% :aria is pe att de s%u5i# pe ct is bro%her-%he her de smar% >:aria is 6us% as s%u5i# as her bro%her is smar%? b$ Pe cW% #e En!Wmfa% era Pe%ru 5e a%W% #e mo#es%L era :onica pe ct de arro!an% 9as$2SG Pe%ru pe att de mo#es% 9as$2SG :onica >Pe%ru is 6us% as arro!an% as :onica 9as mo#es%? c$ :asa es%e gla fel / %o% a%W%h #e la%L 5e cW% es%e #ula5ul #e Enal% %able-%he is e@uall0 tot %ha%-much de 9i#e pe ct is 9ar#robe-%he de %all >The %able is 6us% as 9i#e as %he 9ar#robe is %all?
$.*. T8e s15e0lat.2e $.*.1. T8e 6o058o+s9nta< of t8e s15e0lat.2e In or#er %o in#ica%e %ha% an en%i%0 has %he 5ro5er%0 P %o a !rea%er #e!ree %han all %he o%her en%i%ies of a com5arison class Romanian li-e %he o%her Romance lan!ua!es uses %he com5ara%ive of su5eriori%0 insi#e a #efini%e 5hrase3
(2.=/ 7l e cel mai bun #in%re noi he is %he more !oo# from-amon! us >Oe is %he bes% amon! us?
Al%hou!h i% mi!h% be ar!ue# %ha% in %his cons%ruc%ion bo%h cel an# mai re%ain %heir basic meanin! %here are a number of s5ecial s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies 9hich en%i%le us %o s5ea- of a #is%inc% superlative construction$ This cons%ruc%ion in 9hich %he s%ron! #efini%e ar%icle cel (see Cha5%er 2 sec%ion B/ mus% imme#ia%el0 5rece#e mai ma0 occur in s0n%ac%ic environmen%s in 9hich o%her (or canonical/ De!Ps or APs 9oul# no% occur unless fur%her con#i%ions are sa%isfie#$ Thus celHmaiJAP is common in DP-ini%ial 5osi%ion$ In %he absence of cel %his 5osi%ion is res%ric%e# for mos% @uali%0 a#6ec%ives %o a non-res%ric%ive rea#in! an# %o a li%erar0 s%0le (see sec%ion 2$+ above/ an# com5ara%ives are even less acce5%able3
(2.+/ a$ Am ci%i% cele mai in%eresan%e ar%icole have$+ rea# %he$FPL more in%eres%in!$FPL ar%icles(F/ >I rea# %he mos% in%eres%in! 5a5ers? b$ KK Am ci%i% niM%e in%eresan%e ar%icole have$+ rea# some in%eres%in!$FPL ar%icles(F/ >I rea# some in%eres%in! 5a5ers? c$K Am ci%i% in%eresan%ele ar%icole have$+ rea# in%eres%in!-%he$FPL ar%icles(F/ >I rea# %he in%eres%in! 5a5ers? c$ XAm ci%i% niM%e mai in%eresan%e ar%icole have$+ rea# some more in%eres%in!$FPL ar%icles(F/
,elHmaiJAP can even 5rece#e car#inals a 5osi%ion 9hich is unavailable for an0 o%her APs/De!Ps3
(2.1/ a$ cei mai mari #oi %rans5or%a%ori ru%ieri #e 5asa!eri %he$:PL more bi!$PL %9o %rans5or%ers(:/ b0-roa#$:PL of 5assen!ers (999$au%o!hi#$ro/masini/ar%icole-#es5re-masini//
2C.
The A#6ec%ive >%he %9o bi!!es% 5assen!er roa# %rans5or%ers? b$ X marii #oi %rans5or%a%ori bi!-%he$PL %9o %rans5or%ers(:/ c$ X mai mari #oi %rans5or%a%ori more bi!$PL %9o %rans5or%ers(:/ #$ X aceM%i mai mari #oi %rans5or%a%ori %hese more bi!$PL %9o %rans5or%ers(:/ e$ KK aceM%i mari #oi %rans5or%a%ori %hese bi! %9o %rans5or%ers(:/
,elHmaiJAP can also occur 5os%nominall0 in 9hich case 9e ob%ain a >#ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion?3 %he s%ron! #efini%e ar%icle cel insi#e %he su5erla%ive 5hrase co-occurs 9i%h a #efini%e ar%icle suffi;e# %o %he hea# N$ The #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion is also allo9e# 9i%h o%her APs/De!Ps bu% onl0 un#er s5ecial 5ra!ma%ic con#i%ions (see 2$2/$ Ui%h celJmaiJ AP %hese res%ric%ions #isa55ear$ Pos%nominal su5erla%ives are as common as 5renominal su5erla%ives3
(2.2/ Am cum5Lra% Aiarele cele mai bune / cele mai bune Aiare have$I bou!h% ne9s5a5ers-%he %he more !oo# %he more !oo# ne9s5a5ers >I bou!h% %he bes% ne9s5a5ers?
No%e also %ha% %he 5resence of %he s%rin! celJmaiJAP allo9s a 5ar%i%ive com5lemen% insi#e a #efini%e DP 9hich is o%her9ise sub6ec% %o severe res%ric%ions (see Cha5%er 2 sec%ion 4$4/$ In 5ar%icular %he e;am5le in (2.4/a sho9s %ha% %he 5resence of a com5ara%ive insi#e a #efini%e DP is no% sufficien% for licensin! %he 5ar%i%ive in clear con%ras% 9i%h %he su5erla%ive cons%ruc%ion illus%ra%e# in (2.4/b-c in 9hich %he com5ara%ive is imme#ia%el0 5rece#e# b0 cel3
(2.4/ a$ KK Car%ea mai bunL #in%re cele 5rimi%e boo--%he more !oo# amon! %he receive# >The bes% boo- amon! %hose receive#? b$ Cea mai bunL car%e #in%re cele 5rimi%e %he more !oo# boo- amon! %he receive# >The bes% boo- amon! %hose receive#? c$ Car%ea cea mai bunL #in%re cele 5rimi%e boo--%he %he more !oo# amon! %he receive#
These fac%s allo9 us %o conclu#e %ha% %here is a s5ecial use of cel 9hich 9e ma0 call su5erla%ive in 9hich i% %a-es as a com5lemen% a De!P hea#e# b0 mai$ This im5lies %ha% 9hen i% a55ears in DP-ini%ial 5osi%ion as in (2.+/a (2.4/b cel is no% %he #e%erminer of %he en%ire DP$ As e;5laine# in Cha5%er 2 sec%ion B$2 9e assume %ha% in such cases %he Y celHDe!PZ cons%i%uen% occu5ies S5ecDP3
(2.,/ YDP YS5ec DP cea mai bunLZ Y YDQZ YNPcar%eZZZ
Al%hou!h %here is no over% #efini%e ar%icle in %he D 5osi%ion %he DP in (+CB/ is in%er5re%e# as #efini%e #ue %o %he 5resence in %he S5ec DP 5osi%ion of a cons%i%uen% P %he su5erla%ive P bearin! a #efini%eness fea%ure 9hich is con%ribu%e# b0 cel$ No%ice %ha% 9hen %he su5erla%ive is no% DP-ini%ial %he #efini%e ar%icle mus% a55ear on %he hea# N see (2.2/ (2.4/c$ Fur%her evi#ence %ha% cel forms a cons%i%uen% 9i%h %he De!P ra%her %han bein! %he ar%icle of %he ma%ri; DP comes from a#verbial su5erla%ives3 %he su5erla%ive of a#verbs consis% of cel follo9e# b0 %he com5ara%ive (maiHA#vP/3 2C<
The A#6ec%ive
(2../ Ion a cWn%a% cel mai bine Ion has 5la0e# %he more 9ell >Ion (9as %he one 9ho/ 5la0e# bes%?
Since a#verbs are no% DP-in%ernal cons%i%uen%s cel canno% be consi#ere# %o hea# a DP in such cases$ Romanian has ho9ever a cons%ruc%ion in 9hich 9ha% a55ears %o be a su5erla%ive a#verbial can also be use# %o mar- %he #efini%eness of a DP3 9hen a su5erla%ive a#verb is lef%a%%ache# as a mo#ifier %o an a#nominal 5ar%ici5ial %he 9hole cons%i%uen% YY celHDe!HA#vPZ HPar%ici5leZ can a55ear in S5ecDP an# mar- %he DP as #efini%e$ In %his case cel mus% a!ree 9i%h %he noun hea# behavin! li-e an a#6ec%ival su5erla%ive hea# al%hou!h i% in%ro#uces an a#verb3
(2.</ a$ cele mai bine 5lL%i%e ve#e%e #e la Ooll09oo# %he$FPL more 9ell 5ai#$FPL s%ars(F/ of %o Ooll09oo# >%he bes% 5ai# Ooll09oo# s%ars? b$ cele mai bine co%a%e firme #e 5ublici%a%e %he$FPL more 9ell ran-e#$FPL firms(F/ of a#ver%isin! >%he bes% ran-e# a#ver%isin! firms? c$ unul #in cele mai bine 5Ls%ra%e secre%e #in lume one-%he$: of %he$FPL more 9ell -e5%$FPL secre%s from 9orl# >one of 9orl#?s bes% -e5% secre%s? #$ cele mai #es En%Wlni%e infecRii %he$FPL more of%en encoun%ere#$FPL infec%ions(F/ >%he mos% fre@uen%l0 encoun%ere# infec%ions? e$ cele mai 5ros% vWn#u%e maMini %he$FPL more ba#l0 sol#$FPL cars(F/ >%he 9ors% sol# cars?
This cons%ruc%ion is ver0 5ro#uc%ive in 5resen%-#a0 Romanian$ Never%heless i% is no% acce5%e# b0 %he aca#emic norm for reasons 9hich are e;clusivel0 %heor0-in%ernal (an a#verb canno% a!ree an# YcelHmaiHA#vZ is anal0Ae# as %he su5erla%ive form of %he a#verb/$ If %he 5ar%ici5ial is 5os%nominal a!reemen% is o5%ional 5rovi#e# %ha% %he su5erla%ive is %he firs% cons%i%uen% of %he 5ar%ici5ial 5hrase (see (2.B/I if %he su5erla%ive is no% %he firs% cons%i%uen% of %he 5ar%ici5ial 5hrase a!reemen% is im5ossible (see (2.C//3
(2.B/ a$ infecRiile cele mai #es En%Wlni%e infec%ions-%he$FPL %he$FPL more of%en encoun%ere#$FPL b$ infecRiile cel mai #es En%Wlni%e infec%ions-%he$FPL %he more of%en encoun%ere#$FPL (2.C/ a$ X infecRiile En%Wlni%e cele mai #es infec%ions-%he$FPL encoun%ere#$FPL %he$FPL more of%en b$ infecRiile En%Wlni%e cel mai #es infec%ions-%he$FPL encoun%ere#$FPL %he more of%en
The a!reemen% an# %he 5ossibili%0 of occu50in! S5ecDP mar-in! %he DP as #efini%e can be e;5laine# if 9e assume %ha% 9i%h a!reein! cel mai %a-es as a com5lemen% no% 6us% %he a#verb bu% ra%her %he 9hole YA#vHPar%Z cons%i%uen% in 9hich %he a#verb 5rovi#es %he #e!ree variable on 9hich mai o5era%es3
(2.</_ a$ Ycele Ymai Ybine 5lL%i%eZZZ
2CB
The A#6ec%ive (2.B/_ a$ YceleYmai Y#es En%Wlni%eZZZ
'ein! hea#e# b0 an a!reein! 5ar%ici5le %he A#vHPar% cons%i%uen% has an a#6ec%ival s%a%us$ Therefore %he cons%i%uen%s of %he %05e in (2.</_-(2.B/_ have %he s%a%us of su5erla%ive a#6ec%ives in 9hich cel a!rees an# 9hich can occur in S5ecDP$ This 5ro5osal also e;5lains 9h0 a!reemen% is im5ossible in (2.C/a3 in %his case mai onl0 %a-es %he a#verb as a com5lemen%$ ,elHmaiHA#verb is a su5erla%ive a#verb 9hich canno% a!ree$ $.*.2. T8e se6ant./s of t8e s15e0lat.2e The fac% %ha% in Romanian as 9ell as in o%her lan!ua!es (such as %he o%her Romance lan!ua!es Albanian :o#ern Gree-/ %he su5erla%ive is buil% on %he com5ara%ive can 5robabl0 be e;5laine# b0 i%s seman%ics$ Ue 9ill 5rovi#e here some su!!es%ions$ No%ice %ha% in sen%ences such as (2<=/ %he com5ara%ive alone 9i%hou% cel has %he same meanin! as a su5erla%ive cons%ruc%ion (see (2<+//3
(2<=/ a$ Din%re ei #oi Ion es%e mai Enal% amon! %hem %9o Ion is more %all >Gu% of %he %9o of %hem Ion is %he %alles%? b$ Ion a a#us un ca#ou mai frumos #ecW% %oRi ceilalRi invi%aRi / Ion has brou!h% a 5resen% more beau%iful %han all %he-o%hers !ues%s #ecW% oricare (al%ul/ #in%re invi%aRi %han an0 o%her-%he from !ues%s >Ion brou!h% a more beau%iful 5resen% %han %he o%her !ues%s/an0 o%her !ues%? (2<+/ a$ Ion es%e cel mai Enal% (#in%re ei #oi/ Ion is %he more %all amon! %hem %9o >Ion is %he %alles% (ou% of %he %9o of %hem/? b$ Ion a a#us cel mai frumos ca#ou (#in%re %oRi invi%aRii/ Ion has brou!h% %he more beau%iful 5resen% from all !ues%s-%he >Ion brou!h% %he mos% beau%iful 5resen% (of all %he !ues%s/?
The su5erla%ive charac%eriAes %he #e!ree # as !rea%er %han an0 o%her #e!ree in a se% of #e!rees$ Such a se% of #e!rees is buil% b0 5airin! each #e!ree in %he se% b0 means of a #e!ree #escri5%ion (a free #e!ree rela%ive/ 9i%h an en%i%0 in a con%e;%uall0 #efine# class 9hich 9e 9ill call comparison class$ Thus for (2<+/ 9e have %he follo9in! se%s of #e!rees an# %he follo9in! com5arison classes3
(2<+/_ a$ Se% of #e!rees [g#3 ; C$ ; is #-%allh Com5arison class C [ %he %9o / %he %9o of %hem (e$!$ Ion an# :aria/ b$ Se% of #e!rees [ g#3 ; C$ ; bou!h% a #-beau%iful 5resen%h Com5arison class C [ %he 5eo5le invi%e#
For e;am5le if in (2<+/b %he invi%e# 5eo5le com5rise Ion :aria Dumi%ru an# Sonia %he #e!ree se% 9ill be g#+3 Ion bou!h% a #+-beau%iful 5resen% #13 :aria bou!h% a #1-beau%iful 5resen% #23 Dumi%ru bou!h% a #2-beau%iful 5resen% #43 Sonia bou!h% a #+-beau%iful 5resen%h$ The meanin! of %he %9o sen%ences can be informall0 re5resen%e# as follo9s3
(2<+/__ a$ Ion is %all %o a #e!ree # such %ha% #[ma; g#_3 ; C$ ; is #_-%allh 9here C [ Ion an# ano%her 5erson (e$!$ :aria/ b$ Ion brou!h% %he 5resen% 0 such %ha% 0 is beau%iful %o a #e!ree # such %ha% #[ ma; g#_3 ; C$ ; bou!h% a #_-beau%iful 5resen%h 9here C [ %he invi%e# 5eo5le
2CC
The A#6ec%ive
No9 ho9 is i% 5ossible for %hese su5erla%ive meanin!s %o be e@uivalen% %o %he com5ara%ives in (2<=/K As %hese e;am5les su!!es% %his is because a free #e!ree rela%ive 9hich can a55ear as %he com5lemen% of %he com5ara%ive can choose %he ma;imum #e!ree amon! a se% of #e!rees if %he clause e;5resses a 5lural 5re#ica%ion3
(2<1/ Ion a a#us un ca#ou mai frumos Y#ecW% i au a#us ceilalRi un ca#ou %i #e frumosZ Ion has brou!h% a 5resen% more beau%iful %han have brou!h% o%hers a !if% de beau%iful Y#ecW% au a#us ceilalRi un ca#ou #e frumosZ [ ma; g#_3 ; YY%he o%hersZZ$ ; bou!h% a #_beau%iful 5resen%h
The su5erla%ive is %hus e@uivalen% %o a com5ara%ive 9hich con%ains in %he com5ara%ive clause an ar!umen% of %he form Cg;h 9here C is %he com5arison class an# ; is an ar!umen% 9hich a55ears in %he main clause an# belon!s %o %he com5arison class$ No%ice also %ha% %he o5en 5ro5osi%ion e;5ressin! a se% of #e!rees is buil% base# on ma%erial of %he main clause much in %he same 9a0 as %he com5ara%ive com5lemen%$ The com5arison class can be s5ecifie# b0 a 5ar%i%ive PP as sho9n in (2<+/ above an# in %he e;am5les belo93
(2<2/ a$ cel mai bun g#in%re noi / #in clasL / #in%re au%orii recenRih %he more !oo# from us from class from au%hors-%he recen% >%he bes% amon! us/of %he class/amon! %he recen% au%hors? b$ cel mai bun ac%or #in%re noi %he more !oo# ac%or from us >%he bes% ac%or amon! us? (2<4/ a$ Ion a #a% rLs5unsul cel mai bun #in%re %oRi cei in%ervievaRi Ion has !iven ans9er-%he %he more !oo# amon! all %he in%ervie9e# >Ion !ave %he bes% ans9er amon! ever0bo#0 in%ervie9e#? Com5arison class (C/ [ %he 5ersons in%ervie9e# Se% of #e!rees [g#3 ; C$ ; !ave a #-!oo# ans9erh b$ :aria a 5rimi% 5e#ea5sa cea mai mare #in%re %oRi (acuAaRii/ :aria has receive# 5unishmen%-%he %he more !rea% from all #efen#an%s-%he >:aria !o% %he har#es% 5unishmen% amon! all (%he #efen#an%s/? Com5arison class (C/ [ %he #efen#an%s Se% of #e!rees [ g#3 ; C$ ; receive# a #-har# 5unishmen%h
No%ice %ha% %he 5ar%i%ive in e;am5les such as (2<4/ is no% DP-in%ernal P i% canno% belon! %o %he DP mo#ifie# b0 %he su5erla%ive (%he referen% of rspunsul cel mai bun or pedeapsa cea mai mare #oes no% belon! %o %he 5lurali%0 #eno%e# b0 toi e%c$/$ Ue consi#er %ha% in such cases %he 5ar%i%ive PP is a%%ache# a% %he clausal level an# is seman%icall0 license# b0 %he su5erla%ive$ A%%achmen% a% %he clausal level is 5roven b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o 5lace %he 5ar%i%ive in clauseini%ial 5osi%ion se5ara%e# from %he DP in 9hich %he associa%e# su5erla%ive a55ears3
(2<,/ a$ Din%re %oRi cei in%ervievaRi Ion a #a% rLs5unsul cel mai bun from all %he in%ervie9e# Ion has !iven ans9er-%he %he more !oo# >Amon! all %he in%ervie9e# 5eo5le Ion has !iven %he bes% ans9er? b$ Din%re %oRi :aria a 5rimi% 5e#ea5sa cea mai mare from all :aria has receive# 5unishmen%-%he %he more !rea% >Amon! all :aria !o% %he har#es% 5unishmen%?
Ano%her case in 9hich i% is clear %ha% %he 5ar%i%ive associa%e# 9i%h %he su5erla%ive is no% DPin%ernal is 9i%h a#verbial su5erla%ives3 4==
The A#6ec%ive
(2<./ :ihaela a cWn%a% cel mai bine #in clasL/#in%re %oRi can#i#aRii :ihaela has san! %he more !oo# from class amon! all can#i#a%es-%he >:ihaela 9as %he bes% sin!er in %he class/amon! %he can#i#a%es?
The com5arison class can also be s5ecifie# b0 %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he res% of %he NP %o 9hich %he su5erla%ive belon!s3
(2<</ cea mai bunL car%ea a mea %he more !oo# boo- G7N m0 >m0 bes% boo-? Com5ara%ive class (C/ [ g;3 ; is a boo- of mineh Se% of #e!rees [ g#3 ; C$ ; is #-!oo#h
The com5ara%ive class can also remain une;5resse#$ This fac% %o!e%her 9i%h %he fac% %ha% %he se% of #e!rees al9a0s remains une;5resse# !ives rise %o ambi!ui%ies$ Le% us see some e;am5les$ Firs% in (2<B/ 9e have #ifferen% com5arison classes3
(2<B/ Ion a cum5Lra% cea mai veche car%e Ion has bou!h% %he more ol# boo>Ion bou!h% %he ol#es% boo-? a$ C [ %he boo-s (a con%e;%ual se% of boo-s or all %he boo-s in %he 9orl#/ Se% of #e!rees [g#3 ; C$ ; is #-ol#h b$ C [ a con%e;%ual se% com5risin! Ion an# o%her 5ersons Se% of #e!rees [g#3 ; C$ ; bou!h% a #-ol# boo-h
In (2<C/ %he com5arison class is fi;e# bu% 9e have #ifferen% se%s of #e!rees3
(2<C/ Ion vrea sL cum5ere car%ea cea mai veche (#in%re %oRi/ Ion 9an%s SD'N bu0 boo--%he %he more ol# from all$:PL C [ a con%e;%ual se% com5risin! Ion an# o%her 5ersons a$ Nohn 9an%s %o bu0 a boo- 9hich is / shoul# be ol#er %han an0 of %he boo-s %he o%hers bu0 Nohn 9an%s 9$ he bu0s in 9 a boo- 0 such %ha% #$ol#(0 #/ [ ma; g#3 ; C$ ; bu0s a #-ol# boo- in 9h in 9 ("#e #ic%o&// or in 9= ("#e re&/ Se% of #e!rees [g#3 ; C$ ; bu0s a #-ol# boo- in 9h b$ Nohn 9an%s %o bu0 a boo- 9hich shoul# have a cer%ain a!e 9hich is !rea%er %han %he a!es %he o%hers 9an% %he boo-s %he0 bu0 %o have Se% of #e!rees [g#3 ; C$ ; 9an%s 9$ ; bu0s a #-ol# boo- in 9h
I% has been no%ice# %ha% focus s%ruc%ure can #isambi!ua%e as %he en%i%0 9hich varies across %he #e!ree #escri5%ions %en#s %o corres5on# %o %he focus3
(2B=/ a$ Ion i-a #a% ca#oul cel mai frumos Y:arieiZ Foc Ion her-has !iven 5resen%-%he %he more beau%iful :aria$ DAT >I% as %o :aria %ha% Ion !ave %he mos% beau%iful 5resen%? C [ a con%e;%ual se% com5risin! :aria an# o%her 5ersons Se% of #e!rees [ g#3 ; C$ Ion !ave a #-beau%iful 5resen% %o ;h b$ YIonZFoc i-a #a% ca#oul cel mai frumos :ariei Ion her-has !iven 5resen%-%he %he more beau%iful :aria$ DAT >I% is Ion 9ho !ave %he more beau%iful 5resen% %o :aria? C [ a con%e;%ual se% com5risin! Ion an# o%her 5ersons Se% of #e!rees [ g#3 ; C$ ; !ave a #-beau%iful 5resen% %o :ariah
4=+
The A#6ec%ive
$.1,. On t8e se6ant./s of ot8e0 3e40ee Do03s - "estul >enou!h? ma0 in#ica%e %ha% %he #e!ree is a% leas% as !rea% as %he minimum #e!ree necessar0 %o ob%ain some resul% or %o obe0 some norm$ This resul% or norm can be e;5resse# b0 a 5ur5ose or resul% clause3
(2B+/ a$ 7 #es%ul #e bo!a% 5en%ru a-Mi lua o maMinL is enou!h de rich for %o-himself$DAT !e% a car >Oe is rich enou!h %o !e% himself a car? b$ 7 #es%ul #e #eM%e5% ca sL EnRelea!L is enou!h de smar% %ha% SD'N un#ers%an#$2 >Oe is smar% enou!h %o un#ers%an#?
In %his meanin! destul is s0non0mous 9i%h suficient an# ndea+uns$ Destul also has a non-rela%ional use in 9hich i% in#ica%es %ha% %he #e!ree is close %o %he s%an#ar# of com5arison of %he 5osi%ive form (i$e$ %he minimum #e!ree 9hich allo9s %he use of an a#6ec%ive in %he 5osi%ive form/ an# i% usuall0 in%ro#uces %he 5resu55osi%ion %ha% a #e!ree less %han %his s%an#ar# 9as e;5ec%e# 9hich ma0 e;5lain 9h0 %he De!P bears focal s%ress (see %he b-c e;am5les/$
(2B1/ a$ 7 #es%ul #e mare is enou!h de bi! >I% is bi! enou!h? b$ 7 #es%ul #e CALD as%LAi is enou!h de 9arm %o#a0 >I%?s 9arm enou!h %o#a0? c$ :onica e #es%ul #e SDPaRATa 5e Ro#ica :onica is enou!h de u5se% on Ro#ica >:onica is @ui%e u5se% 9i%h Ro#ica?
- !rea >%oo? in#ica%es %ha% %he #e!ree e;cee#s %he ma;imum #e!ree nee#e# %o ob%ain some resul% or %o obe0 %o some norm$ This resul% or norm can be e;5resse# b0 a 5ur5ose or resul% clause3
(2B2/ a$ 7 5rea bL%rWn ca sL mai cLlL%oreascL aMa #e5ar%e is %oo ol# %ha% SD'N more %ravel so far >Oe is %oo ol# %o %ravel so far? b$ Ches%iunea e 5rea am5lL 5en%ru a 5u%ea fi #iscu%a%L aici issue-%he is %oo broa# for %o can be #iscusse# here >The issue is %oo broa# %o be #iscusse# here?
Seman%icall0 prea is %he o55osi%e of destul$ Since prea e;5resses e;cess preaHAP behaves as an absolu%e a#6ec%ive 9i%h a minimum s%an#ar# (see sec%ion 4$2/ 9hich allo9s %he De!P %o receive mo#ifiers in#ica%in! closeness %o %he minimum s%an#ar# P un pic >a li%%le? uor >sli!h%l0? cam >ra%her?3
(2B4/ a$ 7 un 5ic 5rea bL%rWn is a li%%le %oo ol# >Oe is a li%%le %oo ol#? b$ 7 uMor 5rea mare is sli!h%l0 %oo bi!
4=1
The A#6ec%ive >I%?s sli!h%l0 %oo bi!? c$ 7 cam 5rea vorbLreR is ra%her %oo cha%%0 >Oe is a bi% %oo cha%%0?
- Foarte >ver0? in#ica%es a #e!ree 9hich s%an#s ou% as !rea% amon! %hose #e!rees 9hich allo9 %he use of %he a#6ec%ive in %he 5osi%ive form$ In formal %erms i% in%ro#uces a com5arison class 9hich inclu#es onl0 en%i%ies 9hich have %he 5ro5er%0 in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree an# charac%eriAes %he #e!ree as !rea%er %han %he avera!e #e!ree of %his com5arison class$ I%s seman%ics is %hus similar %o %ha% of %he 5osi%ive #e!reeI i% is #is%in!uishe# from i% b0 %he fac% %ha% %he com5ara%ive class i%self is ob%aine# b0 %he a55lica%ion of %he 5osi%ive #e!ree func%ion (see 1$2$+ on %he seman%ics of %he 5osi%ive #e!ree/$ - )e >ho9?(li%$ 9ha%/ also 5resu55oses %ha% %he #e!ree is a% leas% as hi!h as %he s%an#ar# for %he 5osi%ive #e!ree$ In %he e;clama%ive use %he #e!ree of %he 5ro5er%0 is 5resen%e# as sur5risin!3
(2B,/ Ce Enal% e Iond ho9 %all is Ion >Oo9 %all is Ion?
'esi#es %his use i% can also a55ear in subor#ina%e clauses$ In %his case i% re%ains i%s hi!h #e!ree meanin! su!!es%in! %ha% %he clause shoul# be anal0Ae# as an in#irec% e;clama%ive3
(2B./ a$ Nu M%iam ce Enal% e Ion s Ion e #eosebi% #e Enal% no% -ne9 ho9 %all is Ion Ion is es5eciall0 of %all >I #i#n?% -no9 ho9 %all is Ion s Ion is es5eciall0 %all? b$ X :L En%reb ce Enal% e Ion me 9on#er$I ho9 %all is Ion
This e;5lains %he im5ossibili%0 of %rue in#irec% @ues%ions as in (2B./b as in %hese cases %he value of %he #e!ree is no% -no9n$ Com5are %he 9h- #e!ree 9or# ct 9hich is allo9e# in %his case3
(2B</ :L En%reb cW% #e Enal% es%e Ion R7FL 9on#er$I ho9-much de %all is Ion >I 9on#er ho9 %all is Ion?
- Gn %he seman%ics of %he a55ro;ima%ion mo#ifier cam see *4$4$+$ $.11. Meas10e 580ases= /o65a0at.2e /la1ses an3 /o65a0at.2e PPs In %he 5revious sec%ions 9e have 5resen%e# %he s5ecifica%ion of %he #e!ree b0 means of #e!ree hea#s or #e!ree e;5ressions si%ua%e# in S5ecDe!P in %he de- cons%ruc%ion$ 'u% %he #e!ree can also be s5ecifie# b0 a 5hrasal cons%i%uen% 5lace# on %he ri!h% of %he a#6ec%ive 9hich ma0 be anal0Ae# as an a#6unc%$ Such cons%i%uen%s are of %9o %05es3 (a/ 5easure p!rases are nominal 5ro6ec%ions sa%ura%in! %he #e!ree variable ob%aine# b0 combinin! a noun e;5ressin! %he measure uni% 9i%h a numeric s5ecifica%ion3
(2BB/ a$ Enal% #e Aece me%ri %all de %en me%ers >%en me%ers %all? b$ vechi #e Aece Aile
4=2
The A#6ec%ive ol# de %en #a0s >%en #a0s ol#?
:easure 5hrases are onl0 foun# 9i%h measurable 5re#ica%es 9hich are a sub-%05e of scalar 5re#ica%es$ Gnl0 for %hese 5re#ica%es is an e;ac% s5ecifica%ion of a #e!ree b0 a numeric value 5ossible$ Fur%her res%ric%ions on %he combina%ion of a#6ec%ives #eno%in! measurable 5ro5er%ies 9i%h measure 5hrases have been #iscusse# in sec%ion 4$1 above (see %he #iscussion aroun# e;am5les (+B</ %o (+C1//$ :easure 5hrases are no% res%ric%e# %o a#6ec%ival or a#verbial 5ro6ec%ions$ This fac% as 9ell as %he fac% %ha% %he0 are 5hrasal (com5ose# of car#inal H noun/ su55or% an anal0sis as a#6unc%s (mo#ifiers/$ In Romanian %he0 are in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion de >of? 9hen mo#if0in! APs an# NPs an# are no% in%ro#uce# b0 an0 5re5osi%ion 9hen mo#if0in! VPs$ Li-e mos% 5hrasal mo#ifiers %he0 follo9 %he le;ical hea# (%he0 are ri!h%-a#6oine#/$
(2BC/ a$ A vorbi% la %elefon #ouL ore has s5o-en %o 5hone %9o hours >(S/he s5o-e on %he 5hone for %9o hours? b$ Am Enain%a% %rei su%e #e me%ri have$+ a#vance# %hree hun#re#s of me%ers >I move# %hree hun#re# me%ers fur%her? c$ #rum/ %urn #e %rei su%e #e me%ri roa# %o9er of %hree hun#re#s of me%ers >a %hree hun#re# me%ers roa#/%o9er? #$ lun!/Enal%/la% #e %rei su%e #e me%ri lon! %all 9i#e of %hree hun#re#s of me%ers >%hree hun#re# me%ers lon!/%all/9i#e?
8uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions ma0 also func%ion as measure mo#ifiers$ In %his case insi#e NPs an# APs onl0 %he @uan%i%a%ives att >so much? an# ct >ho9 much? are allo9e# 9hile o%her 5osi%ions (insi#e VPs or com5ara%ive De!Ps see sec%ion 4$,$1/ also allo9 %he @uan%i%a%ives mult >much? puin >fe9 li%%le? destul >enou!h? an# ce >ho9? (e;clama%ive/3
(2C=/ a$ A vorbi% la %elefon gmul% / 5uRin / a%W% / #es%ulh/ CW% a vorbi%K / has s5o-en %o 5hone much li%%le %ha%-much enou!h ho9-much has s5o-en Ce-a mai vorbi%d ho9-has more s5o-en >(S/he s5o-e on %he 5hone a lo%/a li%%le/%ha% much/enou!h$ / Oo9 lon! #i# (s/he s5ea-K /(S/he s5o-e so muchd b$ Am Enain%a% gmul% / 5uRin / a%W% / #es%ulh/ CW% am Enain%a%K / have$+ a#vance# much li%%le %ha%-much enou!h ho9-much have$+ a#vance# Ce-am mai Enain%a%d ho9-have$+ more a#vance# >I a#vance# a lo%/ a lii%le/%ha% much/enou!h$ / Oo9 much #i# I a#vanceK / I a#vance# so muchd? c$ g#rum/ %urnh #e a%W% / cW% / Xmul% / X5uRin / X#es%ul / Xce roa# %o9er of %ha%-much ho9-much much li%%le enou!h ho9 #$ glun!/Enal%/la%h #e a%W% / cW% / Xmul% / X5uRin / X#es%ul / Xce lon! %all 9i#e of %ha%-much ho9-much much li%%le enou!h ho9
The in%en#e# meanin!s of %he unacce5%able combina%ions in (2C=/# are e;5resse# b0 #irec%l0 a%%achin! %he #e!ree 9or# before %he AP (see (2C+// an# in %he case of mult an# puin b0 usin! %he 5osi%ive form of %he a#6ec%ive or of i%s an%on0m (see (2C1//3
4=4
The A#6ec%ive (2C+/ a$ #es%ul #e lun!/ Enal%/ la% enou!h de lon! %all 9i#e >lon!/%all/9i#e enou!h? b$ ce lun!/ Enal%/la% ho9 lon! %all 9i#e (2C1/ a$ lun!/ Enal%/la% [ Xlun!/Enal%/la% #e mul% lon! %all 9i#e lon! %all 9i#e de much b$ scur%/scun#/En!us% [ X lun!/Enal%/ la% #e 5uRin shor% shor% narro9 [ lon! %all 9i#e de li%%le
For (2C=/c an a#6ec%ive 9hich e;5resses %he relevan% scalar 5ro5er%0 of %he noun is use# in %he 5osi%ive or 9i%h a #e!ree 9or#3
(2C2/ a$ #rum lun! / scur% (2C4/ roa# lon! shor% b$ %urn Enal% / scun# mic %o9er %all shor% small c$ #rum #es%ul #e lun!/scur% roa# enou!h of lon! shor% #$ ce lun!/scur% #rum 9ha% lon! shor% roa#
(b/ Pree de ree relatives (or comparative clauses/ and comparative //s 9hich have been #iscusse# in sec%ions 4$,$+ an# 4$< of%en a55ear 9i%h #e!ree 9or#s in %he com5ara%ive cons%ruc%ions$ The0 can ho9ever also a55ear 9i%hou% an0 associa%e# #e!ree 9or#$ In %his case usuall0 %he a#6ec%ive is in%er5re%e# as if bein! in %he 5osi%ive #e!ree (see (2C.// unless %he in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% is ct (see (2C,//3
(2C,/ a$ mare cW% %rebuie bi! ho9-much mus% >as bi! as nee#e#? b$ 'LieRelul era Enal% cW% sora lui li%%le-bo0-%he 9as %all ho9-much sis%er-%he his >The li%%le bo0 9as as %all as his sis%er? (2C./ a$ A5a e cal#L ca ieri 9a%er-%he is 9arm as 0es%er#a0 >The 9a%er is as 9arm as 0es%er#a0? b$ 7 frumos 5recum un vis Em5lini% is beau%iful li-e a #ream fulfille# >I%?s as beau%iful as a #ream come %rue? c$ :aria e frumoasL ca o ca#rL :aria is beau%iful as a 5ic%ure >:aria is as beau%iful as a 5ic%ure?
%. T8e /o65le6entat.on of a37e/t.2es

A#6ec%ives can e;5ress rela%ions in 9hich case all %he ar!umen%s e;ce5% %he e;%ernal one are e;5resse# b0 complements i$e$ cons%i%uen%s sub-ca%e!oriAe# b0 %he a#6ec%ival hea#$ As a#6ec%ival 5hrases #o no% license a s%ruc%ural case (a case charac%eris%ic for %he a#6ec%ival environmen%I see *+$1 above/ %he com5lemen%s of a#6ec%ives are in%ro#uce# b0 5re5osi%ions or obli@ue case forms (Romanian onl0 has %he #a%ive as an obli@ue case/$ There is onl0 one a#6ec%ive 9hich %a-es a com5lemen% 9i%hou% an in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% 9hich 9ill be #iscusse# in a se5ara%e sec%ion (*,$2/$ 4=,
The A#6ec%ive
Oere are some 5reliminar0 e;am5les of com5lemen%-%a-in! a#6ec%ives3

(2C</ a$ avi# #e succes !ree#0 of success b$ a5ro5ia% nouL close us$DAT c$ a%en% la 5rofesor a%%en%ive %o %eacher >5a0in! a%%en%ion %o %he %eacher? #$ ca5abil sL s5unL %o% / #e a fi ferici% ca5able SD'N %ells ever0%hin! of %o be ha550 >ca5able of %ellin! ever0%hin!/of bein! ha550?
In %he follo9in! 9e 9ill 5resen% %he ma6or %05es of com5lemen%s of a#6ec%ives classifie# accor#in! %o %heir ca%e!or0 an# in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% P #a%ive-mar-e# DPs DPs in%ro#uce# b0 5re5osi%ions non-fini%e an# fini%e clauses$ A !eneral 5ro5er%0 9hich hol#s for all %05es P an# %herefore shall no% be re5ea%e# for each %05e belo9 P is %ha% %he a#6ec%ives #erive# from verbs 9hich selec% an obli@ue ar!umen% (#a%ive or PP/ normall0 main%ain %he selec%ional fea%ure of %he base (%he a#6ec%ival suffi; is un#erline# in %he e;am5les/3
(2CB/ a$ a %ransfera au%oriAaRia 1n1. alt 50o50.eta0 %o %ransfere license-%he a$DAT o%her o9ner >%o %ransfer %he license %o a #ifferen% o9ner? b$ au%oriAaRie %ransferabilL 1n1. alt 50o50.eta0 license %ransferable a$DAT o%her o9ner >license %ransferable %o a #ifferen% o9ner? a$ S%a%ul #e5in#ea 3e t10/. s%a%e-%he #e5en#e# of Tur-s >The s%a%e 9as #e5en#en% on %he Tur-s? b$ s%a% #e5en#en% 3e t10/. s%a%e #e5en#en% of Tur-s >s%a%e #e5en#en% on %he Tur-s? a$ Ra5or%ul se referL la /0.Ba 3ato0..lo0 re5or%-%he R7FL refers %o crisis-%he #eb%s-%he$G7N >The re5or% refers %o %he #eb% crisis (is abou% %he #eb% crisis/? b$ ra5or% referi%or la /0.Ba 3ato0..lo0 re5or% referrin! %o crisis-%he #eb%s-%he$G7N >Re5or% referrin! %o %he #eb% crisis? a$ Aces% 5oli%ician 5ersis%L Nn 6.n/.1n. %his 5oli%ician 5ersis%s in lies b$ 5oli%ician 5ersis%en% Nn 6.n/.1n. 5oli%ician 5ersis%en% in lies a$ :arius 5of%eM%e la 31l/.10. :arius has-an-a55e%i%e a% s9ee%s >:arius has an a55e%i%e for s9ee%s? b$ :arius e 5of%icios la 31l/.10. :arius is !ree#0 a% s9ee%s >:arius has an a55e%i%e for s9ee%s?
(2CC/
(4==/
(4=+/
(4=1/
Ano%her !eneral 5ro5er%0 of com5lemen%-%a-in! a#6ec%ives is %he 5ossibili%0 %o a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion 9hich sho9s %ha% %he0 belon! %o %he class of in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives$
4=.
The A#6ec%ive
%.1. Dat.2e /o65le6ents The follo9in! %05es of a#6ec%ives %a-e #a%ive com5lemen%s3 (i/ A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! s5a%ial an# %em5oral rela%ions3 adiacent >a#6acen%? anterior >5revious? apropiat >close? (see also (vii/b/ e'terior >e;%erior? interior >in%erior? +u'tapus >6u;%a5ose#? posterior >5os%erior subse@uen%? prealabil >5rior? precedent >5rior 5rece#in!? pree'istent >5ree;is%en%? premer tor >5rior 5rece#in!? (#erive# from premer e >5rece#e? 9hich also %a-es %he #a%ive/ ulterior >subse@uen%?$ Ue ma0 inclu#e here a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! abs%rac% meanin!s #erive# from s5a%ial rela%ions3 aferent >a%%achin! %o accruin! %o? inerent >inheren%? prealabil >5re-re@uisi%e 5re5ara%or0?$ (ii/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! hierarchical rela%ions (9hich are also some%imes #erive# from s5a%ial rela%ions/3 inferior >inferior? superior >su5erior? secundar >secon#ar0? subordonat >subor#ina%e?$ These a#6ec%ives can also %a-e %he com5le; 5re5osi%ion fa de >(com5are#/ %o 9i%h res5ec% %o?$ (iii/ A#6ec%ives rela%in! a 5ro5er%0 or en%i%0 %o a #omain 9here %he #a%ive in%ro#uces %his #omain e$!$ trsturi comune limbilor slave i baltice "fea%ures common %o %he Slavic an# 'al%ic lan!ua!es&3 caracteristic >carac%eris%ic? comun >common? particular >5eculiar? intrinsec >in%rinsic? propriu >5eculiar s5ecific? specific >s5ecific 5eculiar? tipic >%05ical charac%eris%ic?$ The a#6ec%ives caracteristic% specific% tipic% propriu can also combine 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ion pentru >for?$ The a#6ec%ive constitutiv >cons%i%uen% essen%ial (of/? 9hich %a-es %he #a%ive al%hou!h i% is rela%e# %o a %ransi%ive verb (constitui >ma-e u5?/ 5robabl0 also belon!s %o %his %05e (e$!$ element constitutiv vieii >elemen% 9hich ma-es u5 life?/$ (iv/ A#6ec%ives 9i%h a 5ur5ose or benefac%ive/malefac%ive ar!umen% mar-e# b0 %he #a%ive3 adecvat >a#e@ua%e? avanta+os >5rofi%able? duntor >harmful in6urious? (#erive# from %he #a%ive-%a-in! verb duna >%o 5re6u#ice harm?/ fatal >fa%al? favorabil >5ro5i%ious? impropriu >ina#e@ua%e unfi%? inadecvat >ina#e@ua%e? inapt >una5%? indispensabil >in#is5ensable? necesar >necessar0? nefast >unfor%una%e ill-fa%e#? nefavorabil >unfavorable? p ubitor >#e%rimen%al 5re6u#icial?% prielnic >5ro5i%ious? propice >5ro5i%ious? suficient >sufficien%? util >useful (%o somebo#0/? vital >vi%al (for/?$ Ue ma0 inclu#e in %his class a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! (5ossibili%0 of/ access3 accesibil >accessible? permeabil >5ermeable? desc!is >o5en (for/? (a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5le of desc!ide >%o o5en?/ nc!is >close# (for/? (a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5le of nc!ide >%o close?/$ The 5ur5ose ar!umen% can al9a0s be also in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion pentru >for?3
(4=2/ in#is5ensabil lec%urii / 5en%ru lec%urL in#is5ensable rea#in!-%he$DAT for rea#in!
/entru can also be use# 9i%h 5ersons 9hich are benefac%ive/malefac%ive ar!umen%s bu% 9i%h some a#6ec%ives %he #a%ive is 5referre# (util >useful? necesar >necessar0? favorabil >5ro5i%ious? e%c$/$ Some a#6ec%ives can %a-e a benefac%ive #a%ive an# a 5ur5ose pentru (>for?/-PP or la (>%o?/-PP3 prielnic nou >5ro5i%ious us$DAT? vreme prielnic pentru plimbare >%ime !oo# for 9al-in!? folositor$util cuiva >useful somebo#0$DAT? folositor$util la ceva >useful %o some%hin!? $ Some%imes bo%h ar!umen%s a55ear a% %he same %ime3
(4=4/ a$ lucruri necesare nouL 5en%ru EncLlAire %hin!s necessar0 us$DAT for hea%in! b$ Nu mi-e bun la nimic no% me$DAT is !oo# %o no%hin!
4=<
The A#6ec%ive >I%?s no !oo# %o me?
(v/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! an a%%i%u#e (of %he e;%ernal ar!umen%/ %o9ar#s a 5erson or %hin! (e;5resse# b0 %he #a%ive/3 binevoitor >9ell-#is5ose# benevolen%? credincios >fai%hful lo0al? devotat >#evo%e#? fidel >lo0al fai%hful? ndatoritor >obli!in!? loial >lo0al? ostil >hos%ile? potrivnic >hos%ile? refractar >im5ervious? recunosctor >!ra%eful? vr+ma >hos%ile?$ In man0 cases %he ar!umen% e;5resse# b0 %he #a%ive can also be in%ro#uce# b0 %he com5le; 5re5osi%ion fa de >9i%h res5ec% %o? (see *,$1$< belo9/$ (vi/ A#6ec%ives %a-in! an 7;5eriencer ar!umen% 9hich is mar-e# b0 %he #a%ive3 (vi$a/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! affec%ive rela%ions feelin!s3 dra >#ear? scump >belove#? urt >ha%e#? antipatic >re5u!nan% unli-able? simpatic >li-eable nice? ataat >a%%ache#? plcut >5leasan%? dureros >5ainful? indiferent >in#ifferen%?I (vi$b/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! in%ellec%ual rela%ions (-no9le#!e/3 cunoscut >-no9n? (a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5le of %he verb cunoate >-no9?/ familiar >familiar?I on %heir mo#el o%her a#6ec%ives e;ce5%ionall0 combine 9i%h %he #a%ive3 credibil >5lausible? inedit >novel un-no9n before? nebulos >obscure? inteli ibil >in%elli!ible?$ Ui%h o%her a#6ec%ives %he e;5eriencer can also be %he e;%ernal ar!umen% see e;am5les in ,$1$1$-,$1$2 belo9$ 7;ce5%ionall0 one an# %he same a#6ec%ive a55ears in bo%h 5a%%erns3
(4=,/ a$ :aria Emi es%e in#iferen%L 3 Da%ive 7;5eriencer 7;%$ Ar!$ Theme :aria me$CL$DAT is in#ifferen% >I have no feelin! abou% :aria? b$ :aria es%e in#iferen%L la insul%e 3 7;%$ Ar!$ 7;5eriencer la-PP Theme :aria is insensi%ive %o insul%s
(vi$c/ A s5ecial 5a%%ern a55ears 9hen %he Theme ar!umen% is a clause$ In %his case %he a#6ec%ive can onl0 a55ear in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion$ As clauses #o no% behave s0n%ac%icall0 as sub6ec%s %he #a%ive 7;5eriencer ac@uires a sub6ec%-li-e behavior in %ha% i% usuall0 5rece#es %he co5ular verb3
(4=./ a$ `mi es%e !reu sL acce5% as%a me$CL$DAT is har# SD'N acce5%$+SG %his >I%?s har# %o me %o acce5% %his? b$ :ariei Ei es%e uMor sL min%L :aria her$CL$DAT is eas0 SD'N lies >For :aria i% is eas0 %o lie?
:oreover %his %05e of #a%ive is necessaril0 cli%ic-#ouble#3

(4=</ Nu X(-i/ va fi !reu nimLnui sL AWmbeascL no% (2SG$CL$DAT/ 9ill be har# nobo#0$ DAT SD'N smiles >Nobo#0 9ill fin# i% har# %o smile?
G%her e;am5les of a#6ec%ives of %his %05e 9hich %a-e clausal Themes are dificil >#ifficul%? penibil >a9-9ar# embarrassin!? neplcut >un5leasan%?$ E al >e@ual? a55ears in %his cons%ruc%ion 9i%h %he s5ecial meanin! >(be/ in#ifferen% all %he same ma-e no #ifference (9he%her/?3
(4=B/ :i-e e!al #acL rLmWi sau 5leci me$CL$DAT-is e@ual 9he%her s%a0$1SG or leave$1SG >I%?s all %he same %o me if 0ou s%a0 or !o?
4=B
The A#6ec%ive
Ue ma0 inclu#e here a#6ec%ives 9hich onl0 %a-e a Da%ive e;5eriencer lac-in! an e;%ernal ar!umen% such as bine >!oo#? (a s5ecial form of bun >!oo#? use# 9hen %he a#6ec%ive lac-s a con%roller of a!reemen%/ ru >ba# sic-? cald >9arm? rece >col# chill0?3
(4=C/ :i-e rLu / cal# / bine / rece me$CL$DAT-is ba# / 9arm / !oo# col# >I?m sic- / 9arm / fine / col#?
In %his cons%ruc%ion %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion is of%en occu5ie# b0 a noun see cha5%er 1 *<$4$
Accor#in! %o a recen% anal0sis %his %05e of #a%ive e;5eriencer is !enera%e# as %he sub6ec% of a s5ecial 5re#ica%ive cons%ruc%ion 9hich rela%es a (5s0cholo!ical/ s%a%e %o %he bearer of %ha% s%a%e$ In %his anal0sis i% is no% %he a#6ec%ive i%self 9hich selec%s %he #a%ive case bu% %he 5re#ica%ive hea#$ The #a%ive is s%ill an ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive bu% i% is an e'ternal ar!umen% ra%her %han a com5lemen% of A$
7;ce5%ionall0 an a#6ec%ive in %his cons%ruc%ion %a-es a Theme ar!umen% e;5resse# b0 a de(>of?/ PP3
(4+=/ :i-e #ra! #e ei me$DAT-is #ear of %hem >I feel love for %hem?
(vii/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! inheren%l0 s0mme%rical rela%ions$ A rela%ional 5re#ica%e P is inheren%l0 s0mme%rical if for an0 ; 0 if P(; 0/ is %rue %han P(0 ;/ is also %rue (see (4++/a/$ Such 5re#ica%es can also %a-e a sin!le 5lural ar!umen% in 9hich case %he s0mme%rical rela%ion P hol#s be%9een %he members of %ha% 5lurali%0 (see (4++/b/$
(4++/ a$ Punc%ul A Ei es%e o5us 5unc%ului ' s Punc%ul ' Ei es%e 5oin%-%he A 2SG$DAT$CL is o55osi%e 5oin%-%he$DAT ' 5oin%-%he ' 2SG$DAT$CL is o5us 5unc%ului A o55osi%e 5oin%-%he$DAT A >The 5oin% A is o55osi%e %o %he 5oin% '? s >The 5oin% ' is o55osi%e %o %he 5oin% A? b$ Punc%ele A Mi ' sun% o5use 5oin%s-%he A an# ' are o55osi%e >The 5oin%s A an# ' are o55osi%e?
The normal 9a0 of e;5ressin! %he com5lemen% of a s0mme%ric 5re#ica%e is %he 5re5osi%ion cu "9i%h& bu% man0 a#6ec%ival s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es also allo9 %he #a%ive an# some of %hem %a-e only %he #a%ive or choose be%9een %he #a%ive an# a #ifferen% 5re5osi%ion3 (vii$a/ A#6ec%ives 9hich %a-e ei%her cu >9i%h? or %he #a%ive3 analo >analo!ous? asemntor >similar? complementar >com5lemen%ar0? (9hich can also combine 9i%h fa de >9i%h res5ec% %o?/ cone' >rela%e# connec%e#? conform >consonan%?% corespun(tor >corres5on#en%? ec!ivalent >e@uivalen%?I (vii$a_/ A#6ec%ives 9hich normall0 %a-e cu >9i%h? bu% can also %a-e %he #a%ive3 contemporan >con%em5orar0? corelativ >correla%ive? e al >e@ual? identic >i#en%ical? similar >similar? vecin >nei!hborin!?I (vii$b/ A#6ec%ives 9hich %a-e ei%her %he #a%ive or %he 5re5osi%ion de >of?3 apropiat >close? (9i%h %he #a%ive es5eciall0 9hen referrin! %o in%er5ersonal rela%ions in a me%a5horical use/I (vii$c/ A#6ec%ives 9hich can %a-e ei%her %he #a%ive or %he com5le; 5re5osi%ion fa de 4=C
The A#6ec%ive
>com5are# %o 9i%h res5ec% %o?I some of %hem onl0 e;ce5%ionall0 allo9 cu >9i%h?3 contrar >con%rar0 o55osi%e? (selec%ion of cu >9i%h? is re!ular 9hen contrar >con%rar0? func%ions as an a#verb/ opus >o55osi%e?I o%hers #o no% seem %o allo9 cu a% all3 invers >inverse?% anta onic >an%a!onis%ic? strin >alien? (strin >alien? can also %a-e de >of? 9hen i% has no% a s0mme%rical rea#in!/$ Some of %hese a#6ec%ives have #erive# meanin!s for 9hich %he s0mme%r0 5ro5er%0 ma0 no% hol# P e$!$ Acest lucru mi este strin >This %hin! is alien %o me? 9here alien(; 0/ means %ha% ; #oes no% -no9 sufficien%l0 abou% 0$ Li-e9ise opus >o55osi%e? can also mean >o55osin! hos%ile?$ (viii/ A#6ec%ives 9i%h meanin!s rela%e# %o %ransfer an# 5ossession3 dator >o9in! in#eb%e#? (9hich can also %a-e an accusa%ive com5lemen% e;5ressin! 9ha% is o9e# see *,$2/ prta >5ar%a-in!? (normall0 combinin! 9i%h la/$ (i;/ G%her3 consecvent >consis%en%? his%oricall0 rela%e# %o %he verb >%o follo9? can %a-e ei%her %he #a%ive or (more of%en/ %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h?$ Uhere %here is a choice be%9een %he #a%ive an# a 5re5osi%ion %he #a%ive is mos%l0 use# in %he 9ri%%en re!is%er$ Uhen %he a#6ec%ival 5hrase occu5ies %he 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion of a co5ular verb a 5ronominal #a%ive can be realiAe# as a cli%ic or be cli%ic-#ouble# (see also (4=,/a (4=./(4=C/ (4++/a/3
(4+1/ a$ Soar%a ne es%e 5o%rivnicL fa%e-%he us$CL$DAT is hos%ile >Fa%e is a!ains% us? b$ Soar%a (Ei/ era 5o%rivnicL fe%ei fa%e-%he (2SG$DAT$CL/ 9as hos%ile !irl-%he$DAT >Fa%e 9as a!ains% %he !irl?
If %he a#6ec%ive is a#nominal #a%ive 5ersonal an# refle;ive 5ronouns a55ear onl0 in %he s%ron! form 9i%hou% bein! #ouble# 9hich is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% cli%ic movemen% canno% %ar!e% a 5hrase embe##e# insi#e a DP or a NP3
(4+2/ 7 un 5o5or foar%e asemLnL%or nouL is a 5eo5le ver0 similar us$DAT >I%?s a na%ion ver0 similar %o us?
%.2. P0e5os.t.onal /o65le6ents %.2.1. T8e 50e5os.t.on cu ,$1$+$+$ The 5re5osi%ion cu 9i%h s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es As 9e have seen in %he 5revious sec%ion (*,$+/ %he PP in%ro#uce# b0 cu >9i%h? is %he normal 9a0 of e;5ressin! %he com5lemen% of (inheren%l0/ s0mme%ric 5re#ica%esI 9e resume %he hallmar-s of inheren%l0 s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es (#escribe# in *,$+ above see (4++// b0 an e;am5le 9i%h an a#6ec%ive %a-in! cu >9i%h?3
(4+4/ a$ As%LAi Aiua es%e e!alL cu noa5%ea s As%LAi noa5%ea es%e e!alL cu Aiua %o#a0 #a0-%he is e@ual 9i%h ni!h%-%he %o#a0 ni!h%-%he is e@ual 9i%h ni!h%-%he b$ As%LAi Aiua Mi noa5%ea sun% e!ale %o#a0 #a0-%he an# ni!h%-%he are e@ual b_$ Toa%e aces%e linii sun% e!ale all %hese lines are e@ual
4+=
The A#6ec%ive
Oere are e;am5les of a#6ec%ives #eno%in! s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es 9hich combine 9i%h cu3 analo >analo!ous? analo >analo!ous? asemntor >similar? comparabil >com5arable? compatibil >com5a%ible? complementar >com5lemen%ar0? concomitent >concomi%an%? concordant >concor#an%? cone' >rela%e# connec%e#? conform >consonan%?% con ruent >con!ruen%? contemporan >con%em5orar0? corelativ >correla%ive? corespun(tor >corres5on#en%? ec!ivalent >e@uivalen%? e al >e@ual? identic >i#en%ical? incompatibil >incom5a%ible? nrudit >co!na%e? omonim >homon0mous? paralel >5arallel? proporional >5ro5or%ional? simetric >s0mme%rical? similar >similar? simultan >simul%aneous? sincron >s0nchronic? sinonim >s0non0mous? tan ent >%an!en%? vecin >nei!hborin!?$ As 9e have seen in *,$+ %here are some e;ce5%ions %o %he realiAa%ion of %he ar!umen% of a s0mme%ric a#6ec%ive b0 a PP in cu >9i%h?3 some s0mme%ric a#6ec%ives onl0 %a-e %he #a%ive or %he com5le; 5re5osi%ion fa de >9i%h res5ec% %o? (anta onic >an%a!onis%ic? strin >alien? P in %he s0mme%ric rea#in!/ o%hers %a-e %he #a%ive or %he 5re5osi%ion de >of? (apropiat >close? deprtat >far?/$ There are also s0mme%ric a#6ec%ives 9hich onl0 %a-e de >of?3 diferit >#ifferen%? deosebit >#ifferen%? distinct >#is%inc%? deprtat >far remo%e? or fa de (contradictoriu >con%ra#ic%or0?/$ ,ontrar >con%rar0? an# opus >o55osi%e? onl0 e;ce5%ionall0 allo9 cu >9i%h? (%he0 normall0 selec% %he #a%ive or fa de > %ra# > /$ Loo-in! a% %hese e;am5les %he follo9in! !eneraliAa%ion emer!es3 s0mme%ric a#6ec%ives 9hich e;5ress o55osi%ion or #ifference #o no% normall0 combine 9i%h cu >9i%h?$ The a#6ec%ive comun >common? #escribes a rela%ion 9hich can rou!hl0 be #escribe# as 5ossession in 9hich a sin!le en%i%0 is associa%e# %o more %han one 5ossessor$ For a !iven 5ossessum %he rela%ion be%9een 5ossessors is s0mme%rical (if ; shares 0 9i%h A %han A shares 0 9i%h ;/$ In one selec%ional 5a%%ern %he 5ossessors are e;5resse# b0 #a%ive DPs (see *,$+ above un#er (iii//3
(4+,/ ProblemL comunL FranRei Mi Germaniei 5roblem common France-%he$DAT an# German0$DAT >5roblem common %o France an# German0?
In ano%her 5a%%ern one 5ossessor is e;5resse# as a 5ossessor of %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of comun >common? an# %he o%her one is in%ro#uce# b0 cu >9i%h? (see (4+./a/I al%erna%ivel0 li-e for all s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es all 5ossessors a55ear in a sin!le 5lural ar!umen% in%ro#uce# as %he 5ossessor of %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of comun >common? (in %his e;am5le rani >bor#er?I see (4+./b/3
(4+./ a$ FranRa are o !raniRL comunL cu Germania France has a bor#er common 9i%h German0 >France has a common bor#er 9i%h German0? b$ FranRa Mi Germania au o !raniRL comunL France an# German0 have a bor#er common
> ;;;? Nouns #eno%in! s0mme%rical rela%ions can also %a-e cu >9i%h? 9hen %he0 a55ear bare in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion a use in 9hich %he0 are har# %o #is%in!uish from a#6ec%ives P see cha5%er B *1$+$1 an# cha5%er 1 *<$1$+$ ,$1$+$1$ The 5re5osi%ion cu 9i%h in%er5ersonal behavior 5re#ica%es an# as a comi%a%ive a#6unc% 'esi#es i%s use 9i%h s0mme%ric 5re#ica%es %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h? also a55ears in a cons%ruc%ion 9here i% is closer %o i%s basic in#e5en#en% meanin! (in 9hich i% is no% im5ose# b0 selec%ion/ 9i%h %he conse@uence %ha% i% is of%en #ifficul% %o sa0 9he%her 9e are #ealin! 4++
The A#6ec%ive
9i%h a com5lemen% or an a#6unc%$ The in#e5en#en% meanin! of a 5re5osi%ion can be bes% seen 9hen %he PP a55ears in 5os%co5ular 5osi%ion because in %ha% case %he rela%ion is e;clusivel0 e;5resse# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion (%he co5ula is onl0 a su55or% for %he verbal fea%ures P such as %ense an# moo# P of %he clause/$ In %his confi!ura%ion cu >9i%h? e;5resses inclusion in %he same si%ua%ion as %he sub6ec% an# can be 5ara5hrase# b0 %he s0mme%ric 5re#ica%e mpreun >%o!e%her?3
(4+</ (4+B/ :aria e cu mine :aria is 9i%h me 7u Mi :aria sun%em Em5reunL / :aria e Em5reunL cu mine I an# :aria are %o!e%her :aria is %o!e%her 9i%h me
Ui%h %his meanin! P 9hich is usuall0 calle# >comi%a%ive? P 9e e;5ec% cu-PPs %o be able %o a55ear unselec%e# as a#6unc%sI in such an use %he cu- PP can be 5ara5hrase# b0 a %em5oral clause 9i%h co5ula H cu3 &it! y [ >9hen ; (%he sub6ec%/ is 9i%h 0?3
(4+C/ :aria e veselL cu mine [ :aria e veselL cWn# e cu mine :aria is cheerful 9i%h me :aria is cheerful 9hen is 9i%h me >:aria is cheerful 9i%h me? [ >:aria is cheerful 9hen she?s 9i%h me?
Rela%e# %o %his use cu (>9i%h?/ -PPs can sho9 %he referen% in 9hose 5resence a cer%ain @uali%0 is manifes%e# 9hich can be for some 5ro5er%ies %he referen% &it! respect to &!ic! %he @uali%0 is manifes%e#$ In %his case %he cu-PP behaves as an ar!umen% insofar as %he a#6ec%ival 5re#ica%e is no% merel0 a 5ro5er%0 bu% involves a rela%ion (%he @uali%0 is in%rinsicall0 oriented %o9ar#s ano%her en%i%0/3
(41=/ :aria e e;i!en%L / #rL!uRL cu an!a6aRii :aria is #eman#in! / -in# 9i%h em5lo0ees-%he >:aria #eman#s a lo% of her em5lo0ees / is -in# 9i%h her em5lo0ees?
Uhen use# as an ar!umen% %he cu-PP is no lon!er 5ara5hrasable b0 a %em5oral clause (see (41=/_b 9here >m? in#ica%es %ha% %he e;am5le #oes no% have %he same meanin! as (41=//I some%imes i% can be 5ara5hrase# b0 a PP hea#e# b0 fa de >%o9ar#s? (see (41=/_a/3
(41=/_ a$ :aria e e;i!en%L faRL #e an!a6aRi :aria is #eman#in! %o9ar#s em5lo0ees b$ m :aria e e;i!en%L cWn# e cu an!a6aRii :aria is #eman#in! 9hen is 9i%h em5lo0ees-%he
:an0 a#6ec%ives referrin! %o human @uali%ies 9hose manifes%a%ion involves a rela%ion 9i%h o%her 5eo5le can en%er %his cons%ruc%ion3 a resiv >a!ressive? amabil >nice -in#? asculttor >obe#ien%? aspru >harsh? atent >a%%en%ive? binevoitor >benevolen% frien#l0? brutal >bru%al? bun >!oo# -in#? caustic >caus%ic? clement >clemen% merciful? crud >cruel? curtenitor >cour%eous? distant >#is%an%? docil >%rac%able #ocile? dr stos >affec%iona%e? dr u >nice? duios >affec%iona%e %en#er? dumnos >hos%ile? ri+uliu >%hou!h%ful? indul ent >in#ul!en%? inofensiv >harmless? intransi ent >in%ransi!en%? ironic >ironical? ndatoritor >obli!in!? n duitor >in#ul!en%? nele tor >lenien%? mrinimos >!enerous ma!nanimous? milos >com5assiona%e? necuviincios >#isres5ec%ful im5oli%e in#iecen%? ne li+ent >careless ne!lec%ful? nencre(tor >#is%rus%ful? nenduplecat >infle;ible? nemilos >5i%iless? nepoliticos >ru#e im5oli%e? politicos >5oli%e? prevenitor >obli!in!? prietenos >frien#l0? ru >ba# mean? rutcios >malicious? rece >col#? respectuos >res5ec%ful? re(ervat >s%an#-
4+1
The A#6ec%ive
offish? sarcastic >sarcas%ic? sever >severe harsh? sfios >sh0? sincer >sincere? solidar >s0m5a%he%ic? suprcios >%ouch0 irri%able? suspicios >sus5icious? tandru >%en#er? timid >sh0? violent >violen%? ( rcit >%i!h%-fis%e#?$ A use in 9hich cu >9i%h? a55ears %o be closer %o i%s in#e5en#en% comi%a%ive meanin! is 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive sin ur >alone?3 normall0 %his a#6ec%ive in#ica%es %ha% %here are no o%her 5ersons in a cer%ain si%ua%ionI as cu in#ica%es %he 5resence of ano%her 5ar%ici5an% %o %ha% si%ua%ion %he combina%ion sin ur cuHDP >alone 9i%h H DP? in#ica%es %ha% %he e;%ernal ar!umen% an# %he referen% of %he cu-DP are %he onl0 5ar%ici5an%s %o %he si%ua%ion3
(41+/ 7ram sin!ur cu ea 9as$+SG alone 9i%h her >I 9as alone 9i%h her?
,$1$+$2$ G%her uses$ The 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h? can also a55ear 9i%h %he a#6ec%ives plin >full? (9hich can also %a-e de >of? see *,$1$1/ consecvent >consis%en%? (9hich can also %a-e %he #a%ive an# is his%oricall0 rela%e# %o %he verb >follo9?I see *,$+ above/$ I%s use 9i%h plin >full? is 5robabl0 #erive# from %he 5ossessum meanin! of cu >9i%h? 9hich can be seen in %he 5os%co5ular 5osi%ion P casa e cu rdin >%he house is 9i%h !ar#en? [ >%he house has a !ar#en?$ The use of cu >9i%h? 9i%h consecvent >consis%en%? mi!h% be rela%e# %o %he comi%a%ive meanin! (if ; follo&s 0 ; is or %ries %o be to et!er 9i%h 0/$ 7;5ec%e#l0 cu >9i%h? also a55ears 9i%h a#6ec%ives #erive# from verbs selec%in! cu (e$!$ resemnat cu >resi!ne# (%o/? e a se resemna cu >%o resi!n oneself (%o/?/$ %.2.2. T8e 50e5os.t.on de The 5re5osi%ion de rou!hl0 e@uivalen% 9i%h 7n!l$ of a55ears in %he follo9in! confi!ura%ions3 (i/ I% mar-s %he ar!umen% corres5on#in! %o %he #irec% ob6ec% 9i%h #everbal a#6ec%ives an# has a similar ar!umen% role 9hich 9e can call Theme 9i%h a#6ec%ives 9hich are no% #erive# from verbs (a% leas% s0nchronicall0/ bu% have a similar meanin! %o some %ransi%ive verbs3 (i$a/ Deverbal a#6ec%ives$ Oere is an e;am5le3
(411/ a$ Aces% om iubeM%e #re5%a%ea %his man loves 6us%ice-%he b$ om (foar%e/ iubi%or #e #re5%a%e man (ver0/ lover of 6us%ice
Amon! #everbal 9or#s 9i%h an a!en%ive meanin! %he 5ossibili%0 of %a-in! a Theme ar!umen% is mos%l0 res%ric%e# %o %hose in -tor$ These #eriva%ives are ambi!uous be%9een a#6ec%ives an# nouns an# as nouns %he0 can %a-e %he !eni%ive (see cha5%er ++ on #everbal nouns/ e$!$ iubitor al naturii >lover G7N na%ure-%he$G7N?$ In (411/b %he use of %he #e!ree hea# foarte >ver0? in#ica%es an a#6ec%ival s%a%us$ Cases of a#6ec%ives forme# 9i%h o%her suffi;es 9hich %a-e a Theme ar!umen% are ver0 rare P e$!$ dornic )de* >ea!er lon!in!? (edori >%o #esire?/$ As a#6ec%ives in -nt #o no% %a-e a Theme 9e fin# isola%e# cases in 9hich an - nt a#6ec%ive rela%e# %o a %ransi%ive verb en%ers a #ifferen% ar!umen%al 5a%%ern3 ne li+ent >ne!lec%ful careless? al%hou!h rela%e# %o %he %ransi%ive ne li+a >ne!lec%? %a-es %he 5re5osi%ions fa de > ;;;? or cu >9i%h? (see *,$1$< belo9 an# *,$1$+$1$ above/$ (i$b/ A#6ec%ives 9i%h meanin!s rela%e# %o %ransi%ive verbs e;5ressin! #esire ca5aci%0 belief or -no9le#!e3 lacom >!ree#0? (lacom de ' [ care dorete )n e'ces* ' >9hich #esires ;?/ setos >%hirs%0 (for/? avid >!ree#0 avi# (for/?% capabil >ca5able? (capabil de ' ^ care poate face ' >9hich can #o ;?/ apt >fi% sui%e# ca5able? (apt de ' ^ care poate face ' >9hich can #o ;?/ susceptibil >liable ca5able? (susceptibil de ' ^ care poate suferi$primi$face ' 4+2
The A#6ec%ive
>9hich can un#er!o/receive/#o ;?/ si ur >sure cer%ain? (si ur de ' ^ care crede c ' este si ur >9hich believes ; is sure?/ nesi ur >unsure? contient >a9are? suspect >sus5ec%e#? (suspect de ' ^ cruia i se suspectea( ' >abou% 9hich one sus5ec%s ;?/$ Ue mi!h% inclu#e here a#6ec%ives 9i%h %he meanin! >#eservin! %o receive (;/?3 demn >9or%h0? vrednic >9or%h0? (demn de ' ^ care se cuvine s primeasc ' >9hich ou!h% %o receive ;?/$ (ii/ A#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5les %a-e de-PPs e;5ressin! %he Cause or Theme of a 5s0cholo!ical 5re#ica%e3
(412/ Sun% sur5rins #e aces% lucru am sur5rise# of %his %hin! >I?m sur5rise# of %his %hin!?
In %he 5assive confi!ura%ion %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of verbs can be realiAe# b0 a so-calle# >A!en% PP? 9hich is in%ro#uce# b0 de >of? or b0 de ctre >b0? (li%$ >of/from %o9ar#s?/$ A#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5les #iffer from verbal 5ar%ici5les in %ha% %he0 can combine onl0 9i%h de e;clu#in! de ctre (see also *+$1$2 above/3
(412/_ X Sun% sur5rins #e cL%re aces% lucru am sur5rise# b0 %his %hin!
As 9e have seen in *+$1$2 above ano%her charac%eris%ic fea%ure of a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5les is %he combina%ion 9i%h #e!ree hea#s$ :os% a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5les %a-in! a dear!umen% e;5ress 5s0cholo!ical s%a%es %he e;%ernal ar!umen% bein! %he 7;5eriencer3 copleit >over9helme#? decepionat >#isa55oin%e#? deprimat >#e5resse#? descura+at >#e5resse# #iscoura!e#? e'asperat >e;as5era%e#? fascinat >h05no%iAe# fascina%e# ca5%iva%e#? fericit >ha550? indi nat >revol%e# in#i!nan% (a%/? indispus >in#is5ose#? interesat >in%eres%e#? intri at >in%ri!ue#? ncntat >#eli!h%e#? n ri+orat >9orrie#? n ro(it >%errifie#? nspimntat >fri!h%ene#? mirat >as%onishe#? nelinitit >an;ious? orbit >be9il#ere#? plictisit >bore#? preocupat >5reoccu5ie#? revoltat >revol%e#? stresat >9orrie# s%resse#? suprat >u5se%? surprins >sur5rise#? tulburat >an;ious? uimit >as%onishe#? uluit >amaAe# as%oun#e#? e%c$ In some cases %he a#6ec%ive onl0 e;5resses %he #e!ree of %he feelin! an# %he na%ure of %he 5s0cholo!ical s%a%e is in%ro#uce# b0 %he de-PP3
(414/ a$ Sun% s%L5Wni% #e %eamL / uimire / #ra!os%e am 5ossesse# b0 fear / as%onishmen% love b$ Sun% #oborW% #e foame / #e !ri6i am -noc-e#-#o9n b0 hun!er / b0 9orries
%ra#K Ui%h 5h0sical 5ro5er%ies %he de-PP 9i%h a resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5le is %o be seen as an a#6unc% e;5ressin! Cause (see (41,//$ This #oes no% hol# for 5s0cholo!ical s%a%es because %he0 are >orien%e#? %he0 5resu55ose a >con%en%? (e$!$ I am necessaril0 5reoccu5ie# &it! somet!in as%onishe# at somet!in % e%c$/$
(41,/ 5iele arsL #e soare s-in burne# b0 sun >s-in burne# b0 %he sun?
(ii/_ Some of %he 5s0cholo!ical a#6ec%ives 9hich in%ro#uce %he Theme/Source as a de-
4+4
The A#6ec%ive
PP are no% 5ar%ici5ial3 bucuros >!la# ha550? (%he rela%e# verb se bucura >be !la#? also %a-es de/ mndru >5rou#? (9hich has a #erive# verb 9hich %a-es a cu-PP3 a se mndri/ stul >sa%ia%e#?$ (iii/ A#6ec%ives #erive# from verbs %a-in! de >of? or le;icall0 rela%e# %o verbs %a-in! de 9i%h %he basic meanin! of con%ac% or se5ara%ion3 dependent >#e5en#en%?% ataat >a%%ache#? i(olat >isola%e#? liber >free? (com5are a elibera de >%o free of? a scpa de >%o free of?/ separat >se5ara%e#? responsabil >res5onsible? vinovat >!uil%0? (cf$ nvinui )de* >%o char!e (9i%h/?/ e%c$ The abla%ive (i$e$ se5ara%ive/ meanin! of de >of? can e;5lain i%s use 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive strin >alien? in %he non-s0mme%rical rea#in! >no% involve# in? >s%ran!er %o?3
(41./ Sun% s%rLin #e aces%e in%ri!i / #e aces% oraM am s%ran!er of %hese in%ri!ues of %his ci%0 >I?m no% involve# in %hese in%ri!ues / I?m a s%ran!er %o %his ci%0?
In %his rea#in! %he or#er of ar!umen%s can be reverse# in 9hich case %he com5lemen% is mar-e# b0 %he #a%ive3
(41</ GraMul Emi era cu %o%ul s%rLin ci%0-%he me$CL$DAT 9as com5le%el0 s%ran!erun-n9on >I 9as a com5le%e s%ran!er %o %he ci%0?The ci%0 9as com5le%el0 un-no9n %o me$?
(iv/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! #ifference (9hich mi!h% be rela%e# %o %he abla%ive meanin! of de >of?/3 diferit >#ifferen%?% distinct >#is%inc%?% deosebit >#ifferen%?$ (v/ A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! %he rela%ion of con%ainin! 9here %he con%ainer is %he e;%ernal ar!umen% an# %he >loca%um? is %he de-PP3 plin >full?% reu )de* >havin! 5len%0 of full of? (li%$ >heav0?/ ol >em5%0 #evoi#?$ The a#6ec%ive plin an# %he rela%e# verbs umple >fill? can also %a-e a cu-PP$ (vi/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! s5a%ial rela%ions3 apropiat >close?% deprtat >far?$ Apropiat >close? can also %a-e %he #a%ive es5eciall0 in %he me%a5horical meanin! 9hich a55lies %o in%er5ersonal rela%ions$ Deprtat >far? mi!h% also be rela%e# %o 5re#ica%es of se5ara%ion (see (iii/ above/$ (vii/ Ui%h s5ecific a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! human abili%ies or #eficiencies a de -PP in de can be use# %o in#ica%e %he bo#0 5ar% in 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 is manifes%e#3
(41B/ a$ sur# #e o ureche #eaf of an ear >#eaf of an ear? b$ !reu #e ca5 har# of hea# >s%u5i#? c$ bun #e !urL !oo# of mou%h >9i%h a rea#0 %on!ue? #$ iu%e #e 5icior s9if% of foo% >s9if%-foo%e#?
Ui%h %his meanin! 9e normall0 fin# a#6unc%s in la >a% %o? (see ne;% sub-sec%ion/$ Perha5s dePPs shoul# also be consi#ere# a#6unc%s in %his use$ Oo9ever 9e fin# le;ical res%ric%ions (no% all a#6ec%ives allo9 %his 5hrase/ 9hich su!!es%s %ha% selec%ion is involve#$ (viii/ The a#6ec%ive bun >!oo# fi% sui%e#? %a-es a de-PP in I %he meanin! is >9hich can 4+,
The A#6ec%ive
be use# for / as?3

(41C/ a$ 7 bun #e muncL [ 7 5o%rivi% sL munceascL is !oo# of 9oris fi% SD'N 9or-s >Oe?s fi% for 9or-in!? b$ 7 bun #e ciorbL [ 7 bun 5en%ru ciorbL [ 7 5o%rivi% 5en%ru a fi 5us En ciorbL is !oo# of 5o%%a!e is !oo# for 5o%%a!e is fi% for %o be 5u% in 5o%%a!e >I%?s !oo# for %he 5o%%a!e? c$ 7 bun #e vo5sea [ 7 5o%rivi% 5en%ru a fi folosi% ca vo5sea is !oo# of 5ain% is fi% for %o be use# as 5ain% >I% can serve as 5ain%?
%.2.3. T8e 50e5os.t.on la :os% of %he ar!umen%s in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion la >%o a%? can be subsume# un#er a no%ion >Goal? (see %05es (i/-(iii/ belo9/ a55earin! 9i%h %he follo9in! classes of a#6ec%ives3 (i/ Ps0cholo!ical s%a%es involvin! an ac%ive orien%a%ion (or lac- %hereof/3 atent >a%%en%ive a%%en#in! in%en% (on/? surd >#eaf (%o/?$ (ii/ A#6ec%ives 9hich e;5ress a reac%ion %o some%hin! (or lac- %hereof/3 imun >immune? sensibil >sensi%ive? insensibil >insensi%ive? indiferent >in#ifferen%? receptiv >rece5%ive res5onsive o5en (%o/? desc!is >o5en (%o/? )im*permeabil >(im/5ervious (im/5ermeable? re(istent >resis%en%? mofturos >har# %o 5lease fas%i#ious fuss0? pretenios >har# %o 5lease #eman#in! e;i!en%? e'i ent >e;i!en%?$ :os% of %hese a#6ec%ives can also %a-e fa de >;;;? (iii/ A#6ec%ives 9i%h a (5ro5er/ !oal ar!umen%3 bun >!oo# (a%/? folositor >useful? util >useful? necesar >necessar0? potrivit >fi% sui%e# a#e@ua%e? eficient >efficien%? eficace >effec%ive efficien%?$ Oere %he la (>%o a%?/ -PP can be re5lace# b0 a pentru (>for?/-PP$ (iv/ A#6ec%ives of ca5aci%ies 9here i% in%ro#uces %he #omain of %he ca5aci%03 priceput >s-illful? bun >!oo# (a%/?I %his use a55ears %o be ver0 similar %o %ha% in (iii/ bu% no%ice %ha% in %his case la >a% %o? canno% be re5lace# b0 pentru >for? (priceput la tmplrie $-pentru tmplrie >s-illful a%/Xfor 9oo# 9or-in!/ bu% onl0 %o some e;%en% b0 n >in? (priceput n prelucrarea lemnului >s-illful in 9oo# 9or-in!?/$ A similar use is %ha% of in#ica%in! %o 9hich 5ar% of a referen% %he 5ro5er%0 a55lies in 9hich case i% is li-el0 %ha% 9e are #ealin! 9i%h an a#6unc%3 frumos la suflet >beau%iful a% soul? "9i%h a beau%iful soul& subire la mi+loc >%hin a% 9as%e? "slim-9ais%e#& ne ru la fa >blaca% face? "9i%h a #ar-/!loom0 face&$ Ue ma0 inclu#e ei%her here or un#er (ii/ %he la-PP 9i%h %he a#6ec%ive iute >@uic-? in %he meanin! >rea#0?3 iute la mnie >@uic- %o an!er irascible?$ Ui%h valabil >vali#? %he la-PP in#ica%es %he circums%ances or #omain in 9hich a 5ro5er%0 hol#s$ I% is 5ossible %ha% in %he la-PP is a loca%ive a#6unc% here because i% can be subs%i%u%e# b0 %he &!- varian% unde >9here?3 Unde e valabil biletulK >Uhere is %he %ic-e% vali#K?$ (v/ G%hers3 relativ >rela%ive (%o/? prta >5ar%a-in!? (9hose 5a%%ern is 5robabl0 base# on %he rela%e# verbal i#iom a lua parte )la* >%o %a-e 5ar% (in/?/$ %.2.$. T8e 50e5os.t.on n The 5re5osi%ion n >in? a55ears onl0 rarel0 9i%h a selec%e# ar!umen%$ 7;am5les of non#erive# a#6ec%ives %a-in! n >in? are a#6ec%ives charac%eriAin! 5ossession 9here %he com5lemen% in#ica%es %he 5ossesse# en%i%03 bo at >rich? (e$!$ bo at n flori >rich in flo9ers? i$e$ >havin! man0 flo9ers?/ srac >5oor?$ G%her9ise n >in? is foun# 9i%h a#6ec%ives #erive# from verbs %a-in! n e$!$ ncre(tor >confi#en%? (ea se ncrede )n* > ;;;? /$ 4+.
The A#6ec%ive
:ore of%en n >in? a55ears 9i%h a#6ec%ives as an a#6unc% in#ica%in! %he #omain or circums%ances %o 9hich a cer%ain 5ro5er%0 is res%ric%e#3 e$!$ strlucitor n conversaie >brillian% in conversa%ion? competent n literatur >com5e%en% in li%era%ure? ener ic n combaterea adversarilor >vi!orous in fi!h%in! %he o55onen%s? e'ecrabil n politic >e;ecrable/abominable in 5oli%ics? e%c$ Com5are# %o %he a#6unc%s in 9i%h la 9i%h 9hich have a similar res%ric%ive meanin! (see 5revious sub-sec%ion P ,$1$2 (iv// n >in? %en#s %o be use# 9i%h nouns of #eno%in! ac%ivi%ies (e$!$ eficient n combaterea corupiei >efficien% in fi!h%in! a!ains% corru5%ion?/ or i% in#ica%es a lar!er abs%rac% #omain (such as literatur >li%era%ure? in competent n literatur >com5e%en% in li%era%ure? meserie >5rofession? in priceput n meserie >ca5able/s-illful in his/her 5rofession?/$ %.2.%. T8e 50e5os.t.on pe The 5re5osi%ion pe >on? is selec%e# b0 some 5s0cholo!ical a#6ec%ives mos% of %hem in#ica%in! a hos%ile feelin! some%imes rela%e# %o verbs selec%in! pe3 suprat >u5se% an!r0? (a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5le of supra >be u5se% an!r0?/ elos >6ealous? invidios >envious? furios >furious? mnios >an!r0? (cf$ a se mnia pe >%o be an!r0 9i%h?/ pornit >ba#l0 #is5ose# a!ains%? si ur >sure (abou%/? (of%en in %he e;5ression si ur pe sine >self-confi#en% 9ell #e%ermine#?/ nervos >nervous (a!ains%/? suspicios >sus5icious (a!ains%/?$ G%her uses are onl0 foun# 9i%h a#6ec%ival 5ar%ici5les manifes%in! %he inheri%ance of %he selec%ional 5a%%ern of %he verbal base3 ba(at pe >base# on? (ea se ba(a pe >;;;? / a'at pe >cen%ere# on focuse# on? (ea se a'a pe >;;;?/% concentrat pe >focuse# on? (ea se concentra pe/ e%c$ %.2.&. T8e 50e5os.t.on pentru The 5re5osi%ion pentru >for? e;5resses %he !oal or benefac%ive$ I% can be use# %o in%ro#uce an ar!umen% if %he a#6ec%ive assi!ns a !oal or benefac%ive %he%a-role e$!$ necesar >necessar0? util >useful? potrivit >fi% sui%e#? folositor >useful? eficient >efficien%? eficace >effec%ive efficien%? prielnic >5ro5i%ious? propice >5ro5i%ious? indispensabil >in#is5ensable? suficient >sufficien%? vital >vi%al? decisiv >#ecisive? esenial >essen%ial (for/? important >im5or%an%? relevant >relevan%? bun >!oo#? e'celent >e;cellen%? valoros >valuable 5recious? preios >5recious? inestimabil >invaluable 5riceless? nepreuit >invaluable 5riceless? sntos >heal%h0? e%c$ I% is also use# 9i%h %he an%on0ms of %hese a#6ec%ives3 duntor >harmful? p ubitor >#e%rimen%al 5re6u#icial? nefavorabil >unfavorable? insuficient >insufficien%? inutil >useless? irelevant >irrelevan%? neimportant >unim5or%an%? neesenial >unessen%ial? de(astruos >#isas%rous? prime+dios >#an!erous? periculos >#an!erous? e%c$ As 9e no%ice# in *,$+ an# *,$1$2 above man0 of %hese a#6ec%ives can also %a-e %he #a%ive or %he 5re5osi%ion la >%o a%?$ 'ase# on %his benefac%ive meanin! pentru can also in%ro#uce 7;5eriencers if %he0 are 5osi%ivel0 or ne!a%ivel0 affec%e# 9i%h a#6ec%ives such as3 reu >har#? dificil >#ifficul%? penibil >a9-9ar# embarrassin!? uor >eas0? plcut >5leasan%? neplcut >un5leasan%? +enant >embarrassin!?$ /entru >for? can also be use# 9i%h some a#6ec%ives rela%in! a 5ro5er%0 or en%i%0 %o a #omain3 definitoriu >#efinin!? caracteristic >charac%eris%ic? tipic >%05ical? specific >%05ical charac%eris%ic? (%he la%%er %hree can also %a-e %he #a%ive see *,$+/$ No%e %ha% 9i%h definitoriu %he ar!umen% in%ro#uce# b0 pentru corres5on#s %o %he ob6ec% of %he base verb defini >#efine? some%hin! 9hich is %o%all0 unusual$ %.2.(. T8e /o65le< 50e5os.t.on fa de The i#iom fa de li%$ >face of? meanin! "%o9ar#s (abs%rac%/ 9i%h res5ec% %o com5are# %o& behaves as a com5le; 5re5osi%ion insofar as %he firs% elemen% al%hou!h i% is a noun ( fa
4+<
The A#6ec%ive
>face?/ #oes no% in a case 5osi%ion (i% has no in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% al%hou!h %he a#6ec%ival hea# #oes no% assi!n accusa%ive/$ As 9e have seen in %he 5revious sec%ions fa de >;;;? can be use# as an al%erna%ive %o some o%her ar!umen%-in%ro#ucin! elemen%s3 (i/ Ui%h a#6ec%ives in#ica%in! an a%%i%u#e %o9ar#s somebo#0 (9hich can also %a-e cu >9i%h? or %he #a%ive/3 admirativ >a#mirin!? amabil >nice? binevoitor >9ell-#is5ose# benevolen%? curtenitor >cour%eous? devotat >#evo%e#? distant >#is%an%? dr u >nice? dumnos >hos%ile? fidel >lo0al fai%hful? ndatoritor >obli!in!? n duitor >in#ul!en%? nele tor >lenien%? loial >lo0al? necuviincios >#isres5ec%ful im5oli%e in#iecen%? ne li+ent >careless ne!lec%ful? nepoliticos >ru#e im5oli%e? ostil >hos%ile? prtinitor >biase# 5ar%ial? politicos >5oli%e? recunosctor >!ra%eful? respectuos >res5ec%ful? re(ervat >s%an#-offish? sincer >sincere? suspicios >sus5icious? e%c$I (ii/ Ui%h a#6ec%ives in#ica%in! a reac%ion %o some%hin! (9hich can also %a-e la >a% %o?/3 nepstor >insensi%ive? sensibil >sensi%ive? insensibil >insensi%ive? imun >immune? indiferent >in#ifferen%?I (iii/ Ui%h a#6ec%ives in#ica%in! hierarchical rela%ions3 inferior >inferior? secundar >secon#ar0? subordonat >subor#ina%e? preponderent >5revailin!? predominant >5re#ominan%?I (iv/ Ui%h a#6ec%ives #eno%in! s5a%ial or %em5oral rela%ions3 apropiat >close? deprtat >far? anterior >5rior an%erior? e'terior >e;%erior? e%c$I (v/ Ui%h s0mme%ric a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! o55osi%ion3 invers >inverse?% opus >o55osi%e? anta onic >an%a!onis%ic? contradictoriu >con%ra#ic%or0? complementar >com5lemen%ar0?$ %.2.). Ot8e0 50e5os.t.ons As a#6ec%ives are %05icall0 s%a%ive 5re#ica%es 9e #o no% e;5ec% %o fin# %hem 9i%h ar!umen%s e;5ressin! source or !oal of mo%ion unless %he0 are #erive# from verbs (e$!$ descendent )din* >s%emmin! (from/? rela%e# %o descinde >s%em from?/$ An e;ce5%ion is %he a#6ec%ive ori inar >(comin!/s%emmin!/ from na%ive %o? 9hich al%hou!h no% #erive# from a verb e;5resses ori!in an# %herefore %a-es %he abla%ive 5re5osi%ion din >from?$ The a#6ec%ive intermediar >in%erme#ia%e? %a-es %he 5re5osi%ion ntre >be%9een?$ Loca%ive PPs an# a#verbials insi#e APs are ar!umen%al in some si%ua%ions3 (a/ Ui%h a#6ec%ives %ha% in#ica%e fre@uenc0 insi#e a #omain3 frecvent >fre@uen%? rar >rare? des >fre@uen%? preponderent >5revailin!? predominant >5re#ominan%?3
(42=/ casele 5re#ominan%e aici / En RomWnia / la mun%e houses-%he 5re#ominan% here in Romania a% moun%ain >houses 5revailin! here / in Romania / in %he moun%ains?
(b/ Ui%h a#6ec%ives in#ica%in! 5resence absence3 pre(ent >5resen%? absent >absen%? (%he la%%er normall0 %a-es an abla%ive PP e;5resse# in Romanian b0 de >of? H loca%ive3 din >from?[ deHn >from H in? de la >from (a%/? de pe >from (on/? de aici >from here? e%c$/$ %.3. In8e0ent a//1sat.2e D.t8 t8e a37e/t.2e dator The a#6ec%ive dator >o9in! in#eb%e#? %a-es a DP 9i%hou% an0 in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% as %he Theme e;5ressin! 9ha% is o9e# (see (42+/a/ or %he benefi% 9hich mus% be 5ai# bac- (see (42+/b/ %he e;%ernal ar!umen% as %he Source of (%he 5romise#/ %ransfer an# a #a%ive DP as %he Goal3
(42+/ a$ ì sun% #a%or o mie #e lei him$CL$DAT am in#eb%e# a %housan# of lei >I o9e him a %housan# lei?
4+B
The A#6ec%ive b$ ì sun% #a%or viaRa him$CL$DAT am in#eb%e# life-%he >I o9e him m0 life?
The Theme com5lemen% is a DP in %he unmar-e# case form$ I% can be calle# >accusa%ive? bu% i% shoul# be no%ice# %ha% DPs 9i%h a #is%inc% accusa%ive mar-in! 9hich are 5ersonal 5ronouns canno% a55ear in %his cons%ruc%ion$ The 5re5osi%ional ob6ec% mar-er pe is also e;clu#e#3
(421/ a$ X :i-l es%e #a%or (5e el/ me$CL$DAT-2:SG$CL$DAT is in#eb%e# DG: him In%en#e# meanin!3 >(S/he o9es me him / him %o me? b$ X `mi era #a%or 5e el / 5e cineva me$CL$DAT 9as$2SG in#eb%e# DG: he DG: somebo#0 In%en#e# meanin!3 >(S/he o9e# me him / somebo#0?
These cons%ruc%ions are no% e;clu#e# b0 %he meanin! of dator >o9in!? because %he Theme of %his a#6ec%ive can also mean >benefi% 9hich mus% be 5ai# bac-? as 9e have seen in (42+/b an# 9e can %hinof a 5erson as %his benefi% (for ins%ance a be!o%%en chil# or a 5erson 9hose life has been save#/$ :oreover in a socie%0 9hich acce5%s slaver0 a 5erson can a55ear as %he Theme even in %he firs% meanin! of dator >o9in!?$ I% can %hus be conclu#e# %ha% #is%inc% ob6ec% mar-in! onl0 a55ears 9i%h s%ruc%ural accusa%ive case$ Ui%h dator >o9in!? 9e have an ins%ance of in!erent case P a case selec%e# b0 a !iven le;eme (%he a#6ec%ive dator >o9in!?/ ra%her %han license# b0 a func%ional ca%e!or0 (%he ac%ive Voice of %ransi%ive verbs/$ Ue can call %his case >accusa%ive? bu% i% is in fac% a Aero-mar-e# case %o%all0 i#en%ical %o %he nomina%ive$ Inheren% accusa%ive can also be foun# 9i%h verbs P verbs 9i%h %9o accusa%ives one s%ruc%ural an# one inheren% (e$!$ a nva pe cineva ceva >%each somebo#0 some%hin!?/ an# verbs %a-in! measure 5hrases (e$!$ a cntri (ece #ilo rame >%o 9ei!h %en -ilos?/$ As has been no%ice# in %he li%era%ure dator >o9in!? resembles %he la%%er %05e as %he Theme normall0 in#ica%es a @uan%i%0 (i sunt dator (ece lei $ trei boi $ dou sticle de vin >I o9e him %en lei / %hree o;en/ %9o bo%%les of 9ine?/$ Oo9ever unli-e measure verbs dator >o9in!? is no% limi%e# %o measure 5hrasesI i% can combine 9i%h bona fi#e DPs as sho9n b0 (42+/b an# b0 %he follo9in! e;am5le3
(422/ Ce Ei eM%i #a%or K 9ha% him$CL$DAT are$1SG in#eb%e# >Uha% #o 0ou o9e himK?
Dator >o9in!/in#eb%e#? can also %a-e ct >ho9-much? bu% %his #oes no% sho9 %ha% i% has a :easP com5lemen% because ct can a55ear in an0 DP-5osi%ion if %he @uan%i%0 is @ues%ione#3 ct a mncatQ >ho9 much #i# (s/he ea%K? ct este pe +osQ >ho9 much (of i%/ is on %he floorK? e%c$
'esi#es inheren% accusa%ive ;;; dator >o9in!/in#eb%e#? can also %a-e a cu ("9i%h&/-PP e;5ressin! 9ha% is o9e#$ The rela%ion of o9in! can also be e;5resse# b0 a verb 9hich is #erive# from %he a#6ec%ive3 datora >o9e?$ %.$. Cla1sal a0416ents %.$.1. Int0o31/t.on A#6ec%ives %a-in! clausal ar!umen%s can ei%her %a-e a #ifferen% e;%ernal ar!umen% (see (424//
4+C
The A#6ec%ive
or can lac- an e;%ernal ar!umen% in 9hich case %he clause is %ra#i%ionall0 anal0Ae# as %he sub6ec% of %he clause con%ainin! %he a#6ec%ive (see (42,//3
(424/ a$ 5ersoanele si!ure cL vom Envin!e 5ersons-%he sure %ha% 9ill$+PL 9in >The 5ersons sure %ha% 9e?ll 9in? b$ :aria e si!urL cL vom Envin!e :aria is sure %ha% 9ill$+PL 9in >:aria is sure %ha% 9e?ll 9in? 7s%e 5osibil sL fie acasL is 5ossible SD'N be$2SG home >I%?s 5ossible %ha% (s/he?s home?
(42,/
Al%hou!h clauses of %he %05e illus%ra%e# in (42,/ #o no% 5a%%ern en%irel0 9i%h sub6ec% DPs 9e 9ill use %he %erm >sub6ec% clause? for e;5osi%or0 5ur5oses$ Ano%her ar!umen% for usin! %his %erm is %ha% %he0 ma0 be subs%i%u%e# b0 DPs 9hich ac% as re!ular sub6ec%s3
(42./ a$ Aces% lucru es%e 5osibil %his %hin! is 5ossible b$ Toa%e aces%e En%Wm5lLri nu i se 5Lreau 5osibile all %hese even%s no% 2SG$CL$DAT R7FL seem$I:PF$2PL 5ossible >All %hese %hin!s #i#n?% seem 5ossible %o him?
For com5lemen% clauses 9hich are no% sub6ec% clauses 9e 9ill use %he %erm ob6ec% clauses$ The selec%ion of %he %05e of subor#ina%e clause is mos%l0 #riven b0 seman%ics %he rules bein! %he same as for clausal com5lemen%s of verbs$ Leavin! a more 5recise charac%eriAa%ion for %he secon# volume 9e no%ice here %ha% %he in#ica%ive moo# in%ro#uce# b0 %he com5lemen%iAer c >%ha%? is use# if %he subor#ina%e clause is 5resu55ose# %o be %rue (%he 5re#ica%e is >fac%ive?/ or a% leas% %he selec%in! 5re#ica%e is asser%ive %he subor#ina%e bein! %a-en %o be %rue 9i%h a cer%ain #e!ree of 5robabili%0 b0 %he sub6ec% of %he e5is%emic s%a%e #eno%e# b0 %he a#6ec%ive or b0 %he s5ea-er (see (42<//3
(42</ a$ Ion e si!ur cL va Envin!e Ion is sure %ha% 9ill$2SG 9in >Ion is sure he?ll 9in? b$ 7s%e foar%e 5robabil cL vom 5ier#e is ver0 5robable %ha% 9ill$+PL lose >I%?s ver0 li-el0 %ha% 9e?ll lose?
The sub6unc%ive is use# if %hese con#i%ions are no% fulfille# P in 9ha% 9e can call irrealis con%e;%sI in a##i%ion i% can be use# 9i%h some emo%ive fac%ive 5re#ica%es (see *,$4$1$+ belo9 un#er (ii/ for a 5ossible e;5lana%ion/3
(42B/ Sun% bucuros cL %e !Lsesc aici / sL %e !Lsesc aici am !la# %ha% 0ou$cl$ACC fin#$+SG here SD'N 0ou$cl$ACC fin#$+SG here >I?m !la# %o fin# 0ou here?
The infini%ive is mos%l0 use# as a varian% %o %he sub6unc%ive$ 7;ce5%ionall0 i% can also re5lace an in#ica%ive clause$ The su5ine onl0 a55ears in irrealis con%e;%s (see *,$4$4/3
(42C/ a$ Nu e ca5abil #e a e;5rima ce sim%e / Nu e ca5abil sL e;5rime ce sim%e no% is ca5able of %o e;5ress$INF 9ha% feels no% is ca5able SD'N e;5resses 9ha% feels
41=
The A#6ec%ive >(S/he?s no% ca5able %o e;5ress 9ha% (s/he feels? b$ oameni si!uri #e a reuMi / cL vor reuMi 5eo5le cer%ain of %o succee#$INF %ha% 9ill$2PL succee# >5eo5le cer%ain of success / %ha% %he0 9ill succee#? c$ lucru vre#nic #e reRinu% / vre#nic sL fie reRinu% %hin! 9or%h0 of -ee5rinrmin#$SDP 9or%h0 SD'N be$2 -e5%rinrmin# >%hin! 9or%h0 %o be -e5% in min#?
In#irec% in%erro!a%ives are use# if %he subor#ina%e clause is evalua%e# 9i%h res5ec% %o %he real 9orl# bu% i%s #e!ree of 5robabili%0 is un-no9n$ The com5lemen%iAer c >%ha%? %05ical for of %he in#ica%ive can also combine 9i%h %he con#i%ional moo# (even 9i%h fac%ive 5re#ica%es see contient > ;;;? in %he follo9in! e;am5le/3
(44=/ Sun% si!ur/conM%ien% cL am 5u%ea 5ier#e am sure /a9are %ha% 9oul#$+PL can lose >I?m sure/a9are %ha% 9e mi!h% lose?
Oo9ever as %he in#ica%ive is charac%eris%ic for c >%ha%? 9e shall use %he %erm >#eclara%ive in#ica%ive clauses? for CPs hea#e# b0 c$ %.$.2. F.n.te /la1ses ,$4$1$+$ Gb6ec% clauses Accor#in! %o %he %05e of %he fini%e clausal com5lemen% a#6ec%ives 9hich %a-e fini%e ob6ec% clauses can be #ivi#e# in%o %he follo9in! classes3 (i/ Ad+ectives t!at only ta#e t!e indicative3 (i$a$/ Fac%ive a#6ec%ives 9hich #o no% involve an emo%ive/evalua%ive com5onen% %a-e #eclara%ive in#ica%ive clauses3 contient >a9are? nedumerit 9hen i% means >5uAAle#? vinovat >!uil%0? (%he follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %ha% %he subor#ina%e clause remains %rue if %he ma%ri; clause is @ues%ione# or ne!a%e#/3
(44+/ a$ 7M%i conM%ien% cL 5u%em 5ier#e %o%ulK are$1SG a9are %ha% can$+PL lose ever0%hin! >Do 0ou realiAe %ha% 9e can lose ever0%hin!K? b$ Nu sun% vinova% cL s-a En%Wm5la% aMa no% am !uil%0 %ha% R7FL-has ha55ene# so >I%?s no% m0 faul% %ha% i% %urne# ou% li-e %ha%?
Ui%h vinovat >!uil%0? if %he s5ea-er is no% commi%%e# %o %he %ru%h of %he !uil% %he con#i%ional moo# is use# in %he subor#ina%e3
(441/ A fos% !Lsi% vinova% cL ar fi cauAa% acci#en%ul has been foun# !uil%0 %ha% 9oul# PRF cause# acci#en%-%he >Oe has been foun# !uil%0 of havin! alle#!e#l0 cause# %he acci#en%?
(i$b$/ A#6ec%ives of s%ron! belief P si ur >sure cer%ain? ncredinat >confi#en%? P %a-e #eclara%ive in#ica%ive clauses$ The a#6ec%ive si ur >sure cer%ain? can %a-e an in#irec% in%erro!a%ive 9hen i% is un#er ne!a%ion3
(442/ a$ Sun% si!ur cL vine am sure %ha% comes >I?m sure (s/he?s comin!
41+
The A#6ec%ive b$ Nu sun% si!ur cL/#acL vine no% am sure %ha%/if comes >I?m no% sure (s/he?s comin! c$ Nu sun% si!ur cine are #re5%a%e no% am sure 9ho has 6us%ice >I?m no% sure 9ho?s ri!h%?
(ii/ Ad+ectives t!at can ta#e eit!er t!e indicative or t!e sub+unctive3 (ii$+/ 7mo%ive a#6ec%ives (a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! affec%ive a%%i%u#es %o9ar#s a fac% or 5ossibili%0/3 bucuros >!la#? fericit >ha550? ncntat >#eli!h%e#? m ulit >fla%%ere#? mndru >5rou#? mulumit >sa%isfie#? satisfcut >sa%isfie#? furios >furious? uluit >amaAe#? uimit >sur5rise#? surprins >sur5rise#? ocat >shoc-e#? speriat >afrai# scare#? preocupat >5reoccu5ie#? (in %he sense >9orrie#?/ n ri+orat >9orrie#? n ro(it >%errifie#? scandali(at >shoc-e#? indi nat >in#i!nan% revol%e#? revoltat >revol%e#? linitit >assure#? e%c$ All of %hese a#6ec%ives can %a-e %he in#ica%ive if %he %ru%h of %he com5lemen% clause is 5resu55ose# (i$e$ if %he0 are fac%ive/3
(444/ a$ 7M%i ferici% cL a cWM%i!a% GbamaK are$1SG ha550 %ha% has 9on Gbama >Are 0ou ha550 %ha% Gbama 9onK? b$ Nu sun% mWn#ru cL mL consi#erL 5rie%en$ no% am 5rou# %ha% me consi#ers frien# >I?m no% 5rou# %ha% he consi#ers me as his frien#?
A#6ec%ives %05icall0 orien%e# %o a 5ossibili%0 P speriat >afrai# scare#? n ri+orat >9orrie#? preocupat >5reoccu5ie# 9orrie#? n ro(it >%errifie#? e%c$ P can %a-e %he in#ica%ive even if %he %ru%h of %he com5lemen% clause is no% 5resu55ose# (in (44,/ vreun >;;;? sho9s %ha% %he sen%ence is %a-en as a 5ossibili%0/3
(44,/ Sun% s5eria% cL va cWM%i!a s%Wn!a / cL fac vreun rLu am afrai# %ha% 9ill$2SG 9in lef%-%he %ha% #o$+SG some ba#-%hin! >I?m afrai# %he lef% 9ill 9in / %ha% I?m #oin! some%hin! ba#?
These a#6ec%ives can be fac%ive if %he com5lemen% clause #escribes a fac% 9hich can lea# %o or be in#ica%ive of %he un#esirable even%uali%0I %hus in %he follo9in! e;am5le his/her bein! 5ale is a fac% bu% %he ob6ec% of 9orr0 is no% %his fac% i%self bu% ra%her %he illness 9hich %his fac% may in#ica%e3
(44./ Sun% En!ri6ora% cL es%e aMa 5ali# am 9orrie# %ha% is so 5ale >I?m 9orrie# %ha% (s/he?s so 5ale?
If %he subor#ina%e clause is a fac% i% can also be in%ro#uce# as a causal clause 9i%h pentru c >because? (li%$ >for %ha%?/ deoarece >because? e%c$3
(44</ a$ Sun% mWn#ru 5en%ru cL mL consi#erL 5rie%en am 5rou# for %ha% me consi#ers frien# >I?m 5rou# because he consi#ers me his frien#? b$ Sun% En!ri6ora% 5en%ru cL es%e aMa 5ali# am 9orrie# for %ha% is so 5ale >I?m 9orrie# because (s/he?s so 5ale?
411
The A#6ec%ive
The sub6unc%ive can be use# in %he follo9in! circums%ances3 (a/ The even%/si%ua%ion 9hich causes %he emo%ional s%a%e is no% 5resen%e# as a real fac% bu% onl0 as a 5ossibili%0$ Ui%h %he a#6ec%ives of %he >afrai#?-%05e 9hich 9e can call fu%ureorien%e# %his ha55ens b0 vir%ue of %heir meanin!I 5robabl0 #ue %o %he ne!a%ive #esire com5onen% of %he meanin! of %hese a#6ec%ives %he sub6unc%ive clause obli!a%oril0 %a-es ne!a%ionI %hus (44B/a is e@uivalen% %o (44B/b3
(44B/ a$ Sun% En!ri6ora% sL nu 5ier#em %renul am 9orrie# SD'N no% miss$+PL %rain-%he >I?m 9orrie# 9e ma0/9ill miss %he %rain? b$ Sun% En!ri6ora% cL vom 5ier#e %renul am 9orrie# %ha% 9ill$+PL miss %rain-%he >I?m 9orrie# 9e 9ill miss %he %rain?
Ui%h %he o%her a#6ec%ives %he com5lemen% clause e;5resses a mere 5ossibili%0 9hen %he main clause i%self is irrealis3
(44C/ AM fi bucuros sL vinL 9oul#$+SG be !la# SD'N comes >I?# be !la# if (s/he comes?
The sub6unc%ive clause can be 5ara5hrase# b0 a con#i%ional clause3

(4,=/ AM fi bucuros #acL vine / #acL ar veni 9oul#$+SG be !la# if comes if 9oul#$2SG come >I?# be !la# if (s/he comes / if she came?
This rea#in! ob%ains even if %he main clause has %he in#ica%ive moo#$ Thus (4,+/ can be use# %o refer %o a 5ossible fu%ure even% as in#ica%e# in %he %ransla%ion in 9hich case i% can be 5ara5hrase# as in (4,+/_$ Li-e9ise (4,1/ can have a meanin! 5ara5hrasable b0 (4,1/_ in 9hich i% refers %o an even% 9hich 9as 5ossible a% %he %ime of %he even% in%ro#uce# b0 %he main 5re#ica%e3
(4,+/ Sun% bucuros sL vinL am !la# SD'N comes >I?m !la# he ma0 come? (4,+/_ Sun% bucuros #acL vine am !la# if comes >I?m !la# if he comes? (4,1/ 7ram bucuros sL cWM%i!e en!leAii 9as$+SG !la# SD'N 9in$2PL 7n!lish-%he (4,1/_ 7ram bucuros #acL cWM%i!au en!leAii / aveau sL cWM%i!e en!leAii 9as$+SG !la# if 9in$I:PF$2PL 7n!lish-%he / have$2PL SD'N 9in$2PL 7n!lish-%he >I 9oul# have been !la# if %he 7n!lish ha# 9on?
'esi#es %his rea#in! such sen%ences also have a realis (fac%ive/ rea#in! #iscusse# un#er 5oin% (b/ belo9$ (b/ The subor#ina%e clause refers %o a real fac% (%he %ru%h of %he subor#ina%e clause is 5resu55ose#/ in 9hich case %he sub6unc%ive is e@uivalen% 9i%h %he in#ica%ive3
(4,2/ Sun% bucuros sL %e En%Wlnesc [ Sun% bucuros cL %e En%Wlnesc am !la# SD'N 0ou$ACC mee%$+SG am !la# %ha% 0ou$ ACC mee%$+SG
412
The A#6ec%ive >I?m !la# %o mee% 0ou?
The use of an irrealis moo# 9i%h emo%ive fac%ive 5re#ica%ives is fre@uen% accross lan!ua!es$ A 5ossible e;5lana%ion is %ha% %hese 5re#ica%es involve some reference %o al%erna%ives %o %he real 9orl# in#ica%in! %ha% even un#er #ifferen% courses of even%s if %he even%uali%0 #eno%e# b0 %he subor#ina%e clause %oo- 5lace i% 9oul# cause %he same affec%ive s%a%e in %he >sub6ec%? (%he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive/$ In o%her 9or#s 9e 9oul# have here a% %he same %ime a fac%ive rea#in! an# %he rea#in! 9e no%ice# in (4,+/-(4,1/$ This use of %he sub6unc%ive is sub6ec% %o %9o cons%rain%s$ Firs% %he sub6unc%ive canno% %a-e %he 5as% (an%erior/ %ense$ In or#er %o e;5ress an a%%i%u#e %o9ar#s a 5revious even% %he in#ica%ive mus% be use# (see (4,4//$ Ui%h an irrealis meanin! %he sub6unc%ive can %a-e %he 5as% %ense (see (4,,//3
(4,4/ a$ X Sun% bucuros sL-l fi cunoscu% am !la# SD'N-him PRF -no9n b$ Sun% bucuros cL l-am cunoscu% am !la# %ha% him-have$+ -no9n >I?m !la# %o have me% him? AM fi bucuros sL-l fi cunoscu% 9oul#$+SG be !la# SD'N-him PRF -no9n >I 9oul# be !la# if I ha# me% him?
(4,,/
Secon#l0 %he sub6unc%ive clause 5referabl0 has %he 7;5eriencer of %he a#6ec%ive as %he sub6ec% (i%s sub6ec% mus% be con%rolle#/ see (4,./a-b (9i%h an irrealis meanin! %here is no 5roblem in usin! %he sub6unc%ive see (4,./c/3
(4,./ a$ Sun% sur5rins sL-l vL# am sur5rise# SD'N-him see$+SG >I?m sur5rise# %o see him? b$ KK Sun% sur5rins sL nu mL crea#L am sur5rise# SD'N no% me believes c$ AM fi sur5rins sL nu mL crea#L 9oul#$+SG be sur5rise# SD'N no% me believes >I?# be sur5rise# if (s/he #i#n?% believe me?
No%e %ha% man0 of %he a#6ec%ives #iscusse# here are 5ar%ici5ial$ Ue %rea% %hem as a#6ec%ives ra%her %han 5assive verbal forms because %he0 #on?% #o no% allo9 de ctre >b0? an# correla%ivel0 %a-e #e!ree hea#s %05ical of a#6ec%ives3
(4,</ Sun% (foar%e/ uimi% #e (XcL%re/ co5ilul %Lu am$+SG ver0 amaAe# of %o9ar#s chil#-%he 0our >I?m ver0 amaAe# a% 0our chil#?
(ii$1/ 7valua%ive a#6ec%ives @ualif0in! %he behavior of a 5erson$ Such a#6ec%ives assi!n an evalua%ive @uali%0 %o a 5erson an# %he clausal com5lemen% in%ro#uces %he fac% b0 9hich %his @uali%0 manifes%s i%self3
(4,B/ 7M%i #rL!uR sL-mi ceri 5Lrerea / cL Emi ceri 5Lrerea are$1SG -in# SD'N-me$cl$DAT as-$1SG o5inion-%he %ha% me$cl$DAT as-$1SG o5inion-%he >qou?re -in# %o as- m0 o5inion/I%?s -in# of 0ou %o as- m0 o5inion?
G%her e;am5les of a#6ec%ives of %his %05e are3 bun >!oo#? amabil >-in#?
eneros >!enerous
414
The A#6ec%ive
o5en-han#e# -in#hear%e#? nesimit >shameless im5er%inen%? nepoliticos >im5oli%e? crud >cruel? sadic >sa#is%ic? detept >smar%? mec!er >sl0 cunnin!?% abil >s-ilful? nelept >9ise? nebun >craA0? tmpit >#ull? prost >s%u5i#? imprudent >rec-less im5ru#en%?$ Ui%h some a#6ec%ives %he clause #oes no% refer %o %he behavior of %he 5erson bu% 6us% e;5resses %he reason for assi!nin! %he 5ro5er%0 %o %he 5erson3 norocos >luc-0? !inionist >unluc-0?$ The rules for %he use of %he moo#s are %he same as for (ii$+/$ Ue onl0 no%ice %ha% %he fac%ive use if more fre@uen% here bu% reference %o a 5ossibili%0 is never%heless allo9e#3
(4,C/ DacL ai fi #rL!uR sL-mi ceri 5Lrerea $$$ if 9oul#$1SG be -in# SD'N-me$cl$ DAT as-$1SG o5inion-%he >If 0ou 9ere so -in# %o as- m0 o5inion $$$?
In (4.=/ as %he sub6unc%ive refers %o a 5ossible si%ua%ion %he #efini%e #escri5%ion t%he 5eo5le s%u5i# %o believe him& has a non-s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion referrin! %o an0 5eo5le s%u5i# %o believe him$ '0 con%ras% %he use of %he in#ica%ive in (4.=/b in#ica%es a %rue even% an# %herefore %he #efini%e #escri5%ion mus% be s5ecific referrin! %o %he 5eo5le 9hich ac%uall0 have been so s%u5i# %o believe him$ No%ice ho9ever %ha% %his sen%ence is mar!inal3
(4.=/ Nu vorbesc cu oamenii 5roM%i sL-l crea#L no% s5ea-$+SG 9i%h 5eo5le-%he s%u5i# SD'N-him believe$2 >I #on?% s5ea- %o %hose s%u5i# %o believe him?
Uhereas %he sub6unc%ive clause can a55ear 9hen %he a#6ec%ive is use# a%%ribu%ivel0 (DP-in%ernal/ %he in#ica%ive clause a55ears %o be #isallo9e# in %his environmen% P com5are (4.=/ %o %he follo9in! e;am5le3
(4.+/ KK Nu vorbesc cu oamenii 5roM%i cL l-au creAu% no% s5ea-$+SG 9i%h 5eo5le-%he s%u5i# %ha% him-have$2PL believe# In%en#e# meanin!3 >I #on?% s5ea- %o %he 5eo5le 9ho have been 9ere s%u5i# %o believe him?
Dnli-e for %05e (ii$+/ %he clause canno% be subs%i%u%e# b0 a nominal com5lemen%$ For o%her lan!ua!es i% has been claime# %ha% %he clause is no% a com5lemen% bu% ra%her an a#6unc%$ 'u% in Romanian %he clause can a55ear 9i%h nominals #erive# from %hese a#6ec%ives in a form 9hich onl0 charac%eriAes ar!umen%s3 de H Infini%ival (see (4.1/I on infini%ival com5lemen%s of nouns see cha5%er C *1$+/$
(4.1/ Pros%ia /Im5ru#enRa /Amabili%a%ea lui #e a face as%a s%u5i#i%0-%he im5ru#ence-%he -in#ness-%he his of %o #o %his
Some of %hese a#6ec%ives (dr u% eneros% amabil% nepoliticos% imprudent/ allo9 an al%erna%ive 5a%%ern in 9hich i% is 5re#ica%e# abou% %he even% P %he clause ac%in! as a sub6ec% clause see ,$4$1$1 belo9 (%05e ii$+/ P an# %he 5erson is in%ro#uce# b0 %he i#iom din partea >from si#e-%he? 9hich %a-es a !eni%ive or 5ronominal 5ossessor3
(4.2/ 7 #rL!uR #in 5ar%ea %a sL-mi ceri 5Lrerea / cL Emi ceri is -in# from si#e-%he 0our SD'N-me$cl$ DAT as-$1SG o5inion-%he %ha% me$cl$ DAT as-$1SG 5Lrerea o5inion-%he >I%?s -in# of 0ou %o as- m0 o5inion?
'u% %he e;is%ence of %hese %9o 5a%%erns for one an# %he same a#6ec%ive is more res%ric%e# %han in 7n!lish$ The cons%ruc%ion 9i%h a sub6ec% clause is im5ossible for bun >!oo#? detept >sl0 41,
The A#6ec%ive
smar%? prost >s%u5i#? mec!er >sl0 cunnin!? nebun >craA0? nesimit >shameless im5er%inen%? (see (4.4/b-b_/ an# for %he a#6ec%ives 9hich #o no% refer %o behavior P norocos >luc-0? !inionist >unluc-0? (see (4.,/b-b_/$ In %hese cases Romanian can use a 5re#ica%ive abs%rac% noun (see (4.4/c (4.,/c/ in%ro#ucin! %he 5erson ei%her 9i%h din partea >;;;? (see (4.4/c/ or in %he case of %he a#6ec%ives 9hich #o no% refer %o behavior 9i%h pentru >for? (see (4.,/c/3
(4.4/ a$ 7M%i 5ros% sL nu-mi s5ui / cL nu-mi s5ui are$1SG s%u5i# SD'N no%-me$DAT %ell$1SG %ha% no%-me$DAT %ell$1SG >qou?re s%u5i# no% %o %ell me / %ha% 0ou #on?% %ell me? b$ X 7s%e 5ros% #in 5ar%ea %a sL nu-mi s5ui / cL nu-mi s5ui is s%u5i# from si#e-%he 0our SD'N no%-me$DAT %ell$1SG %ha% no%-me$DAT %ell$1SG b_$ I%?s s%u5i# of 0ou no% %o %ell me / %ha% 0ou #on?% %ell me c$ 7s%e o 5ros%ie #in 5ar%ea %a sL nu-mi s5ui / cL nu-mi s5ui is a foolishness from si#e-%he 0our SD'N no%-me$DAT %ell$1SG %ha% no%-me$DAT %ell$1SG >I% is s%u5i# of 0ou no% %o %ell me? a$ 7M%i norocos sL mL veAi / cL mL veAi are$1SG luc-0 SD'N me$ACC see$1SG / %ha% me$ACC see$1SG >qou?re luc-0 %o see me? b$ X 7 norocos g5en%ru %ine / #in 5ar%ea %ah gsL mL veAi / cL mL veAih is luc-0 for 0ou from 5ar%-%he 0our SD'N me$ACC see$1SG / %ha% me$ACC see$1SG b_$ I%?s luc-0 for 0ou %o see me c$ 7 un noroc 5en%ru %ine gsL mL veAi / cL mL veAih is a luc- for 0ou SD'N me$ACC see$1SG / %ha% me$ACC see$1SG >qou?re luc-0 %o see me?
(4.,/
The a#6ec%ives %ha% allo9 %he cons%ruc%ion 9i%h a sub6ec% clause can also be 5re#ica%e# on an even% noun3 lucru dr u $ eneros $ amabil $ nepoliticos $ imprudent >%hin! -in# / !enerous / -in# / im5oli%e / rec-less?$ The converse is no% %rue (e$!$ one can sa0 fapt bun >#ee# !oo#? bu% no% XA fost bun$bine din partea ta s$$$ >i% 9as !oo# of 0ou %o$$$?/$ (iii/ Ad+ectives t!at only ta#e t!e sub+unctive3 (iii$a/ A#6ec%ives #eno%in! voli%ion (#esi#era%ive 5re#ica%es/ or cau%ion behavior orien%e# %o a cer%ain !oal3 avid >!ree#0 avi#? dornic >lon!in! ea!er? nsetat >%hirs%0? nerbdtor >im5a%ien% ea!er? decis >#eci#e#? ata >rea#0? pre tit >5re5are#? interesat >in%eres%e#? ri+uliu >careful? atent >careful? dispus >rea#0 (%o/ 9illin! (%o/? rbit >hurrie#?I (iii$b/ A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! #eon%ic %eleolo!ical or circums%an%ial mo#ali%0 (inclu#in! ca5aci%ies/3 demn >9or%h0? vrednic >9or%h0? dator >in#eb%e# obli!e# %o? obli at >obli!e#? liber >free? ([ "9hich is allo&ed %o #o some%hin!&/ apt >fi%(%e#/ ca5able? capabil >ca5able? inapt >inca5able? menit >#es%ine#? susceptibil >liable?I (iii$c/ A#6ec%ives %a-in! a !oal ar!umen%3 bun >!oo#? suficient >sufficien%? insuficient >insufficien%? potrivit >fi% sui%e#?$ Oere are some e;am5les3
(4../ a$ Sun% a%enRi sL nu !reMeascL are$2PL careful SD'N no% ma-e-a-mis%a-e$2 >The0 are careful no% %o ma-e a mis%a-e? b$ 7 liber sL 5lece is free SD'N !oes >Oe?s free %o !o? c$ Nu e a5% sL 5ar%ici5e la com5e%iRie
41.
The A#6ec%ive no% is fi% SD'N 5ar%ici5a%es a% com5e%i%ion >Oe?s no% fi% %o %a-e 5ar% in %he com5e%i%ion?
A#6ec%ives of %05e (iii$c/ 9hich %a-e a !oal ar!umen% #iffer from %he o%hers in %ha% %he sub6unc%ive behaves as a 5ur5ose clause3 i% freel0 allo9s %he com5lemen%iAer ca imme#ia%el0 before %he sub6unc%ive mar-er s 9hereas for com5lemen% sub6unc%ives %he s%an#ar# lan!ua!e #isallo9s ca if i% is no% se5ara%e# from s b0 ano%her cons%i%uen%3
(4.</ a$ Suma e suficien%L ca sL cum5LrLm mobila sum-%he is sufficien% ca SD'N bu0$+PL furni%ure-%he >The sum is sufficien% for us %o bu0 %he furni%ure? b$ Ioana e nerLb#L%oare (KKca/ sL cum5LrLm mobila Ioana is im5a%ien% ca SD'N bu0$+PL furni%ure-%he >Ioana is an;ious %ha% 9e shoul# bu0 %he furni%ure?
:oreover 9i%h %05e (iii$c/ %he com5lemen%iAer ca can be 5rece#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion pentru >for? 9hich is %05ical for of 5ur5ose clauses3
(4.B/ a$ Rochia nu e 5o%rivi%L 5en%ru ca s-o 5or% la rece5Rie #ress-%he no% is sui%e# for ca SD'N-i%$ACC 9ear$+SG a% rece5%ion >The #ress is no% sui%e# for me %o 9ear a% %he rece5%ion? b$ 7 bun 5en%ru ca sL fie #e5u%a% is !oo# for ca SD'N be$2 #e5u%0 >Oe?s fi% %o a be a #e5u%0?
The 5re5osi%ion pentru >for? also a55ears in %he infini%ive coun%er5ar% of %his cons%ruc%ion (see *,$4$2/$ (iii$#/ A#6ec%ives #escribin! %he 5s0cholo!ical effec% of an ob6ec% 9here %he clause s5ecifies %he even% b0 9hich %he ob6ec% manifes%s %his effec%3
(4.C/ a$ car%e 5lLcu%L s-o ci%eM%i En 5a% boo- 5leasan% SD'N-i% rea#$1SG in be# >boo- 5leasan% %o be rea# in be#? b$ voce 5lLcu%L s-o asculRi voice 5leasan% SD'N-i% lis%en$1SG >voice nice/5leasan% %o lis%en? c$ ches%iuni in%eresan%e sL le #iscu%Lm Em5reunL issues in%eres%in! SD'N %hem #iscuss$+PL %o!e%her >issues in%eres%in! %o be #iscusse# %o!e%her (b0 us/?
These a#6ec%ives can also %a-e %he su5ine (see *,$4$4$+ belo9/$ (iv/ Ad+ectives &!ic! ta#e t!e sub+unctive or an indirect interro ative3 These are #esi#era%ive 5re#ica%es (cf$ (iii/a above/ 9hich can also mean >ea!er/%r0in! %o -no9/fin# ou%? (9hich e;5lains %he in#irec% in%erro!a%ive/3 curios >curious? preocupat >5reoccu5ie#? interesat >in%eres%e#?3
(4<=/ a$ 5ersoane curioase sL afle reAul%a%ul / sL M%ie cine a Envins 5ersons curious SD'N learn$2 resul%-%he SD'N -no9$2 9ho has 9on >Peo5le curious %o learn %he resul% / %o -no9 9ho 9on? b$ 5ersoane curioase cine a Envins / #acL a Envins 5ersons curious 9ho has 9on if has 9on >Persons curious 9ho 9on / if (s/he 9on?
41<
The A#6ec%ive
,$4$1$1$ Sub6ec% clauses The con#i%ions for %he use of %he in#ica%ive an# %he sub6unc%ive %ha% 9e have seen above for ob6ec% clauses also hol# for sub6ec% clauses$ The a#6ec%ives a55earin! in %his 5a%%ern can onl0 be 5re#ica%ive as %he0 lac- a nominal e;%ernal ar!umen%$ The0 usuall0 a55ear af%er %he co5ula bu% can also occur in o%her 5re#ica%ive environmen%s e$!$ af%er considera >consi#er?3
(4<+/ Consi#er im5or%an% sL se ia o #eciAie #e 5e acum consi#er$+SG im5or%an% SD'N R7FL %a-es a #ecision b0 no9 >I consi#er i% im5or%an% %ha% a #ecision be %a-en no9?
Li-e in *,$4$1$1 9e classif0 %hese a#6ec%ives accor#in! %o %he moo# of %he fini%e clause3 (i/ Ad+ectives t!at only ta#e t!e indicative3 (i$+$/ Fac%ive e5is%emic 5re#ica%es3 cunoscut >-no9n? tiut >-no9n?3
(4<1/ 7 M%iu% cL ei sun% cei mai buni is -no9n %ha% %he0 are %he more !oo# >I%?s 9ell--no9n %ha% %he0 are %he bes%?
(i$1$/ 75is%emic an# evi#en%ial 5re#ica%es in#ica%in! cer%ain%03 si ur >cer%ain? cert >cer%ain? adevrat >%rue? drept >ri!h% %rue? clar >clear? evident >obvious? nendoielnic >in#is5u%able? indubitabil >in#is5u%able? incontestabil >incon%es%able in#is5u%able? indisputabil >in#is5u%able?$ 9i ur >;;;? an# clar >;;;? can %a-e an in#irec% in%erro!a%ive 9hen ne!a%e#3
(4<2/ a$ 7 clar cL ne au#e is clear %ha% us hears >I%?s clear (s/he can hear us? b$ Nu e clar cL/#acL ne au#e no% is clear %ha%/if us hears >I%?s no% clear %ha%/9he%her (s/he can hear us?
,lar >;;;? an# evident >;;;? can also %a-e a &!- clause3
(4<4/ 7 clar / evi#en% cine va cWM%i!a is clear / obvious 9ho 9ill 9in ;; (ii/ Ad+ectives t!at can ta#e eit!er t!e indicative or t!e sub+unctive3
(ii$+/ 7valua%ive 5re#ica%es3 bine >!oo#? (%he form of bun 9hen %here is no source of a!reemen% see *,$+ above un#er vi$c/ ru >ba#? re retabil >re!re%%able? important >im5or%an%? frumos >nice? e'traordinar >e;%raor#inar0? minunat >9on#erful? urt >ba# u!l0? oribil >horrible? reit >9ron!? ruinos >shameful? nobil >noble? inadmisibil >in%olerable? nelept >9ise? periculos >#an!erous? prime+dios >#an!erous? util >useful? uimitor >amaAin!? surprin(tor >sur5risin!? ciudat >s%ran!e? curios >s%ran!e? suprtor >anno0in! #isa55oin%in!? revolttor >revol%in!? enervant >anno0in!? plcut >5leasan%? mbucurtor >!la##enin! hear%enin!? reconfortant >comfor%in!? dureros >5ainful? trist >sa#? penibil >embarrassin! a9-9ar#? +enant >embarrassin!? roa(nic >horrible %errible? normal >na%ural normal? firesc >na%ural? nefiresc >unna%ural? incredibil >incre#ible? amu(ant >funn0 amusin!? cara !ios >ri#iculous funn0? ridicol >ri#iculous? de(am itor 41B
The A#6ec%ive
>#isa55oin%in!? e%c$ The in#ica%ive is use# if %he 5re#ica%e is fac%ive (%he %ru%h of %he com5lemen% clause is 5resu55ose#/3
(4<,/ (Nu/ e bine cL le scrieRi s Le scrieRi (no%/ is !oo# %ha% %hem$DAT 9ri%e$1PL %hem$DAT 9ri%e$1PL >I%?s (no%/ !oo# %ha% 0ou?re 9ri%in! %o %hem? s >qou?re 9ri%in! %o %hem?
The sub6unc%ive is use# 9hen %he subor#ina%e clause onl0 e;5resses a 5ossibili%0 (occurrin! in !eneraliAa%ions h05o%he%ical con%e;%s e%c$/ bu% can occur even if i%s %ru%h is -no9n in %he con%e;% in con#i%ions similar %o %hose #escribe# in *,$4$1$+ above un#er (ii$+/ (see (4<B//3
(4<./ 7 bine sL le scrieRi wf Le scrieRi is !oo# SD'N %hem$DAT 9ri%e$1PL %hem$DAT 9ri%e$1PL >I%?s !oo# %ha% 0ou shoul# 9ri%e %hem / for 0ou %o 9ri%e %hem? wf >qou?re 9ri%in! %o %hem/ qou 9ri%e %o %hem? 7 ciu#a% sL-l vL# aici is s%ran!e SD'N-him see$+SG here >I%?s s%ran!e %o see him here?
(4<</
As 9e have men%ione# in *,$4$1$+ above (un#er (ii$1// some evalua%ive a#6ec%ives allo9 e;5ressin! %he 5erson 9hich 5erforms %he evalua%e# ac%ion b0 a PP in%ro#uce# b0 din partea >from si#e-%he (of/? (see e;$ (4.2/ an# (4<B/a here/$ Some of %hese a#6ec%ives also allo9 a 5a%%ern in 9hich %he 5erson a55ears as %he e;%ernal ar!umen% (#iscusse# in *,$4$1$+ un#er (ii$1/ see (4,B/-(4.=// bu% no% all of %hem (see (4<B//3
(4<B/ a$ A fos% g amabil /frumos h #in 5ar%ea %a gsL-mi scrii / cL has been -in# / beau%iful from 5ar%-%he 0our SD'N-me$DAT 9ri%e$1SG %ha% mi-ai scrish$ have$1SG-me$DAT 9ri%%en >I% 9as -in# / nice of 0ou %o 9ri%e me? b$ Ai fos% g amabil /X frumos hgsL-mi scrii / cL mi-ai scrish$ have$1SG been -in# / beau%iful SD'N-me$DAT 9ri%e$1SG %ha% have$1SG-me$DAT 9ri%%en >qou 9ere -in# /nice %o 9ri%e me?
(ii$1/ 75is%emic mo#al 5re#ica%es3 onl0 verosimil >li-el0 cre#ible 5lausible? plau(ibil >5lausible? an# credibil >cre#ible?I mos% a#6ec%ives of %his %05e onl0 %a-e %he sub6unc%ive see (iii$+/ belo9$
(4<C/ 7 verosimil cL au a6uns / sL fi a6uns is cre#ible %ha% have$2PL arrive# / SD'N PRF arrive# >I% is 5lausible %ha% %he0 have arrive#?
(iii/ Ad+ectives t!at only ta#e t!e sub+unctive (iii$+/ A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! e5is%emic an# circums%an%ial mo#ali%03 probabil >li-el0? posibil >5ossible? improbabil >unli-el0? imposibil >im5ossible?$ These 9or#s can %a-e %he in#ica%ive 9hen %he0 are use# as a#verbs hea#in! %he clause b0 %hemselves 9i%hou% a co5ular verb (see (4B=/b/I as a#6ec%ives %he0 mus% %a-e %he co5ula an# can onl0 combine 9i%h %he sub6unc%ive (see (4B=/a/3
(4B=/ a$ 7 5robabil sL nu se mai En%oarcL / XcL nu se mai En%oarce is 5robable SD'N no% R7FL a!ain re%urns / %ha% no% R7FL a!ain re%urns
41C
The A#6ec%ive >I%?s li-el0 (s/he 9on?% come bac-? b$ Probabil cL nu se mai En%oarce 5robabl0 %ha% no% R7FL a!ain re%urns >Probabl0 (s/he 9on?% come bac-?
The claim %ha% %he 5re#ica%es in %he cons%ruc%ion illus%ra%e# b0 (4B=/b are no% ca%e!oriall0 a#6ec%ives bu% ra%her a#verbs is #emons%ra%e# b0 %he behavior of a#6ec%ives in - esc 9hich have a #is%inc% a#verbial form in -ete3
(4B+/ a$ FireM%e cL nu se mai En%oarce na%urall0 %ha% no% R7FL a!ain re%urns >Gf course (s/he 9on?% come bac-? b$ X Firesc cL nu se mai En%oarce na%ural %ha% no% R7FL a!ain re%urns
(iii$1/ A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! #eon%ic an# %eleolo!ical mo#ali%03 obli atoriu >obli!a%or0? necesar >necessar0? )ne*permis >(#is/allo9e#? inter(is >forbi##en? )ne*recomandat >(no%/ recommen#e#? )ne*indicat >(no%/ recommen#e#? e%c$3
(4B1/ 7 obli!a%oriu sL-i s5unem is obli!a%or0 SD'N-2SG$DAT %ell$+PL >Ue have %o %ell him/her?
(iii$2/ A#6ec%ives @ualif0in! an ac%ion in %erms of li-eliness of success3 reu >har# #ifficul%? uor >eas0? dificil >#ifficul%? e%c$
(4B2/ Va fi !reu sL a6un!em 5e luminL 9ill be har# SD'N arrive$+PL on li!h% >I% 9ill be #ifficul% for us %o !e% %here before #a9n?
These a#6ec%ives ma0 also have a 5s0cholo!ical rea#in! (resemblin! evalua%ive a#6ec%ives/$ The0 can in%ro#uce %he 5erformer of %he ac%ion as an 7;5eriencer 9hich can a55ear in %he #a%ive (see *,$+ above %05e vi$c/ or as a pentru-PP3
(4B4/ 7 uMor 5en%ru mine sL reAolv 5roblema / :i-e uMor sL reAolv 5roblema is eas0 for me SD'N solve$+SG 5roblem-%he me$ DAT-is eas0 SD'N solve$+SG 5roblem-%he >I%?s eas0 for me %o solve %he 5roblem?
These a#6ec%ives can also %a-e %he su5ine an# en%er a s5ecial raisin! cons%ruc%ion 9i%h %he su5ine (%he so-calle# "tou ! cons%ruc%ion&/ see *,$4$4$2 belo9$ (iv/ Ad+ectives &!ic! ta#e t!e indicative% t!e sub+unctive or an indirect interro ative3 A#6ec%ives such as interesant >in%eres%in!? important >im5or%an%? e;5ress a 5s0cholo!ical effec% li-e evalua%ive a#6ec%ives (ii$+/ bu% also an a%%i%u#e %o9ar#s a 5iece of informa%ion (li-e %hose un#er (iv/ in *,$4$1$+/ 9hich allo9s %hem %o %a-e an in#irec% in%erro!a%ive3
(4B,/ a$ 7 in%eresan% cL aMa mulRi s-au re%ras is in%eres%in! %ha% so man0 R7FL-have$2PL 9i%h#ra9n >I%?s in%eres%in! %ha% so man0 5eo5le 9i%h#re9? b$ Va fi in%eresan% sL ve#em cu ochii noM%ri 9ill be in%eres%in! SD'N see$+PL 9i%h e0es-%he our
42=
The A#6ec%ive >I%?ll be in%eres%in! %o see 9i%h our e0es? c$ 7 in%eresan% cine va veni / #acL va veni is in%eres%in! 9ho 9ill$2SG come if 9ill$2SG come >I%?s in%eres%in! 9ho 9ill come / if (s/he comes?
%.$.3. Inf.n.t.2al /la1ses ,$4$2$+$ Infini%ival vs$ fini%e clauses Ui%h mos% %05es of a#6ec%ives 9hich %a-e ob6ec% clauses lis%e# in ,$4$1 above %he infini%ive can al%erna%e bo%h 9i%h in#ica%ive sub6unc%ive clauses (see (4B.//$ The infini%ive is s5ecific %o a hi!h li%erar0 re!is%er$
(4B./ a$ conM%ien% cL es%e En 5ericol / #e a fi En 5ericol a9are %ha% is in #an!er of %o be in #an!er >a9are of bein! in #an!er? b$ #ornic sL-l reva#L / #e a-l reve#ea ea!er SD'N-him sees-a!ain of %o-him see-a!ain >9ishin! %o see him a!ain?
Uhen %he a#6ec%ive can %a-e bo%h %he in#ica%ive an# %he sub6unc%ive as a com5lemen% %he infini%ive can re5lace bo%h moo#s ((4B</ is a fac%ive con%e;%I %he sub6unc%ive canno% have %he an%erior %ense in %his con%e;% 9hich in#ica%es %ha% %he infini%ive >re5laces? %he in#ica%iveI (4BB/ is a con%e;% 9hich favors %he irrealis rea#in!I %he infini%ive is e@uivalen% %here %o b/3
(4B</ a$ Sun% bucuros #e a-l fi cunoscu% am !la# of %o-him PRF -no9n >I?m !la# %o have me% him? b$ Sun% bucuros cL l-am cunoscu% am !la# %ha% him-have$+ me% >I?m !la# I me% him? c$ XSun% bucuros sL-l fi cunoscu% am !la# SD'N-him PRF me% a$ AM fi EncWn%a% #e a-l 5u%ea convin!e 9oul#$+SG be #eli!h%e# of %o-him can convince >I?# be !la# %o be able %o convince him? b$ AM fi EncWn%a% sL-l 5o% convin!e 9oul#$+SG be #eli!h%e# SD'N-him can$+SG convince >I?# be #eli!h%e# %o be able %o convince him? c$ m AM fi EncWn%a% cL-l 5o% convin!e 9oul#$+SG be #eli!h%e# %ha%-him can$+SG convince
(4BB/
Amon! %he a#6ec%ives %a-in! an ob6ec% clause e;amine# in *,$4$1$+ above %hose in class (ii$1/ 9hich @ualif0 5ersons %hrou!h %heir behavior canno% %a-e %he infini%ive3
(4BC/ a$ KK 7M%i amabil (#e/ a-mi oferi aces% ca#ou are$1SG -in# of %o-me$ DAT offer %his 5resen% b$ X 7M%i 5ros% (#e/ a-i s5une are$1SG s%u5i# of %o-2SG$DAT %ell
This im5ossibili%0 ma0 be correla%e# 9i%h %he fac% %ha% %hese a#6ec%ives #on?% #o no% %a-e nominal com5lemen%s ei%her$ In#ee# infini%ives have some nominal 5ro5er%ies P see %he ne;% sub-sec%ion (*,$4$2$1/ on %heir abili%0 %o %a-e 5re5osi%ions such as de >of?% la >a% %o? an# pentru>for? $ In sub6ec% clauses %he infini%ive can al%erna%e 9i%h %he sub6unc%ive bu% no% 9i%h %he 42+
The A#6ec%ive
in#ica%ive3
(4C=/ a$ 7 evi#en% cL va veni / X sL vinL is obvious %ha% 9ill$2SG come SD'N comes >I%?s obvious %ha% (s/he 9ill come? b$ X 7 evi#en% #e a veni is obvius of %o come 7 im5or%an% #e a rLmWne aici is im5or%an% of %o remain here >I%?s im5or%an% %o remain here? [ 7 im5or%an% sL grLmWnem / rLmWnL /rLmWi / rLmWn / rLmWneRi h aici is im5or%an% SD'N remain$+PL remain$2 remain$1SG remain$+SG remain$1PL >I%?s im5or%an% %ha% 9e/(s/he/%he0/0ou/I shoul# remain here? w 7 im5or%an% cL grLmWnem / rLmWne /rLmWi / rLmWn / rLmWneRi h aici is im5or%an% %ha% remain$+PL remain$2SG remain$1SG remain$+SG/2PL remain$1PL >I%?s im5or%an% %ha% 9e/(s/he/%he0/0ou/I are remainin! here?
(4C+/
,$4$2$1$ In%ro#uc%or0 elemen%s Uhenever an a#6ec%ive selec%s a 5ar%icular 5re5osi%ion %he infini%ival is normall0 in%ro#uce# b0 %his 5re5osi%ion 9hich su!!es%s %ha% %he infini%ive has a nominal #is%ribu%ion$ The 5re5osi%ion is in mos% cases de >of? %he 5re5osi%ion %05ical for of %he Theme role (see *,$1$1 above/ as illus%ra%e# in (4C1/-(4C2/I 9i%h %he Pur5ose role 9e fin# %he 5re5osi%ion pentru >for? (see (4C4//I 9i%h a#6ec%ives selec%in! la >a% %o? 9e can fin# infini%ival ;;; in%ro#uce# b0 la (see (4C,//3
(4C1/ a$ Sun% mWn#ru 3e a-l fi cunoscu% am 5rou# of %o-him PRF -no9n >I?m 5rou# %o have me% him? b$ Sun% mWn#ru 3e aceas%L fa5%L am 5rou# of %his #ee# ;;;; a$ Nu e ca5abil 3e a con#uce s%a%ul no% is ca5able of %o !overn s%a%e-%he ;;; b$ Nu e ca5abil 3e crimL no% is ca5able of mur#er ;;; a$ Suma e suficien%L 5ent01 a-l cum5Lra sum-%he is sufficien% for %o-i% bu0 >The sum is enou!h for bu0in! i%? b$ Suma e suficien%L 5ent01 5la%a salariilor sum-%he is sufficien% for 5a0men%-%he salaries-%he$ G7N >The sum is sufficien% for %he 5a0men% of %he salaries? a$ nu sun% bun la a !Lsi cuvin%ele 5o%rivi%e no% am !oo# a% %o fin# 9or#s-%he ri!h% >I?m no% !oo# a% fin#in! %he ri!h% 9or#s? b$ nu sun% bun la as%a no% am !oo# a% %his >I?m no% !oo# a% %his?
(4C2/
(4C4/
(4C,/
Ui%h %he a#6ec%ive dator o9in!? 9hich %a-es inheren% accusa%ive (see *,$2 above/ 9e e;5ec%e#l0 fin# no in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% a% all (see (4C.//I bu% one can also fin# %he 5re5osi%ion de >of? e;%en#e# on %he mo#el of %he o%her a#6ec%ives (see (4C<//3
421
The A#6ec%ive
(4C./
(4C</
a$ Sun% #a%or a-l cum5Lra 5en%ru el am in#eb%e# %o-i% bu0 for him >I o9e him %o bu0 i% for him? b$ ì sun% #a%or as%a 2SG$DAT am in#eb%e# %his >I o9e him/her %his? omul es%e #a%or #e a cul%iva En sens s5iri%ual imensul cWm5 al lumii man-%he is in#eb%e# of %o cul%iva%e in sense s5iri%ual hu!e-%he fiel# G7N 9orl#-%he$G7N >:an has %he #u%0 %o cul%iva%e in s5iri%ual sense %he hu!e fiel# of %he 9orl#? (999$Aiarullumina$ro//
The 5re5osi%ion de >of? can be omi%%e# in a ver0 boo-ish re!is%er3 (4CB/a$ CLu%Lm un avoca% ca5abil a comunica En limba en!leAL (999$avoca%ne%$ro/ search$+PL a la90er ca5able %o communica%e in lan!ua!e-%he 7n!lish >Ue?re loo-in! for a la90er ca5able of communica%in! in 7n!lish? b$ vre#nicL a s%a En mWinile unui Pol05hem (CLlinescu C$ ,, a5u# Din#ele!an 1=+13<+/ 9or%h0 %o s%a0 in han#s-%he a$G7N Pol05hem >9or%h0 of res%in! in %he han#s of a Pol05hem?
Uhen %he a#6ec%ive #oes no% %a-e a nominal ar!umen% 9i%h %he same meanin! %he infini%ive can a55ear ei%her 9i%hou% an0 5re5osi%ion or 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ion de3
(4CC/ Gricine e liber (#e/ a ale!e orice 5rofesie an0bo#0 is free (of/ %o choose an0 5rofession
The elemen% de is 5robabl0 no% %o be anal0Ae# as a com5lemen%iAer because unli-e in French or I%alian i% canno% in%ro#uce #irec% ob6ec% or sub6ec% clauses 9i%h verbs$ Ins%ea# i% a55ears in NPs an# APs %he environmen%s 9hich also charac%eriAe de as a func%ional 5re5osi%ion (see cha5%er B *+$1$2 *2 for de as a func%ional 5re5osi%ion insi#e NPs an# *,$1$1 above for de 9i%h #everbal a#6ec%ives in%ro#ucin! %he ar!umen% corres5on#in! %o %he verb?s #irec% ob6ec%/$
No%ice %ha% de can also a55ear in sub6ec% clauses follo9in! %he a#6ec%ive (see also (4C+//3
(,==/ 7 bine #e a afla cW% mai curWn# is !oo# of %o fin#-ou% ho9-much more soon >I%?s 5referable %o fin# ou% as soon as 5ossible?
Uhen %he sub6ec% clause occurs in %he 5reverbal 5osi%ion de is e;clu#e#3

(,=+/ (XDe/ a vorbi as%fel nu e bine / frumos of %o s5ea- li-e-%ha% no% is !oo#/ nice >To %alli-e %ha% is no% !oo# / nice?
This fac% su!!es%s %ha% sub6ec% clauses follo9in! a#6ec%ives are %o be anal0Ae# as com5lemen%s of %he a#6ec%ive$ ,$4$2$2$ The sub6ec% of %he infini%ive In ob6ec% clauses %he sub6ec% of %he infini%ive is normall0 con%rolle# (boun#/ b0 %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive3
(,=1/ a$ oameni nerLb#L%ori #e a ne Enlocui 5eo5le im5a%ien% of %o us re5lace
422
The A#6ec%ive >5eo5le im5a%ien% %o re5lace us? 3 ;$ 5eo5le(;/ ; is im5a%ien% %o re5lace us b$ :ariai es%e si!urL #e a Envin!e (PRGi/ :aria is sure of %o 9in >:aria is sure %o 9in?3 :aria is ;$ ; is sure %ha% ; 9ill 9in
Gne can never%heless fin# e;am5les in 9hich %he sub6ec% of %he infini%ive is no% con%rolle# bu% is ei%her over%l0 e;5resse# in 5os%verbal 5osi%ion (see (,=2/a/ or remains null an# refer %o a 5reviousl0 men%ione# en%i%0 (see (,=2/b/3
(,=2/ a$ ar fi EncWn%a% #e a i se a5roba ve#erile 9oul#$2SG be #eli!h%e# of %o 2SG$DAT R7FL a55rove vie9s-%he (CLlinescu I$L$R$ 4<. a5u# Din#ele!an +CC13 <+/ >Oe?# be #eli!h%e# if i%s vie9s 9ere a55rove#? b$ `n %oamna lui +BCB frun%aMi socialiM%i inclusiv Gherea observWn# 5ro5orRiile in au%umn-%he G7N +BCB lea#ers socialis% inclu#in! Gherea no%icin! ma!ni%u#es-%he #eAvol%Lrii Ycluburilor sL%eM%iZ i au #eveni% En!ri6ora%i #e a nu se #evelo5men%-%he$G7N clubs-%he$G7N villa!e$ADN have become 9orrie# of %o no% R7FL %ransforma pro. En cen%re #e ins%i!are Mi 5rovocare a unor revol%e sociale %ransform in cen%ers of ins%i!a%ion an# 5rovoca%ion G7N some$G7N revol%s social (h%%53//999$scri%ube$com/is%orie/Dis5u%a-asu5ra-baAelor-cons%i%1+4.4+=11$5h5/ >In %he au%umn of +BCB socialis% lea#ers inclu#in! Gherea no%icin! %he 5ro5or%ions of %he #evelo5men% of %he Yvilla!e clubsZi became 9orrie# %ha% %he0i shoul# no% %urn in%o cen%ers of ins%i!a%ion an# 5rovoca%ion of social rio%s?
In sub6ec% clauses as %he infini%ive?s sub6ec% has no 5o%en%ial con%roller i% normall0 has arbi%rar0 human reference3
(,=4/ a$ 7 firesc a cLu%a 5lLcerea is na%ural %o see- 5leasure-%he >I%?s na%ural %o see- 5leasure? b$ 7 frumos a En%oarce Mi celLlal% obraA is beau%iful %o %urn also %he-o%her chee>I%?s -in#/noble %o %urn %he o%her chee-? c$ 7 !reu a sa%isface 5e %oa%L lumea is har# %o sa%isf0 DG: all 5eo5le-%he >I%?s har# %o sa%isf0 ever0bo#0?
%.$.$. S15.ne /la1ses The su5ine has less con%e;%s of occurrence %han %he infini%ive bu% in %hese con%e;%s i% is full0 alive in all %he re!is%ers of %he lan!ua!e (unli-e %he infini%ive/$ Some of i%s con%e;%s are common 9i%h %he sub6unc%ive o%hers are s5ecific %o %he su5ine P %he so-calle# > tou !cons%ruc%ion? see *,$4$4$2$ I% al9a0s has an irrealis in%er5re%a%ion an# %herefore i% can never be re5lace# b0 an in#ica%ive clause$ The narro9er #is%ribu%ion of %he su5ine can be e;5laine# b0 %he fac% %ha% i% has ver0 limi%e# 5ossibili%ies of ar!umen% licensin!3 %he sub6ec% can never be license# insi#e %he su5ine an# %he ob6ec% canno% receive #is%inc% accusa%ive mar-in! (cli%ics are no% allo9e# an# %he 5re5osi%ional mar-er pe is mar!inal un!ramma%ical for man0 s5ea-ers/$ Therefore %he su5ine mos%l0 a55ears in con%rol an# raisin! confi!ura%ions an# %en#s %o refer %o !eneric si%ua%ions$ Gne can #is%in!uish an ac%ive su5ine 9hich allo9s e;5ressin! %he #irec% ob6ec% (see (,=,// an# a 5assive su5ine in 9hich %he e;%ernal ar!umen% can be in%ro#uce# b0 de% de ctre >b0? (%his cons%ruc%ion is no% acce5%able for all s5ea-ers in %he com5lemen% use of %he
424
The A#6ec%ive
su5ine 9hich 9e e;amine hereI i% is more acce5%able in %he mo#al re#uce# rela%ive use on 9hich see cha5%er C **2$+ 2$2/3
(,=,/ (,=./ 7 im5or%an% #e reAolva% mai En%Wi aces%e 5robleme is im5or%an% SDP solve$SDP more before %hese 5roblems >I%?s im5or%an% %o solve %hese 5roblems firs%? u :aria e !reu #e convins #e un necunoscu% :aria is har# SDP convince$SDP b0 a s%ran!er
No%ice %ha% %he ac%ive an# 5assive su5ine are no% mor5holo!icall0 #is%in!uishable 9hich ma-es %he anal0sis #ifficul% some%imes$ The in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% de also has an unclear s%a%us3 in some con%e;%s i% can be anal0Ae# as a s5ecial su5ine mar-er (a moo# mar-er a-in %o sub6unc%ive s/ in o%hers as a 5re5osi%ion as i% al%erna%es 9i%h o%her 5re5osi%ions (la% n/ an# 9i%h infini%ives or DPs in%ro#uce# b0 de$ Ue 9ill #iscuss %he su5ine accor#in! %o %he classifica%ion 9e?ve have been usin! here in%o ob6ec% clauses an# sub6ec% clauses$ 'u% here 9e mus% a## a %hir# %05e %he cons%ruc%ion in 9hich %he (#ee5/ ob6ec% of %he su5ine becomes %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he Ya#6ec%ive H su5ineZ cons%i%uen%$ Ue 9ill use %he es%ablishe# %erm >tou !-cons%ruc%ion? for %his %05e$ ,$4$4$+$ Gb6ec% clauses The su5ine a55ears 9i%h %he follo9in! classes of a#6ec%ives3 (i/ 7valua%ive a#6ec%ives a%%ribu%in! a @uali%0 %o an ob6ec% P 9hich some%imes re5resen%s a 5s0cholo!ical effec% of %his ob6ec% P 9here %he clause s5ecifies %he even% b0 9hich %he ob6ec% manifes%s %his @uali%03
(,=</ a$ 5robleme in%eresan%e #e #iscu%a% 5roblems in%eres%in! SDP #iscuss$SDP >5roblems in%eres%in! %o #iscuss? b$ muAicL 5lLcu%L #e ascul%a% music 5leasan% SDP lis%en$SDP >music 5leasan% %o lis%en %o? c$ fa5%e oribile #e 5rivi% #ee#s horrible SDP loo-$SDP >#ee#s horrible %o see? #$ masL e;celen%L #e 5us 5e %erasL %able e;cellen% SDP 5u%$SDP on %errace >%able e;cellen% %o 5u% on %he %errace? e$ Casa ($$$/ e frumoasL #e 5rivi% #ar nu #e locui% ( ovanova$9or#5ress$com// house-%he is beau%iful SDP loo-$SDP bu% no% SDP live$SDP >The house 9as beau%iful %o loo- a% bu% no% %o live in?
G%her a#6ec%ives of %his %05e are minunat >9on#erful? (e$!$ privelite minunat de privit >si!h% 9on#erful %o see?/ superb >su5erb? uimitor >amaiAin!? (e$!$ locuri uimitoare de v(ut >5laces amaiAin! %o see?/ e'traordinar >e;%raor#inar0? (e$!$ pies e'traordinar de v(ut >5la0 e;%raor#inar0 %o see?/ ncnttor >charmin!? (culoare ncnttoare de privit >colour charmin! %o loo- a%?/ reconfortant >confor%in!? (roman reconfortant de citit >novel confor%in! %o rea#?/ amu(ant >amusin!? (amu(ant de ascultat >amusin! %o lis%en?/ cara !ios >ri#iculous funn0? (dansuri cara !ioase de v(ut >#ances funn0 %o see?/ ruinos >shameful? (fapt ruinoas de mrturisit >#ee# shameful %o confess?/ penibil >embarrassin!? (amintire penibil de povestit >souvenir embarrassin! %o %ell?/ dureros >5ainful? (lucruri dureroase de spus >%hin!s 5ainful %o %ell?/ enervant >irri%a%in! anno0in!? (en le( enervant 42,
The A#6ec%ive
de ascultat >7n!lish anno0in! %o hear?/ periculos >#an!erous? (e$!$ lucruri periculoase de fcut >%hin!s #an!erous %o #o?/ nelept >9ise? (lucruri nelepte de fcut >%hin!s 9ise %o #o?/ disponibil >available? (pies disponibil de ascultat >5iece/%une available %o lis%en?/$ The (#ee5/ ob6ec% of %he su5ine is normall0 coreferen% 9i%h %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive$ Ue can anal0Ae %his as an ins%ance of con%rol if 9e assume %ha% %he su5ine is 5assive here so %ha% i%s #ee5 ob6ec% is i%s !ramma%ical sub6ec%$ This h05o%hesis is su55or%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% some%imes one can fin# an a!en%-PP in %he su5ine clause (al%hou!h such occurrences are @ui%e rare/3 (,=B/
subiec% care ar fi in%eresan% #e ascul%a% #e cL%re 5ublic (5saico$info/1==</=B// sub6ec% 9hich 9oul# be in%eres%in! SDP lis%en$SDP b0 5ublic >sub6ec% %ha% 9oul# be in%eres%in! %o be lis%ene# b0 %he 5ublic?
7;ce5%ionall0 %he #ee5 ob6ec% of %he su5ine is no% con%rolle# b0 %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive$ Gne can even fin# an e;5resse# ob6ec% in %his case (9hich means %ha% %he su5ine has ac%ive voice see (,=C/a/3
(,=C/ a$ A5a e e;celen%L #e fLcu% baie 9a%er-%he is e;cellen% SDP ma-e$SDP ba%h >The 9a%er is e;cellen% %o %a-e a ba%h? b$ vreme 5lLcu%L #e s%a% afarL 9ea%her 5leasan% SDP s%a0$SDP ou%si#e >9ea%her 5leasan% for s%a0in! ou%#oors?
Some of %hese a#6ec%ives allo9 a%%ribu%in! %he 5ro5er%0 %o %he even% i%self leavin! %he su5ine as %he onl0 ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive (see *,$4$4$1 belo9/3
(,+=/ a$ Ar fi in%eresan% #e #iscu%a% aces%e 5robleme la Me#inRL 9oul# be in%eres%in! SDP #iscuss$SDP %hese 5roblems a% mee%in! >I% 9oul# be in%eres%in! %o #iscuss %hese 5roblems a% %he mee%in!? b$ 7 5lLcu% #e ascul%a% muAicL En %im5ul mesei is 5leasan% SDP lis%en$SDP music in %ime-%he meal-%he$G7N >I%?s 5leasan% %o lis%en %o music 9hile havin! meal?
Amon! %he a#6ec%ives e;em5lifie# here frumos% oribil% e'celent #o no% seem %o allo9 %his use$ Ue ma0 inclu#e in %his class a#6ec%ives 9here %he clause e;5resses %he !oal for 9hich %he ob6ec% is use#3 bun >!oo# (for/? potrivit >fi%? P see also e'celent >;;;? in (,=</# (,=C/a3
(,++/ a$ covor bun #e 5us En sufra!erie car5e% !oo# SDP 5u%$SDP in #inin!-room >car5e% fi% %o be 5u% in %he #inin!-room? b$ vreme bunL #e fLcu% 5limbLri 9ea%her !oo# SDP #o$SDP s%rolls >9ea%her !oo# for s%rollin!?
No%ice ho9ever %ha% in %his case %he cons%ruc%ion in 9hich %he clause is %he onl0 ar!umen% #oes no% have %he same meanin!3
(,+1/ 7 bine g#e 5us / sL 5unemh covorul En sufra!erie is !oo# SDP 5u%$SDP SD'N 5u%$+PL car5e%-%he in #inin!-room >I%?s !oo# %o 5u% %he car5e% in %he #inin!-room?
42.
The A#6ec%ive
(ii/ A#6ec%ives selec%in! %he 5re5osi%ions de% la% pentru$ In %his case since %he in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% de >of? al%erna%es 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ions la >a% %o? an# pentru >for? i% is %o be anal0Ae# as a 5re5osi%ion ra%her %han as a moo# mar-er$ (ii$+/ Amon! %he a#6ec%ives selec%in! de %he su5ine can be foun# 9i%h a#6ec%ives of #eon%ic or circums%an%ial mo#ali%0 P demn >9or%h0? vrednic >9or%h0? musai >b0 all means %o$$? ata >rea#0? P a#6ec%ives #eno%in! voli%ion P nerbdtor >im5a%ien% ea!er? dornic >#esirin!? interesat >in%eres%e#? P a#6ec%ives #eno%in! ca5aci%ies P apt >ca5able? capabil >ca5able?$ The a#6ec%ives #eno%in! voli%ion an# ca5aci%ies %a-e an ac%ive su5ine3
(,+2/ a$ nerLb#L%or #e mers la 5limbare im5a%ien% of !o$SDP %o s%roll >an;ious %o !o for a 9al-? b$ #ornic #e 5rimi% oas5eRi ea!er of receive$SDP !ues%s >ea!er %o receive !ues%s? c$ Cine e in%eresa% #e mers la mun%eK 9ho is in%eres%e# of !o$SDP %o moun%ain >Uho?s in%eres%in! %o !o %o %he moun%ainsK?
The a#6ec%ives demn an# vrednic >9or%h0? %a-e a 5assive su5ine (i%s #ee5 ob6ec% is con%rolle# b0 %he a#6ec%ive?s e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive/3
(,+4/ a$ om #emn #e urma% 5erson 9or%h0 of follo9$SDP >5erson 9or%h0 %o follo9? b$ %e;% vre#nic #e s%u#ia% #e cL%re cerce%L%ori renumiRi %e;% 9or%h0 of s%u#0$ SDP b0 researchers reno9ne# >%e;% 9or%h0 %o be s%u#ie# b0 reno9ne# scholars?
Ui%h ata >rea#0?% %he su5ine can have ei%her voice (i% is 5assive in (,+,/a an# ac%ive in (,+,/b-c/3
(,+,/ a$ mWncare !a%a #e servi% meal rea#0 of serve$SDP >meal rea#0 %o serve? b$ sun%em !a%a #e mers are$+PL rea#0 of !o$SDP >Ue?re rea#0 %o !o? c$ Oo%elul e !a%a #e 5rimi% clienRii ho%el-%he is rea#0 of receive$SDP clien%s-%he >The ho%el is rea#0 %o receive %he clien%s?
Uhen %he su5ine is ac%ive ata >rea#0? has an a##i%ional 5s0cholo!ical meanin! (>rea#0 %o? [ >9illin! %o? see (,+,/b-cI in c %he ho%el as an ins%i%u%ion is mean%/ resemblin! %he a#6ec%ives in (,+2/ above$ Ui%hou% %he a##i%ional 5s0cholo!ical meanin! %he ac%ive su5ine is im5ossible3
(,+./ Vulcanul e !a%a gsL eru5L / X#e eru5%h volcano-%he is rea#0 SD'N eru5%s / of eru5%$SDP >The volcano is rea#0 %o eru5%?
No%e %ha% %he anal0sis of #e as a 5re5osi%ion is no% 5ossible for %05e (i/ above beecause %hose a#6ec%ives canno% %a-e de (>of&/ JDP3
42<
The A#6ec%ive
(,+</ a$ XmuAicL 5lLcu%L #e ascul%are music 5leasan% of lis%enin! b$ Xcar%e in%eresan%L #e lec%urL boo- in%eres%in! of rea#in!
(ii$1/ The su5ine can also a55ear 9i%h a#6ec%ives selec%in! la >%o a%? P bun >!oo# (a%/? >dispus >rea#0 %o 9illin! %o? util >useful? folositor >useful? P an# pentru >for? P bun >!oo# (for/? util >useful?3
(,+B/ a$ Nu e #is5usL la fLcu% !es%uri #e Em5Lcare no% is 9illin! %o #o$SDP !es%ures of reconcilia%ion >She?s no% 9illin! %o ma-e !es%ures of reconcilia%ion? b$ 7 bun la s%rWns fon#uri 5en%ru cam5anie is !oo# a% collec%$SDP fun#s for cam5ai!n >Oe?s !oo# a% raisin! fun#s for %he cam5ai!n? c$ om folosi%or la cLra% !LleRi man useful a% carr0$ SDP buc-e%s >man !oo# for carr0in! buc-e%s? a$ 5la6L bunL 5en%ru fLcu% cas%ele #e nisi5 beach !oo# for ma-e$SDP cas%les of san# >beach !oo# for ma-in! san# cas%les? b$ carne bunL 5en%ru fLcu% la !rL%ar mea% !oo# for #o$SDP a% !rill >mea% !oo# %o 5u% on %he !rill? c$ ar%icol u%il 5en%ru scos 5e%ele i%em useful for remove$SDP s%ains-%he >i%em useful for removin! %he s%ains?
(,+C/
As can be seen from %he e;am5les in ;;; 9i%h la %he su5ine is al9a0s ac%ive$ Ui%h pentru 9e can fin# an ac%ive su5ine (see (,+C/a c/ bu% i% is also 5ossible for %he su5ine?s #ee5 ob6ec% %o be con%rolle# (see (,+C/b/$ Uhen %he su5ine?s sub6ec% or #ee5 ob6ec% of %he su5ine is no% con%rolle# %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive is in%er5re%e# as %he ins%rumen% of %he su5ine verb$ ,$4$4$1$ Sub6ec% clauses The su5ine a55ears 9i%h mos% of %he a#6ec%ives 9hich can %a-e %he sub6unc%ive e;ce5% %hose e;5ressin! e5is%emic mo#ali%03
(,1=/ 7 5osibil gca lumea sL crea#L as%a / X#e creAu% (as%a/h is 5ossible %ha% 5eo5le SD'N believes %his SDP believe$SDP %his >I%?s 5osible %ha% 5eo5le believe %his?
The im5ossibili%0 of a55earin! in e5is%emic mo#ali%0 con%e;%s even as an irrealis mi!h% be #ue %o %he lac- of a cover% con%roller in %he ma%ri;$ Ue can %hus fin# %he su5ine 9i%h %he follo9in! classes of a#6ec%ives3 (i/ Ps0cholo!ical evalua%ive a#6ec%ives sho9in! %he 5s0cholo!ical effec% of a (5ossible/ even%/si%ua%ion (%he 5s0cholo!ical ones amon! %hose in *,$4$1$1 un#er (ii$+/ an# (iv//3 interesant >in%eres%in!? uimitor >amaAin!? surprin(tor >sur5risin!? ciudat >s%ran!e funn0? reconfortant >comfor%in!? dureros >5ainful? enervant >anno0in!? plcut >5leasan%? mbucurtor >!la##enin! hear%enin!? reconfortant >comfor%in!? trist >sa#? penibil >embarrassin! a9-9ar#? +enant >embarrassin!? roa(nic >horrible %errible? amu(ant >funn0 amusin!? ridicol >ri#iculous? de(am itor >#isa55oin%in!? e%c$ 42B
The A#6ec%ive
(ii/ A#6ec%ives e;5ressin! #eon%ic an# %eleolo!ical mo#ali%0 (%he #eon%ic ones amon! %hose un#er (ii$+/ in *,$4$1$1 an# %hose un#er (iii$1//3 bine >!oo#? important >im5or%an%? frumos >nice? urt >ba# u!l0? ru >ba#? e'traordinar >e;%raor#inar0? minunat >9on#erful? oribil >horrible? ruinos >shameful? inadmisibil >in%olerable? periculos >#an!erous? prime+dios >#an!erous? util >useful? obli atoriu >obli!a%or0? necesar >necessar0? )ne*permis >(#is/allo9e#? inter(is >forbi##en? )ne*recomandat >(no%/ recommen#e#? )ne*indicat >(no%/ recommen#e#? e%c$ (iii/ A#6ec%ives @ualif0in! an ac%ion in %erms of li-eliness of success3 reu >har# #ifficul%? uor >eas0? dificil >#ifficul%? e%c$ These a#6ec%ives %a-e an ac%ive su5ine (in %he follo9in! e;am5les %he lac- of a!reemen% on %he co5ula sho9 %ha% %he DP follo9in! %he su5ine is no% a 5os%verbal sub6ec% bu% ra%her %he #irec% ob6ec% of %he su5ine/3
(,1+/ a$ 7 bine #e M%iu% En%rebLrile #inain%e is !oo# SDP -no9$SDP @ues%ions-%he from-before >I%?s !oo# %o -no9 %he @ues%ions in a#vance? b$ Ar fi in%eresan% #e vLAu% reacRiile 9oul#$2SG be in%eres%in! SDP see$SDP reac%ions-%he >I% 9oul# be in%eres%in! %o see %he reac%ions?
Some s5ea-ers #o no% fin# %hese e;am5les full0 acce5%able 5referrin! cons%ruc%ions in 9hich %he #ee5 ob6ec% of %he su5ine is ei%her raise# (see %he tou !- cons%ruc%ion *,$4$4$2 belo9/ or con%rolle# (%05e (i/ in *,$4$4$+ above/$ For %hese s5ea-ers %he su5ine can license a #irec% ob6ec% onl0 9hen selec%e# b0 5re5osi%ions (see *,$4$4$+ above %05e (ii// or verbs (e$!$ a termina de000 >%o finish?/$
If %he a#6ec%ive has an a##i%ional 7;5eriencer ar!umen% e;5resse# b0 a #a%ive %he sub6ec% of %he su5ine is con%rolle# b0 %his ar!umen%3
(,11/ :i-e !reu #e s5us cine are #re5%a%e me$DAT is har# SDP sa0$SDP 9ho has ri!h% >I%?s har# for me %o %ell 9ho?s ri!h%?
:an0 of %he a#6ec%ives of %he firs% %9o %05es have an al%erna%ive 5a%%ern in 9hich %he 5ro5er%0 is a%%ribu%e# %o an ob6ec% an# %he clause sho9s %he circums%ances un#er 9hich %he ob6ec% manifes%s %he 5ro5er%0 (see *,$4$4$+ above %05e (i//3
(,12/ a$ 7 amuAan% #e ci%i% 5oves%irea lui is amusin! SDP rea#$SDP s%or0-%he his >I%?s amusin! %o rea# his s%or0? b$ Poves%irea lui e amuAan%L #e ci%i% s%or0(F/-%he his is amusin!$FSG SDP rea#$SDP >Ois s%or0 is amusin! %o rea#?
Those of %05e (iii/ an# some of %hose of %05e (ii/ en%er %he s5ecial tou !- cons%ruc%ion 9hich is #iscusse# in %he ne;% sub-sec%ion$ ,$4$4$2$ The tou !-cons%ruc%ion In %his cons%ruc%ion %he #ee5 ob6ec% of %he su5ine becomes %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he YA#6ec%ive H Su5ineZ cons%i%uen%$ No%ice %ha% %he main verb a!rees 9i%h %he su5ine?s #ee5 ob6ec% of %he su5ine (see (,14/a/ al%hou!h %he a#6ec%ive #oesn?% (unli-e in %05e (i/ in *,$4$4$+ illus%ra%e# in (,12/b/3
42C
The A#6ec%ive (,14/ a$ Fa5%ele sun% !reu #e EnReles #ee#s(FPL/-%he are har#$:SG SDP un#ers%an#$SDP >The #ee#s are har# %o un#ers%an#? b$ fa5%e !reu #e 5oves%i% #ee#s(FPL/ har#$:SG SDP un#ers%an#$SDP >#ee#s har# %o un#ers%an#? c$ Consi#eram acele fa5%e !reu #e EnReles consi#ere#$+SG %hose #ee#s(FPL/ har#$:SG SDP un#ers%an#$SDP >I consi#ere# %hose #ees har# %o un#ers%an#?
The sub6ec%-verb a!reemen% in (,14/a/ in#ica%es %ha% %he su5ine?s #ee5 ob6ec% is %he sub6ec% of %he main clause ra%her %han a %o5ic e;%rac%e# from %he su5ine clause$ In (,14/b 9e can see %he YA#6ec%iveHSu5ineZ com5le; in an a%%ribu%ive 5osi%ion a%%ache# %o an NP corres5on#in! %o %he su5ine?s #ee5 ob6ec% (i$e$ %he su5ine?s #ee5 ob6ec% of %he su5ine is %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he YA#6ec%iveHSu5ineZ cons%i%uen%/$ 7;am5le (,14/c sho9s %ha% %he YA#6ec%iveHSu5ineZ can be %he 5re#ica%e of an ob6ec% small clause (9hose sub6ec% is mar-e# accusa%ive b0 %he main verb/$ Accor#in! %o %he curren% vie9 in %he cons%ruc%ion illus%ra%e# in (,14/c %he accusa%ive DP is %he sub6ec%
of %he non-verbal 5re#ica%ive cons%i%uen% formin! %o!e%her 9i%h i% a >small clause?I %he accusa%ive mar-in! of %he sub6ec% of a subor#ina%e clause b0 %he main verb is -no9n as e'ceptional case mar#in I %herefore %his cons%ruc%ion is calle# e'ceptionally case mar#in construction or abbrevia%e# E,5 construction$
An im5or%an% #ifference be%9een %he tou !-cons%ruc%ion an# %he cons%ruc%ion in (,12/b is %ha% %he a#6ec%ive canno% be 5re#ica%e# of %he sub6ec% in absence of %he su5ine clause3
(,1,/ m Fa5%ele sun% !rele #ee#s-%he are har#$FPL
The tou !-cons%ruc%ion 9hich is common accross lan!ua!es of 7uro5e is usuall0 anal0Ae# as involvin! raisin! ei%her of %he over% sub6ec% (see (,1./a/ or hea# noun i%self (see (,1./a_/ or of a null o5era%or (see (,1./b/ 9hich crea%es a 5re#ica%e a%%ribu%e# %o %he sub6ec% or hea# noun3 (,1./ a$ Au%oruli e Y!reu #e EnReles riZ au%hor-%he is har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP a_$ au%ori Y!reu #e EnReles riZ au%hor har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP b$ Au%orul e YG5i !reu #e EnReles riZ au%hor-%he is har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP b_$ au%or YG5i !reu #e EnReles riZ au%hor har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP Ue 9ill no% #eci#e here be%9een %hese al%erna%ives bu% 9e a!ree 9i%h %he !eneral i#ea %hese anal0ses have in common namel0 %ha% %he sub6ec% or hea# noun in tou !-cons%ruc%ions is no% an ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive$ This is ma#e 5ar%icularl0 clear in Romanian b0 %he lac- of a!reemen% be%9een %he a#6ec%ive an# %he sub6ec% or hea# noun (see (,14/ (,1<//$
The name >tou !-cons%ruc%ion? (hencefor9ar# TC/ is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he a#6ec%ive tou ! an# i%s s0non0ms an# an%on0ms are %he mos% fre@uen% i%ems %ha% hea# %his cons%ruc%ion P see Rom$ reu >har# %ou!h? dificil >%ou!h #ifficul%? uor >eas0?$ 'esi#es %hese %here is a limi%e# number of a#6ec%ives e;5ressin! circums%an%ial or #eon%ic/%eleolo!ical mo#ali%0 9hich can a55ear in %his cons%ruc%ion3 imposibil >im5ossible? posibil >5ossible? bine >!oo#? util >useful? (bine can be vie9e# as a non-a!reein! form of %he a#ec%ive bun >!oo#?/3
44=
The A#6ec%ive
(,1</
Ia%L cW%eva cuvin%e bul!LreM%i bine #e M%iu% see some 9or#s 'ul!arian !oo# SDP -no9$SDP >Oere are some 'ul!arian 9or#s !oo# %o -no9?
All %he a#6ec%ives %ha% en%er %his cons%ruc%ion can also %a-e a sub6ec% su5ine clause belon!in! %o %he %05es (ii/-(iii/ in *,$4$4$1 above3
(,1B/ 7 !reu #e vorbi% cu el / sL vorbeM%i cu el is har# SDP %al-$SDP 9i%h him SD'N %al-$1SG 9i%h him >I%?s har# %o %al- %o him / I%?s har# for one/for 0ou %o %al- %o him?
In case %he su5ine verb is %ransi%ive %here is a 5reference %o use %he TC ins%ea# of a su5ine sub6ec% clause P in o%her 9or#s %here is a 5reference %o case-license %he su5ine?s ob6ec% ou%si#e %he su5ine clause$ Some e;am5les are mar!inal (see (,1C/a/ bu% o%hers are acce5%able a% leas% for cer%ain s5ea-ers (see (,1C/b-c/ (in (,1C/a-b %he lac- of verb a!reemen% 9i%h %he DPs aceste fapte >%hese #ee#s? an# ba a+ele >lu!!a!e? in#ica%e %ha% %he0 are no% 5os%5ose# sub6ec%s of a TC bu% ra%her #irec% ob6ec%s of %he su5ine verb/I %he e;am5les 9hich are 5erfec%l0 acce5%able seem %o allo9 re!ular ac%ivi%ies (see >carr0in! %he lu!!a!e? in b/ or @uan%ifie# ob6ec%s (no%e %ha% c even allo9s %he #irec% ob6ec% mar-er pe 9hich is normall0 #isallo9e# in su5ine clauses/3
(,1C/ a$ KK 7 !reu #e EnReles aces%e fa5%e is har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP %hese #ee#s >I%?s har# %o un#ers%an# %hese #ee#s? b$ 7 !reu #e #us ba!a6ele fLrL maMinL is har# SDP carr0$SDP lu!!a!e(PL/-%he 9i%hou% car >I%?s har# %o carr0 %he lu!!a!e 9i%hou% a car? c$ u 7 !reu #e minRi% (5e/ %oa%L lumea / a%WRia oameni is har# SDP lie$SDP (DG:/ all 5eo5le-%he so-man0 5eo5le >I%?s har# %o lie %o ever0bo#0 / %o so man0 5eo5le?
The TC mus% be use# if %he su5ine?s #ee5 ob6ec% belon!s %o %hose DPs 9hich mus% have #is%inc%ive accusa%ive mar-in!I some s5ea-ers allo9 a% mos% %he 5re5osi%ional ob6ec% mar-er (see (,1C/c/ bu% DPs 9hich re@uire cli%ic-#oublin! (such as accusa%ive 5ersonal 5ronouns an# 5ro5er names/ are e;clu#e# in su5ine clauses b0 all s5ea-ers3
(,2=/ a$ X 7 !reu #e (o/ EnReles 5e ea / 5e :aria is har# SDP (her$CL/ un#ers%an#$SDP DG: her DG: :aria b$ 7a /:aria e !reu #e EnReles she :aria is har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP
In o%her Romance lan!ua!es a#6ec%ives #o a!ree in TCs$ A!reemen% can also be foun# in non-s%an#ar# varie%ies of Romanian3
(,2+/ a$ #a%orii uMoare #e 5lL%i% (Din#ele!an +CC13 B+/ #eb%s(F/ eas0$FPL SDP 5a0$SDP b$ 5asa6e ale 'ibliei care 5ar mai #ificile #e EnReles 5assa!es(N/ G7N 'ible-%he$G7N 9hich seem more #ifficul%$FPL SDP un#ers%an#$SDP (omulin%rein!ersi#emon$ro/in#e;$5h5/ >5assa!es of %he 'ible %ha% seem more #ifficul% %o un#ers%an#?
44+
The A#6ec%ive
The a!reein! TC is no% al9a0s eas0 %o #is%in!uish from %he cons%ruc%ion #iscusse# in *,$4$4$+ un#er (i/ P plcut de ascultat >5leasan% SDP lis%en$SDP? for 9hich 9e assume# %ha% %he sub6ec% or hea# noun is a !enuine ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive3 in#ee# if some%hin! is 5leasan% %o lis%en %hen lis%enin! %o i% is also 5leasan%$ A cri%erion %o #is%in!uish i% from an a!reein! TC is %he 5ossibili%0 of 5re#ica%in! %he a#6ec%ive on %he sub6ec% in %he absence of %he subor#ina%e clause 9i%hou% a subs%an%ial #ifference in meanin!$ For e;am5le a boo- in%eres%in! %o rea# is an in%eres%in! boo- (b0 con%ras% a #ee# har# %o un#ers%an# is no% a har# #ee#/$ Concernin! %he s0n%ac%ic anal0sis if %he tou ! a#6ec%ive is %he hea# of %he cons%i%uen% 9e e;5ec% i% %o a!ree even %hou!h %he sub6ec% or hea# noun is no% i%s e;%ernal ar!umen%$ Thus %he a!reein! TC foun# in o%her Romance lan!ua!es an# use# b0 a% leas% some s5ea-ers of Romanian #oes no% raise 5ar%icular 5roblems in a##i%ion %o %he %05e of movemen% involve# (see (,1.//$ The failure %o a!ree of Romanian tou ! a#6ec%ives has le# researchers %o assume %ha% %he0 are no% hea#s bu% ra%her s5ecifiers of some (func%ional/ 5ro6ec%ion 9hose le;ical hea# is %he su5ine (%his 5ro6ec%ion ma0 be labelle# :oo# if de is anal0Ae# as a :oo# hea#/3
(,21/ %eorii Y:oo#P !reu Y#e EnRelesZZ %heories har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP
The 5roblem 9i%h %his anal0sis is %ha% %he a#6ec%ive #oes no lon!er have %he 5ro5er%0 of selec%in! a clause 9hich leaves %he 5arallelism 9i%h %he sub6ec% clause cons%ruc%ion unaccoun%e# for$ This 5roblem can be solve# if one assumes %he %heore%ical 5ossibili%0 of mul%i-hea#e# cons%ruc%ions P
cons%i%uen%s 9hich have an internal hea# P 9hich selec%s a com5lemen% P an# a #ifferen% e'ternal hea# 9hich is >seen? as a hea# from ou%si#e #e%erminin! %he #is%ribu%ion of %he cons%i%uen% $ In TCs %he a#6ec%ive 9oul# be %he in%ernal hea# as i% selec%s %he su5ine bu% %he su5ine (more 5recisel0 %he verbal func%ional 5ro6ec%ion charac%eris%ic of %he su5ine moo#/ 9oul# coun% as %he e;%ernal hea#$ Such an anal0sis is 5ossible because su5ines can a55ear in %he same environmen%s as TCs as mo#al re#uce# rela%ives (see also cha5%er C **2$+ 2$2/3 (,22/a$ Fa5%a e #e EnReles / !reu #e EnReles #ee#-%he is SDP un#ers%an#$SDP har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP >%he #ee# is un#ers%an#able / is har# %o un#ers%an#? b$ fa5%L #e EnReles / !reu #e EnReles #ee# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP har# SDP un#ers%an#$SDP >un#ers%an#able #ee#? c$ Desenul e #e fLcu% / e uMor #e fLcu% #ra9in!-%he is SDP #o$SDP is eas0 SDP #o$SDP >The #ra9in! is %o be #one / is eas0 %o #o? #$ lucru #e fLcu% / uMor #e fLcu% %hin! SDP #o$SDP eas0 SDP #o$SDP >%hin! %o #o / eas0 %o #o?
Dn#er %his anal0sis TCs are re#uce# rela%ives (or 5ar%ici5ials/ of %he same %05e as mo#al re#uce# rela%ives havin! %he su5ine as %he e;%ernal hea#$ The lac- of a!reemen% on %he a#6ec%ive is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he a#6ec%ive is no% %he e;%ernal hea#$ As for %he su5ine i% al9a0s lac-s a!reemen% fea%ures (see %he firs% varian%s of %he e;am5les in (,22//$ A similar 5arallelism be%9een TCs an# mo#al re#uce# rela%ives is foun# in German$ There i% is clear %ha% %he verb is %he e;%ernal hea# because i% bears a!reemen% in 5renominal 5osi%ion3 (,24/ a$ Das 'uch is% Au lesen / sch9er Au lesen %he boo- is %o rea#$INF har# %o rea#$INF >%he boo- is %o rea# / har# %o rea#? (German/
441
The A#6ec%ive
b$ ein Au lesen#es 'uch / ein sch9er Au lesen#es 'uch a %o rea#$INF-d-NSG$NG:/ACC boo-(N/ a har# %o rea#$INF-d-NSG$NG:/ACC boo-(N/ >a boo- %o rea# / a boo- har# %o rea#? The 5ossibili%0 of assi!nin! bo%h a hea# an# a non-hea# s%a%us %o %he a#6ec%ive mi!h% be correla%e# %o %he 9i#es5rea# absence of #is%inc%ive a#verbial mor5holo!0 in %hese %9o lan!ua!es (Romanian an# GermanI %his is a fea%ure 9hich #is%in!uishes Romanian from %he o%her Romance lan!ua!es/$ Ano%her cons%ruc%ion 9hich can be anal0Ae# as a mul%ihea#e# cons%i%uen% is %ha% of mo#ifie# numerals$ Thus in (,2,/ %he 5re5osi%ion peste is %he in%ernal hea# %a-in! %he numeral as a com5lemen% (peste al9a0s %a-es a com5lemen% i% canno% func%ion as a mo#ifier/ bu% %he #is%ribu%ion of %he 9hole cons%i%uen% is %ha% of a numeral 9hich en%i%les (ece >%en? %o be seen as %he e;%ernal hea#3 (,2,/ cei YY5es%e YAeceZZ s%u#enRiZ %he above %en s%u#en%s
Li-e for sub6ec% clauses (see *,$4$4$1 above/ %he sub6ec% of %he su5ine in TCs can be un#ers%oo# as coreferen% 9i%h an a##i%ional 7;5eriencer ar!umen% of %he a#6ec%ive3
(,2./ Aces%e miMcLri sun% !reu #e fLcu% 5en%ru mine %hese moves are har# SDP ma-e$SDP for me
The sub6ec% can also be e;5resse# b0 an A!en%-PP3

(,2</ i#ei !reu #e EnReles #e cL%re co5iii #e McoalL i#eas #ifficul% SDP un#ers%an#$SDP b0 chil#ren-%he of school >i#eas #ifficul% %o un#ers%an# b0 school chil#ren?
This fac% as 9ell as %he 5arallel 9i%h mo#al re#uce# rela%ives no%ice# in (,22/ above in#ica%es %ha% %he su5ine in TCs is 5assive$ Therefore %he %05e of movemen% involve# in TCs is no% of %he %05e foun# in 7n!lish combinin! A-bar an# A-movemen% bu% i% onl0 involves %he %05e of movemen% foun# 9i%h 5assive 5ar%ici5les3 %he #ee5 ob6ec% of %he verb becomes %he e;%ernal ar!umen% (sub6ec% or hea# noun/ of %he YA#6HSu5ineZ cons%i%uen%$
442
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases
). A3no6.nal P0e5os.t.onal P80ases

AL7VANDRD :ARDAL7 (**+$+-+$1 *1$1$1 *2/ CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN IGN GIDRG7A ) AL7VANDRD :ARDAL7 (*+$2/ IGN GIDRG7A ) AL7VANDRD :ARDAL7 (*1$+ *1$1$+/
1. #ene0al 50o5e0t.es of Ro6an.an 50e5os.t.ons

+$+$ Le;ical 5re5osi%ions an# func%ional 5re5osi%ions +$1$ Pre5osi%ions an# case +$2$ Pre5osi%ions an# %he #efini%e ar%icle
2. A3no6.nal 50e5os.t.onal 580ases 8ea3e3 b9 le<./al 50e5os.t.ons

1$+$ Subca%e!orise# le;ical 5re5osi%ions 1$1$ Non-subca%e!orise# le;ical 5re5osi%ions
3. A3no6.nal 50e5os.t.onal 580ases 8ea3e3 b9 f1n/t.onal 50e5os.t.ons

2$+$ T05es of func%ional 5re5osi%ions 2$1$ A#nominal bare NPs 9i%h %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de
444
1. #ene0al 50o5e0t.es of Ro6an.an 50e5os.t.ons

Pre5osi%ions are a ra%her close# class of elemen%s 9i%h a variable #e!ree of !ramma%icaliAa%ion 9hose members ma0 be charac%erise# similarl0 %o o%her classes of 9or#s (verbs nouns a#6ec%ives a#verbs/ i$e$ %he0 are le;ical hea#s %ha% can combine 9i%h various %05es of com5lemen%s (mainl0 nominal/ 5ro6ec%in! %hus a 5re5osi%ional 5hrase$ The0 func%ion ei%her as in#e5en#en% 5re#ica%es usuall0 e;5ressin! a#verbial rela%ions (in#ica%in! s5ace loca%ion cause/ bu% no% e;clusivel0 (see %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h?/ or %he0 are subca%e!orise# (a crede n >%o believe in? credina n >%he belief in?I a lupta mpotriva >%o fi!h% a!ains%? lupta mpotriva >%he fi!h% a!ains%?I a opta pentru >%o o5% for? opiunea pentru >%he o5%ion for?/ or %he0 are use# for 5urel0 s%ruc%ural reasons observin! %he res%ric%ions of %he con%e;% %he0 are 5ar% of (see %o %his effec% %he 5re5osi%ions func%ionin! as case mar-ers3 o carte a doi copii a boo- of %9o chil#ren >%9o chil#ren?s boo-? o u de biseric a #oor of church >a church #oor? atribuirea )de burse* la (ece elevi a9ar#in!-%he (of scholarshi5s/ %o %en 5u5ils >%he a9ar#in! of scholarshi5s %o %en 5u5ils?/$ 'ase# on %hese #is%inc%ions i% is !enerall0 a!ree# on %he e;is%ence of %9o classes of 5re5osi%ions3 le'ical 5re5osi%ions an# functional 5re5osi%ions$ Pre5osi%ional 5hrases (PPs hencefor%h/ can a55ear as com5lemen%s or as a#6unc%s in %he verbal a#6ec%ival an# nominal #omains$ In %his cha5%er 9e 5resen% a#nominal PPs$ 1.1. Le<./al 50e5os.t.ons an3 f1n/t.onal 50e5os.t.ons Le'ical 5re5osi%ions are charac%erise# b0 full seman%ics ac%in! as 5re#ica%es %ha% ma0 occur usuall0 af%er %he co5ula3 (+/
a$ NucLria es%e #in 5luM$ %o0-%he is of 5lush$ >The %o0 is of 5lush$? b$ Casa es%e lWn!L 5la6L$ house-%he is near beach$ >The house is ne;% %o %he beach$? c$ Tra%amen%ul es%e Em5o%riva !ri5ei$ %rea%men%-%he is a!ains% flu >The %rea%men% is a!ains% %he flu$? a?$ 6ucLria #in 5luM %o0-%he of 5lush >%he 5lush %o0? b?$ casa #e lWn!L 5la6L house-%he of near beach >%he house near %he beach? c?$ %ra%amen%ul Em5o%riva !ri5ei %rea%men%-%he a!ains% flu >%he %rea%men% a!ains% %he flu?
PPs hea#e# b0 a le;ical 5re5osi%ion can func%ion as ar!umen%s (bein! subca%e!orise# b0 a noun hea#/ or as a#6unc%s$ Subca%e!orise# PPs are res%ric%e# (as in (1/ belo9/ 9hereas %he same noun can combine freel0 9i%h several non-subca%e!orise# 5re5osi%ions (as in (2//3 (1/
Goana g#u5L / Xla / XcL%re / Xs5reh succese uMoare es%e 5ro5rie 5ersoanelor chase-%he af%er / a% / %o9ar#s/ %o9ar#s successes eas0 is charac%eris%ic 5ersons-%he$ DAT su5erficiale$ su5erficial >The chase af%er/Xa%/X%o9ar#s eas0 successes is charac%eris%ic for su5erficial 5eo5le?$ `n%Wlnirile g#u5L / la / s5re h 5rWnA iau s%rica% %o% 5ro!ramul lui Ion$ mee%in!s-%he af%er / a% /%o9ar#s lunch CL$DAT have ruine# all 5ro!ram-%he G'L Ion$ >The mee%in!s af%er/a%/%o9ar#s lunch have ruine# Ion?s en%ire 5ro!ram$?
(2/
Subca%e!orise# 5re5osi%ions canno% combine 9i%h %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de (see (4// 9hereas some of %he non-subca%e!orise# ones allo9 for %his o5era%ion (as in (,/I see * 1$1$+/3
44,
(4/
(,/
XGoana 3e 315: s1//ese uMoare es%e 5ro5rie 5ersoanelor su5erficiale$ chase-%he de af%er successes eas0 is charac%eris%ic 5ersons-%he$ DAT su5erficial `n%Wlnirile Z3e 315: @ 3e la[ 50KnB iau s%rica% %o% 5ro!ramul lui Ion$ mee%in!s-%he de af%er / de a% lunch CL$DAT have ruine# all 5ro!ramme-%he G'L Ion$ >The mee%in!s af%er / a% lunch have ruine# Ion?s en%ire 5ro!ramme$?
Li-e le;ical 5re5osi%ions func%ional 5re5osi%ions can hea# com5lemen%s (as in (./ belo9/ or a#6unc%s (as in (<//3
(./ (</ Anul aces%a a avu% loc o a%ribuire 3e 6e3al.. vic%imelor revoluRiei$ 0ear-%he %his has ha# 5lace an a9ar#in! of me#als vic%ims-%he$ DAT revolu%ion-%he$G7N >This 0ear an a9ar#in! of me#als %o %he vic%ims of %he revolu%ion %oo- 5lace$? Am 5e%recu% o vacanRL 3e 2a0: minuna%L$ have$+ s5en% a holi#a0 of summer 9on#erful >I/Ue s5en% a 9on#erful summer holi#a0$?
Func%ional 5re5osi%ions have (ver0/ re#uce# 5hone%ics (ma#e of ma;imum %9o 5honemes/ similar from %his 5oin% of vie9 %o cli%ics$ Some func%ional 5re5osi%ions ac% un#er s%ric% mor5hos0n%ac%ic con#i%ions as case mar-ersI a for ins%ance can mar- %he !eni%ive (cf$ (B/ belo9/ an# la %he #a%ive (cf$ (C// 9hen %he firs% cons%i%uen% of %he com5lemen% %he0 hea# canno% be inflec%e# for case3
(B/ (C/ 7misiunea a fos% #e#ica%L caAului unei mame a Ma5%e co5ii$ sho9-%he has been #e#ica%e# case-%he$ DAT a$G7N mo%her of seven chil#ren >The sho9 9as abou% %he case of a mo%her of seven chil#ren$? Semes%rul aces%a s- a asi!ura% #is%ribuirea cLrRilor numai la Aece elevi$ %erm-%he %his R7FL has ensure# #is%ribu%ion-%he boo-s-%he$G7N onl0 %o %en 5u5ils >This %erm i% has been ensure# %he #is%ribu%ion of boo-s %o %en 5u5ils onl0$?
Func%ional 5re5osi%ions ori!ina%e in le;ical 5re5osi%ions hence homon0mical 5airs e$!$ pe "on& (le;ical/ an# #irec% ob6ec% mar-er (func%ional/ la "%o/a%& (loca%ive3 le;ical/ an# #a%ive mar-er (func%ional/$ For le;ical uses of de "of& see*1$1$
1.2. P0e5os.t.ons an3 /ase I% is !enerall0 a#mi%%e# %ha% %he 5re5osi%ion is a ca%e!or0 charac%erise# b0 such fea%ures as YN -VZ an# %ha% b0 vir%ue of %he firs% fea%ure namel0 Y-NZ i% some%imes has %he ca5aci%0 %o assi!n case on a 5ar 9i%h verbs From %he 5oin% of vie9 of case mor5holo!0 Romanian has %9o %05es of 5re5osi%ions3 %hose selec%in! %he accusa%ive an# %hose selec%in! %he !eni%ive-#a%ive$ In %he class of le;ical 5re5osi%ions %here is a subclass %ha% selec%s %he accusa%ive an# ano%her one %ha% selec%s %he !eni%ive-#a%ive$ Func%ional 5re5osi%ions selec% e;clusivel0 %he accusa%ive$ Ui%h %he e;ce5%ion of +s% an# 1n# 5erson sin!ular 5ersonal 5ronouns an# 2r# 5erson refle;ive 5ronouns %he accusa%ive form homon0mous 9i%h %he nomina%ive can be anal0se# as non-mar-e# for case (see Cha5%er +. P Inflec%ion P sec%ion +$+ an# cha5%er + sec%ion +$4/ 9hich is com5lian% 9i%h %he i#ea %ha% %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion i%self is a case mar-er$ The co-occurrence of a func%ional 5re5osi%ion similar %o a case mar-er 9i%h a form 9hich is mor5holo!icall0 mar-e# for case (%he accusa%ive/ can be observe# on %he 5re5osi%ional #irec% ob6ec% (pe mine >DG: me$ACC?/$ This cons%ruc%ion 9ill be anal0se# in %he secon# volume$ 1.2.1. Le<./al 50e5os.t.ons sele/t.n4 t8e a//1sat.2e :os% of %he le;ical 5re5osi%ions in Romanian combine 9i%h an accusa%ive noun ( pentru >for? 44.
spre >%o9ar#s? la >a%? cu >9i%h? dup >af%er? nspre >%o9ar#s? fr >9i%hou%? ln >near? e%c$/ re!ar#less 9he%her %he 5re5osi%ion is subca%e!orise# (see (+=// or no% (see (++//3
(+=/ a0 lu5%a 5en%ru in#e5en#enRL fi!h%-%he for in#e5en#ence >%he fi!h% for in#e5en#ence? b$ 6ocul cu co5iii 5la0-%he 9i%h chil#ren-%he >%he 5la0in! 9i%h %he chil#ren? c$ a5ar%enenRa la RomWnia belon!in!-%he %o Romania >%he belon!in! %o Romania? a$ o casL cu !rL#inL a house 9i%h !ar#en >a house 9i%h a !ar#en? b$ o cabanL fLrL feres%re a chale% 9i%hou% 9in#o9s >a chale% 9i%hou% 9in#o9s? c$ cLrRile 5en%ru co5ii mici boo-s-%he for chil#ren li%%le >%he boo-s for li%%le chil#ren?
(++/
1.2.2. Le<./al 50e5os.t.ons sele/t.n4 t8e 4en.t.2e o0 t8e 3at.2e The 5re5osi%ions %ha% selec% %he !eni%ive or %he #a%ive are al9a0s #erive# (from nouns a#verbs or 5ar%ici5les/$ t!e prepositions or prepositional idioms selectin t!e enitive mos%l0 come from noun H #efini%e ar%icle (see +1c-#/ or from a#verbs 9i%h %he suffi;al 5ar%icle -a / -ul / -le 9hich ma0 be anal0Ae# as forms of %he #efini%e ar%icle (see +1a-b/3
(+1/ a$ lu5%a gEm5o%riva / con%rah men%ali%LRilor Envechi%e fi!h%-%he a!ains% / a!ains% men%ali%ies-%he$ G7N ol#-fashione# >%he fi!h% a!ains% ol#-fashione# men%ali%ies? b$ mersul En 6osul a5ei 9al--%he in #o9n-%he 9a%er-%he$G7N >%he 9al- #o9ns%ream? c$ En s5a%ele casei in bac--%he house-%he$G7N >behin# %he house? #$ En faRa s5i%alului in face-%he hos5i%al-%he$G7N >in fron% of %he hos5i%al?
The fac% %ha% in %his case 9e #eal 9i%h %he !eni%ive an# no% 9i%h %he #a%ive is #emons%ra%e# b0 5ersonal 5ronouns 9hich %a-e s5ecial forms %ha% sho9 a!reemen% 9i%h %he hea# N P %he socalle# "5ossessive 5ronouns& P in !eni%ive con%e;%s (see cha5%er . *,/$ Oere %he 5ronoun a!rees 9i%h %he !en#er of %he ar%icle form a%%ache# %o %he noun or a#verb3
(+2/ a$ lu5%a gEm5o%riva / con%rah mea fi!h%-%he a!ains%-a(FSG/ a!ains%-a(FSG/ m0$ FSG >%he fi!h% a!ains% me? b$ En s5a%ele nos%ru / En faRa noas%rL in bac--%he(:SG/ our$:SG / in face-%he(FSG/ our$FSG >behin# / in fron% of us?
44<
t!e prepositions selectin t!e dative ver0 fe9 ) raie >%han-s %o?% mulumit >%han-s %o?% datorit >%han-s %o?* come from nouns ( raie >!race?/ or 5ar%ici5les (mulumit% datorit/3
(+4/ ReuMi%a lui !raRie iscusinRei succes-%he his %han-s in!enui%0-%he$DAT >his success %han-s %o his in!enui%0?
1.2.3. F1n/t.onal 50e5os.t.ons as /ase 6a0>e0s Ue can %alabou% case mar-er s%a%us 9hen %he 5re5osi%ion is use# in or#er %o license %he DP i% in%ro#uces in a cer%ain confi!ura%ion$ In %hese cases 9e canno% sa0 %ha% %he 5re5osi%ion 5ro6ec%s a 5re5osi%ional 5hrase$ In o%her 9or#s %he occurrence of %he 5re5osi%ion #oes no% chan!e %he DP s%a%us of %he noun cons%ruc%ion i% 5rece#es$ For ins%ance #everbal nouns inheri% %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of %he verbs %he0 are #erive# from bu% canno% assi!n %he accusa%ive or %he nomina%ive (see cha5%er ++/$ The com5lemen% of %hese nouns is mar-e# 9i%h mor5holo!ical !eni%ive if i% is hea#e# b0 a #e%erminer %ha% can be inflec%e# for case$ Ui%h #e%erminers %ha% canno% be inflec%e# for case %he 5re5osi%ion a is use# (see (+./b/ an# 9i%h bare nouns %he 5re5osi%ion de (see (+./c/ 3
(+,/ Au a%ribui% b10se @ t0e. b10se @ b10sele s%u#enRilor have$2PL a9ar#e# scholarshi5s/%hree scholarshi5s/ scholarshi5s-%he s%u#en%s-%he$ DAT meri%uoMi$ meri%orious >The0 have a9ar#e# scholarshi5s / %hree scholarshi5s / %he scholarshi5s %o %he meri%orious s%u#en%s$? a$ A avu% loc a%ribuirea b10selo0 s%u#enRilor meri%uoMi$ has ha# 5lace a9ar#in!-%he scholarshi5s-%he$ G7N s%u#en%s-%he$DAT meri%orious >The a9ar#in! of %he scholarshi5s %o %he meri%orious s%u#en%s has %a-en 5lace$? b$ A avu% loc o a%ribuire a t0e. b10se s%u#enRilor meri%uoMi$ has ha# 5lace an a9ar#in! of %hree scholarshi5s s%u#en%s-%he$ DAT meri%orious >There %oo- 5lace an a9ar#in! of %hree scholarshi5s %o %he meri%orious s%u#en%s$? c$ A avu% loc o a%ribuire 3e b10se s%u#enRilor meri%uoMi$ has ha# 5lace an a9ar#in! of scholarshi5s s%u#en%s-%he$ DAT meri%orious >There %oo- 5lace a scholarshi5 a9ar#in! %o %he meri%orious s%u#en%s?
(+./
In such confi!ura%ions de an# a are no% !enuine 5re5osi%ions bu% ra%her mor5holo!ical realisa%ions (i$e$ mar-ers/ of %he !eni%ive case$ A similar 5henomenon can be observe# 9i%h %he #a%ive3 9hen %he DP is a bare noun or is in%ro#uce# b0 a #e%erminer %ha% canno% be mar-e# for case %he 5re5osi%ion la is use# ins%ea# of %he mor5holo!ical #a%ive (see also cha5%er I P In%ro#uc%ion P *+$4/3
(+</ (+B/ au a%ribui% burse gs%u#enRilor / unor s%u#enRi / la t0e. st13enA. h have$2PL a9ar#e# scholarshi5s s%u#en%s-%he$DAT /some$DAT s%u#en%s / %o %hree s%u#en%s >The0 a9ar#e# scholarshi5s %o %he s%u#en%s / %o some s%u#en%s / %o %hree s%u#en%s$? a%ribuirea #e burse s%u#enRilor / unor s%u#enRi / la t0e. st13enA. h a9ar#in!-%he of scholarshi5s s%u#en%s-%he$DAT / some$DAT s%u#en%s / %o %hree s%u#en%s >%he a9ar#in! of scholarshi5s %o %he s%u#en%s / %o some s%u#en%s / %o %hree s%u#en%s$?
1.3. P0e5os.t.ons an3 t8e 3ef.n.te a0t./le A s5ecific fea%ure of Romanian 5re5osi%ions selec%in! %he accusa%ive is %he fac% %ha% %he0 can un#er cer%ain circums%ances bloc- %he occurrence of %he #efini%e ar%icle$
44B
\ Data Af%er all 5re5osi%ions selec%in! %he accusa%ive 9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of cu >9i%h? %he #efini%e ar%icle is e;clu#e# for nouns havin! no a#nominal elemen%3
(+C/ a$ o 5limbare Nn 5a0/ a 9alin 5ar>a 9al- in %he 5ar-? b$ Xo 5limbare Nn 5a0/1l a 9al- in 5ar--%he
No%e %ha% %he PP in %he e;am5le un#er (+Ca/ has a #efini%e in%er5re%a%ion$ In o%her 9or#s %he absence of %he #efini%e ar%icle #oes no% lea# %o %he absence of %he YH#efini%eZ fea%ure on %he DP in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion$ Never%heless 9hen %he noun has an a#nominal elemen% %he ar%icle is com5ulsor0 in or#er %o !e% a #efini%e in%er5re%a%ion3
(1=/ a$ o 5limbare En 5arcul EnverAi% a 9alin 5ar--%he ver#an% >a 9al- in %he ver#an% 5ar-? b$ o 5limbare En 5arcul cu cas%ani a 9alin 5ar--%he 9i%h ches%nu%-%rees >a 9al- in %he ches%nu% 5ar-? c$ o 5limbare En 5arcul En care mer!eam cu bunicii a 9alin 5ar--%he in 9hich !o$I:PF$+SG 9i%h !ran#5aren%s-%he >a 9al- in %he 5ar- 9here I use# %o !o 9i%h m0 !ran#5aren%s$? #$ o 5limbare En fos%ul / 5rimul 5arc a 9alin former-%he / firs%-%he 5ar>a 9al- in %he former / %he firs% 5ar-?
No%e %ha% a55osi%ive rela%ives #o no% coun% as a#nominal for %his 5henomenon (unli-e res%ric%ive rela%ives/3
(1+/ a$ En 5arcul care a fos% recen% re#eschis in 5ar--%he 9hich has been recen%l0 reo5ene# >in %he 5ar- %ha% has been recen%l0 reo5ene#? b$ En 5arc care a fos% recen% re#eschis ^ in 5ar- 9hich has been recen%l0 reo5ene# >in %he 5ar- 9hich has been recen%l0 reo5ene#?
This can be e;5laine# %hrou!h %he s5ecial s0n%a; of %he a55osi%ions namel0 5aren%he%ic s%a%us3 %he0 are cons%i%uen%s 9hich are s0n%ac%icall0 in%e!ra%e# %o a 9ea-er e;%en% as also sho9n b0 %heir in%ona%ion$ This 5henomenon (%he #ro5 of %he #efini%e ar%icle in PPs 9i%hou% a#nominal cons%i%uen%s/ is no% limi%e# %o a#nominal PPs3
(11/ a$ :am 5limba% En 5arc$ have$+SG 9al-e# in 5ar>I %oo- a 9al- in %he 5ar-$? b$ X:- am 5limba% En 5arcul$ R7FL have$+SG 9al-e# in 5ar--%he c$ :- am 5limba% En 5arcul EnverAi%$ R7FL have$+SG 9al-e# in 5ar--%he ver#an%
R7FL
44C
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases >I %oo- a 9al- in %he ver#an% 5ar-$?

The 5henomenon of ar%icle-#ro5 is no% foun# in an0 o%her 7uro5ean lan!ua!e e;ce5% Albanian 9here %he cons%rain%s are similar %o %hose observe# for Romanian3 (i/ (ii/ (iii/ XVuri librin mbi %ra5eAn$ 5u%$2SG boo--%he on %able-%he Vuri librin mbi %ra5eA$ 5u%$2SG boo--%he on %able >Oe 5u% %he boo- on %he %able$? Vuri librin mbi %ra5eAn g e ma#h / @ bri !60shih$ 5u%$2SG boo--%he on %able-%he AGR bi! / %ha% #i# !ran#-fa%her-%he >Oe 5u%s %he boo- on %he bi! %able / on %he %able %ha% !ran#-fa%her #i#$?
\ E</e5t.ons T9o e;ce5%ions %o %his rule e;is%$ The firs% is %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h?3
(12/ a$ 6ocul cu co5ii. 5la0-%he 9i%h chil#ren-%he >5la0in! 9i%h %he chil#ren? b$ o5eraRia cu bis%uriul sur!er0-%he 9i%h scal5el-%he >%he sur!er0 9i%h %he scal5el?
The secon# e;ce5%ion is %he com5oun# 5re5osi%ion de-a in semi-i#ioma%ic s%ruc%ures3

(14/ a$ 6ocul #e-a hoRi. (Mi var#iM%i./ / Mcoala / #e%ec%ivi. 5la0-%he de-a %hieves-%he (an# !uar#s-%he/ / school-%he / #e%ec%ives-%he >5la0in! %hieves (vs$ !uar#s/ / school / #e%ec%ives$? b$ X6ocul #e-a hoRi (Mi var#iM%i/ / McoalL / #e%ec%ivi 5la0-%he de-a %hieves (an# !uar#s/ / school / #e%ec%ives
\ Anal9s.s SummariAin! %he #efini%e ar%icle is obli!a%oril0 absen% if %he noun !overne# b0 a 5re5osi%ion is no% mo#ifie#$ 'elo9 9e 9ill su!!es% an e;5lana%ion %ha% %a-es in%o accoun% %he fac% %ha% %his 5henomenon has onl0 been observe# in lan!ua!es 9i%h a suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle 9hich forms a com5le; hea# 9i%h %he noun (see cha5%er 2 *B$+ an# cha5%er +. *,/ P %hus Y D NHDZ$ Ar%icle #ro5 can %hus be #escribe# as a55l0in! %o a com5le; hea# of %he form YPre5HNHDZ 9hich can be forme# onl0 if %he com5lemen% of P consis%s of a sin!le hea# YNHDZ3 (1,/ YP YNHDZZ s YPHNHDZ
This %05e of com5le; hea# forma%ion is #ifferen% from %he com5le; hea#s forme# a% %he PF in%erface un#er a#6acenc0 be%9een %9o hea#s one of 9hich is embe##e# in a 5hrasal cons%i%uen% e$!$ du beurre% au t!Vatre ob%aine# from _de _le beurre``% _a _le t!Vatre`` $ Such 5rocesses are in#ifferen% %o %he e;is%ence of a#nominal cons%i%uen%s (%he0 a55l0 re!ar#less of 9he%her N is mo#ifie# or no%$ Given %he %05e of com5le; hea# #efine# in (1,/ %he rule of ar%icle #ro5 can be formula%e# as follo9s3 (1./ Defini%e D has a null realisa%ion insi#e a com5le; hea# YPHNHDZ
The hea# s%a%us of %he com5lemen% of P re@uire# b0 %his rule is 5ossible in Romanian #ue %o
4,=
%he suffi;al na%ure of %he ar%icle$

The suffi;al na%ure of %he #efini%e ar%icle is a necessar0 bu% no% sufficien% con#i%ion for #ro5$ Thus 9hereas Albanian behaves li-e Romanian (i% has a suffi;al ar%icle an# allo9s ar%icle #ro5/ Scan#inavian lan!ua!es an# 'ul!arian have a suffi;al ar%icle bu% #o no% allo9 i% %o be #ro55e#$
Ar%icle #ro5 is no% sensi%ive %o %he le;ical or func%ional na%ure of 5re5osi%ions$ I% occurs bo%h 9i%h le;ical 5re5osi%ions (as in (1<a-b/ belo9 an# (+C/ above/ an# 9i%h func%ional 5re5osi%ions (as in (1<c/ belo9 9here pe is a #irec% ob6ec% mar-er/3
(1</ a$ #iscuRiile 3es50e 50o.e/t #iscussions-%he abou% 5ro6ec% >%he #iscussions abou% %he 5ro6ec%? b$ ca#oul 5ent01 soA.e 5resen%-%he for 9ife >%he 5resen% for m0 9ife? c$ l -am vLAu% 5e 50ofeso0 CL$ACC-have$+ seen DG: %eacher >I/Ue sa9 %he %eacher?
The 5henomenon #escribe# here #e5en#s on %he case assi!ne# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion %o i%s com5lemen% (see *+$1$ above/$ Thus %he 5re5osi%ions selec%in! #a%ive or !eni%ive case #o no% cause ar%icle #ro55in! because %his case is mor5holo!icall0 mar-e# on %he #e%erminer P in %his case on %he ar%icle i%self3
(1B/ a$ o lu5%L con%ra 5rivile!iilor a fi!h% a!ains% 5rivile!es-%he$G7N >a fi!h% a!ains% 5rivile!es? b$ Xo lu5%L con%ra 5rivile!ii a fi!h% a!ains% 5rivile!es
'ecause of %he 5henomenon of (#efini%e/ ar%icle #ro5 9e can %es% 9he%her a 5re5osi%ion selec%in! %he accusa%ive o%her %han cu >9i%h? allo9s a bare noun onl0 b0 usin! mo#ifie# bare nouns$ Plural an# mass nouns are !enerall0 available in ar!umen% 5osi%ions (see cha5%er 1/ %herefore i% is in%eres%in! %o loo- a% bare sin!ulars 9hich are -no9n %o be severel0 res%ric%e#$ The e;am5les belo9 sho9 %ha% coun% bare sin!ulars al%hou!h rare are never%heless 5ossible af%er 5re5osi%ions in some con%e;%sI %he0 al9a0s have a non-s5ecific in#efini%e meanin!3 (i/ a$ somnul Nn /a6e0: neNn/:lB.t: slee5-%he in room non-hea%e# >%he slee5 in non-hea%e# room? b$ am 5leca% la 3016 l1n4 have$+ !one %o roa# lon! >I/Ue have s%ar%e# a lon! 6ourne0? c$ En%Wlniri 5e 3016 3e noa5te mee%in!s on roa# of ni!h% >mee%in!s a% ni!h% %ravel?
2. A3no6.nal 50e5os.t.onal 580ases 8ea3e3 b9 le<./al 50e5os.t.ons

A#nominal PPs hea#e# b0 a le;ical 5re5osi%ion can func%ion ei%her as ar!umen%s or as a#6unc%s insi#e NP #e5en#in! on %he s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he hea# noun$ The nouns %ha% combine 9i%h ar!umen%al PPs can be3 abs%rac% (even%ive/ nouns #erive# from verbs a#6ec%ives or nouns ( oan >chase? cltorie >%ri5? plimbare >9al-? credin >belief? privire >loo-? observaii >no%es? lmuriri >clarifica%ions?% sensibilitate 4,+
>sensi%ivi%0?% prietenie >frien#shi5?/ nouns e;5ressin! in%er5ersonal rela%ions (frate >bro%her? tat >fa%her? cumnat >bro%her-in-la9? unc!i >uncle? vr >cousin?*% iconic names (foto rafie >5ho%o? ima ine >ima!e? portret >5or%rai%?/ classif0in! nouns (concept >conce5%? noiune >no%ion? cate orie >ca%e!or0?/$ G%her nouns e$!$ sat >villa!e? cas >house? ceac >cu5? om >human bein! / 5erson? brbat >man? mas >%able? e%c$ combine onl0 9i%h a#6unc%s$ 2.1. S1b/ate4o0.se3 le<./al 50e5os.t.ons A#nominal PPs hea#e# b0 a le;ical 5re5osi%ion can be ar!umen%s of %he noun3 (1C/ D N P !oani-a %i #u5L chase-%he af%er >%he chase for successes? DP NP PP NP N succese successes
2.1.1. Le<./al 50e5os.t.ons s1b/ate4o0.se3 b9 e2ent+0efe00.n4 no1ns 7ven%-referrin! nouns (or >abs%rac% nouns?/ 9hich are !enerall0 #erive# from verbs a#6ec%ives or o%her nouns inheri% %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of %he roo% from 9hich %he0 are #erive# as 9ell as %he 5re5osi%ions subca%e!orise# b0 %he roo%$ Le% us com5are %he s%ruc%ures 9i%h verbs un#er (2=/ 9i%h %hose un#er (2+/ 9here PPs func%ion as ar!umen%s of #everbal nouns3
(2=/ a$ S%u#enRii se orien%eaAL cL%re / s5re 5rofesii #e vii%or$ s%u#en%s-%he R7FL orien% %o9ar#s 5rofessions of fu%ure$ YA!en%Z YGoalZ >S%u#en%s are orien%e# %o9ar#s 5ros5ec%ive 6obs$? b$ Dnii oameni cre# En su5ers%iRii$ some 5eo5le believe in su5ers%i%ions Y7;5eriencerZ YThemeZ >Some 5eo5le believe in su5ers%i%ions$? a$ orien%area (s%u#enRilor/ cL%re / s5re 5rofesii #e vii%or orien%a%ion-%he s%u#en%s-%he$G7N %o9ar#s 5rofessions of fu%ure YA!en%Z YGoalZ >%he s%u#en%s? orien%a%ion %o9ar#s 5ros5ec%ive 6obs? b$ cre#inRa (unor oameni/ En su5ers%iRii belief-%he some$G7N 5eo5le in su5ers%i%ions Y7;5eriencerZ YThemeZ >some 5eo5le?s belief in su5ers%i%ions?
(2+/
The follo9in! e;am5les illus%ra%e %he inheri%ance of 5re5osi%ions 9i%h even% nouns #erive# from a#6ec%ives (see (21// an# from nouns (see (22//3
(21/ a$ :aria e sensibilL la curen%$
4,1
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases :aria is sensi%ive %o #rau!h% >:aria is sensi%ive %o %he #rau!h%? b$ Sensibili%a%ea :ariei la curen%$ sensi%ivi%0-%he :aria$G7N %o #rau!h% >:aria?s sensi%ivi%0 %o %he #rau!h%? a$ Ion e 5rie%en cu Dumi%ru$ Ion is frien# 9i%h Dumi%ru >Ion is frien#s 9i%h Dumi%ru? b$ Prie%enia lui Ion cu Dumi%ru$ frien#shi5-%he G'L Ion 9i%h Dumi%ru >Ion?s frien#shi5 9i%h Dumi%ru?
(22/
'ein! subca%e!orise# %he 5re5osi%ions in%ro#ucin! %he a#nominal ar!umen% canno% be chan!e# 9i%h o%her 5re5osi%ions3
(24/ a$ Xorien%area (s%u#enRilor/ la / 5en%ru / En 5rofesii #e vii%or orien%a%ion-%he s%u#en%s-%he$G7N a% / for / in 5rofessions of fu%ure b$ Xcre#inRa (oamenilor sLraci/ 5e/ la/ lWn!L / s5re DumneAeu belief-%he 5eo5le$G7N 5oorPl on/ %o/ near / %o9ar#s Go# c$ Xsensibili%a%ea :ariei s5re / #e / En curen% sensi%ivi%0-%he :aria$G7N %o9ar#s / of / in #rau!h%
There are ho9ever a fe9 cases 9here %he 5re5osi%ion selec%e# in %he VP ma0 no% be inheri%e# in %he NP3
(2,/ a$ Emi amin%esc #es5re / 3e t.ne R7FL$DAT remember$+SG abou% / of 0ou >I remember 0ou? b$ amin%irile (mele/ #es5re %ine / L3e t.ne memories-%he (m0/ abou% 0ou / of 0ou >m0 memories of 0ou?
In o%her cases %he 5re5osi%ion #oes no% occur 9i%h %he verb bu% onl0 9i%h %he noun #erive# from %ha% verb$ This can ha55en in %he follo9in! circums%ances3 (i/ if %he verb selec%s a #a%ive ob6ec%$ Ui%h nouns a #a%ive com5lemen% onl0 a55ears in com5le; even% nominals (see Cha5%er ++/I %herefore 9i%h sim5le even% nominals a 5re5osi%ion mus% be use# ins%ea# of %he #a%ive3
(2./ a$ (aces% %eri%oriu/ a5arRine Ro6Kn.e. %his %erri%or0 belon!s Romania$ DAT >(%his %erri%or0/ belon!s %o Romania? b$ a5ar%enenRa aces%ui %eri%oriu la Ro6Kn.a / XRomWniei belon!in!-%he %his$G7N %erri%or0 %o Romania Romania$DAT >%he belon!in! of %his %erri%or0 %o Romania / Romania?s?
(ii/ if %he verb is %ransi%ive$ 'ecause in nominal environmen%s onl0 one ar!umen% can !e% s%ruc%ural case (%he !eni%ive/ ei%her %he sub6ec% or %he ob6ec% mus% receive a 5re5osi%ion in nominaliAa%ions of %ransi%ive verbs$ Ui%h com5le; even% nominals as sho9n in cha5%er ++ i% is %he ob6ec% 9hich !e%s !eni%ive an# %he sub6ec% can onl0 be e;5resse# as an >a!en%?-PP (9i%h de or de ctre >b0?/ li-e in 5assive clauses$ Ui%h sim5le even% nouns %he sub6ec% is normall0 realiAe# as %he !eni%ive an# %he ob6ec% is in%ro#uce# b0 a 5re5osi%ion3
(2</ a$ Turcii au a%aca% / asal%a% fo0t:0eaAa$
4,2
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases Tur-s-%he have a%%ac-e# / assaul%e# for%ress-%he >The Tur-s have a%%ac-e# / assaul%e# %he for%ress$? b$ a%acul / asal%ul %urcilor as150a fo0t:0eAe. a%%ac--%he / assaul%-%he Tur-s?on for%ress-%he$ G7N >%he Tur-s? a%%ac- / assaul% of %he for%ress? c$ Ion a viAi%a% 61Be1l Ion has visi%e# museum-%he >Ion visi%e# %he museum? #$ ViAi%a lui Ion la 61Be1 visi%-%he G'L Ion a% museum >Ion?s visi% a% %he museum?
This 5a%%ern is 5ar%icularl0 fre@uen% 9i%h 5s0cholo!ical 5re#ica%es 9here %he Theme ar!umen% in %he #erive# nominal s%ruc%ure is hea#e# b0 pentru >for? or fa de >%o9ar#s?3
(2B/ a$ :aria a#mirL ar%a 6a5oneAL$ Y7;5eriencerZ YThemeZ :aria a#mires ar%-%he Na5anese >:aria a#mires Na5anese ar%? b$ a#miraRia :ariei 5en%ru ar%a 6a5oneAL Y7;5eriencerZ YThemeZ a#mira%ion-%he :aria$G7N for ar%-%he Na5anese >:aria?s a#mira%ion for Na5anese ar%? a$ jLranii Ei urau 5e s%rLini$ Y7;5eriencerZ YThemeZ 5easan%s-%he CL$ACC ha%e# DG: forei!ners >The 5easan%s ha%e# forei!ners? b$ Dra RLranilor faRL #e s%rLini Y7;5eriencerZ YThemeZ ha%re#-%he 5easan%s-%he$G7N %o9ar#s forei!ners >%he 5easan%s? ha%re# %o9ar#s forei!ners?
(2C/
(iii/ 9i%h 5s0cholo!ical verbs 9hich selec% a #a%ive 7;5eriencer an# a nomina%ive Theme$ As %he #a%ive has some sub6ec%-5ro5er%ies in#ica%in! %ha% %he 7;5eriencer occu5ies a hi!her 5osi%ion in %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure %han %he Theme %he Theme canno% !e% s%ruc%ural !eni%ive$ I% is %he 7;5eriencer 9hich is mar-e# !eni%ive an# %he Theme is realiAe# as a PP hea#e# b0 pentru >for? or fa de >%o9ar#s?3
(4=/ a$ :aria Emi e #ra!L$ :aria me$DAT is #ear YThemeZ Y7;5eriencerZ >I love :aria? b$ Dra!os%ea mea 5en%ru :aria love-%he m0 for :aria Y7;5eriencerZ YThemeZ >:0 love for :aria?
2.1.2. Le<./al 50e5os.t.ons sele/te3 b9 0elat.onal no1ns Rela%ional nouns 9hich #eno%e s0mme%ric rela%ions be%9een in#ivi#uals (#isre!ar#in! !en#er #ifferences/ such as frate >bro%her? vr >cousin?% prieten >frien#? amic >5al? tovar >comra#e? cole >collea!ue?% vecin >nei!hbour? %a-e a com5lemen% in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h? 9hen %he0 are bare in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion3
4,4
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases (4+/ Pe%re es%e YvLr / 5rie%en / ru#L / cole! cu IonZ$ Pe%re is cousin / frien# / rela%ive / collea!ue 9i%h Ion >Pe%re is Ion?s cousin / frien# / rela%ive / collea!ue$?
A rela%ion R is s0mme%ric if for an0 in#ivi#uals ; 0 if R(; 0/ %hen also R(0 ;/I for ins%ance if Nohn is Pe%er?s bro%her %hen necessaril0 Pe%er is also Nohn?s bro%her$
Uhen s0mme%ric nouns are bare in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion %he use of %he !eni%ive is of%en e;clu#e# or i% is a% mos% mar!inalI %he acce5%abili%0 is ameliora%e# 9hen %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! in R-rela%ion 9i%h ; is seen as im5or%an% see (41/b3
(41/ a$ KK Pe%re es%e 5rie%en / vLr / cole! al lui Ion$ Pe%re is frien# / cousin / collea!ue G7N G'L Ion >Pe%re is a frien# / cousin / collea!ue of Ion?s? b$ SoRul ei era fra%e al re!elui Norve!iei$ husban#-%he her 9as bro%her G'L -in!-%he$G7N Nor9a0-%he$G7N >Oer husban# 9as %he -in! of Nor9a0?s bro%her?
The use of cu >9i%h? is e;clu#e# 9hen %he noun is embe##e# un#er a #e%erminer (in 5re#ica%e or ar!umen% 5osi%ion/ see (42/a-c or 9hen i% is bare bu% in an ar!umen% 5osi%ion see (42/#$ In %hese cases %he in%ernal / secon# ar!umen% can onl0 be e;5resse# b0 a !eni%ive or 5ossessive 5ronoun as sho9n in (42_/3
(42/ a$ X`l cunosc 5e gun vLr / vLrulh cu Ion$ -no9$+SG DG: a cousin / cousin-%he 9i%h Ion b$ XLam revLAu% 5e gun / aces%h g5rie%en / cole! / %ovarLM / fra%eh cu mine$ CL$ACC have$+ re-seen DG: a / %his frien# / collea!ue / comra#e / bro%her 9i%h me c$ X7l e g5rie%enul cu :aria / un 5rie%en cu :ariah$ he is frien#-%he 9i%h :aria / a frien# 9i%h :aria #$ XAu veni% numai gcole!i / 5rie%eni / verih cu Ion$ have$2PL come onl0 collea!ues / frien#s / cousins 9i%h Ion a$ `l cunosc 5e vLrul lui Ion / 5e un vLr al lui Ion$ CL$ACC -no9$+SG DG: cousin-%he G'L Ion / DG: a cousin G7N G'L Ion >I -no9 Ion?s cousin / one of Ion?s cousins? b$ Lam revLAu% 5e gun / aces%h g5rie%en / cole! / %ovarLM / fra%eh al meu$ CL$ACC have$+ re-seen DG: a / %his frien# / collea!ue / comra#e / bro%her G7N m0 >I me% a!ain a / %his / frien# / collea!ue / comra#e / bro%her of mine? c$ 7l e g5rie%enul :ariei / un 5rie%en (#e-/al :arieih$ he is frien#-%he :aria$G7N / a frien# of G7N :aria$G7N >Oe is :aria?s frien# / one of :aria?s frien#s? #$ Au veni% numai gcole!i / 5rie%eni / verih (#e/-ai lui Ion$ have$PL come onl0 collea!ues / frien#s / cousins of G7N G'L Ion >There came onl0 collea!ues / frien#s / cousins of Ion?s?
CL$ACC
(42_/
The secon# cons%rain% can be re#uce# %o %he firs% one (im5ossibili%0 of embe##in! un#er a #e%erminer/ un#er %he assum5%ion %ha% ar!umen%al bare nouns con%ain a null D$ See #iscussion in cha5%er 1$
The use of %he 5re5osi%ion cu "9i%h& is a !eneral 5ro5er%0 of 5re#ica%es e;5ressin! s0mme%rical rela%ions irres5ec%ive of %heir ca%e!or03 (i/ a$ Ion seamLnL cu Dumi%ru$ Ion resembles 9i%h Dumi%ru >Ion loo-s li-e Dumi%ru?
4,,

b$ As%a e e!al cu Aero$ %his is e@ual 9i%h Aero >This e@uals no%hin!? The !eneral meanin! of %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h? 9hich un#erlies %his use seems %o be i#en%i%0 of %he%a-role 9i%h %he e;%ernal ar!umen% 9hich is also encoun%ere# in %he comi%a%ive use of &it!3 (ii/ Am scris ar%icolul cu un cole!0 have+$s! 9ri%%en ar%icle-%he 9i%h a collea!ue >I 9ro%e %his ar%icle 9i%h a collea!ue$?
In#ee# if for an0 ; 0 from ;R0 9e can infer 0R; 9e can sa0 %ha% ; an# 0 are no% #is%in!uishable in %erms of %he%a-roles from each o%her$ This %he%a-role in#is%inc%ion 5rovi#e# b0 s0mme%r0 e;5lains ano%her 5ro5er%0 of %hese 5re#ica%es namel0 %he fac% %ha% %he0 can %a-e a sin!le 5lural ar!umen% ins%ea# of %9o ar!umen%s in 9hich case %he 5ar%s of %he 5lurali%0 are in %he R rela%ion %o one o%her (reci5rocal rea#in!/3 (iii/ a$ Noi sun%em cole!i / 5rie%eni$ 9e are collea!ues/ frien#s >Ue are collea!ues / frien#s$? b$ Co5iii %Li seamLnL$ chil#ren-%he 0our resemble >qour chil#ren loo- ali-e$? c$ Dn!hiurile aces%ea sun% e!ale$ an!les-%he %hese are e@ual >These an!les are e@ual$?
The im5ossibili%0 of e;5ressin! %he secon# ar!umen% of a s0mme%ric rela%ion b0 usin! cu >9i%h? insi#e DPs or ar!umen%al NPs is foun# in various unrela%e# lan!ua!es3
(44/ a$ Il es% ami avec Pierre$ he is frien# 9i%h Pierre b$ C?es% un ami #e / Xavec Pierre$ %his is a frien# of / 9i%h Pierre a$ XOe?s a frien# 9i%h Nohn$ b$ Oe?s frien#s 9i%h Nohn$ a$ Ua%ashi 9a YTar no / %o Z %omo#achi #esu$ I TGP Tar of / 9i%h frien# be >I?m frien# 9i%h Tar? b$ YTar (no / X%o/Z %omo#achi !a -i%a$ Tar of / 9i%h frien# NG: came >Taro?s frien# came? / >XThe frien# 9i%h Tar came? (French/
(4,/ (4./
(7n!lish/ (Na5anese/
I% shoul# be s%resse# %ha% %he cons%rain% on %he realisa%ion of a DP-in%ernal ar!umen% b0 a >9i%h?-5hrase onl0 a55lies %o nouns 9i%h a sin!le com5lemen%$ 7ven% (abs%rac%/ nouns or a!en% nouns #erive# from 5re#ica%es #eno%in! s0mme%ric rela%ions 9here s0mme%r0 hol#s be%9een %he com5lemen%s of %he noun allo9 a &it!-5hrase in all environmen%s3
(4</ a$ 5rie%enia lui Dumi%ru cu Ion frien#shi5-%he G'L Dumi%ru 9i%h Ion >Dumi%ru?s frien#shi5 9i%h Ion? b$ asemLnarea (lui/ cu mine resemblance-%he his 9i%h me >his resemblance %o me? c$ colaborarea (noas%rL/ cu universi%a%ea #in 'ucureM%i collabora%ion-%he our 9i%h universi%0-%he from 'uchares%
4,.
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases >Gur collabora%ion 9i%h %he Dniversi%0 of 'uchares%?

Ano%her ins%an%ia%ion of %he in%ernal ar!umen% of (bo%h s0mme%ric an# as0mme%ric/ rela%ional nouns 9hich is limi%e# %o bare nouns in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion is %he #a%ive-5ossessive (on %he #a%ive-5ossessive see %he secon# volume of %his !rammar/$ This %a-es 5lace 9hen %he ar!umen% is e;5resse# b0 a cli%ic 5ronoun or i% has %o be #ouble# b0 a cli%ic because of a #isloca%ion (%o5icalisa%ion or focalisa%ion/3 (i/ a$ :arius Emi es%e vLr / ne5o%$ :arius me$DAT$ is cousin / ne5he9 >:arius is m0 cousin / ne5he9? b$ YCon%e;%3 9i%h more members of %he !rou5 he/she 9as a rela%ive3Z :ariei Ei era vLr / ne5o%$ :aria$DAT CL$DAT 9as cousin / ne5he9 >To :aria (s/he 9as a cousin / ne5he9 ([(S/he 9as :aria?s cousin/ne5he9/? c$ Doar :ARI7I Ei era ru#L$ onl0 :aria$DAT CL$DAT 9as rela%ive >(S/he 9as onl0 :aria?s rela%ive$?
Some -inshi5 nouns allo9 a5ar% from %heir com5lemen% a 5re5osi%ional 5hrase hea#e# b0 dinspre >from %he si#e / #irec%ion of? or dup >af%er? in#ica%in! %he linea!e on 9hich %he rela%ion is base# (fa%her?s or mo%her?s si#e/3
(4B/ a$ Ion es%e YvLrul :ariei #ins5re %a%LZ$ Ion is cousin-%he :aria?s from-%he-si#e-of fa%her >Ion is :aria?s cousin from his fa%her?s si#e$? b$ Pe%re YEmiZ es%e YvLr #u5L mamLZ$ Pe%re me$DAT is cousin af%er mo%her$ >Pe%re is m0 cousin from m0 mo%her?s si#e$? c$ Pe%re es%e YvLr cu mine #u5L mamLZ$ Pe%re is cousin 9i%h me af%er mo%her >Pe%re is m0 cousin from m0 mo%her?s si#e$?
Since i% is no% obli!a%or0 %his 5hrase can be consi#ere# an a#6unc%$ Oo9ever i% shoul# be no%ice# %ha% 9hen use# 9i%h -inshi5 nouns %he 5re5osi%ions dinspre an# dup have a s5ecial abs%rac% meanin! 9hich su!!es%s subca%e!orisa%ion$ In %hese cons%ruc%ions nouns can e;5ress bo%h s0mme%ric an# as0mme%ric rela%ions3
(4C/ Pe%re Emi es%e gunchi / bunic / vLrh g#ins5re / #u5Lh mamL$ Pe%re me$DAT is uncle / !ran#fa%her/cousin from-%he-si#e-of / af%er mo%her$ >Pe%re is m0 uncle/!ran#fa%her from m0 mo%her?s si#e$?
2.2. Non+s1b/ate4o0.se3 le<./al 50e5os.t.ons The DP s%ruc%ures 9i%h a#6unc% a#nominal PPs ma0 be re5resen%e# as follo9s3
4,<
(,=/ D
DP NP NP PP
o a un a
N P DP/NP plrie cu $ fr boruri ha% 9i%h / 9i%hou% brims studiu pentru mna stn s%u#0 for han#-%he lef%
A lar!e varie%0 of 5re5osi%ions ma0 be use# in a#nominal a#6unc% PPs$ Since 9e are %al-in! abou% a#6unc%s %heir occurrence #oes no% #e5en# on %he subca%e!orisa%ion frame of %he N hea# bu% onl0 on %he seman%ic com5a%ibili%0 be%9een %he rela%ion e;5resse# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion an# %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he NP %he PP a%%aches %o$ As res%ric%ive mo#ifiers %he 5re5osi%ional a#6unc%s res%ric% %he class of in#ivi#uals #eno%e# b0 NP %o %hose %ha% en%er%ain %he rela%ion #eno%e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion 9i%h %he DP referen% 9hich is %he com5lemen% of %he 5re5osi%ion (PP combines 9i%h NP b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion see %he #iscussion abou% in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives in cha5%er < sec%ion 1$1/$ For ins%ance in %he e;am5le belo9 %he 5re5osi%ional a#6unc% cu uler >9i%h collar / collare#? is mean% %o res%ric% %he class of in#ivi#uals %ha% are liAar#s %o %hose %ha% have %he 5ro5er%0 of havin! a collar3
(,+/ N-am vLAu% nicio#a%L o Mo5WrlL cu !uler$ no% have$+ seen never a liAar# 9i%h collar >I?ve never seen a collare# liAar#$?
Oere are some e;am5les of rela%ions e;5resse# b0 5re5osi%ions3 5ossesse# ob6ec% or 5ar% of an ob6ec% associa%ion 9i%h an ob6ec% (e;$ (,1/a/ source (e;$ (,1/b/ au%hor (%he a!en% of a 9or-/ (e;$ (,1/c/ s5ace la0ou% (e;$ (,1/#/ abs%rac% loca%ion or @uali%0 (e;$ (,1/e f/ 5ur5ose (e;$ (,1/! h/3
(,1/ a$ un om cu barb "a men 9i%h bear#& o oal cu capac "a 5o% 9i%h a cover& o cas cu rdin "a house 9i%h a !ar#en& b$ un vnt din deert "a 9in# from %he #eser%& nite vinuri din >talia "some 9ins from I%al0& un cristal de Loemia "a cr0s%al from 'ohemia& c$ un tablou de Luc!ian "a 5ain%in! b0 Luchian& o sonat de Leet!oven "a sona%a b0 'ee%hoven& o poe(ie de Eminescu "a 5oem b0 7minescu& #$ un ora n Elveia "a %o9n in S9i%Aerlan#&% urmele pe nisip "%he %races on %he san#& e$ un pom n floare "a %ree in bloom& un om n vrst "an a!e# 5erson& un bolnav n a onie "an a!oniAin! (sic-/ 5erson& nite limb n aspic "%on!ue in as5ic& f$ note peste medie "mar- above %he avera!e& ateptri peste msur "e;5ec%a%ions be0on# measure& !$ sirop pentru tuse "s0ru5 for %he cou!h&% adpost pentru alpiniti "shel%er for al5inis%s& h$ otrav mpotriva oarecilor "5oison a!ains% mice&
Romanian has %he 5ar%iculari%0 %ha% some a#nominal a#6unc% PPs are hea#e# b0 %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de$ This 5re5osi%ion de is re@uire# in cer%ain cases b0 a PP sho9in! loca%ion in s5ace an# %ime 9hich 9e 9ill fur%her call locali(ers0 Ne;% 9e 9ill #iscuss se5ara%el0 %he localiAer mo#ifiers (1$1$+/ %hen %he o%her mo#ifiers 9hich are never buil% 9i%h de (sec%ion
4,B
1$1$1 belo9/$ 2.2.1. Lo/al an3 te65o0al a371n/ts In mos% con%e;%s s5ace an# %ime localiAin! a#nominal PPs P 9hich 9e 9ill call "localiAers& P mus% be !overne# b0 %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de (see (,2//$ In combina%ion 9i%h %he 5re5osi%ions n >in? ntru >in? an# ntre %he s%rin! deJn is con%rac%e# %o din 0iel#in! %he forms din% dintru% dintre (see (,2b # e//$
(,2/ a$ cLrRile #e 5e masL [ cLrRile care sun% 5e masL boo-s-%he de on %able boo-s-%he 9hich are on %able >%he boo-s on %he %able? >%he boo-s %ha% are on %he %able? b$ haina #in #ula5 [ haina care es%e En #ula5 coa%-%he deHin 9ar#robe coa%-%he 9hich is in 9ar#robe >%he coa% in %he 9ar#robe? >%he coa% 9hich is in %he 9ar#robe? c$ M%irile de la ora , [ M%irile care sun% la ora , ne9s-%he #e a% hour , ne9s-%he 9hich are a% hour , >%he , o?cloc- ne9s? >%he ne9s 9hich are a% , o?cloc-? #$ revoluRia #in +CBC [ revoluRia care a avu% loc En +CBC revolu%ion-%he deHin +CBC revolu%ion-%he 9hich has ha# 5lace in +CBC >%he +CBC revolu%ion? >%he revolu%ion 9hich has ha# 5lace in +CBC? e$ oraMul #in%re lacuri [ oraMul care es%e En%re lacuri %o9n-%he deHbe%9een la-es %o9n-%he 9hich is be%9een la-es >%he %o9n be%9een %he la-es? >%he %o9n 9hich is be%9een %he la-es?
De also a55ears 9i%h 5lace an# %ime a#verbs3

(,4/ a$ car%ea #e aici / #e acolo [ car%ea care es%e aici / acolo boo--%he de here/ #e %here boo--%he 9hich is here / %here >%he boo- over here / over %here? [ >%he boo- %ha% is here/%here? b$ filmul #e ieri / #e mWine [ filmul care a fos% ieri / care va fi movie-%he de 0es%er#a0/ de %omorro9 movie-%he 9hich has been 0es%er#a0/9hich 9ill be mWine %omorro9 >%he 0es%er#a0?s/%omorro9?s movie? [ >%he movie %ha% 9as 0es%er#a0/9ill be %omorro9?
The confi!ura%ion in 9hich %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de is re@uire# mus% be #is%in!uishe# from abla%ive de% 9hich is a full0 seman%ic 5re5osi%ion occurrin! before PPs in#ica%in! %he ini%ial loca%ion or s%a%us of an ob6ec%$ Abla%ive de in%ro#uces no% onl0 NP-a#6unc%s bu% also VP-a#6unc%s3
(,,/ a$ vinul #in I%alia [ vinul fLcu% / fabrica% En I%alia ori!inar #in I%alia 9ine-%he deHin I%al0 9ine-%he ma#e / manufac%ure# in I%al0 ori!inar0 from I%al0 >%he 9ine from I%al0? [ >%he 9ine ma#e / manufac%ure# in I%al0 ori!inar0 from I%al0? b$ florile #e la mun%e [ florile care au fos% a#use #e la mun%e flo9ers-%he de a% moun%ain flo9ers-%he 9hich have been brou!h% de a% moun%ain (culese 5e mun%e / cum5Lra%e la mun%e/ 5ic-e#-u5 on moun%ain bou!h% a% moun%ain >%he flo9ers from %he moun%ain?[ >%he flo9ers %ha% have been brou!h% from %he moun%ains (5ic-e# u5 on %he moun%ains bou!h% a% %he moun%ains/? A veni% #e la A%ena / #e 5e mun%e / #e acolo / #e #e5ar%e / #in 5om$ has come de a% A%hens / de on moun%ain / de %here / de far /deHin %ree >Oe came from A%hens / from %he moun%ains / from %here / from far a9a0 / from %he %ree$?
(,./
4,C
There are some cases 9here %he a#nominal de is absen%3 (a/ Dsuall0 loca%ive an# %em5oral a#6unc%s are no% hea#e# b0 de 9i%h com5le; even% nouns (see cha5%er ++ - Deverbal nouns/3
(,</ a$ `ncheierea aces%ui acor# la 'ucureM%i / X#e la 'ucureM%i conclusion-%he %his$G7N a!reemen% a% 'uchares% de a% 'uchares% >The conclusion of %his a!reemen% a% 'uchares% / Xfrom 'uchares%? b$ A%acarea Americii En +C4+ la Pearl Oarbour / X#in +C4+ / X#e la Pearl Oarbour a%%ac-in!-%he America-%he$G7N in +C4+ a% Pearl Oarbour/XdeHin +C4+ / Xde a% Pearl Oarbour >The a%%ac- on America in +C4+ a% Pearl Oarbour / Xfrom +C4+ / Xfrom Pearl Oarbour?
Ui%h sim5le even% nominals de is use# if %he 5hrase hea#e# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion has a s5ecific reference (%he localisa%ion rela%ion refers %o a s5ecific even%/3
(,B/ a$ A%acul #e la Pearl Oarbour a%%ac--%he de a% Pearl Oarbour >The a%%ac- of Pearl Oarbour? b$ A%acul 6a5oneA asu5ra Americii #in +C4+ a%%ac--%he Na5anese on America-%he$ G7N from +C4+ >The Na5anese a%%ac- on America from +C4+?
If %he 5hrase hea#e# b0 a 5re5osi%ion has a !eneric rea#in! an# %he localiAer #escribes a -in# of even%s 9i%hou% in%ro#ucin! a rela%ion be%9een an even% an# a s5ecific 5lace / %ime %hen de canno% be use#3
(,C/ a$ lec%ura En 5a% rea#in!-%he in be# >rea#in! in be#? b$ #ansul 5e masL #ancin!-%he on %able >#ancin! on %he %able?
(b/ LocaliAers 9i%hou% de also occur 9hen %he ma%ri; DP is a non-s5ecific in#efini%e in in%ensional con%e;%s (see (.=// or !eneric con%e;% (see (.+//$ ((.=/b sho9s %ha% %he use of de %ri!!ers s5ecifici%0 (.=/a an# c-# sho9 %ha% %he s5ecific meanin! is im5ossible if de is absen%/3
(.=/ a$ `Mi #orea o casL 5e #eal$ 2$R7FL$DAT 9ishe#$2SG a house on hill >(S/he 9an%e# a house on %he hill? [ `Mi #orea o casL care sL fie am5lasa%L 5e (un/ #eal$ 2$R7FL$DAT 9ishe#$2SG a house 9hich SD'N be 5lace# on (a/ hill >(S/he 9an%e# a house 9hich ha# %o be on %he (a/ hill? w `Mi #orea o anume casL care es%e/era am5lasa%L 5e #eal$ 2$R7FLDAT 9ishe#$2SG a cer%ain house %ha% is 9as 5lace# on hill >(S/he 9an%e# a cer%ain house %ha% is/9as 5lace# on %he hill? b$ `Mi #orea o casL #e 5e #eal$ 2$R7FL$DAT 9ishe#$2SG a house de on hill >(S/he 9an%e# a house on %he hill? w `Mi #orea o casL care sL fie am5lasa%L 5e (un/ #eal$ 2$R7FL$DAT 9ishe#$2SG a house 9hich SD'N be 5lace# on (a/ hill >(S/he 9an%e# a house 9hich ha# %o be 5lace# on %he/a hill? [ `Mi #orea o anume casL care es%e/era am5lasa%L 5e #eal$
4.=
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases 2$R7FLDAT 9ishe#$2SG a cer%ain house %ha% is 9as 5lace# on hill >(S/he 9an%e# a cer%ain house %ha% is/9as 5lace# on %he hill? c$ `Mi #orea o casL anume X(#e/ 5e #eal$ 2$R7FL$DAT 9ishe#$2SG a house 5ar%icular de on hill >(S/he 9an%e# a 5ar%icular house on %he hill? #$ `Mi #orea casa X(#e/ 5e #eal$ 2$R7FL$DAT 9ishe#$2SG house-%he de on hill >(S/he 9an%e# %he house on %he hill? a$ G ce%a%e En cWm5ie e mai !reu #e a5Lra% #ecW% una En munRi$ a for%ress in 5lain is more har# SDP #efen#$SDP %ha% one in moun%ains >A for%ress in o5en 5lain is har#er %o #efen# %han one in %he moun%ains? b$ G Me#inRL la ora #ouL e ne5o%rivi%L$ a mee%in! a% hour-%he %9o is ina55ro5ria%e >A mee%in! a% %9o o?cloc- is ina55ro5ria%e?
(.+/
(c/ The absence of de is also 5ossible 9hen %he ma%ri; DP is a !eneric 5lural #efini%e3
(.1/ a$ Casele 5e #eal sun% 5referabile #a%ori%L 5anoramei 0 houses-%he on hill are 5referable %han-s vie9-%he$ DAT >The houses on %he hill are more 5referre# because of %he vie9$? b$ Sa%ele En%re #ealuri sun% mai feri%e #e invaAii$ villa!es-%he be%9een hills are more 5ro%ec%e# from invasions >The villa!es in be%9een hills are more 5ro%ec%e# from invasions$?
In %his case %he use of de can 5reserve %he !eneric meanin!$ The absence of de re@uires %he fulfilmen% of an a##i%ional con#i%ion3 %he rela%ion e;5resse# b0 %he loca%ive PP has %o be an essen%ial con#i%ion of %he !eneralisa%ion P e$!$ for (.1/b i% is b0 vir%ue of bein! be%9een %he hills %ha% a villa!e is more 5ro%ec%e# from invasions$ For %his reason in %he follo9in! e;am5le %he absence of de is no% acce5%able3
(.2/ 'isericile g#in / KKEnh S5ania sun% foar%e bo!a% ornamen%a%e$ churches-%he deHin in S5ain are ver0 richl0 ornamen%e#$ >The churches in S5ain are ver0 9ell ornamen%e#$?
(#/ De can also be absen% 9hen %he ma%ri; DP is an in#efini%e in a 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion3
(.4/ Limo!es e un oraM En FranRa$ Limo!es is a %o9n in France$ >Limo!es is a %o9n in France$?
(e/ as non-s5ecific in#efini%e ob6ec% of cer%ain verbs %ha% e;5ress 5ossession (inclu#in! chan!e of 5ossession3 5rocuremen% sellin! foun#in!/3
(.,/ a$ iia cum5Lra% o casL la RarL / En%re #ealuri$ 2R7FL$DAT has bou!h% a house a% coun%r0si#e / be%9een hills >Oe bou!h% a house a% %he coun%r0si#e / be%9een %he hills for himself$? b$ Are o casL En I%alia$ has a house in I%al0$ >Oe has a house in I%al0$?
In conclusion for ob6ec% referrin! nouns i% is no%ice# %ha% de is necessar0 in 5hrases 9i%h s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion$
4.+

The 5re5osi%ion la use# 9i%h sea names meanin! >on? is an e;ce5%ion %o %his !eneralisa%ion allo9in! absence of de in all con%e;%s3 (../ a$ Am viAi%a% Yo s%aRiune la :area :e#i%eranLZ$ have$+ visi%e# a resor% a% sea-%he :e#i%erranean >I/Ue visi%e# a resor% on %he :e#i%erranean Sea? b$ YTrei oraMe la :area Nea!rLZ au fos% cu5rinse #e holerL$ %hree %o9ns a% sea-%he blac- have been com5rise# b0 cholera >Three %o9ns on %he 'lac- Sea have been infec%e# 9i%h cholera? c$ Am vorbi% mul% #es5re Yfaimoasa s%aRiune la :area :e#i%eranLZ$ have$+ s5o-en much abou% famous-%he resor% a% sea-%he :e#i%erranean >I/Ue s5o-e a lo% abou% %he famous resor% on %he :e#i%erranean Sea?
2.2.2. Ot8e0 PP a371n/ts The o%her le;ical 5re5osi%ions are no% buil% 9i%h %he a#nominal de$ For s5ace 5re5osi%ions in#ica%in! an abs%rac% 5osi%ion %he absence of de is ar!uabl0 rela%e# %o %he loss of %he s5a%ial meanin!$ The PP can e;5ress a s%a%e (see (.</a/ or a @uali%0 (see (.</b/$ Some%imes 9e are #ealin! 9i%h le;icalise# i#ioma%ic e;5ressions (see (.</c/$ In (.</# %he PP !ives a s5a%ial in#ica%ion bu% a% %he same %ime in#ica%es a s5ecial %05e of #ish3
(.</ a$ bolnavii En comL 5rofun#L 5a%ien%s-%he in coma 5rofoun# >%he 5a%ien%s in #ee5 coma? b$ co5iii En vWrs%L #e 2 ani chil#ren-%he in a!e of 2 0ears >%he 2-0ear-ol# chil#ren? c$ 5omii En floare %rees-%he in flo9er >%he bloomin! %rees? #$ fri5%ura En sos #e vin s%ea--%he in sauce of 9ine >%he s%ea- in 9ine sauce?
G%her 5re5osi%ions ma0 e;5ress3 t!e possessed ob+ect% t!e association or t!e part of an ob+ect 3 %he 5re5osi%ion cu >9i%h? an# i%s ne!a%ion fr >9i%hou%?% usuall0 (bu% no% e;clusivel0 see (.B/#/ follo9e# b0 bare nouns3
(.B/ a$ un bLrba% cu barbL roMie a man 9i%h bear# re# >a re#-bear#e# man? b$ o oalL cu ca5ac #e s%iclL a 5o% 9i%h li# of !lass >a !lass-li##e# 5o%? c$ 5oveM%ile fLrL sfWrMi% ferici% s%ories-%he 9i%hou% en# ha550 >%he s%ories 9i%hou% ha550-en#? #$ fa%a cu bluAa roMie !irl-%he 9i%h blouse-%he re# >%he !irl 9i%h %he re# blouse?
,u >9i%h? ma0 also in%ro#uce a small clause3
4.1
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases (.C/ a$ munRii Ycu YSC vWrfurile En noriZZ moun%ains-%he 9i%h hei!h%s in clou#s >%he moun%ains 9i%h %he hei!h%s in %he clou#s? b$ un om Ycu YSC cLmaMa #escheia%LZZ a man 9i%h shir%-%he unbu%%one# >a man 9i%h %he shir% unbu%%one#?
t!e source $ t!e ori in e;5resse# b0 %he abla%ive 5re5osi%ion de 9hich !enerall0 combines 9i%h ano%her PP/loca%ive a#verbI de follo9e# #irec%l0 b0 a 5ro5er name is use# %o sho9 %he %05e of a 5ro#uc% (see (<=/c-#/ 3
(<=/ a$ un vin #in I%alia a 9ine from I%al0 >a 9ine from I%al0? b$ un vWn% #in #eMer% a 9in# from #eser% >a 9in# from %he #eser%? c$ un cris%al #e 'oemia a cr0s%al of 'ohemia >a 'ohemian cr0s%al? #$ niM%e covri!i #e 'raMov some breAels of 'rasov >some 'rasov breAels?
t!e purpose3
(<+/ a$ facili%LRile 5en%ru 5ersoanele cu #iAabili%LRi facili%ies-%he for 5ersons-%he 9i%h #isabili%ies >%he facili%ies for 5eo5le 9i%h #isabili%ies? b$ un siro5 con%ra %usei a s0ru5 a!ains% cou!h-%he$G7N >a s0ru5 a!ains% %he cou!h?
For a series of nouns such as leac >me#icine cure? medicament >me#icine? remediu >cura%ive? 9hose
meanin!s inclu#e %he i#ea of fi!h%in! a!ains% some%hin! 9e coul# consi#er %ha% %he PP e;5ressin! %he %ar!e% / %he !oal ac%s li-e an ar!umen% %he noun e;5ressin! a rela%ion of %he %05e F fi !ts a ainst b3 (<1/ a$ 'unica 5re!L%ea un leac Em5o%riva bolilor co5ilLriei care nu !ran#ma-%he 5re5are$I:PF a cure a!ains% #iseases-%he$G7N chil#hoo#-%he$G7N 9hich no% #L#ea nicio#a%L !reM$ !ive$I:PF never 9ron! >Gran#ma use# %o 5re5are a cure a!ains% chil#hoo# #iseases 9hich 9oul# never !o 9ron!$? b$ CLu%a cu #is5erare un me#icamen% 5en%ru !ri5L$ loo-$I:PF$2SG 9i%h #es5air a me#icine for flu >(S/he 9as #es5era%el0 loo-in! for a me#icine a!ains% %he flu$?
t!e instrument3
(<2/ a$ o o5eraRie cu bis%uriul a sur!er0 9i%h scal5el >a sur!er0 9i%h %he scal5el? b$ o 5limbare cu %rLsura a 9al9i%h carria!e >a 9al- b0 carria!e?
4.2
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases c$ o sLri%urL cu coar#a / 5rL6ina a 6um5 9i%h bun!ee / 5ole >a bun!ee 6um5 / a 5ole vaul%?
t!e aut!or (t!e a ent of a 9or- of ar%/3

(<4/ a$ o 5iesL #e Racine a 5la0 b0 Racine >a 5la0 b0 Racine? b$ o 5ic%urL #e Gri!orescu a 5ain%in! b0 Gri!orescu >a 5ain%in! b0 Gri!orescu?
t!e e'tent $ t!e de ree e;5resse# b0 s5ace 5re5osi%ions 9i%h abs%rac% uses3
(<,/ a$ no%ele 5es%e me#ia #e %recere !ra#es-%he above avera!e-%he of 5assin! >%he !ra#es hi!her %han %he 5assin! !ra#e 5oin% avera!e? b$ %em5era%urile sub = !ra#e %em5era%ures-%he belo9 = #e!rees >%he %em5era%ures belo9 = #e!rees?
3. A3no6.nal 50e5os.t.onal 580ases D.t8 f1n/t.onal 50e5os.t.ons 3.1. T95es of f1n/t.onal 50e5os.t.ons Ue can i#en%if0 #ifferen% %05es of func%ional 5re5osi%ions3 (i/ case mar-ers for %he !eni%ive (a an# de/ an# %he #a%ive (la/ 9hich occur 9henever %he firs% cons%i%uen% of a DP canno% carr0 Case inflec%ions3
(<./ a$ car%ea a #oi co5ii (a#nominal !eni%ive/ boo--%he a %9o chil#ren >%he boo- of %9o chil#ren? b$ #au la #oi co5ii (a#verbal #a%ive/ !ive-+SG la %9o chil#ren >I !ive Ysome%hin!Z %o %9o chil#ren$?
In some sub-s%an#ar# varie%ies %he 5re5osi%ion la is also use# %o mar- %he !eni%ive3 ua la biseric >#oor la church? "%he church?s #oor& mama la copil >mo%her la chil#? "%he chil#?s mo%her& c!eia la main >-e0 la car? "%he car -e0&$
The 5re5osi%ion de is use# %o mar- %he !eni%ive on bare NP ob6ec%s of #everbal nouns3
(<</ sau aloca% bani 5en%ru recons%rucRie f alocarea #e bani 5en%ru R7FL-have$2PL allo%%e# mone0 for recons%ruc%ion f allo%men%-%he of mone0 for recons%rucRie recons%ruc%ion >:one0 has been allo%%e# for %he recons%ruc%ion? f >%he allo%men% of mone0 for %he recons%ruc%ion?
These cons%ruc%ions al%erna%e 9i%h mor5holo!ical cases an# are anal0se# in %he cha5%er #evo%e# %o %he res5ec%ive cases (see cha5%er . - Kenitive D/s and /ronominal /ossessorsI a cha5%er on %he #a%ive 9ill be inclu#e# in %he secon# volume of %his Grammar/$ 4.4
(ii/ %he 5re5osi%ion pe func%ions as a #ifferen%ial #irec% ob6ec% mar-er3

(<B/ Lcunoscu% 5e ar%is%ul aces%a$ me% DG: ar%is%-%he %his >I/Ue me% %his ar%is%$?
CL$2:SG$ACC have$+
am
This cons%ruc%ion 9ill be anal0se# in %he secon# volume$ (iii/ %he mar-er de 9hich in%ro#uces localiAers in a#nominal con%e;%s (see *1$1$+ above/3
(<C/ a$ o casL #e la mun%e a house de a% moun%ain >a house in %he moun%ains? b$ un cor% #e 5e 5la6L a %en% de on beach >a %en% on %he beach? c$ un cas%el #e acolo a cas%le de %here >a cas%le (from/ over %here?
(iv/ %he mar-er de follo9e# b0 bare nouns hea#in! nominal a#6unc%s in a#nominal con%e;%s (see %he ne;% sec%ion *2$1/I (v/ %he mar-er de follo9e# b0 bare nouns %ha% in%ro#uces %he le;ical 5ar% of a DP bein! 5rece#e# b0 semile;ical or func%ional elemen%s in cons%ruc%ions sho9in! @uali%0 or @uan%i%0 for ins%ance un #ilo ram de mere >a -ilo of a55les? dou(eci de oameni >%9en%0 de 5eo5le? "%9en%0 5eo5le& prostul de >on >s%u5i#-%he de Ion? "%ha% s%u5i# of Ion&$ These s%ruc%ures are anal0se# in cha5%ers +2 an# 2 *, of %his volume$ 3.2. A3no6.nal ba0e NPs D.t8 t8e f1n/t.onal 50e5os.t.on de In 9ha% follo9s 9e 9ill #iscuss a#nominal bare NPs in%ro#uce# b0 de >of? leavin! asi#e %he s5ecial @uan%i%a%ive/classifier an# @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions lis%e# un#er (v/ above 9hich are %rea%e# in cha5%er +2$ 3.2.1. T95es of a3no6.nal ba0e NPs 'are NPs in%ro#uce# b0 de can a55ear insi#e NPs hea#e# b03 (i/ even%ive nouns (e$!$ colectare >collec%in!? distribuire >#is%ribu%ion? construcie >cons%ruc%ion?/ (ii/ ob6ec%#eno%in! rela%ional nouns (e$!$ fiu >son? uler >collar? soie >9ife? mar ine >bor#er? u >#oor?/ an# (iii/ non-rela%ional nouns (e$!$ camer >room? cas >house? drum >roa#? vacan >holi#a0? ploaie >rain?/3
(B=/ a$ cons%rucRia #e #rumuri cons%ruc%ion-%he of roa#s b$ colec%area #e %a;e raisin!-%he of %a;es a$ un fiu #e re!e a son of -in! >a -in!?s son? b$ soRiile #e avoca% 9ives-%he of la90er >%he la90ers? 9ives? c$ al% !uler #e cLmaML ano%her collar of shir%
(B+/
4.,
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases >ano%her shir% collar? #$ o mar!ine #e 5L#ure a bor#er of fores% >a fores% bor#er? e$ Aces% car%ier nu ara%L a cen%ru #e ca5i%alL %his nei!hborhoo# no% loo-s li-e cen%er of ca5i%al-ci%0 >This nei!hborhoo# #oesn?% loo- li-e a cen%er of a ca5i%al ci%0? a$ vacanRa #e varL holi#a0 of summer >summer holi#a0? b$ un #rum #e mun%e a roa# of moun%ain >a moun%ain roa#? c$ aceas%L casL #e RarL %his house of coun%r0si#e >%his coun%r0si#e house?
(B1/
The s0n%ac%ic s%a%us of %he a#nominal bare nouns #iffers accor#in! %o %he %05e of hea# noun3 9i%h %05es (i/ an# (ii/ %he bare NP sa%ura%es an o5en 5osi%ion of %he hea# N an# can %herefore be consi#ere# a com5lemen% 9hereas 9i%h %05e (iii/ i% is an NP a#6unc% (mo#ifier/$ This e;5lains 9h0 bare NPs canno% a55ear in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion 9i%h nouns of %05es (i/ an# (ii/ (see (B2// bu% can a55ear 9i%h (a% leas% some/ nouns of %05e (iii/ (see (B4//3
(B2/ a$ X colec%area es%e #e %a;e raisin!-%he is of %a;es b$ XsoRia es%e #e avoca% 9ife-%he is of la90er c$ Xfiul aces%a es%e #e re!e son-%he %his is of -in! a$ cursurile #e varL courses-%he of summer >%he summer courses? a_$ cursurile sun% #e varL courses-%he are of summer >%he courses are in %he summer? b$ %WnLrul #e con#iRie bunL 0oun!-%he of con#i%ion !oo# >%he 0oun! man of hi!h s%a%us? b_$ %WnLrul es%e #e con#iRie bunL 0oun!-%he is of con#i%ion !oo# >%he 0oun! man is of hi!h s%a%us? c$ #rumul #e mun%e roa#-%he of moun%ain >%he moun%ain roa#? c_$#rumul es%e #e mun%e Mi avem nevoie #e cauciucuri s5eciale roa#-%he is of moun%ain an# have$+PL nee# of %ires s5ecial >The roa# is on %he moun%ains an# 9e nee# s5ecial %ires?
(B4/
There is also a #ifference be%9een %05e (i/ an# %he o%hers3 9i%h %05e (i/ %he bare noun 5reserves %he number res%ric%ions of %he corres5on#in! verbal base (as #iscusse# in cha5%er 1 ar!umen%al bare nouns are usuall0 res%ric%e# %o 5lural an# mass nouns/ as sho9n b0 (B,/ belo9 9hereas 9i%h %05es (ii/ an# (iii/ %here is no such res%ric%ion (see (B+/-(B1/ an# (B4/ above/3
4..
(B,/
a$ Xcons%rucRia #e #rum cons%ruc%ion-%he of roa# b$ X colec%area #e %a;L collec%in!-%he of %a;
The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %ha% %he a#nominal cons%i%uen% in%ro#uce# b0 de is obli!a%oril0 a bare NP (i$e$ a nominal cons%i%uen% %ha% lac-s a #e%erminer/3
(B./ a$ Xo uML #e biserica sa%ului a #oor of church villa!e-%he$G7N b$ Xo uML #e aceas%L bisericL / biserica aceas%a a #oor of %his church / church-%he %his c$ Xo uML #e fiecare bisericL a #oor of each church #$ Xo uML #e o bisericL a #oor of a church
The NP hea#e# b0 de can have an0 -in# of mo#ifiers3

(B</ a$ un !uler #e cLmaML veche a collar of shir% ol# >an ol# shir%?s collar? b$ o soRie #e avoca% bo!a% a 9ife of la90er rich >a rich la90er?s 9ife? c$ un bile% #e %ren #e 5lLcere a %ic-e% of %rain of 5leasure >a leisure %rain %ic-e%?
A#nominal bare NPs #o no% in%ro#uce an in#ivi#ual as a #iscourse referen% as is obvious from %he #ifficul%0 of 5ronominal ana5hora (com5are (B,/a 9i%h %he !eni%ive-mar-e# DP in (BB/b/3
(BB/ a$ :ar%a era o soRie #e avoca%i$ XAces%ai / 7li era foar%e bine co%a%$ :ar%a 9as a 9ife of la90er$ This / he 9as ver0 9ell ra%e# >:ar%a 9as a la90er?s 9ife$ XOe 9as ver0 9ell ra%e#$? b$ :ar%a era soRia unui avoca%i$ Aces%ai / 7li era foar%e bine co%a%$ :ar%a 9as 9ife a$G7N la90er$ This / Oe 9as ver0 9ell ra%e#$ >:ar%a 9as %he 9ife of a la90er$ This / Oe 9as ver0 9ell ra%e#$?
In e;am5les such as (BB/a %he rela%ional noun soie ]9ife] a55lies %o %he 5rofession/social role #eno%e# b0 avocat ]la90er] an# 0iel#s a #erive# social role %ha% of bein! a la90er]s 9ife$ The 5ro5er%0 rea#in! of a#nominal bare NPs e;5lains 9h0 %he0 ma0 al%erna%e 9i%h an a#6ec%ive 9i%h no chan!e of meanin!3
(BC/ a$ o nun%L #e 5rinRi [ o nun%L 5rinciarL a 9e##in! of 5rinces a 9e##in! 5rincel0 >a 9e##in! of 5rinces [ a 5rincel0 9e##in!? b$ niM%e cursuri #e varL [ niM%e cursuri es%ivale some courses of summer some courses aes%ival >some summer courses [ some aes%ival courses? c$ o casL #e RarL [ o casL rus%icL
4.<
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases a house of coun%r0si#e a house %ra#i%ional >a coun%r0 house [ a rus%ic house? #$ o uniformL #e Mcolar [ o uniformL McolarL a uniform of schoolchil# a uniform school$ADN >a school uniform?
Ui%h even%ive nouns (%05e (i/ above/ de-NPs are e@uivalen% %o %he so-calle# >%hema%ic? a#6ec%ives (see cha5%er < *1$4$1/3
(C=/ 5ro#ucRia #e cereale [ 5ro#ucRia cerealierL 5ro#uc%ion-%he of cereals 5ro#uc%ion-%he cereal$ ADN >%he cereal 5ro#uc%ion?
No%e finall0 %ha% i% is #ifficul% %o fin# a#6ec%ives re5lacin! de-NPs buil% 9i%h ob6ec%-referrin! rela%ional Ns e$!$ soie de avocat >9ife of la90er? fiu de sclav >son of slave?$ Amon! %he meanin!s 9hich cons%ruc%ions of %he %05e N-de NP ma0 e;5ress 9e can men%ion3 (i/ (alienable/ 5ossession3 o curte de mprat >a 0ar# of em5eror? "an em5eror?s 0ar#& (ii/ %he Par% P Uhole rela%ion3 un uler de cma >a collar of shir%? "a shir%?s collar& un picior de mas >a le! of %able? "a %able le!& (iii/ -inshi53 un fiu de re e >a son of -in!? "a -in!?s son& o soie de avocat >a 9ife of la90er? "a la90er?s 9ife& (iv/ %05e of a -inshi5 rela%ion3 un nepot de unc!i >a ne5he9 of uncle? "ne5he9& (in Romanian nepot means bo%h "!ran#chil#& an# "ne5he9&/ (v/ 5ur5ose3 o camer de oaspei >a room of !ues%s? "a !ues%room& o sal de dans >a hall of #ance? "a #ance hall&I (vi/ %he con%en%3 un ostrov de flori >an islan# of flo9ers? "an islan# of flo9ers& (vii/ (loca%ive/ source3 un aer de munte >an air of moun%ain? "a moun%ain air& o cas de ar >a house of coun%r0si#e? "a coun%r0 house& (viii/ (%em5oral/ source3 o cldur de var >a hea% of summer? "a summer hea%& un er de iarn >a fros% of 9in%er? "a 9in%er fros%& (i;/ @uali%03 un om de cuvnt >a man of 9or#? "a man of his 9or#& (;/ ma%%er3 un tub de oel >a %ube of s%eel? "a %ube of s%eel& o ceac de porelan >a cu5 of 5orcelain? "a 5orcelain cu5& (;i/ measure3 o caraf de ; litru >a #ecan%er of + li%re? "a +-li%re #ecan%er& un sac de 67 de #ilo rame >a ba! of ,= -ilo!rams? "a ,=-ilo!ram ba!& un btrn de c7 de ani >an ol#man of B= of 0ears? >&an B=-0ear-ol# man&$ Some of %hese seman%ic rela%ions can also be e;5resse#e# usin! inflec%ional !eni%ives$ There are some meanin! #ifferences ho9ever3 for ins%ance 9i%h rela%ional nouns %he !eni%ive in%ro#uces a referen% 9hereas %he 5hrase hea#e# b0 de #oes no% in%ro#uce a referen% (see (BB/ above/$ The %9o se@uences are a% %heir closes% in meanin! 9hen %he !eni%ive in%ro#uces a !eneric #efini%e3
(C+/ a$ aerul #e mun%e aerul mun%elui air-%he of moun%ain air-%he moun%ain-%he$ G7N >%he moun%ain air? >%he air of %he moun%ains? b$ cLl#ura #e varL cLl#ura verii hea%-%he of summer hea%-%he summer-%he$ G7N >%he summer hea%? >%he hea% of %he summer?
There are cases 9hen %he subs%i%u%ion 9i%h a !eni%ive is im5ossible for ins%ance for meanin!s such as ma%%er (see (C1/a/ @uali%0 (see (C1/c/ or 9hen %he noun an# %he de-5hrase form an i#ioma%ic e;5ression (see (C1/b/3
(C1/ a$ %ubul #e oRel s X%ubul oRelului %ube-%he of s%eel %ube s%eel-%he$G7N >%he s%eel %ube? b$ 5as%a #e #inRi s X5as%a #inRilor
4.B
A#nominal Pre5osi%ional Phrases 5as%e-%he of %ee%h 5as%e %ee%h-%he$ G7N >%he %oo%h5as%e? c$ %WnLrul #e con#iRie s X%WnLrul con#iRiei 0oun!-%he of con#i%ion 0oun!-%he con#i%ion-%he$G7N >%he 0oun! man of hi!h s%a%us?
Such im5ossibili%ies are #ue %o %he referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion of !eni%ive-mar-e# cons%i%uen%s3 as sho9n in cha5%er . %he inflec%ional !eni%ive can onl0 be realiAe# on #e%erminers 9hereas de !overns bare NPs$ Oence %he #ifference in meanin! be%9een %he %9o se@uences3 de in combina%ion 9i%h NP #oes no% in%ro#uce referen%s or variables bu% onl0 a 5ro5er%0 9hereas %he !eni%ive has %he referen%ial rea#in! %05ical of DPs$ 3.2.2. I3.o6at./ N+de+NP seI1en/es The e;am5les belo9 have %he same s0n%ac%ic charac%eris%ics as %he cons%ruc%ions anal0se# in %he 5revious sec%ion bu% %heir #iffer b0 %heir i#ioma%ici%03
(C2/ a$ niM%e albas%ru #e me%il some blue of me%h0lene >some me%h0lene blue? b$ niM%e la5%e #e 5asLre some milof bir# >some e!! fli5? c$ niM%e #in%e #e ne!ru some %oo%h of blac>some bro9nie? #$ o inimL #e bou a hear% of o; >a sor% of (bi! re#/ %oma%o?
The i#ioma%ic s%a%us of %hese DPs is clearl0 in#ica%e# b0 %he im5ossibili%0 of inser%in! ano%her elemen% be%9een %he hea# N an# %he de- 5hrase3
(C4/ a$ XniM%e la5%e cal# #e 5asLre some mil- ho% of bir# b$ Xo floare mai #e colR a flo9er more of corner c$ XniM%e #in%e %o% #e ne!ru some %oo%h also of blac#$ XniM%e albas%ru concen%ra% #e me%il some blue concen%re# of me%h0lene
Uhen i% is 5ossible %o inser% an a#6unc% i% has %o be a%%ache# %o %he en%ire cons%i%uen% YN Y de NPZZ$ The NP in%ro#uce# b0 de canno% have i%s o9n mo#ifiers as in#ica%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% in %he e;am5les belo9 a!reemen% is 5ossible onl0 9i%h %he hea# noun3
(C,/ a$ niM%e la5%e #e 5asLre bun vs$ XniM%e la5%e #e 5asLre bunL some mil-(:/ of bir#(F/ !oo#$:SG some mil-(:/ of bir#(F/ !oo#$FSG b$ o inimL #e bou !us%oasL vs$ Xo inimL #e bou !us%os a hear%(F/ of o;(:/ %as%0$FSG a hear%(F/ of o;(:/ %as%0$:SG c$ o floare #e colR 5ro%e6a%L vs$ Xo floare #e colR 5ro%e6a% a flo9er(F/ of corner(N/ 5ro%ec%e#$FSG a flo9er(F/ of corner(N/ 5ro%ec%e#$:SG
The NP in%ro#uce# b0 de canno% sho9 an0 number al%erna%ion (i% has a fi;e# number usuall0 4.C
%he sin!ular/3
(C./ a$ o floare / #ouL flori g#e colR / X #e colRih one flo9er %9o flo9ers of corner of corners b$ la5%ele g#e 5asLre / X#e 5LsLrih mil--%he of bir# of bir#s
No%e also %ha% le;icalise#/i#ioma%ic an# free NPs have a #ifferen% behaviour 9i%h res5ec% %o coor#ina%ion$ Uhile %he former #o no% allo9 for %he coor#ina%ion of %9o de-5hrases ((C</ belo9/ %he la%%er allo9 for i% (see (CB//3
(C</ a$ Xo floare #e colR Mi #e !rL#inL a flo9er of corner an# of !ar#en b$ Xla5%ele #e 5asLre Mi #e vacL mil--%he of bir# an# of co9 a$ florile #e !rL#inL Mi #e 5L#ure flo9ers-%he of !ar#en an# of fores% >!ar#en an# fores% flo9ers? b$ la5%ele #e vacL Mi #e ca5rL mil--%he of co9 an# of !oa% >co9 an# !oa% mil-?
(CB/
The s5ecial behaviour of %he le;icalise# N-de-N se@uences is #ue %o %heir non-com5osi%ional seman%ics3 %he !lobal meanin! is no% ob%aine# from %he meanin! of %he hea# N combine# 9i%h %he meanin! of %he de-NP cons%i%uen%$ For ins%ance %he i#iom dinte de ne ru >%oo%h of blac-? "bro9nie& refers %o a #esser% base# on cocoa an# merin!ue %he i#iom lapte de pasre >milof bir#? "e!! fli5& refers %o a #esser% base# on mil- an# e!!s an# inim de bou >hear% of o;? %o a %oma%o %05e of a cer%ain sha5e$
4<=
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses
*. A3no6.nal Non+F.n.te Const.t1ents an3 Co65le6ent Cla1ses

7L7NA N7GGIja SGAR7 (**+-1 2$+-2$4/ RGDICA FAFID ) 7L7NA N7GGIja SGAR7 (*2$,/ 1. Int0o31/t.on 2. F.n.te an3 Non+f.n.te Co65le6ents
1$+$ Infini%ive com5lemen%s an# %heir inflec%e# coun%er5ar%s 1$1$ Su5ines in subca%e!oriAe# PPs
3. Non+f.n.te Mo3.f.e0s
2$+$ Dis%in!uishin! su5ine re#uce# rela%ives an# 5re5osi%ional mo#ifiers 2$1$ :ore abou% su5ine 5re5osi%ional mo#ifiers 2$2$ The s%ruc%ure of su5ine re#uce# rela%ives 2$4$ Infini%ival mo#ifiers 2$,$ Gerun# :o#ifiers3 sub6ec%-!a5 non-fini%e rela%ives
4<+
1. Int0o31/t.on
A#nominal 5osi%ions su55or% verbal 5ro6ec%ions of #ifferen% forms from 5ar%ici5ials %o full0 inflec%e# clauses 9hich func%ion as com5lemen%s/ar!umen%s or a#6unc%s$
(+/ a$ co5il bL%u% Passive Par%ici5le chil# bea%en >bea%en chil#? b$ a5L #e bLu% Su5ine 9a%er SDP #rin-$SDP >#rin-able 9a%er? c$ lis%ele conRinWn# semnL%uri Gerun#/Ac%ive Par%ici5le lis%s-%he$FPL con%ainin! si!na%ures >%he lis%s con%ainin! si!na%ures? #$ 5lLcerea #e a cLlL%ori (#eH/ Infini%ive 5leasure-%he$FSG of %o %ravel >%he 5leasure of %ravellin!? e$ #orinRa sL 5lece Sub6unc%ive CP 9ish-%he$FSG SD'N leave >%he #esire %o leave? f$ En%rebarea #acL 5leci In%erro!a%ive CP @ues%ion-%he$FSG 9he%her leave$1SG >%he @ues%ion 9he%her 0ou leave? !$ si!uranRa cL va reuMi Declara%ive in#ica%ive CP cer%ain%0-%he$FSG %ha% 9ill$2SG succee# >%he cer%ain%0 %ha% (s/he 9ill succee#?
Since fini%e rela%ive clauses are %rea%e# in cha5%er += 9e 9ill no% a55roach here all fini%e clauses$ Ue 9ill onl0 e;amine fini%e com5lemen% clauses in com5arison 9i%h non-fini%e com5lemen% clauses an# %hen 9e 9ill concen%ra%e on o%her non-fini%e cons%i%uen%s$ Fini%e com5lemen%s are mainl0 selec%e# b0 nominals #erive# from 5ro5osi%ional a%%i%u#e verbs as in (+/e-!$ The inheri%e# seman%ics of %he #erive# nominal hea# is reflec%e# in moo# selec%ion (in#ica%ive or sub6unc%ive see (+/f vs$ (+/f-!/ an# com5lemen%iAer selec%ion (see (+/f vs$ (+/!/$ Non-fini%e cons%i%uen%s P infini%ives !erun#s 5assive 5ar%ici5les an# su5ines P in a#nominal 5osi%ions are illus%ra%e# in (+/a-#$ In (+/# %he infini%ive a cltori >%o rea#? is a com5lemen% of %he N plcere >5leasure?$ I% is in%ro#uce# b0 %he infini%ival 5ar%icle a$ (+/a illus%ra%es an a#nominal a!reein! 5assive/resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5le func%ionin! as a mo#ifier$ In (+/b 9e have a su5ine mo#ifier i$e$ an invariable 5ar%ici5ial form 5rece#e# b0 %he func%ional elemen% deI an a#nominal !erun# (func%ionin! as an ac%ive 5ar%ici5le/ a55ears in (1/c a use 9hich is @ui%e rare/res%ric%e# as 9e 9ill see in sec%ion 2$, belo9$ Since all %hese cons%i%uen%s are base# on verbs one mi!h% be %em5%e# %o assimila%e %hem all %o clausal cons%i%uen%s i$e$ CPs (Uhen a#nominal verbal com5lemen%s can be %rea%e# as PPs 9e 9ill see %ha% %he verbal na%ure of %he com5lemen% of P can be @ues%ione# cf$ +$1$ belo9$/ Oo9ever %he0 #o no% behave %he same 9a0 9hich mi!h% reflec% a ca%e!orial #is%inc%ionI infini%ives are ra%her CPs 9hile 5ar%ici5ial cons%ruc%ions are smaller verbal 5ro6ec%ions$ Thus infini%ives allo9 clausal ne!a%ion an# cli%ics 9hereas for su5ines an# 5assive 5ar%ici5les %he 5resence of %hese elemen%s is bloc-e#$ The #ifferen% in%ernal 5ro5er%ies of %hese cons%i%uen%s is correla%e# %o %heir #is%ribu%ion an# ar!uabl0 %o %he #ifferen% s%a%us of %he charac%eris%ic 5ar%icles %he0 are in%ro#uce# b0 (a for %he infini%ive an# de for %he su5ine/ 9hich behave as Infl elemen%s$ De5en#in! on %heir rela%ionshi5 %o %he hea# N %hese a#nominal non-fini%e cons%i%uen%s 4<1
can be ar!umen%s or a#6unc%sI %he0 are ar!umen%s 9hen combinin! 9i%h rela%ional ar!umen%%a-in! nouns (cf$ Cha5%er ++ P Deverbal Nouns/I o%her9ise %he0 are non-fini%e a#6unc%s a re#uce# %05e of rela%ive clausesI %he0 are 5re#ica%ive an# res%ric% %he NP-5re#ica%e/$ The 5re#ica%ive or ar!umen%al s%a%us of %he non-fini%e cons%i%uen%s is no% as #irec%l0 correla%e# %o %heir in%ernal ma-e-u5 as for fini%e clauses (9here rela%ive 5ronouns in%ro#uce 5re#ica%ive cons%i%uen%s an# com5lemen%iAers in%ro#uce ar!umen%s/$ Never%heless %he #ifferen% %05es of non-fini%e cons%i%uen%s involve a cer%ain #e!ree of s5ecialiAa%ion in %he follo9in! 9a03 a/ nonfini%e ar!umen%s are mos% of %he %ime realiAe# as infini%ive clauses in%ro#uce# b0 a func%ional hea# de an# mar!inall0 b0 su5ines !overne# b0 le;ical 5re5osi%ions (see (1/a-b/I b/ a#6unc%s (re#uce# rela%ive clauses/ are realiAe# as 5assive/resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5les su5ines (see (1/c/ P bo%h s5ecialiAe# as ob6ec%-!a5 re#uce# rela%ives P an# mar!inall0 !erun#s 9hich are sub6ec%!a5 re#uce# rela%ives bu% rarel0 a#6oin %o %he NP (see (1/#/$
(1/ a$ voinRa / #orinRa / Encercarea #e a se elibera 9ish-%he/#esire-%he/a%%em5%-%he of %o R7FL #eliver$INF >%he 9ish / #esire / a%%em5% %o #eliver oneself? b$ 5of%a #e ci%i% #esire-%he$FSG of rea#$SDP c$ car%e #e ci%i% /XbLia% #e ci%i% boo- SUP rea#$SDP / bo0 SUP rea#$SDP #$ cons%rucRiile #a%Wn# #in secolul VII buil#in!s-%he$FPL #a%in! from cen%ur0-%he VII
In sum non-fini%e mo#ifiers in Romanian ma0 be ei%her su5ine or 5ar%ici5ial re#uce# rela%ives or P mar!inall0 P !erun#ial clauses$ A#nominal infini%ives can onl0 %a-e ar!umen% s%a%us 9i%h res5ec% %o a com5lemen%-%a-in! nominal hea# (see %he ne;% sec%ion/$ Finall0 non-fini%e cons%i%uen%s can a55ear as com5lemen%s of 5re5osi%ions in%ro#ucin! a#nominal a#6unc%s (%he 9hole PP func%ionin! as an a#nominal a#6unc%/3
(2/ a$ bombar#area oraMelor 5en%ru a #emoraliAa 5o5ulaRia bombin!$INF-%he %o9ns-%he$G7N for %o #emoraliAe 5o5ula%ion-%he b$ fur%un 5en%ru u#a% !rL#ina 5i5eline for 9a%er$SDP !ar#en-%he
If 9e inclu#e %his cons%ruc%ion in %he a#nominal %05e 9e arrive a% %hree classes of a#nominal non-fini%e cons%i%uen%s3 a/ com5lemen%sI b/ rela%ivesI c/ 5re5osi%ional a#6unc%s$
2. F.n.te an3 Non+f.n.te Co65le6ents

In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill e;amine clausal non-fini%e com5lemen%s (an# 9hen relevan% %heir fini%e coun%er5ar%s/ as 9ell as some subca%e!oriAe# PPs con%ainin! non-fini%e verbal 5ro6ec%ions$ 2.1. Inf.n.t.2al an3 f.n.te /o65le6ent /la1ses 2.1.1. T95es of Ns sele/t.n4 sentent.al /o65le6ents$ In !eneral sen%en%ial N-com5lemen%s a55ear 9i%h #everbal an# #ea#6ec%ival Nouns 9hich inheri% %he ar!umen%-s%ruc%ure of %he base (see Cha5%er ++ P Deverbal Nouns/$ Sen%en%ial Ncom5lemen%s in 5ar%icular ma0 be fini%e (in#ica%ive or sub6unc%ive/ or non-fini%e (mos%l0 infini%ival/$ Three main classes of nouns allo9 clausal com5lemen%s3 4<2
(i/ Nouns #erive# from or rela%e# %o mo#al or 5ro5osi%ional a%%i%u#e verbs3 voin >9ill?% dorin >9ish?]% !otrre >#ecision?% putere >5o9er?% ncercare >%en%a%ive?% ordin ]comman#]% porunc >comman#?% cerin >re@ues%?% ru minte >re@ues%? nd >%hou!h%?$
(4/ a$ #orinRa g#e a reuMi / sL reuMeascLh (El obse#eaAL/ #esire-%he$FSG of %o succee#/ SD'N succee#$2SG (him obsesses/ >Oe?s obsesse# b0 %he #esire %o succee#? b$ !Wn#ul i#eea #e a 5leca / sL 5lece %hou!h%-%he i#ea-%he$FSG of %o leave / SD'N leave$2SG >%he %hou!h%/i#ea of leavin!? c$ voinRa #e a munci 9ill-%he of %o 9or>%he in%en%ion of 9or-in!? #$ 5u%erea #e a munci 5o9er-%he of %o 9or>%he abili%0 %o 9or-? e$ afirmaRia cL nu are nimeni #re5%a%e affirma%ion-%he %ha% no% has nobo#0 ri!h% >%he claim %ha% nobo#0 is ri!h%?
(ii/ s%a%e-#eno%in! mos%l0 #erive# from 5s0cholo!ical verbs an# a#6ec%ives ( satisfacie >con%en%? fericire >ha5iness? amabilitate >-in#ness?% mndrie >5ri#e?/$
(,/ a$ amabili%a%ea lui #e a ne a6u%a ne-a sur5rins 5e %oRi -in#ness-%he his of %o us hel5 us-has sur5rise# DG: all >Ois -in#ness %o hel5 us sur5rise# us all? b$ mWn#ria lui #e a fi romWn 5ri#e-%he$FSG his of %o be Romanian >his 5ri#e %o be Romanian? c$ sa%isfacRia gcL am obRinu% / #e a fi obRinu%h cele mai mul%e me#alii sa%isfac%ion-%he %ha% have$+PL ob%aine#/ of %o PRF ob%aine# %he mos% numerous me#als >%he sa%isfac%ion of havin! ob%aine# %he mos% me#als?
(iii/ even%-classif0in! nounsI 9e use %his %erm %o refer %o nouns %ha% classif0 even%s (in a broa# sense/3 operaiune ]o5era%ion]% aciune ]ac%ion]% activitate ]ac%ivi%0] % obicei ]habi%] fapt >fac%?3
(./ a$ o5eraRiunea #elica%L #e a i#en%ifica sus5ecRii o5era%ion-%he #elica%e of %o i#en%if0 sus5ec%s-%he >%he #elica%e o5era%ion of i#en%if0in! %he sus5ec%s? b$ acRiunea / ac%ivi%a%ea #e a 5une la Ai fiMierele #e #a%e ac%ion-%he / ac%ivi%0-%he of %o 5u% %o #a0 files-%he of #a%a >%he ac%ivi%0 of u5#a%in! %he files? c$ fa5%ul cL au 5ier#u% ale!erile fac%-%he %ha% have$2PL los% elec%ions-%he >%he fac% %ha% %he0 los% %he elec%ions?
The hea# noun i%self is in !eneral a %9o-5lace 5re#ica%e3 i% re@uires an in%ernal ar!umen% 9hich in %he s%ruc%ures un#er scru%in0 is realiAe# b0 %he infini%ival clause an# an 7;5eriencer or A!en% e;%ernal ar!umen% (for nouns belon!in! %o classes + an# 1/ 9hich ma0 be lef% im5lici%$ Ue 9ill assume here %ha% a% leas% for classes + an# 1 %he non-fini%e a#nominal ar!umen%s are non-fini%e complements 9i%h res5ec% %o %he hea# noun$ Seman%icall0 %he0 ma0 bear %he role of Con%en% or Theme$ In %he case of class 2 %he com5lemen% s%a%us of %he infini%ival clause is @ues%ionable as i% is in 4<4
%he case of some #ea#6ec%ival nominals from class 1$ 2.1.2. Co65le6ent Denotat.on an3 Moo3 sele/t.on As men%ione# in %he In%ro#uc%ion %he na%ure of %he clausal com5lemen% is a ma%%er of #eba%eI %he fini%e com5lemen% clauses are s%an#ar#l0 assume %o have a CP s%a%us$ As for %he infini%ive 9e ma0 no%e %ha% in %he a#nominal 5osi%ion i% is obli!a%oril0 in%ro#uce# b0 %he func%ional elemen% de 9hich has been anal0Ae# as a C in %he li%era%ure$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %his elemen% #oes no% a55ear 9hen %he infini%ive is in %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion or func%ions as a com5lemen% of verbs or 5re5osi%ions3
(</ a$ s5erLm (X#e/ a-l %ermina cW% #e curWn# ho5e$+PL (of/ %o-i% finish as of soon >Ue ho5e %o finish i% as ver0 soon? b$ s5eranRa X(#e/ a-l %ermina cW% #e curWn# ho5e-%he (of/ %o-i% finish as of soon >%he ho5e of finishin! i% ver0 soon? c$ a-l %ermina era ceea ce aM%e5%au %oRi %o-i% finish 9as 9ha% 9ai%$I:PF$2PL all$:PL >Finishin! i% 9as 9ha% ever0bo#0 9ai%e# for? #$ 5en%ru (X#e/ a-l %ermina for (of/ %o-i% finish
These #a%a in#ica%e/su!!es% %ha% de is %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de 9hich is also use# %o in%ro#uce o%her cons%i%uen%s in %he a#nominal environmen% (PPs see Cha5%er B sec%ion 2 bare nouns see Cha5%er . sec%ion 2 Cha5%er B sec%ion 2/$ This behaviour of %he infini%ive su!!es%s %ha% i% has %o be le!i%ima%e# b0 Case-mar-in!$ The selec%ion of %he :oo# in %he sen%en%ial com5lemen% infini%ive as o55ose# %o in#ica%ive an# sub6unc%ive is cons%raine# b0 %9o rela%e# fac%ors3 %he seman%ic #eno%a%ion of %he (non-fini%e/ clause an# %he mo#ali%0 associa%e# %o i%$ Uhile %he #eno%a%ion of a VP 5ro6ec%ion is an even% (i$e$ a com5le%e chan!e 5rocess or s%a%e loca%e# in s5ace an# %ime/ a clausal #omain is %05icall0 assume# %o #eno%e a 5ro5osi%ion 9hich can be informall0 5resen%e# as %he meanin! of a (#eclara%ive/ sen%ence or a fac% 9hich is a %rue 5ro5osi%ion$ Differen% classes of main 5re#ica%es (5ro5osi%ional fac%ive/ accor#in!l0 selec% #ifferen% classes of clausal en%i%ies (5ro5osi%ions fac%s/$ For convenience 9e ma0 assume %ha% infini%ive clauses #eno%e 5ro5osi%ionsI as a conse@uence %he0 canno% a55ear as com5lemen%s %o fac%ive verbs an# %heir corres5on#in! nominaliAa%ions 9hich re@uire fac%s (%rue 5ro5osi%ions/ as com5lemen%s$ Infini%ive clauses of%en involve silen% mo#ali%0 in a#nominal con%e;%s$ Uhen %he0 a55ear in com5lemen% 5osi%ions %he0 5ar%ici5a%e in a com5le; mo#al cons%rual in 9hich %he hea# is alrea#0 mo#al an# selec%s for an irrealis form realiAe# as %he infini%ival$ In Romanian irrealis mo#ali%0 in com5lemen% 5osi%ions is e;5resse# b0 %he sub6unc%ive or %he infini%ive 9hich is 5referre# in nominal environmen%s$ :oo# selec%ion in %he clausal com5lemen% of #erive# nominals ma0 bu% nee# no% be rela%e# %o moo# selec%ion in %he corres5on#in! base$ In some cases %he a#nominal com5lemen% ma0 involve moo# al%erna%ion be%9een infini%ive an# sub6unc%ive or in#ica%ive$ For #everbal nouns %here is a 5arallelism be%9een %he selec%ional 5ro5er%ies of %he N an# %hose of %he corres5on#in! V3 nouns #erive# from verbs selec%in! an irrealis verb form (%he sub6unc%ive/ selec% %he infini%ive (cf$ Ba-b/ 9hereas nouns #erive# from verbs selec%in! %he in#ica%ive -ee5 %he same selec%ional 5a%%ern as %he corres5on#in! verb (cf$ Bc-#/$ If %he verb %a-es bo%h #eclara%ive an# irrealis forms %he infini%ive 9ill corres5on# %o %he irrealis (Be-h/$
4<,
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses (B/ a$ Po% / Doresc / `ncerc sL scriu can$+SG/ 9ish$+SG / %r0$+SG SD'N 9ri%e$+SG >I can / 9ish / %r0 %o 9ri%e? b$ 5u%erea / #orinRa/ Encercarea #e a scrie ca5aci%0-%he #esire-%he /%en%a%ive-%he of %o 9ri%e >%he ca5aci%0 / #esire / in%en%ion %o 9ri%e (of 9ri%in!/? c$ Afirm / Cre# cL va veni claim$+SG / %hin-$+SG %ha% 9ill$2SG come >I claim/believe %ha% (s/he 9ill come? #$ afirmaRia/ cre#inRa cL va veni claim-%he /belief-%he %ha% 9ill$2SG come >%he claim/belief %ha% (s/he 9ill come? e$ :L !Wn#esc cL a veni% R7FL %hin-$+SG %ha% has come >I %hin- %ha% he came? f$ !Wn#ul cL a veni% %hou!h%-%he %ha% has come >%he %hou!h% %ha% he came? !$ mL !Wn#esc sL vin R7FL %hin-$+SG SD'N come$+SG >I in#en# %o come? h$ !Wn#ul #e a veni %hou!h%-%he of %o come >%he in%en%ion of comin!?
As alrea#0 no%e# above %he #erive# noun unli-e %he corres5on#in! verb 5refers an infini%ive as irrealis com5lemen% (9hereas %he verb some%imes %o%all0 #isallo9s an infini%ive/3
(C/ a$ :L !Wn#esc sL muncesc R7FL %hin-$+SG SD'N 9or-$+SG >I?m %hin-in! of 9or-in!? b$ KK:L !Wn#esc a munci R7FL %hin-$+SG %o 9orc$ !Wn#ul #e a munci %hou!h% of %o 9or>%he %hou!h% abou% 9or-in!? #$ K !Wn#ul sL muncesc %hou!h%-%he SD'N 9or-$+SG
Ui%h some verbs e$!$ propune >5ro5ose? spera >ho5e? permite >allo9? %he infini%ive can be use# in a formal re!is%erI 9i%h %he corres5on#in! nouns P speran >ho5e?% propunere >5ro5osal? permisiune >5ermission? %he infini%ive is more or less %he s%an#ar# o5%ion bu% %he sub6unc%ive is never%heless 5ossible3
(+=/ a$ S5erLm a avea o creM%ere economicL ho5e$+PL %o have a !ro9%h economic >Ue ho5e %o have an economic !ro9%h? b$ S5erLm sL avem o creM%ere economicL ho5e$+PL SD'N have$+PL a !ro9%h economic >Ue ho5e %o have an economic !ro9%h? c$ s5eranRa #e a avea o creM%ere economicL ho5e-%he of %o have a !ro9%h economic >%he ho5e of havin! an economic !ro9%h? #$ s5eranRa sL avem o creM%ere economicL (formal re!is%er/
(collo@uial/
4<.
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses ho5e-%he SD'N have$+PL a !ro9%h economic >%he ho5e of havin! an economic !ro9%h?
The sub6unc%ive is 5referre# if %he subor#ina%e clause con%ains a #ifferen% sub6ec% ( ca a55ears as a sub6unc%ive com5lemen%iAer if %he sub6unc%ive clause con%ains 5reverbal ma%erial/3
(++/ a$ 5ro5unerea ca noi sL cum5LrLm ca#ourile 5ro5osal-%he %ha% 9e SD'N bu0$+PL 5resen%s-%he >%he 5ro5osal %ha% 9e shoul# bu0 %he 5resen%s? b$ 5ro5unerea sL cum5LrLm noi ca#ourile 5ro5osal-%he SD'N bu0$+PL 9e 5resen%s-%he c$ 5ro5unerea #e a cum5Lra noi ca#ourile 5ro5osal-%he of %o bu0 9e 5resen%s-%he
(formal re!is%er/
In some cases %he sub6unc%ive a55ears %o be license# b0 a li!h%-verb H nominal cons%ruc%ion as in (+1/ belo9 9here %he li!h% verb is >have? an# %he nominal is #erive# from %he mo#al verb putea >can? an# %he meanin! is >have %he s%ren!%h/abili%0 %o?I as sho9n in (+1/b %he infini%ive is no% acce5%able in %his con%e;% 9hereas if %he noun putere a55ears in o%her con%e;%s i% canno% %a-e %he sub6unc%ive bu% ins%ea# can %a-e %he infini%ive$ Therefore infini%ive is more na%ural in %he 5urel0 nominal cons%ruc%ion 9hile %he sub6unc%ive is 5referre# b0 %he li!h% verb H noun cons%ruc%ion$
(+1/ a$ Nu are 5u%erea sL munceascL no% has 5o9er-%he SD'N 9or-$2SG >Oe?s no% s%ron! enou!h %o 9or-? b$ X Nu are 5u%erea #e a munci no% has 5o9er-%he of %o 9orc$ X Pu%erea sL munceascL se #obWn#eM%e 5o9er-%he SD'N 9or-$2SG R7FL ac@uires #$ Pu%erea #e a munci se #obWn#eM%e 5o9er-%he of %o 9or- R7FL ac@uires >The abili%0 %o 9or- is nur%ure#?
Ano%her e;am5le is %he abs%rac% noun c!ef >#esire lus%? 9hich allo9s %he sub6unc%ive 9hen i% combines 9i%h %he li!h% verbs veni >come? face >ma-e? avea >have? e%c$3
(+2/ a$ I-a veni% cheful sL bea o cafea him$DAT-has come #esire$%he SD'N #rin-s a coffee >Oe fel% li-e havin! a coffee? b$ Am chef sL #orm have$+SG #esire SD'N slee5$+SG >I feel li-e slee5in!? c$ X Cheful sL bea o cafea El chinuie #e aAi #imineaRL #esire-%he SD'N #rin-s a coffee him %or%ures from %o#a0 mornin!
Com5lemen% clauses P fini%e bu% also non-fini%e P are rule# ou% in %he case of com5le;even% nominals (see Cha5%er ++ P Deverbal Nouns/ 5robabl0 because of con%ra#ic%or0 re@uiremen%s on case-assi!nmen%3 %he ar!umen% of a com5le; even% nominal mus% be assi!ne# case bu% fini%e a#nominal com5lemen%s canno% receive case$ Therefore onl0 !eni%ive com5lemen%s are allo9e# (see (+4/c/$ The !ramma%icali%0 con%ras% be%9een (+4/a-b an# (+4/# is #ue %o %he "com5le; even%& s%a%us of %he hea# N in (+4/a-b as o55ose# %o (+4/#$
4<<
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses (+4/ a$ Xafirmarea cL va veni affirm$ INF-%he %ha% 9ill$2SG come b$ Xafirmarea #e a veni affirm$ INF-%he of %o come c$ afirmarea aces%or 5rinci5ii En 5ublic affirm$INF-%he %hese$G7N 5rinci5les in 5ublic >%he affirma%ion of %hese 5rinci5les in 5ublic? #$ afirmaRia cL va veni affirma%ion-%he %ha% 9ill$2SG come >%he claim %ha% (s/he 9ill come?
Ue can also no%e %ha% some #eclara%ive #esi#era%ive mo#al an# e5is%emic verbs #o no% !ive rise %o com5le; even% nominals a% all3 e$!$ credin "belief& bu% no% -credere dorin "#esire 9ish& bu% no% -dorireI in o%her cases %he -re nominal has onl0 a sim5le even% or resul% in%er5re%a%ion3 ntrebare "@ues%ion& (entreba "as-&/ putere "5o9er ca5aci%0& (eputea tcan&/ cerere tre@ues%&$ Since %he even%ive nominals #erive# from %hese verbal bases are sim5le even% nominals com5lemen% clauses are allo9e#3
(+,/ a$ cre#inRa cL va veni belief-%he %ha% 9ill$2SG come >%he belief %ha% (s/he 9ill come? b$ #orinRa #e a veni / ca el sL vinL #esire-%he of %o come / %ha% he SD'N come$2SG >%he #esire %o come / %ha% (s/he 9ill come? c$ En%rebarea #acL va veni @ues%ion-%he if 9ill$2SG come >%he @ues%ion 9he%her (s/he 9oul# come? #$ 5u%erea #e a ri#ica munRii 5o9er-%he of %o lif% moun%ains-%he >%he 5o9er/ca5aci%0 %o lif% %he moun%ains?
NominaliAa%ions of #eclara%ive verbs (i$e$ verbs %ha% selec% an in#ica%ive com5lemen% clause/ re@uire fini%e com5lemen% clauses an# are incom5a%ible 9i%h infini%ives$ In fac% %he0 selec% a realis mo#al form in %he embe##e# clause %o %he e;clusion of %he infini%ive3
(+./ a$ afirmaRia cL a s5us a#evLrul affirma%ion-%he %ha% has %ol# %ru%h-%he >%he claim %ha% (s/he %ol# %he %ru%h? b$ XafirmaRia #e a s5une a#evLrul affirma%ion-%he of %o %ell %ru%h-%he
Nouns rela%e# %o 5s0ch- verbs an# a#6ec%ives 9hich selec% a realis com5lemen% allo9 bo%h %he in#ica%ive com5le%ive an# %he infini%ival3
(+</ a$ sa%isfacRia #e a fi reuMi% la e;amen sa%isfac%ion-%he of %o PRF succee#e# a% e;am >%he sa%isfac%ion of havin! 5asse# %he e;am? b$ sa%isfacRia cL a reuMi% la e;amen sa%isfac%ion-%he %ha% has succee#e# a% e;am >%he sa%isfac%ion %ha% (s/he 5asse# %he e;am?
Some #ea#6ec%ival nouns such as mndrie >5ri#e? never%heless onl0 allo9 %he infini%ive re6ec%in! %he in#ica%ive$ No%e also %ha% 9i%h %he corres5on#in! a#6ec%ive mndru in (+Ba/ bo%h 4(S/he?s 5rou# of bein! a Romanian? b$ KKmWn#ria cL e romWn 5ri#e-%he %ha% is Romanian c$ mWn#ria #e a fi romWn 5ri#e-%he of %o be Romanian >%he 5ri#e of bein! a Romanian? #$ X mWn#ria sL fie romWn 5ri#e-%he SD'N be$2SG Romanian
The in#ica%ive is e;ce5%ionall0 allo9e# in cons%ruc%ions involvin! inheren% 5ossession such as %he &it!-PP3
(+C/ (TrLiesc cu/ mWn#ria cL nu am fLcu% com5romisuri mari (live$+SG 9i%h/ 5ri#e-%he %ha% no% have$+ #one com5romises bi! >(I live 9i%h/ %he 5ri#e of no% havin! #one bi! com5romises?
Ue can no%ice %ha% some a#6ec%ives #o no% subca%e!oriAe %he in#ica%ive clause 9hich is an a#6unc% of %he 9hole clause %ha% con%ains %he a#6ec%ive e$!$ for amabilitate >-in#ness? (1=a/$ The corres5on#in! noun onl0 allo9s %he infini%ive (+Cc/ an# no% %he in#ica%ive or %he sub6unc%ive (1=b/$
(1=/ a$ A fos% amabil cL ne-a a6u%a% / sL ne a6u%e has been -in# %ha% us-has hel5e# / SD'N us hel5$2SG >(S/he has been -in# %o hel5 us? b$ XAmabili%a%ea gcL ne-a a6u%a% / sL ne a6u%ehne-a sur5rins 5e %oRi -in#ness-%he %ha% us has hel5e#$ /SD'N us hel5/ us-has sur5rise# DG: all c$ Amabili%a%ea lui #e a ne a6u%a ne-a sur5rins 5e %oRi -in#ness-%he his of %o us hel5$INF us-has sur5rise# DG: all >Tha% he 9as -in# %o hel5 us sur5rise# us all?
The ar!umen% s%a%us of %he a#nominal fini%e or non-fini%e clause is ho9ever @ues%ionable bo%h in %he case of %he a#6ec%ive an# in %he case of %he #ea#6ec%ival nominal3 i% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% %he clause in cases such as (+Ca an# c/ is ra%her an a#6unc% %han a com5lemen% of %he a#6ec%ive an# %he noun res5ec%ivel0I %hus in (+C/c %he fac% of hel5in! can be @ualifie# as a amabilitate >-in#ness? an# %herefore %he rea#in! can be %ha% of a i#en%if0in! (>close? in%e!ra%e#/ a55osi%ion P >his -in# ac%ion 9hich is %he fac% of hel5in! us? (see Cha5%er +4/$ >7ven%-classif0in!? nouns can %a-e infini%ive com5lemen%s as 9e sa9 in (./ above bu% some of %hem such as fapt >fac%? can also %a-e in#ica%ive clauses in%ro#uce# b0 %he #eclara%ive com5lemen%iAer c3
(1+/ fa5%ul cL era sLrac / #e a fi sLrac fac%-%he %ha% 9as$2SG 5oor/ of %o be 5oor >%he fac% %ha% (s/he 9as 5oor / of bein! 5oor?
Li-e in %he case of #ea#6ec%ival nouns %he com5lemen% s%a%us of %hese clauses has been @ues%ione# some au%hors anal0Ain! %hem as in%e!ra%e#/i#en%if0in! a55osi%ions as sho9n b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o use %hem as sub6ec%s of %he classif0in! noun3
4<C
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses (11/ CL era sLrac e un fa5% %ha% 9as$2SG 5oor is a fac% >Tha% (s/he 9as 5oor is a fac%?
The same classif0in! meanin! of %he hea# noun can be #e%ec%e# %o abs%rac% nouns referrin! %o 5ro5osi%ions/%hou!h%s such as idee >i#ea? nd >%hou!h%? (see %he co5ular cons%ruc%ion %es% in (12/b/3
(12/ a$ I#eea cL PLmWn%ul es%e ro%un# i#ea-%he %ha% 7ar%h-%he is roun# >The i#ea %ha% %he 7ar%h is roun#? b$ CL PLmWn%ul es%e ro%un# era o i#ee nouL %ha% 7ar%h-%he is roun# 9as an i#ea ne9 >Tha% %he 7ar%h 9as roun# 9as a novel i#ea?
Papt li-e 7n!l$ fact% Fr$ fait e%c serves a >su55or%-noun? 9hich allo9s %he meanin! %05icall0 e;5resse# b0 a clause %o be s0n%ac%icall0 realiAe# as a DP$ Thus in some con%e;%s such as (14/b 9here in#ica%ive clauses are no% full0 acce5%able %he corres5on#in! meanin! can be conve0e# b0 embe##in! %he clause in a DP 9i%h %he noun fapt3
(14/ a$ Fa5%ul cL va 5leca El chinuie fac%-%he %ha% 9ill$2SG leave him %or%ures >The fac% %ha% (s/e 9ill leave ma-es him suffer? b$ KKCL va 5leca e u%il 5en%ru echi5L %ha% 9ill$2SG leave is useful for %eam
To sum u5 9e sa9 in %his sec%ion %ha% %he selec%ion of %he moo# in a#nominal com5lemen% clauses is correla%e# %o %he mo#ali%0 re@uire# b0 %he hea# noun3 realis mo#ali%0 is e;5resse# b0 %he in#ica%ive 9hereas %he infini%ive an# sub6unc%ive charac%eriAe irrealis mo#ali%0$ There are ho9ever some con%e;%s in 9hich %he infini%ive can be re5lace# b0 %he in#ica%ive3 9i%h #ea#6ec%ival (see (1=// an# >even%-classif0in!? nouns (see (1+// su!!es%in! %ha% %he irrealis mo#ali%0 is no% a% 9or- %here$ Ano%her in%eres%in! conclusion is %ha% %he infini%ive is more common as an a#nominal com5lemen% %han as com5lemen% %o verbs$ Ue 9ill no9 fur%her anal0Ae %he in%ernal s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he infini%ival clause 9hich are rela%e# %o %he #efec%iveness of Inflec%ion an# %he licencin! of an em5%0 sub6ec%$ 2.1.3 Inte050et.n4 n1ll s1b7e/ts of .nf.n.t.2es Infini%ival clauses ma0 have null sub6ec%s in%er5re%e# in a con%rol rela%ion %o %he Noun?s "sub6ec%& (%he ar!umen% bearin! %he 7;5eriencer or A!en% roles/ 9hich ma0 be im5lici% or e;5lici% e;5resse# b0 a Geni%ive DP or a!reein! 5ossessor3
(1,/ a$ i#eea (lui i/ #e a 5leca ei i#ea-%he (his/ of %o leave >%he/his %hou!h% of leavin!? b$ 5u%erea (luii/ #e a munci ei 5o9er-%he (his/ of %o 9or>%he/his ca5aci%0 of 9or-in!? c$ sur5riAa (noas%rLi/ #e a vL ve#ea ei aici sur5rise-%he (our/ of %o 0ou$ PL$ACC see here >his sur5rise %o see 0ou here?
The sub6ec% of infini%ival com5lemen% clauses can be over%l0 realiAe# (a 5ossibili%0 4B=
also foun# in a#6unc% infini%ive clauses/ an# in %his case i% has %o be 5os%verbal3
(1./ Nu s-a acce5%a% i#eea #e a 5leca mama no% R7FL-has acce5%e# i#ea-%he of %o leave mo%her-%he >The 5ro5osal %ha% mo%her shoul# leave 9as no% acce5%e#?
The 5resence of a null sub6ec% in a#nominal infini%ival clauses is 5rove# b0 %he 5ossibili%0 of sub6ec%-orien%e# a#6unc%s3
(1</ I#eea #e a 5leca sin!urL o s5erie i#ea-%he of %o leave alone$FSG her fri!h%ens >The i#ea of leavin! alone fri!h%ens her?
Ue %herefore assume a null sub6ec% PRG for concre%eness 9hich is co-referen% 9i%h an im5lici% or e;5lici% ar!umen% of %he hea# N$ In some cases PRG can be boun# b0 %he variable lef% b0 a raise# 8uan%ifier (1Ba/ or be i#en%ifie# b0 an im5lici% ar!umen% %ha% is con%e;%uall0 i#en%ifie# (1Bb/$
(1B/ a$ Nu oricine are 5osibili%a%ea #e a 5leca no% an0bo#0 has 5ossibili%0-%he of %o leave >No% an0bo#0 is able %o leave? b$ Oo%LrWrea #e a 5leca mai %rebuie #iscu%a%L / a fos% lua%L En !rabL #ecision-%he of %o leave s%ill nee#s #iscusse# / has been %a-en in hurr0 >The #ecision %o leave s%ill nee#s %o be #iscusse# / 9as %a-en in a hurr0?
The im5lici% ar!umen% can carr0 5erson 5hi-fea%ures 9i%h arbi%rar0 rea#in!3
(1C/ a$ GWn#ul #e a se sinuci#e nu-i vine oricui %hou!h%-%he of %o 2R7FL$ACC suici#e no%-DAT$CL comes an0bo#0$ DAT >The %hou!h% of commi%%in! suici#e #oesn?% cross 6us% an0bo#0?s min#? b$ GWn#ul #e a %e sinuci#e nu-Ri vine uMor %hou!h%-%he of %o 0ou$ ACC suici#e no%-0ou$DAT comes easil0 >The %hou!h% of commi%%in! suici#e #oesn?% occur easil0?
The #everbal nouns from classes + (mo#als an# 5ro5osi%ional a%%i%u#es/ an# 1 (#ea#6ec%ival s%a%ives/ above involve obli!a%or0 or o5%ional con%rol a 5ro5er%0 inheri%e# from %he verbal baseI obli!a%or0 con%rol is foun# 9i%h mo#als such as capacitate >ca5aci%0? obli aie >obli!a%ion? permisiune >5ermission? datorie >#u%0? ncercare >a%%em5%? an# im5lica%ives such as reuit >success?$ Voli%ional fac%ive an# 5ro5osi%ional verbs have o5%ional con%rol$ The nouns #erive# from fac%ive an# voli%ional verbs P dorin >9ish? re ret >re!re%? satisfacie >con%en%? propunere >5ro5osal? P %herefore allo9 a com5lemen% clause 9i%h an over% sub6ec% (%o %he e;%en% %ha% such nouns allo9 an infini%ival/ bu% if %he sub6ec% is null i% is normall0 in%er5re%e# as con%rolle# because %he infini%ive inflec%ion #oes no% 5ermi% %he i#en%ifica%ion of a null sub6ec% (in o%her 9or#s %he cover% sub6ec% of %he infini%ive can onl0 be PRG no% pro/ (in %he follo9in! e;am5les 9e re5resen% %he im5lici% ar!umen% of %he hea# noun as e al%hou!h 9e #o no% 9an% %o %a-e a s%ance on %he issue 9he%her i% is s0n%ac%icall0 5ro6ec%e# or no%/3
(2=/ a$ #orinRa noas%rL #e a 5leca voi mai #evreme 9ish-%he our of %o leave 0ou( PL/ more earl0 >our #esire %ha% 0ou shoul# leave earlier? b$ #orinRa (noas%rLi/ei/ #e a 5leca PRGi/X6
4B+
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses 9ish-%he (our/ei/ of %o leave PRGi/X6 >our/%he #esire of leavin!? c$ 5ro5unerea lor #e a ne con#uce %u 5ro5osal-%he %heir of %o us !ui#e 0ou$ NG: >%heir 5ro5osal %ha% 0ou shoul# !ui#e us? #$ 5ro5unerea (lori/ei/ #e a ne con#uce PRGi/X6 5ro5osal-%he (%heiri/ei/ of %o us !ui#e PRGi/X6 >%heir/%he 5ro5osal %o !ui#e us? e$ !Wn#ul #e a nu fi nimeni acolo %hou!h%-%he of %o no% be an0bo#0 %here >%he %hou!h% %ha% nobo#0 is %here? f$ !Wn#ul (meui/ei/ #e a nu fi PRGi/X6 acolo %hou!h%-%he (m0i/ei/ of %o no% be PRGi/X6 %here >m0 in%en%ion no% %o be %here?
There are also cases 9hen %he infini%ive mus% be con%rolle# al%hou!h %he hea# noun i%self #oes no% re@uire obli!a%or0 con%rol$ No%e %ha% %he relevan% e;am5les involve a realis in%er5re%a%ion of %he infini%ive (5ara5hrasable b0 an in#ica%ive/3
(2+/ a$ im5resia (mea/e i/ #e a fi PRGi/X6 bolnav im5ression-%he (m0/e i/ of %o be PRGi/X6 sic>m0 im5ression of bein! sic-? b$ KKim5resia #e a fi %u bolnav im5ression-%he of %o be 0ou$ NG: sicc$ im5resia (mea/ cL eM%i bolnav im5ression-%he (m0/ %ha% are$1SG sic>m0/%he im5ression of 0ou bein! sic-? a$ senAaRia (noas%rL/ cL el nu mai 5oa%e con%inua sensa%ion-%he (our/ %ha% he no% an0rlon!er can con%inue >%he/our im5ression %ha% he can?% !o on an0 lon!er? b$ senAaRia #e a nu mai 5u%ea (Xel/ con%inua sensa%ion-%he of %o no% an0rlon!er can (Xhe/ con%inue >%he sensa%ion of no% bein! able %o !o on? a$ sa%isfacRia (noas%rLi/ei/ #e a fi cWM%i!a% PRGi/X6 cu5a sa%isfac%ion-%he (ouri/ei/ of %o PRF 9on PRGi/X6 cu5-%he >our sa%isfac%ion of havin! 9on %he cu5? b$ KK sa%isfacRia noas%rL #e a fi cWM%i!a% I%alia cu5a sa%isfac%ion-%he our of %o PRF 9on I%al0 cu5-%he
(21/
(22/
Ui%h nouns rela%e# %o 5s0cholo!ical verbs an# a#6ec%ives 9here %he base #oes no% have obli!a%or0 con%rol %he infini%ive com5lemen% some%imes re@uires con%rol (see (24// in o%her cases i% #oes no% as e;5ec%e# (see (2,//3
(24/ a$ Sun% ferici% cL am/aRi urma% calea cea #rea5%L am ha550 %ha% have$+SG/1$PL follo9e# 9a0-%he %he ri!h% >I?m !la# %ha% I/0ou 9en% %he ri!h% 9a0? b$ fericirea (mea/ #e a fi rma% (X%u/ calea cea #rea5%L ha5iness (m0/ of %o PRF follo9e# (X0ou$NG:/ 9a0-%he %he ri!h% >m0 ha55iness of havin! !one %he ri!h% 9a0? mWn#ria #e a fi reuMi% (co5ilul meu/ la e;amen 5ri#e-%he of %o PRF succee#e# (chil#-%he m0/ a% e;am >:0 5ri#e of havin! 5asse# %he e;am? / >:0 bein! 5rou# %ha% m0 chil# 5asse# %he e;am?
(2,/
There are also nouns %ha% #o no% involve con%rol because %he0 have no >sub6ec%?-ar!umen% 4B1
bein! #erive# from verbs or a#6ec%ives 9i%h no e;%ernal ar!umen%$ A case in 5oin% is probabilitate >5robabili%0? #erive# from %he mo#al a#6ec%ival 5re#ica%e probabil >5robable?/3
(2./ KK5robabili%a%ea lor #e a 5leca 5robabili%0-%he %heir of %o leave
For some s5ea-ers probabilitate can %a-e a !eni%ive an# an infini%ive (see (2C//$ Such e;am5les involve raisin! of %he sub6ec% of %he infini%ive %o %he !eni%ive 5osi%ion of %he hea# noun$ (2</ 5robabili%a%ea lui #e a e;5lo#a 5robabili%0-%he his of %o e;5lo#e
Al%hou!h seman%icall0 ver0 similar %o probabilitate %he noun posibilitate >5ossibili%0? #oes allo9 a !eni%ive/5ossessive ar!umen%3
(2B/ 5osibili%a%ea lor #e a face aces% lucru 5ossibili%0-%he %heir of %o #o %his %hin!
This #ifference comes from %he fac% %ha% unli-e for >5robabili%0? %he un#erl0in! 5re#ica%e of posibilitate >5ossibili%0? namel0 %he mo#al verb putea >can be able? has an e;%ernal ar!umen% (in %he ca5aci%0 an# #eon%ic rea#in!/ 9hich is inheri%e# as %he Noun?s >5ossessor? (!eni%ive/ ar!umen% (for %he >5ossessor? in%er5re%a%ion see %he cons%ruc%ion 9i%h avea in (2B/b/3
(2B/ a$ 7i nu 5o% sL facL aces% lucru %he0 no% can SD'N #o$2 %his %hin! >The0 canno% #o %his? b$ Au avu% 5osibili%a%ea #e a face aces% lucru have$2PL ha# 5ossibili%0-%he of %o ma-e %his %hin! >The0 ha# %he 5ossibili%0 of #oin! %his? c$ XAu avu% 5robabili%a%ea #e a face aces% lucru have$2PL ha# 5robabili%0-%he of %o ma-e %his %hin!
The %hir# class of nominal 5re#ica%es calle# here teven%-classifier nouns& ( aciune >ac%ion?% activitate >ac%ivi%0?% operaiune >o5era%ion?/%a-e a!en%ive e;%ernal ar!umen%sI %he con%rol rela%ion hol#s be%9een an im5lici% or e;5lici% ar!umen% assi!ne# an A!en% role an# %he null sub6ec% of %he infini%ive$ Some of %hese nominals #o no% have an A!en%/7;5eriencer ar!umen% (li-e fapt >fac%?/ an# 9hen %he0 %a-e %he infini%ive %he sub6ec% is ei%her full0 e;5resse# or o%her9ise con%e;%uall0 or arbi%raril0 in%er5re%e# (li-e in 4=b/$ The im5ossibili%0 of in%er5re%in! %he null sub6ec% is %he reason for %he un!ramma%icali%0 in (4=/a3
(4=/ a$ Xfa5%ul lor #e a 5leca fac%-%he %heir of %o leave b$ fa5%ul #e a fi cer%a% cu %oa%L lumea fac%-%he of %o be onrba#r%erms 9i%h ever0bo#0 >%he fac% of bein! on ba# %erms 9i%h ever0bo#0?
As a conclusion 9e can es%ablish %he follo9in! !eneraliAa%ion3 %he em5%0 PRG sub6ec% of %he infini%ive N-com5lemen% is con%rolle# b0 an e;5lici% or im5lici% ar!umen% of %he hea# N 9hich for #everbal nouns is %he same ar!umen% 9hich con%rols in%o %he subor#ina%e clause for %he corres5on#in! verbs$ Ue leave as an o5en @ues%ion %he 5roblem of %he s0n%ac%ic 5ro6ec%ion of %he im5lici% 4B2
ar!umen%s of Nouns$ If im5lici% ar!umen%s are re5resen%e# as em5%0 ca%e!ories in s0n%a; %he con%rol rela%ion can be re5resen%e# as a con#i%ion on %he in#e; of PRG e;ac%l0 li-e in a#verbal environmen%s$ If one a#o5%s %he o55osi%e vie9 accor#in! %o 9hich im5lici% ar!umen%s are no% re5resen%e# in %he s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure bu% onl0 a% %he level of ar!umen%-s%ruc%ure one mus% assume %ha% %he co-in#e;a%ion con#i%ion hol#s a% %he level of ar!umen% s%ruc%ure$ 2.2. S15.nes .n s1b/ate4o0.Be3 PPs A#nominal su5ines are mos% of %he %ime a#6unc%s$ Uhen %he0 mar!inall0 a55ear in com5lemen% 5osi%ions of nominals %he0 re5resen% in fac% subca%e!oriAe# PPs 9here %he su5ine is %he com5lemen% of a subca%e!oriAe# le;ical 5re5osi%ion$ Therefore onl0 nominal 5ro6ec%ions %ha% subca%e!oriAe for 5re5osi%ions allo9 %he su5ine (seee (4+// alon!si#e %he Infini%ive (see (4+/e-f/$
(4+/ a$ 5of%a #e ci%i% #esire-%he of rea#$SDP b$ cheful #e bLu% #esire-%he of #rin-$SDP c$ 5of%a #e lec%urL #esire%he of rea#in! #$ cheful #e bLu%urL #esire-%he of #rin-in! e 5of%a #e a ci%i #esire-%he of %o rea# f$ cheful #e a bea #esire-%he of %o #rin-
The nouns %ha% #on?% subca%e!oriAe PPs #o no% allo9 %he su5ine3
(41/ a$ Envoirea sL 5lec / #e a 5leca (PRG /Ion/ 5ermission-%he SD'N leave$+SG / of %o leave (PRG/ Ion/ a_$ XEnvoirea #e 5leca% 5ermission of leave$SDP a__$ XEnvoirea #e 5lecare in%er#ic%ion-%he of leavin! b$ in%er#icRia #e a 5leca in%er#ic%ion-%he of %o leave b_$ Xin%er#icRia #e 5limba% in%er#ic%ion-%he of 9al-$SDP b__$ Xin%er#icRia #e 5limbare in%er#ic%ion-%he of 9al-in! c$ !Wn#ul sL 5lec / #e a 5leca %hou!h%-%he SD'N leave$+SG / of %o leave >%he in%en%ion %o leave? c_$ KK !Wn#ul #e 5leca% %hou!h%-%he of leave$SDP c__$ K !Wn#ul #e 5lecare %hou!h%-%he of leavin!
This selec%ional res%ric%ion #ifferen%ia%in! be%9een %he su5ine an# %he infini%ive com5lemen% ma0 be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% a#nominal su5ines are no% clausal cons%i%uen%s in Romanian unli-e infini%ives$ A fur%her in#ica%ion of a more re#uce# s%ruc%ure is %he fac% %ha% %he su5ine #oes no% 4B4
license sub6ec%s as o55ose# %o %he infini%ive an# canno% combine 9i%h clausal ne!a%ion an# cli%ics3
(42/ a$ X cheful #e cWn%a% :aria #esire-%he of sin!$SDP :aria a_$ Am chef sL cWn%e :aria have$+SG #esire SD'N sin!s :aria >I have %he #esire %ha% :aria shoul# sin!? b$ X cheful #e nu cWn%a% #esire-%he of no% sin!$SDP c$ X 5of%a #e-l ci%i% #esire-%he of-i% rea#$SDP
The absence of a sub6ec% 5osi%ion in su5ines ma0 conflic% 9i%h %he re@uiremen% of a con%rol confi!ura%ion im5ose# b0 %he hea# noun$ In o%her 9or#s %he im5ossibili%0 of (41/c-f ma0 be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he su5ine cons%ruc%ion #oes no% have a con%rolle# sub6ec% as re@uire# b0 %he hea# noun$ No% all nouns 9hich subca%e!oriAe for 5re5osi%ions allo9 %he su5ine3 if %he 5re5osi%ion is no% de P i#en%ical %o %he usual in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% of %he su5ine see 2$+ belo9 P %he su5ine is #e!ra#e#3
(44/ a$ GWn#ul la mWncare El face ferici% %hou!h%-%he a% foo# him ma-es ha550 >The %hou!h% of foo# ma-es him ha550? b$ XGWn#ul la mWnca% En!heRa%L El face ferici% %hou!h%-%he a% ea%$SDP icecream him ma-es ha550
The con%e;% of %he le;ical Pre5osi%ion is a %05ical nominal con%e;%I in %his 5osi%ion %he su5ine al%erna%es 9i%h or#inar0 Nouns an# ar!uabl0 has a more nominal s%ruc%ure$ The i#ea %ha% %he su5ine in %his cons%ruc%ion has a more re#uce# (clausal/ func%ional s%ruc%ure %han %he infini%ive is also su55or%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% %he 5re5osi%ional accusa%ive has a mar!inal s%a%us here3
(4,/ a$ 5of%a #e ci%i% romane #esire-%he of rea#$SDP novels b$ K 5of%a #e 5one!ri% 5e 5reMe#in%e #esire-%he of cri%iciAe$SDP DG: 5resi#en%
This seems %o su!!es% %ha% su5ines are no% non-fini%e clause (9i%h a non-fini%e T/ bu% ra%her verbal 5ro6ec%ions embe##e# insi#e a PP$ A connec%ion can be ma#e be%9een %he PP-su5ine com5lemen%s %o Vs an# abs%rac% nominals an# %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion (cf$ Cha5%er ++ P Deverbal Nouns/$ Oo9ever !enuine nominaliAa%ions #o no% allo9 Accusa%ive ob6ec%s a% all (see Cha5%er ++ P Deverbal Nouns/$ The le!i%ima%ion of ob6ec%s in %he e;am5les #iscusse# here ma0 be #ue %o %he Pre5osi%ion %ha% !overns %he su5ine$
3. Non+f.n.te 6o3.f.e0s
As s%a%e# in %he In%ro#uc%ion of %his cha5%er non-fini%e a#nominal mo#ifiers are usuall0 su5ine or (5assive/ 5ar%ici5lesI infini%ival an# !erun# mo#ifiers are rare as NP-a#6unc%s$ Ue %rea% %he su5ine mo#ifiers in sec%ions 2$+ %o 2$2 an# %hen 9e briefl0 a55roach infini%ival an# !erun# mo#ifiers in sec%ions 2$4 an# 2$, res5ec%ivel0$ 4B,
3.1. D.st.n41.s8.n4 betDeen S15.ne Re31/e3 Relat.2es an3 P0e5os.t.onal Mo3.f.e0s 'esi#es some mar!inal cases of subca%e!oriAe# PPs 9i%h %he su5ine (see 1$1/ 9e can #is%in!uish %9o classes of su5ine a#nominal mo#ifiers3 (i/ ob6ec%-!a5 re#uce# rela%ives charac%eriAe# b0 a mo#al force (#eon%ic or ale%hic/I some of %hem 9i%h le;ical ne!a%ion %a-e a ca5aci%0 rea#in!$ The "ob6ec%-onl0& res%ric%ion 9as in%er5re%e# in %he li%era%ure as a 5assive rea#in! of %he su5ine in %hese con%e;%s$ (ii/ 5re5osi%ional mo#ifiers e;5ressin! a Goal$ In %he follo9in! 9e 9ill firs% 5rovi#e %es%s #is%in!uishin! be%9een %he %9o classes an# %hen offer a #escri5%ion of each$ (i/ Re#uce# rela%ives are charac%eriAe# b0 %he "ob6ec%-onl0& res%ric%ion$ In %he li%era%ure i% has been claime# %ha% su5ines are ambi!uous be%9een an ac%ive an# a 5assive rea#in!$ In %he a#nominal #omain %he 5resume# "5assive& rea#in! ar!uabl0 corres5on#s %o %he aforemen%ione# res%ric%ion an# %he "ac%ive& rea#in! onl0 charac%eriAes PP mo#ifiers (an# ar!umen%s see 1$1 above/$ Ta-e %he e;am5les in (4./ 9hich have a mo#al meanin!$ Ue can observe %ha% %he 5ro5er%0 9hich mo#ifies %he hea# noun is %ha% of bein! an ob+ect of %he su5ine3 "%hin! 9hich shoul# be rea#& "e;am5le 9hich shoul# be re%aine#& 9hich corres5on#s %o %he rela%iviAa%ion of %he ob6ec% (%heme/$ The sub6ec% (a!en%/ canno% be rela%iviAe# in %his cons%ruc%ion (see (4./b/3
(4./ a$ cLrRi #e ci%i% e;em5le #e reRinu% boo-s SDP rea#$SDP e;am5les SDP -ee5rinrmin#$SDP b$ Xoameni #e ci%i% 5eo5le SDP rea#$SDP
The secon# %05e %ha% of PP-mo#ifiers #oes no% involve ob6ec% rela%iviAa%ion bu% e;5resses %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! an ob6ec% use# or mean% %o be use# in a cer%ain ac%ivi%0 (!oal/#es%ina%ion rea#in! see (4</a/ or of bein! a circums%ance 5ro5i%ious for a cer%ain ac%ivi%0 (see (4</b/$ This corres5on#s %o mo#ifiers in %he su5ine cons%ruc%ion ins%rumen% or %ime$
(4</ a$ ochelari #e ci%i% maMinL #e s5Lla% !lasses of rea#$SDP machine of 9ash$SDP >rea#in! !lasses 9ashin! mashine? b$ vreme #e mers la 5limbare 9ea%her of !o$SDP %o 9al>(5erfec%/!oo#/ 9ea%her %o %a-e a 9al-?
Gb6ec%-!a5 rela%ives allo9 (for cer%ain s5ea-ers a% leas%/ by-5hrases (see (4B/a/ 9hich are com5le%el0 e;clu#e# for %he PP mo#ifiers ((4B/b-c/$
(4B/ a$ 5robleme #e reAolva% #e cL%re secre%aria% 5roblems SDP solve$SDP b0 secre%aria%e >5roblems %o be solve# b0 %he secre%aria%e? b$ Xochelari #e ci%i% #e cL%re bL%rWni !lasses of rea#$SDP b0 ol#r5eo5le c$ XmaMinL #e s5Lla% #e cL%re !os5o#ine machine of 9ash$SDP b0 house--ea5ers
4B.
The ob6ec%-!a5 rela%ives have a ne!a%ive coun%er5ar% buil% 9i%h %he 5refi;al ne!a%ion ne- also foun# 9i%h a#6ec%ives an# 5assive 5ar%ici5les$ This cons%ruc%ion also allo9s by- 5hrases a% leas% for cer%ain s5ea-ers3
(4C/ 5robleme #e neEnReles #e cL%re ceilalRi 5roblems SDP non-un#ers%an# b0 %he-o%hers >5roblems incom5rehensible %o %he o%hers?
(ii/ Re#uce# rela%ives as o55ose# %o 5re5osi%ional mo#ifiers are charac%eriAe# b0 a mo#al meanin!3 in %he affirma%ive form %his is #eon%ic necessi%0 (>shoul#? >mus%? >ou!h% %o?/ 9hich licenses a#verbs such as obli atoriu% neaprat ]obli!a%oril0]$ In %he ne!a%ive form %here is a #ifferen% mo#al rea#in! (ne!a%e#/ ca5aci%0/circums%an%ial 5ossibili%0$ PPs onl0 e;5ress 5ur5oseI %he0 never acce5% ne!a%ion #eon%ic a#verbials mo#al 5ara5hrases3
(,=/ a$ cLrRi #e ci%i% obli!a%oriu (#eon%ic necessi%0/ boo-s SDP rea#$SDP obli!a%oril0 >boo-s 9hich have %o be rea#? b$ e;em5le #e neEnReles [ im5osibil #e EnReles (circums%an%ial im5ossibili%0/ e;am5les SDP no%-un#ers%an#$SDP im5ossible SDP un#ers%an#$SDP >incom5rehensible e;am5les? c$ maMinL #e s5Lla% (Xobli!a%oriu/ /X#e nes5Lla% (5ur5ose/ machine of 9ash$SDP obli!a%oril0 / of non-9ash$SDP
2/ Re#uce# rela%ives onl0 %a-e %he func%ional de as an in%ro#uc%or0 5ar%icle 9hereas for su5ine 5ur5ose mo#ifiers %he 5re5osi%ion pentru >for? can al%erna%e 9i%h de in#ica%in! %he le;ical s%a%us of %he in%ro#uc%or0 elemen%3
(,+/ a$ e;em5le #e / X5en%ru reRinu% e;am5les SDP / for -ee5rinrmin#$ SDP >e;am5les %o -ee5 in min#? b$ ochelari #e /5en%ru ci%i% !lasses of / for rea#$ SDP >rea#in! !lasses?
The su5ine insi#e PPs al%erna%es 9i%h a DP (see (,1/b-c/ inclu#in! a su5ine nominaliAa%ion (see (,1/c/ 9hich #iffers from %he verbal su5ine (in (,1/a/ b0 %a-in! #e%erminers an# mar-in! %he ob6ec% 9i%h !eni%ive case ins%ea# of accusa%ive3
(,1/ a$ un coM #e cules mere a bas-e% of 5ic-$SDP a55les >a bas-e% for 5ic-in! a55les? b$ un coM #e 5iaRL a bas-e% of mar-e% >a bas-e% for %he mar-e%? c$ un coM 5en%ru culesul merelor a bas-e% for !a%her$SDP -%he a55les-%he$G7N >a bas-e% for 5ic-in! a55les?
The case-assi!nin! 5ro5er%ies of %he 5re5osi%ional su5ine are also 5eculiar$ As also s%a%e# in sec%ion 1 %he su5ine #oes no% allo9 5re5osi%ional Accusa%ive P a% leas% for cer%ain s5ea-ers nor accusa%ive cli%icsI 9e can #escribe %his 5ro5er%0 b0 sa0in! %ha% i% assi!ns &ea# case (i$e$ accusa%ive 9hich is nei%her 5re5osi%ional nor a 5ronominal cli%ic 9hich is no% #is%in!uishe# 4B<
formall0 from %he nomina%ive/$ No%e %ha% %he ob6ec% canno% a55ear a% all in %he re#uce# rela%ive since %he re#uce# rela%ive involves an ob6ec% !a5$ SummariAin! %he #ifferences foun# belo9 5rove %he e;is%ence of %9o #ifferen% s%ruc%ures corres5on#in! %o #ifferen% anal0ses of %he in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% de 9hich coul# be assi!ne# %he s%a%us of a rela%iviAin! Com5 of a le;ical Pre5osi%ion res5ec%ivel0$ Accor#in! %o %his vie9 a cons%ruc%ion li-e3
(,2/ car%e #e ci%i% boo- de rea#$ SDP
is s%ruc%urall0 ambi!uous havin! %9o rea#in!s as sho9n b0 %he follo9in! 5ara5hrases an# e;am5les illus%ra%in! %hem3
(,4/ a$ car%e care %rebuie ci%i%L >boo- %ha% mus%/shoul# be rea#?3 (aceas%a es%e o/ car%e #e ci%i% (obli!a%oriu 5WnL mWine/ (%his is a/ boo- SDP rea#$ SDP (obli!a%oril0 un%il %omorro9/ b$ car%e folosi%L 5en%ru ci%i% >boo- use# for rea#in!?3 (aceas%a es%e o/ car%e #e ci%i% Mi nu #e colora% (%his is a/ boo- of rea#$SDP an# no% of colour$SDP
In %he firs% rea#in! %he su5ine is a re#uce# rela%ive 9i%h a 5assive rea#in! associa%e# %o a mo#al force (#eon%ic necessi%0/$ In %he secon# one i% is a PP mo#ifier 9i%h an ac%ive rea#in! e;5ressin! a Goal (5ur5ose/$ 3.2. S15.ne P0e5os.t.onal Mo3.f.e0s Accor#in! %o %he anal0sis s-e%che# above a#nominal su5ines e;5ressin! a Goal are selec%e# b0 le;ical 5re5osi%ionsI %he !oal meanin! is in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ion an# no% b0 %he su5ine verbal 5ro6ec%ion i%self$ These PPs #o no% involve mo#ali%0 an# %here is no %i!h% rela%ionshi5 %heir ar!umen% s%ruc%ure an# %he hea# N$ This #oes no% mean %ha% %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of %he NP canno% be coin#e;e# 9i%h one of %he im5lici% ar!umen%s of %he su5ineI i% can for ins%ance be coin#e;e# 9i%h %he ob6ec% an# in fac% %his is of%en %he case 9hen %he na%ural #es%ina%ion of an ob6ec% is %o be involve# as a %heme in a human ac%ion li-e in (,,/I i% can also be %he ins%rumen% as in (,.// 3
(,,/ (,./ me#icamen% #e/5en%ru 5us 5e arsuri me#icine of/for 5u%$SDP on burns >me#icine %o 5u% on burns? me#icamen% #e/5en%ru calma% #urerea #e ca5 me#icine of/for calm$ SDP 5ain-%he of hea# >me#icine for calmin! %he hea#ache?
Ue assume %he same s%ruc%ure P PP P in %he %9o cases since 9e fin# %he same 5ro5er%ies (no cover% mo#ali%0 5re5osi%ion al%erna%ion no by-5hrases/$ In %he 5rece#in! sec%ion 9e men%ione# %he re#uce# case-assi!nin! 5ro5er%ies of %he 5re5osi%ional su5ine$ In fac% %here are %9o si%ua%ions$ Gn %he one han# %here are 5re5osi%ional su5ines 9hich assi!n 9ea- case3
(,</ coM #e cules 5orumb bas-e% of !a%her$SDP corn >bas-e% for !a%herin! corn?
4BB
Gn %he o%her han# %here are su5ines %ha% #o no% assi!n accusa%ive case a% all an# %ri!!er inser%ion of de before a bare noun ob6ec% (see (,B/a/I %his behaviour su!!es%s %ha% 9e are #ealin! 9i%h %he nominal su5ine %he one reco!niAe# b0 %he abili%0 %o %a-e !eni%ives an# #e%erminers as e;em5lifie# in (,B/b (see %he cha5%er "Deverbal Nouns&/3
(,B/ a$ En%Wm5lare la cules #e 5orumb / X5orumbul / X5orumb ha55enin! %o !a%her$SDP of corn / corn-%he / corn >an even% #urin! corn !a%herin!? b$ En%Wm5larea #inain%e #e culesul 5orumbului / Xcules 5orumbul ha55enin!-%he before of !a%her$SDP-%he corn-%he$G7N / !a%her$SDP corn-%he >an even% before %he corn !a%herin!?
3.3. T8e st01/t10e of s15.ne 0e31/e3 0elat.2es The su5ine can occur in re#uce# rela%ive confi!ura%ion i$e$ a#nominal clauses %ha% can also a55ear in %he com5lemen% 5osi%ion of %he co5ula$
(,C/ a$ car%e #e ci%i% boo- SDP rea#$SDP b$ car%e care %rebuie ci%i%L boo- %ha% mus% rea#$PTCP >boo- %ha% mus% be rea#? c$ Car%ea es%e #e ci%i% boo--%he is SDP rea#$SDP >The boo- is %o be rea#? #$ XCar%ea es%e care %rebuie ci%i%L boo--%he is 9hich mus% rea#$PTCP
Ano%her verbal form 9hich can occur in re#uce# rela%ives is %he 5assive/resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5le in a s%ruc%ure involvin! a!reemen% an# lac-in! a com5lemen%iAer$ This cons%ruc%ion illus%ra%e# in (+/a a% %he be!innin! of %his cha5%er is briefl0 #iscusse# in Cha5%er < * +$1$2$ As 9e have sho9n above %hese s%ruc%ures are sub6ec% %o a cons%rain% on %he rela%iviAe# ar!umen% bein! onl0 ob6ec%-!a53
(.=/ a$ car%ea #e ci%i% boo--%he SDP rea#$SDP b$ XbLia%ul #e ci%i% bo0-%he SDP rea#$SDP
The infini%ive is e;clu#e# in %his %05e of cons%ruc%ions3

(.+/ a$ X car%e #e ci%i% boo- %o rea# b$ Xom (#e/ a ci%i man (of/ %o rea#
(i/ Gnl0 ver0 mar!inall0 infini%ives can rela%iviAe %he sub6ec%3 K as%a nu es%e om (#e/ a 5leca 5e vremea as%a %his no% is man (of/ %o leave b0 9ea%her-%he %his >Oe?s no% %he man %o leave b0 %his 9ea%her?
4BC

These s%ruc%ures are no% %05ical re#uce# rela%ives %hou!h$ In (i/ %he com5le; nominal is in a 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion$ I% seems %ha% onl0 bare nouns in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions allo9 %his %05e of infini%ives3 (ii/ (iii/ (iv/ X as%a nu e un om (#e/ a 5leca 5e vremea as%a %his no% is a man (of/ %o leave b0 9ea%her-%he %his Dn om gcare sL 5lece / X(X#e/ a 5lecah 5e vremea as%a nu e #e !Lsi%$ a man g%ha% SD'N leaves (of/ %o leaveh on 9ea%her-%he %his no% is SDP fin#$SDP >A man 9ho 9oul# leave in %his 9ea%her is im5ossible %o fin#? XIa%L omul (#e/ a ne 5u%ea a6u%a here-is man-%he (of/ %o us can hel5
In such e;am5les ((i/ (ii/a/ %he infini%ive is a 5re#ica%e mo#ifier$ The Noun #eno%es a 5ro5er%0 an# im5lies a #e!ree an# %he infini%ive is an ar!umen% of %his #e!ree$ The infini%ive seems %o #eno%e %he conse@uence of some #e!ree or of some -in#$ This is an effec% of %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he N$ There are man0 si%ua%ions in 9hich a nominal #eno%es #e!rees or -in#s bo%h in ar!umen% an# in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ions3 (v/ `mi va %rebui o veMnicie ca sL beau vinul care s-a bLu% me$DAT 9ill$2SG mus% an e%erni%0 %ha% SD'N #rin-$+SG 9ine-%he 9hich R7FL-has #runasearL 0es%er#a0-evenin! >I% 9ill %a-e me an e%erni%0 %o #rin- %he 9ine %ha% 9as #run- 0es%er#a0 evenin!? :-a 5rimi% cu cLl#ura cu care m-ai 5rimi% Mi %u me-has receive# 9i%h 9arm%h-%he 9i%h 9hich me-have$1SG receive# also 0ou$NG: >Oe receive# me 9i%h %he same 9arm%h 9i%h 9hich 0ou receive# me?
(vi/
The 5ossibili%0 of a55earin! in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions illus%ra%e# in (,C/c re5ea%e# belo9 clearl0 #is%in!uishes re#uce# rela%ives from (full/ rela%ive clauses3
(.1/ a$ Car%ea es%e #e ci%i% / Car%ea es%e ci%i%L boo--%he is SDP rea#$SDP / boo--%he is rea#$FSG >The boo- is %o be rea# / The boo- is rea#? b$ X car%ea es%e care e #e ci%i% / care e ci%i%L boo--%he is %ha% is SDP rea#$SDP 9hich is rea#$FSG
The res%ric%ion on %he rela%iviAe# ar!umen% is also an im5or%an% #ifference3

(.2/ a$ car%ea g cu care 5lecLm / care Emi 5lace / 5e care o ci%esch boo--%he 9i%h 9hich leave$+PL/ 9hich me$DAT li-es / DG: 9hich CL$ACC rea#$+SG >%he boo- 9i%h 9hich 9e?re leavin! / %ha% I li-e / %ha% I rea#? b$ car%ea gX#e 5leca% (cu/ / X #e 5lLcu% / #e ci%i%h boo--%he SDP rea#$SDP (9i%h/ / SDP li-e$SDP / SDP rea#$SDP
'ase# on %hese fac%s 9e #o no% anal0Ae re#uce# rela%ives as rela%ive CPs bu% as smaller (lo9er/ 5ro6ec%ions more 5recisel0 small clauses for 9hich 9e use %he label Pre#P (5re#ica%e 5hrase/ assumin! %ha% %he sub6ec% an# %he 5re#ica%e are rela%e# b0 a Pre# hea#$ In %he 5os%co5ular use %he sub6ec% of %he Pre#P is %he sub6ec% of %he clause an# Pre#P is %he com5lemen% of %he co5ula$ In %he a#nominal use %he sub6ec% is %he rela%iviAe# ar!umen% ac%in! as a null rela%ive 5ronoun/o5era%or$ Ue have alrea#0 seen %ha% %here is evi#ence %ha% %he su5ine in %he re#uce# rela%ive cons%ruc%ion is 5assive (see %he allo9ance of by-5hrases/$ Ue can %hus assume %ha% i%s in%ernal ar!umen% (%he Theme/ obli!a%oril0 5ro6ec%e# is raise# %o %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion S5ecPre#P$ In %he a#nominal use %his ar!umen% has a rela%ive fea%ure an# raises %o S5ecPre#P in or#er %o es%ablish %he 5re#ica%ion rela%ion$
4C=
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses (.4/ i5o%eAai YPre#P G5i #e verifica% eiZ h05o%hesis-%he SDP verif0$SDP
The rela%iviAe# ob6ec% mus% be %he ob6ec% of %he su5ine an# canno% be %he ob6ec% of a verb fur%her embe##e# un#er %he su5ine 9hich #is%in!uishes %hese s%ruc%ures from 7n!lish mo#al infini%ival rela%ives3
(.,/ a$ KK Ia%L o car%e #e s5us 5LrinRilor cL o ci%eM%i here-is a boo- SDP sa0$SDP 5aren%s-%he$DAT %ha% i% rea#$1SG b$ X Ia%L o car%e #e s5us 5LrinRilor cL ci%eM%i here-is a boo- SDP sa0$SDP 5aren%s-%he$DAT %ha% rea#$1SG c$ Oere?s a boo- %o %ell 0our 5aren%s %ha% 0ou?re rea#in!
In conclusion 9e assume %he s%ruc%ure in (.,/ for %he re#uce# su5ine rela%ive clause3
(../ o car%ei YPre#P YS5ec Pre#P PRGi Pre# Y YInfl/:oo#T #eZ ci%i% %iZZZ a booSDP rea#$SDP
3.$. Inf.n.t.2e a3no6.nal 6o3.f.e0s Gnl0 com5le; even% nominaliAa%ions ma0 %a-e infini%ival a#6unc%s in%ro#uce# b0 a 5re5osi%ion e;5ressin! Pur5ose3
(.</ a$ scufun#area vasului 5en%ru a obRine asi!urarea sin-in!-%he shi5-%he$G7N for %o collec% insurance-%he >%he sin-in- of %he shi5 in or#er %o collec% %he insurance? b$ cerce%area ma!is%raRilor 5en%ru a se face curLRenie En 6us%iRie e;amina%ion-%he %riers-%he$G7N for %o R7FL ma-e clean in 6us%ice >%he e;amina%ion of %he %riers in or#er %o 5ur!e %he 6u#icial s0s%em?
An a55aren% e;ce5%ion can be foun# in %i%les li-e %he (.Ba-b/$ 'u% one can sa0 %ha% such %i%les are elli5%ical 5ro5osi%ions im5l0in! an elli5%ical V li-e >%his is^? or >9e 5resen% 0ou^?3
(.B/ a$ o !o!oaML 5en%ru a a!LRa mai mulRi clienRi a %ara#i##le for %o a%%rac% more much clien%s >a %ara#i##le %o a%%rac% more clien%s? b$ 5rimii 5aMi 5en%ru a EnvLRa limba franceAL firs%-%he s%e5s for %o learn lan!ua!e-%he French >%he firs% s%e5s for learnin! French?
In o%her cases 9ha% seem %o be infini%ival mo#ifiers in %he DP are in fac% VP a#6unc%s$ The 5resence of such pentruJ>nf 5hrases is allo9e# b0 an e;5lici% or an im5lici% V$ This is 5roven b0 com5arin! %he !ramma%icali%0 s%a%us of (.C/a 9i%h %ha% of (.C/b-c$ In (.C/b-c %he Pur5ose mo#ifier is surel0 a#nominal bein! con%aine# 9i%hin %he sub6ec% DP$ Therefore %he e;am5les are mar!inal3
(.C/ a$ (Ia%L avem^/ un cuRi% 5en%ru a %Lia 5Winea (loo- have$+PL/ a -nife for %o cu% brea#-%he >(Loo- 9e have$$/ a -nife for cu%%in! %he brea#? b$ KDn cuRi% 5en%ru a %Lia 5Winea ni se va a#uce ime#ia% a -nife for %o cu% brea#-%he us$ DAT R7FL 9ill brin! imme#ia%el0 >A -nife for cu%%in! %he brea# 9ill be brou!h% %o us imme#ia%el0?
4C+
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses c$ K Dn cuRi% 5en%ru a %Lia 5a!inile ERi va fi 5us la #is5oAiRie mWine a -nife for %o cu% 5a!es-%he 0ou$ DAT 9ill be 5u% %o #is5osal %omorro9 >A -nife for cu%%in! %he 5a!es 9ill be 5lace# a% 0our #is5osal %omorro9?
The normal cons%ruc%ion use# %o e;5ress Pur5ose/Goal mo#ifiers insi#e DPs is %he su5ine as 9e have seen in 2$+$-2$1 above3
(<=/ Dn cuRi% #e %Lia% 5a!inile ERi va fi 5us la #is5oAiRie mWine a -nife SDP cu%$SDP 5a!es-%he 0ou$ DAT 9ill be 5u% %o #is5osal %omorro9 >A -nife for cu%%in! %he 5a!es 9ill be 5lace# a% 0our #is5osal %omorro9?
3.%. #e01n3 a3no6.nal 6o3.f.e0s Ano%her non-fini%e cons%ruc%ion %ha% can e;ce5%ionall0 a55ear in an a#nominal 5osi%ion is %he !erun# or more 5recisel0 a !erun#ial clause li-e in (<+/$
(<+/ FLcuse o armL 5oli%icL #in %eama t0ans6.AKn31-li-se %u%uror Mi ma-e$PLPF$2SG a 9ea5on 5oli%ical from fear-%he %ransmi%%in!- CL$DAT-R7FL all$DAT an# ne.e0tKn3 5e nimeni$ no%-for!e%%in! DG: nobo#0 >Oe ha# ma#e a 5oli%ical 9ea5on from %he fear %ha% 9as 5ro5a!a%in! %o ever0bo#0 an# #i#n?% s5are an0bo#0?
In i%s a#nominal use %he !erun# in%ro#uces a sub6ec%-!a5 non-fini%e rela%ive (as o55ose# %o %he su5ine 9hich as e;5laine# above is ob6ec%-!a5/$ The e;is%ence of a hi!her func%ional la0er %han in su5ines is 5roven b0 %he 5ossibili%0 of cli%ics (see (<+//$ No%e ho9ever %ha% i% %a-es %he ne!a%ion ne- (see %he secon# !erun# in (<+// li-e %he su5ine an# unli-e %he infini%ive$ The #is%ribu%ion of %hese cons%ruc%ions is ho9ever hi!hl0 res%ric%e# an# confine# %o %he formal re!is%er$ In Romanian %his use of %he !erun# is ver0 res%ric%e# as 9e 9ill sho9 in *2$,$2 belo9$ This 5ro5er%0 #is%in!uishes Romanian from o%her Romance lan!ua!es such as French or I%alian 9here %he a#nominal uses of 5resen% 5ar%ici5les are curren%3
(<1/ a$ les vieilles 5ersonnes habi%an% #ans ce%%e ville on% reu une alloca%ion (French/ %he ol# 5ersons livin! in %his %o9n have receive# a benefi% b$ X5ersoanele En vWrs%a locuin# En aces% sa% au 5rimi o alocaRie 5ersons-%he in a!e livin! in %his villa!e have receive# a benefi%
In fac% %his use of %he !erun# has been borro9e# b0 Romanian from %he 9es%ern Romance lan!ua!es #urin! %he %ime of %he >mo#erniAa%ion? of Romanian b0 massive Romance an# La%in borro9in!s$ This also e;5lains %he boo-ish charac%er of %his cons%ruc%ion$ 3.%.1. I3ent.f9.n4 a3no6.nal 4e01n3s I% is @ui%e #ifficul% %o se% a5ar% %rul0 a#nominal !erun#s because mos% of %he %ime %he !erun# forms small clauses a%%ache# ou%si#e %he nominal #omain3 %hus in (<=/ Yun copilZ an# Yo vacZ res5ec%ivel0 are %he sub6ec%s of %he !erun#s 9i%h 9hich %he0 form small clauses %ha% occu50 %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion of %he main clause3
(<2/ a$ un co5il rWAWn# es%e o 5riveliM%e EncWn%L%oare a chil# lau!hin! is a si!h% marvelous >A lou!hin! chil# / A chil# lou!hin! is a marvelous si!h%? b$ o vacL Abur#Wn# 5e 5LMune su!ereaAL un me#iu sLnL%os
4C1
A#nominal Non-Fini%e Cons%i%uen%s an# Com5lemen% Clauses a co9 ca5erin! on 5as%ure su!!es%s an environmen% heal%h0 >A co9 ca5erin! on %he 5as%ure su!!es%s a heal%h0 environmen%? a_$ Y YPre#P Yun co5ilZ YPre#= rWAWn#ZZ Yes%e o 5riveliM%e EncWn%L%oareZZ
In (<4a-b/ 9e see !erun# small clauses a%%ache# as a#6unc%s %o %he main clauseI in (<4a/ %he small clause has a PRG sub6ec% con%rolle# b0 an ar!umen% in %he main clause (%he sub6ec%/$
(<4/ a$ PRGi Fiin# bolnavL :ariai nu a 5u%u% veni$ bein! sic:aria no% has coul# come >'ein! sic- :aria coul#n?% come? b$ :aria/7u fiin# bolnavL nu s-a mai Rinu% 5e%recerea :aria/I bein! sicno% R7FL-has s%ill hol# 5ar%0-%he >:aria/:e bein! sic- %he 5ar%0 #i#n?% %a-e 5lace?
In %he e;am5le in (<4b/ i% is clear %ha% 9e are no% #ealin! 9i%h res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion insi#e %he DP a% %he NP-level because %he 5ro5er name an# %he 5ronoun are full DPs$ This %es% also sho9s %ha% in %he follo9in! e;am5les %he !erun# is no% a#nominal bu% ra%her %he 5re#ica%e of a small clause in%ro#uce# b0 cu an# %a-in! %he 5ronoun/5ro5er name as %he sub6ec%3
(<,/ a$ o 5oAL cu el aler!Wn# a 5ic%ure 9i%h him runnin! >a 5ic%ure of him runnin!? b$ Am ales fo%o!rafiile cu Dan AWmbin#$ have$+ chosen 5ic%ures-%he 9i%h Dan smilin! >I chose %he 5ho%os 9i%h Dan smilin!?
The %es% %ha% %he !erun# is a#nominal is %he e;is%ence of a res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion (e$!$ 5ara5hrase b0 a res%ric%ive rela%ive clause/ 9hich is bes% visible in #efini%e DPs$ 'esi#es (<+/ a clear res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion can be seen in %he e;am5les (<,/ 9hich #is5la0 a#nominal !erun#s insi#e a DP 9i%h N-elli5sis3
(<./ a$ Din%re fo%o!rafii le-am ales 5e a/elea a5a0A.nKn3 1n/8.1l1. 6e1$ amon! 5ic%ures AC$CL-have$+ chosen DG: %hose belon!in! uncle-%he$DAT m0 >Amon! %he 5ic%ures I chose %hose belon!in! %o m0 uncle? b$ Din%re fo%o!rafii le-am ales 5e /ele a5a0A.nKn3 1n/8.1l1. 6e1$ amon! 5ic%ures AC$CL-have$+ chosen DG: %hose belon!in! uncle-%he$DAT m0
Ano%her %es% for %he a#nominal s%a%us is %he 5ossibili%0 of coor#ina%ion 9i%h a#nominal mo#ifiers such as a#6ec%ives an# rela%ive clauses3
(<</ a$ Ne vorbeM%e un om cLu%Wn# liniM%ea$ us s5ea-s a man searchin! calm-%he >A man see-in! %ran@uilli%0 is %al-in! %o us? b$ Ne vorbeM%e un om obosi% a6uns la ca5L%ul 5u%erilor Mi cLu%Wn# liniM%ea$ us s5ea-s a man %ire# arrive# a% en#-%he 5o9ers-%he$ G7N an# searchin! calm-%he >A %ire# e;haus%e# man see-in! %ran@uilli%0 is %al-in! %o us? c$ Ne vorbeM%e un om cLu%Wn# liniM%ea Mi care nu mai M%ie ce sL facL$ us s5ea-s a man searchin! calm-%he an# 9hich no lon!er -no9s 9ha% SD'N #oes >A man see-in! %ran@uilli%0 an# no lon!er -no9in! 9ha% %o #o is %al-in! %o us?
The !erun# has %o be #is%in!uishe# from i%s a#6ec%ival coun%er5ar% %he so-calle# "a!reein! !erun#& (e;$3 crescnd >increasin!?3 emoie crescnd >increasin! emo%ion?/ 9hich is a 4C2
5ro%o%05ical a#6ec%ive 9i%h some 5eculiari%ies #ue %o i%s verbal ori!in (im5ossibili%0 of #e!ree mo#ifiers/ bu% 9i%hou% o%her s0n%ac%ic verbal 5ro5er%ies$ This 5a%%ern is ho9ever %o%all0 un5ro#uc%ive$ The verbal !erun# also #iffers from a#6ec%ivals besi#es %he lac- of a!reemen% 9i%h %he nominal hea# b0 %he fac% %ha% i% canno% a55ear in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion af%er a co5ula$
(<B/ a$ Co5ilul es%e sLnL%os chil#-%he is heal%h0 b$ XCo5ilul es%e aler!Wn# chil#-%he is runnin!
3.%.2 Non+f.n.te 0est0./t.2e 2s. a55os.t.2e 0elat.2es Li-e %he rela%ive clauses %o 9hich %he0 are e@uivalen% %he !erun# s%ruc%ures are mos% of %he %ime inte rated% res%ric%ive mo#ifiers insi#e NP (bein! res%ric%ive %he0 are insi#e %he com5lemen% of D/ bu% can also func%ion as 5aren%he%icals a55osi%ions i$e$ non-res%ric%ive mo#ifiers se5ara%e# b0 comma a#6oine# %o a full DP$ Oo9ever !erun#s ou%si#e DP are more of%en VP- or IP- a#6unc%s 9i%h "a#verbial& "circums%an%ial& rea#in!s because %he !erun# as a non-fini%e form is %em5orall0 #e5en#en% on %he main clause$ Tha%?s 9h0 %rul0 "a55osi%ional& !erun#s are onl0 foun# 9i%h in#ivi#ual-level 5ro5er%ies as in (<C/b3
(<C/ a$ :i-a oferi% un ca%alo! /150.nBKn3 %o% ce cLu%am$ me$DAT-has offere# a ca%alo!ue con%ainin! ever0%hin! %ha% search$ I:PF$+SG >(S/he offere# me a ca%alo!ue con%ainin! ever0%hin! I 9as loo-in! for? b$ :i-a oferi% ca%alo!ul firmei /150.nBKn3 %o% ce $ me$DAT-has offere# ca%alo!ue-%he firm-%he$G7N con%ainin! ever0%hin! %ha% cLu%am search$I:PF$+SG >(S/he offere# me %he ca%alo!ue of %he firm con%ainin! ever0%hin! I 9as loo-in! for?
3.%.3. Se6ant./+as5e/t1al /onst0a.nts As 9e have men%ione# %he a#nominal !erun# is hi!hl0 res%ric%e# firs% of all bein! confine# %o a formal re!is%er$ 'u% %here are o%her res%ric%ions of an as5ec%ual na%ure$ Thus %he a#nominal !erun# is almos% e;clusivel0 foun# 9i%h a%em5oral i-level 5re#ica%es such as verbs #eno%in! abs%rac% rela%ionshi5s (privind >re!ar#in!?/ #imensional 5ro5er%ies (msurnd >measurin!?% cntrind >9ei!hin!?/ cons%i%u%ion an# 5ossession (avnd >havin!? cuprin(nd >inclu#in!? aparinnd >belon!in!?/ %em5oral localiAa%ion (datnd >#a%in!?/
(B=/ a$ Au !Lsi% amfore #a%Wn# #in secolul al II-lea$ have foun# am5hors #a%in! from cen%ur0 secon# >The0 foun# am5hors #a%in! bac- from %he secon# cen%ur0? b$ TrLia En%r-o lume e;is%Wn# En 5aralel$ live$I:PF$2SG in a 9orl# e;is%in! in 5arallel >(S/he live# in a 5arallel 9orl#? c$ :ai cunosc %rei ho%eluri 5ur%Wn# acelaMi nume more -no9$+SG %hree ho%els bearin! same name >I -no9 o%her %hree ho%els bearin! %he same name?
The ca%e!or0 ma0 !ive rise %o i#ioma%ic s%ruc%ures P privind >re!ar#in! concernin!?3
(B+/ S-au 5reAen%a% #eciAiile 5rivin# 5remierea$ 5resen%e# #ecisions-%he concernin! 5riAe-a9ar#in!-%he >The #ecisions concernin! %he a9ar#s 9ere announce#?
R7FL-have
4C4
The a#nominal !erun# ma0 also be license# b0 %he habi%ual in%er5re%a%ion 9hich 0iel#s an ilevel 5re#ica%e3
(B1/ :i-a 5oves%i% #es5re %rom5e%ele anunRWn# 5lecarea$ ([ %rom5e%ele care me$DAT-has %ol# abou% %rum5e%s-%he announcin! #e5ar%ure-%he %rum5e%s-%he 9hich anunRL 5lecarea/ announce #e5ar%ure-%he >(S/he %ol# me abou% %he %rum5e%s %ha% announce# %he #e5ar%ure?
A 5ossible e;5lana%ion of %his as5ec%ual cons%rain% is %ha% %he !erun# has onl0 a #e5en#en% %ense (#oes no% have in#e5en#en% %em5oral reference/ 9hich is se% rela%ive %o %he ma%ri; clause an# in %he case of s%a!e-level 5ro5er%ies %his ma0 lea# %o ambi!ui%0 be%9een a#nominal !erun#s an# %em5oral small clause a#6unc%s$ If %he 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0 %he verb is a%em5oral i-level a %em5oral a#6unc% in%er5re%a%ion is e;clu#e# ma-in! %he a#nominal cons%rual easier %o !e%$ The verb a fi >be? #oes no% a55ear as an a#nominal !erun# (see (B2// %he same si%ua%ion is foun# in French an# S5anish/3
(B2/ X Des5re casele gfiin# la noi / fiin# vechih nu a 5oves%i% nimic$ abou% houses-%he bein! a% us / bein! ancien% no% has %ol# no%hin!
To sum u5 a#nominal !erun#s usuall0 e;5ress i-level 5ro5er%ies an# some%imes have a habi%ual rea#in!I %his 5ro5er%0 is connec%e# %o %he absence of an in#e5en#en% %ense in %he !erun#$
4C,
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies
1,. Relat.2e Cla1se Const01/t.ons an3 Unbo1n3e3 De5en3en/.es

AL7VAND7R GRGSD 1. Te06.nolo4./al 50el.6.na0.es 2. T95es of 0elat.2e /la1se /onst01/t.ons
1$+$ Seman%ic %05es 1$+$+$ Res%ric%ives an# a55osi%ives 1$+$1$ Sin!le%on rela%ives 1$1$ S0n%ac%ic %05es 1$2$ :or5holo!ical %05es 1$4$ Summar0 of correla%ions amon! seman%ic s0n%ac%ic an# mor5holo!ical %05es
3. D.st.n/t.2e 50o5e0t.es of s1b+t95es of RCCs 2$+$ Dis%inc%ions amon! seman%ic %05es

2$1$ Ca%e!orial #is%inc%ions 2$2$ Dis%inc%ions in %he na%ure an# siAe of >rela%ive 5hrases? 2$2$+$ Sim5le; rela%ive 5hrases (rela%ive 5ronouns/ 2$2$1$ Com5le; rela%ive 5hrases (Pi#e Pi5in!/
$. Poss.ble 4a5 lo/at.ons %. Non+.n3./at.2e RCCs

,$+$ Core RCCs ,$1$ Non-core e;is%en%ial RCCs
4C.
1. Te06.nolo4./al 50el.6.na0.es
This cha5%er #eals 9i%h 0elat.2e /la1se /onst01/t.ons ERCCsF in Romanian$ RCCs in %he lan!ua!es of %he 9orl# %05icall0 consis% of a 0elat.2e /la1se ERCF an# some a##i%ional ma%erial an# i% is onl0 in e;ce5%ional cases %ha% an RCC consis%s e;clusivel0 of an RC$ As 9ill be seen fur%her #o9n in %his cha5%er bo%h %he %05ical an# %he e;ce5%ional si%ua%ions are encoun%ere# in Romanian$ The no%ion >RCC? is no%oriousl0 har# %o charac%eriAe in a !eneral 9a0 in vie9 of %he !rea% s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic #iversi%0 of cons%ruc%ions %ha% ar!uabl0 cons%i%u%e RCCs$ The %erm >rela%ive? 5ur5or%s %o ca5%ure %he in%ui%ion %ha% RCs %05icall0 e;hibi% an in%ernal >5ivo%? %ha% is seman%icall0 rela%e# in some 9a0 %o ma%erial 9i%hin %he RC-e;%ernal 5or%ion of %he RRCs$ For #escri5%ive 5ur5oses 9e ma0 %hinof RCCs as e;hibi%in! an >in%ernal? an# an >e;%ernal 5ivo%? -ee5in! in min# %ha% %hese %erms are eminen%l0 5re-%heore%ical$ Tra#i%ional !rammars of%en s%a%e %ha% %he in%ernal an# e;%ernal 5ivo%s are rela%e# as ana5hor an# an%ece#en% res5ec%ivel0 bu% as 9ill be seen belo9 %his charac%eriAa%ion 9hile a55ro5ria%e in some cases is mislea#in! in o%her an# i% is for %his reason %ha% %he seman%ic rela%ionshi5 be%9een %he 5ivo%s 9as lef% uns5ecifie# above$ A some9ha% more 5recise charac%eriAa%ion of RCCs can be 5rovi#e# in %erms of a broa#l0 cons%rue# no%ion of >bin#in!? 9hich subsumes bo%h >#iscourse bin#in!? (essen%iall0 %he an%ece#en%-ana5hor rela%ion in #iscourses/ an# bin#in! b0 a lo!ical o5era%or (9hich mos% commonl0 %a-es 5lace in a s0n%ac%ic confi!ura%ion -no9n as >c-comman#?/3 (+/ i$ A rela%ive clause is subor#ina%e#$ ii$ A rela%ive clause inclu#es a% some level of seman%ic re5resen%a%ion a variable %ha% ul%ima%el0 !e%s boun# in some 9a0 b0 an elemen% of %he ma%ri;$
Goin! one s%e5 fur%her 9e ma0 #is%in!uish >core? RCCs in 9hich bo%h %he RC-e;%ernal bin#er an# %he RC-in%ernal bin#ee have s0n%ac%ic refle;es of some sor% (9he%her over% or 5honolo!icall0 null/ from >5eri5heral? RCCs 9here onl0 one of %hose %9o elemen%s has a s0n%ac%ic coun%er5ar%$ This vie9 of RCCs 9ill be assume# in 9ha% follo9s$ The usefulness of %he %9o clauses in (+/ an# of %he core/5eri5her0 #is%inc%ion 9ill emer!e in ensuin! sec%ions as our #iscussion of RCCs becomes more s5ecific$
2. T95es of RCCs
Gf %he numerous classifica%or0 cri%eria %ha% can in 5rinci5le be use# %o cons%ruc% a %05olo!0 of RCCs %hree 9ill 5la0 a cen%ral role in %he remain#er of %his cha5%er3 (i/ seman%ic (ii/ confi!ura%ional an# (iii/ mor5holo!ical cri%eria$ This sec%ion 5resen%s an ou%line of %he %hree %05olo!ies of %he in%er-rela%ionshi5s be%9een %hem an# of ho9 %he0 rela%e %o %he 9or-in! #efini%ion in (+/$ To -ee5 %hin!s mana!eable 9e confine our #iscussion in %his sec%ion %o /o0e RCCs 9i%h RCs in %he .n3./at.2e moo#$ 2.1. Se6ant./ t95es 2.1.1. Rest0./t.2es an3 a55os.t.2es Seman%icall0 %9o 5rinci5al classes of RCCs have been %ra#i%ionall0 reco!niAe# usuall0 calle# (i/ 0est0./t.2e an# (ii/ non+0est0./t.2e or a55os.t.2e (%he bol#face# %erms in fac% 5ur5or% %o #eno%e 5ro5er%ies of %he corres5on#in! RCs/$ Illus%ra%ions of %hese %05es are 5rovi#e# in (1/a an# (1/b res5ec%ivel0$ For 5ers5icuousness RCCs are i%aliciAe# RCs are 4C<
enclose# 9i%hin s@uare brac-e%s an# (9ha% some %ra#i%ional !rammarians mi!h% vie9 as/ 5ivo%s are bol#face#$ >rr? in#ica%es a >!a5? in 5ar%icular %he 5hone%icall0 em5%0 5osi%ion in 9hich some 5hrase 9i%h %he !ramma%ical func%ion of %he RC-in%ernal bol#face# elemen% %05icall0 occurs in #eclara%ive sen%encesI in %he version of !rammar 9e are assumin! %he bol#face# elemen% in @ues%ion (a rela%ive 5ronoun/ is assume# %o have been #is5lace# from %he 5osi%ion of %he !a5 an# %o form a >chain? 9i%h i%I fur%hermore %he !a5 P 9hich is 5hone%icall0 null bu% s0n%ac%icall0 real P is in%er5re%e# as a variable 9hile %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he rela%ive 5ronoun #e5en#s on %he RC?s seman%ic %05e$ Given %he chain forme# b0 %he !a5 an# %he rela%ive 5ronoun i% becomes in 5rinci5le 5ossible %o vie9 %his chain as %he in%ernal 5ivo%I as 9ill be seen belo9 such a vie9 ma-es sense for a55osi%ives bu% no% reall0 for res%ric%ives$ The 5ronoun care an# i%s inflec%e# form is !losse# as >9hich? even 9hen i% %ransla%es in%o 7n!lish as >9ho? because Romanian has no human/non-human #is%inc%ion in 5ronouns %ha% bin# an en%i%0-#eno%in! !a5$
(1/ a$ Fiecare st13ent [/:01.a :aria i-a scris rr vreo#a%L ] e ferici%$ ever0 s%u#en% 9hich$DAT :aria him$DAT-has 9ri%%en ever is ha550 >7ver0 s%u#en% %o 9hom :aria ever 9ro%e %o is ha550$? b$ Ion [/:01.a :aria i-a scris rr ieri ] e ferici%$ Ion 9hich$DAT :aria him$DAT-has 9ri%%en 0es%er#a0 is ha550 >Ion %o 9hom :aria 9ro%e %o 0es%er#a0 is ha550$?
The 6us%ifica%ion for callin! RCs li-e %he one in (1/a >res%ric%ive? lies in %he fac% %ha% %he en%ire RCC ma0 be un#ers%oo# %o #efine a smaller se% of s%u#en%s %han i% 9oul# if %he RC 9ere su55resse#$ Thus in a con%e;% 9here %he s%u#en%s in a 5ar%icular class are a% s%a-e one can use (1/a %o in#ica%e %ha% a 5ar%icular 5ro5er subse% of s%u#en%s in %ha% class is ha550 in 5ar%icular %hose %o 9hom :aria has 9ri%%en a% one %ime or ano%her$ Uhen use# in %his 9a0 (1/a su!!es%s %ha% :aria has no% 9ri%%en %o ever0 s%u#en% in %he class$ A% %he same %ime (1/a nee# no% be use# 9i%h res5ec% %o a 5ar%icular si%ua%ion bu% ma0 be cons%rue# as a !eneric s%a%emen% 9hich sa0s essen%iall0 %ha% if :aria 9ri%es %o a s%u#en% %ha% s%u#en% 9ill be ha550$ In %his case %he con%e;%uall0 assume# bac-!roun# se% consis%s of all %he s%u#en%s %ha% coul# in 5rinci5le e;is% an# %he role of %he rela%ive clause is %o carve ou% %he 5ro5er subse% of s%u#en%s %o 9hom :aria has in fac% 9ri%%en$ In %his si%ua%ion (bu% no% in %he 5reviousl0 consi#ere# one/ i% is of course full0 coheren% %o follo9 u5 (1/a 9i%h %he sen%ence in (2/$
(2/ De fa5% %oRi s%u#enRii #in clasa noas%rL sun% fericiRi cLci :aria le-a of fac% all s%u#en%s-%he from class-%he our are ha550 since :aria %hem$ DAT-has scris %u%uror$ 9ri%%en all$DAT >In fac% all %he s%u#en%s in our class are ha550 since :aria has 9ri%%en %o all of %hem$?
The 6us%ifica%ion for callin! RCs li-e %he one in (1/b >non-res%ric%ive? is %ha% %he0 #o no% affec% %he #eno%a%ion of %he e;%ernal 5ivo% (in 5ar%icular %he number an# -in# of en%i%ies #eno%e# b0 i%/I in (1/b for e;am5le ha55iness is ascribe# %o e;ac%l0 %he same in#ivi#ual(s/ in 5ar%icular %o Ion 9he%her %he RC is 5resen% or no%$ The res%ric%ive/a55osi%ive con%ras% ma0 be some9ha% har#er %o #e%ec% in #a%a li-e %he follo9in! 9hich are brou!h% u5 in or#er %o avoi# 5ossible confusion$
(4/ a$ [:ama care m-a a#us 5e lume acum MaiAeci #e ani ] s-a mo%her-%he 9ho me$ ACC-has brou!h% on 9orl# no9 si;%0 of 0ears R7FL-has 5rL5L#i% ieri$ !one 0es%er#a0
4CB
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies >The mo%her 9ho brou!h% me in%o %his 9orl# si;%0 0ears a!o 5asse# a9a0 0es%er#a0? b$ [:ama mea care m-a a#us 5e lume acum MaiAeci #e ani ] s-a mo%her-%he m0 9ho me$ ACC-has brou!h% on 9orl# no9 si;%0 of 0ears R7FL-has 5rL5L#i% ieri$ !one 0es%er#a0 >:0 mo%her 9ho brou!h% me in%o %his 9orl# si;%0 0ears a!o 5asse# a9a0 0es%er#a0?
Uhile (4/b is an incon%rover%ible a55osi%ive (4/a ma0 also seem %o have %his s%a%us #es5i%e %he absence of flan-in! comma in%ona%ion on %he !roun#s %ha% %he s5ea-er has a sin!le mo%her$ Oo9ever %he fac% %ha% %he brac-e%e# e;5ression #eno%es t8e s5ea>e0]s mo%her is in#ica%e# b0 %he rela%ive no% b0 %he e;%ernal noun$ Tha% is %o sa0 %he noun #eno%es %he se% of all mo%hers 9hich !e%s res%ric%e# %o %he sin!le%on %ha% con%ains 6us% %he s5ea-er]s mo%her b0 %he rela%ive clause 9hich #eno%es a se% 9hose members are %hose in#ivi#uals %ha% !ave life %o %he s5ea-er i$e$ his/her 5aren%s$ Thus #a%a li-e (4/a are s%rai!h%for9ar# res%ric%ive cons%ruc%ions$ The res%ric%ive/non-res%ric%ive con%ras% is no% limi%e# %o RCs bu% is #e%ec%able in a varie%0 of cons%ruc%ions$ Limi%in! ourselves %o %he nominal #omain %he con%ras% is also foun# 9i%h in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives for e;am5le in #a%a li-e %he follo9in! (in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives are a#6ec%ives 9hose seman%ic effec% on a noun ma0 be e;5resse# in %erms of se% in%ersec%ion P a 5oin% illus%ra%e# belo9I e;clu#e# from consi#era%ion are a#6ec%ives li-e %hose foun# in e;5ressions li-e polar bear% criminal la&yer% fa#e policeman/$
(,/ [The in#us%rious Chinese] 9ill #omina%e %he 9orl#?s mar-e%s$
The brac-e%e# nominal is ambi!uous #e5en#in! on %he s5ea-er?s assum5%ions$ If %he s5ea-er assumes %ha% some Chinese bu% no% all are in#us%rious %hen %he nominal a% issue #eno%es 6us% %hose Chinese 9ho are in#us%rious an# %he a#6ec%ive has a res%ric%ive effec% since i%s removal 9oul# increase %he number of in#ivi#uals claime# %o 5o%en%iall0 #omina%e %he 9orl#]s mar-e%s$ If on %he o%her han# %he s5ea-er assumes %ha% %he Chinese in !eneral are in#us%rious %hen %he nominal #eno%es %he Chinese in !eneral 6us% as i% 9oul# if %he a#6ec%ive 9ere remove#I in %his case %he a#6ec%ive has no res%ric%ive effec%$ The same ambi!ui%0 can in 5rinci5le be foun# 9i%h Romanian 5os%-nominal a#6ec%ives as in %he follo9in! e;am5le3
(./ [ChineAii cei in%re5rinAL%ori] vor cuceri 5ieRele lumii$ Chinese-%he %he en%er5risin! 9ill con@uer mar-e%s-%he 9orl#-%he$ G7N >The en%er5risin! Chinese 9ill con@uer %he 9orl# mar-e%s?
The seman%ic #is%inc%ion be%9een %he res%ric%ive an# non-res%ric%ive rea#in!s of %he #a%a in (4/ an# (,/ can be !ra5hicall0 re5resen%e# b0 %a-in! %he noun an# %he a#6ec%ive %o #eno%e se%s of in#ivi#uals %ha% are Chinese an# en%er5risin! res5ec%ivel0 an# b0 %a-in! %he brac-e%e# nominals %o #eno%e %he in%ersec%ion of %hese se%s$ The res%ric%ive cons%rual is ob%aine# 9hen %hese se%s .nte0se/t 50o5e0l9 an# %he non-res%ric%ive one 9hen %he se% #eno%e# b0 %he noun is a 50o5e0 s1bset of %he se% #eno%e# b0 %he a#6ec%ive$ This is schema%icall0 sho9n in (</$ (</ i$ Rest0./t.2e /onst01al N Ci N A ii$ Non+0est0./t.2e /onst01al A N
4CC
The -in# of cons%rual for non-res%ric%ive (in%ersec%ive/ a#6ec%ives in#ica%e# in (</ is 5robabl0 also a#e@ua%e for a varie%0 of in%ernall0 more com5le; mo#ifiers of nouns for e;am5le for %he so calle# >e;%en#e# 5ar%ici5ial cons%ruc%ions? in Du%ch an# German an# 5renominal rela%ive clauses in Chinese (9hen %hese are no% in%er5re%e# res%ric%ivel0 a 5ossibili%0 %ha% also e;is%s in 5rinci5le/$ I% is ho9ever no% full0 a#e@ua%e for rela%ive clauses li-e %he one in (1/a an# more !enerall0 for e;5ressions flan-e# b0 comma in%ona%ion for e;am5le for %he a55osi%ion in %he re#uce# version of (B/$
(B/ Ion [care es%e] 5rie%enul meu cel mai bun va cWn%a la vioarL la serbare$ Ion 9ho is frien#-%he m0 %he more !oo# 9ill 5la0 a% violin a% fes%ivi%0 >Ion 9ho is m0 bes% frien# 9ill 5la0 %he violin a% %he fes%ive occasion$?
Such e;5ressions #o no% merel0 fail %o res%ric% %he #eno%a%ion of %he e;%ernal 5ivo% %he0 also cons%i%u%e se5ara%e s5eech ac%s #is%inc% from %he s5eech ac%s e;5resse# b0 %heir ma%rices$ Thus %he RC in (1/b (an# %he e;5ressions flan-e# b0 commas in %he %9o versions of (B// cons%i%u%e asser%ive illocu%ionar0 uni%s an# %he corres5on#in! ma%rices are #is%inc% asser%ive illocu%ionar0 uni%s cons%i%u%e# b0 %heir ma%rices$ In con%ras% %he RC in (1/a is a 5ro5er 5ar% of a sin!le illocu%ionar0 uni% forme# b0 %he en%ire com5le; sen%ence$ This s%a%e of affairs is brou!h% ou% more #rama%icall0 b0 (C/a 9here %he illocu%ionar0 force of %he RC is im5era%ive an# %hus #is%inc% from %ha% of %he ma%ri;$
(C/ a$ Ion 5e care nu ui%a sL-l inviRi la nun%L Ion DG: 9hich no% for!e%$I:PV$1SG SD'N-him invi%e$1SG a% 9e##in! %e-a cLu%a% ieri$ 0ou$ACC-has sou!h% 0es%er#a0 >Ion 9hom 0ou shoul# no% for!e% %o invi%e %o %he 9e##in! loo-e# for 0ou 0es%er#a0$? b$ XFiecare s%u#en% 5e care nu ui%a sL-l inviRi la nun%L ever0 s%u#en% DG: 9hich no% for!e%$I:PV$1SG SD'N-him invi%e$1SG a% 9e##in! e #is5us sL vinL$ is rea#0 SD'N come$2SG
In con%ras% (b/ is ill-forme# because %he RC 5ur5or%s %o have an illocu%ionar0 force of i%s o9n an# %his o5%ion is no% available %o res%ric%ive RCs$ In vie9 of %he #is%inc% illocu%ionar0 s%a%us of RCs li-e %ha% in (1/b 9e 9ill from no9 on use onl0 %he %erm >a55osi%ive? in referrin! %o %hem an# 9ill aban#on %he %erm >nonres%ric%ive?$ The la%%er is ina55ro5ria%e for %9o reasons3 Firs% i% fails %o brin! ou% an im5or%an% #ifference be%9een such RCs an# non-res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives of %he -in# illus%ra%e# in (4/-(./ namel0 %he fac% %ha% onl0 %he former cons%ruc%ions have se5ara%e illocu%ionar0 force$ Secon# as 9ill become a55aren% belo9 %here e;is% a varie%0 of RCCs %ha% #o no% fi% smoo%hl0 in%o %he res%ric%ive class bu% are also seman%icall0 #is%inc% from %he class 9e have 6us% 5ro5ose# %o call >a55osi%ive$? For %hese reasons %he %erm >non-res%ric%ive? is no lon!er in%erchan!eable 9i%h >a55osi%ive?$ 'efore 5rocee#in! %o a charac%eriAa%ion of %he a##i%ional seman%ic classes of RCCs 9e 9ill consi#er %he #ifferen% rela%ions be%9een %he in%ernal an# %he e;%ernal 5ivo% %ha% are foun# in res%ric%ive an# a55osi%ive RCCs$ As 5oin%e# ou% in our charac%eriAa%ion of res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion a res%ric%ive RC mus% en# u5 #eno%in! a se% (%his charac%eriAa%ion is sim5lifie# in i!norin! in%ensions bu% %he la%%er are no% relevan% in %he e;am5les 9e have loo-e# a% so far/$ This can be ob%aine# b0 in%er5re%in! %he !a5 as a variable an# %he rela%ive 5ronoun as a %ri!!er for formin! an abs%rac% over %ha% variableI %he abs%rac%ion o5era%ion 5rovi#es a se% in%er5re%a%ion for %he IP$ As also
,==
no%e# above %his se% nee#s %o in%ersec% 9i%h %he se% #eno%e# b0 %he e;%ernal NP an# %he ou%5u% of in%ersec%ion (also a se%/ serves as ar!umen% of a D(e%erminer/ 9hose in%er5re%a%ion 5rovi#es a @uan%ifier %ha% bin#s %he variable abs%rac%e# over$ Dn#er %his charac%eriAa%ion of %he fac%s %here #oes no% seem %o be an0 in%eres%in! rela%ion %ha% hol#s be%9een %he e;%ernal 5ivo% (an NP/ an# %he in%ernal 5ivo% (9he%her %he la%%er is %a-en %o be %he rela%ive 5ronoun %he !a5 or %he chain forme# b0 %hese %9o elemen%s/I in an0 even% %here is no obvious sense in 9hich %he NP is an an%ece#en% of %he rela%ive 5ronoun as is of%en s%a%e# in %ra#i%ional !rammars$ The onl0 in%eres%in! rela%ion (i$e$ in%ersec%ion/ hol#s be%9een NP an# %he en%ire RC$ In a55osi%ives ho9ever i% ma-es 5erfec% sense %o vie9 %he e;%ernal 5ivo% (i$e$ %he e;%ernal DP/ an# %he in%ernal 5ivo% (i$e$ %he chain forme# b0 %he rela%ive 5ronoun an# %he !a5/ as rela%e# in essen%iall0 %he 9a0 in 9hich an%ece#en%s an# ana5hors are rela%e# in #iscourses$ To a55recia%e %his 5oin% consi#er %he s%ri-in! 5arallelism be%9een (+=/ 9hich illus%ra%es a varie%0 of ana5horic rela%ions foun# in #iscourses an# (++/ 9hich e;hibi%s com5arable rela%ions foun# in a55osi%ive RCCs$
(+=/ i$ Ion e fra%ele meu$ El are %rei co5ii$ Ion is bro%her-%he m0 he has %hree chil#ren >Ion is m0 bro%her$ Oe has %hree chil#ren$? ii$ a$ Ion are t0e. o.$ :aria le hrLneM%e$ Ion has %hree shee5$ :aria %hem$ ACC fee#s >Ion has %hree shee5$ :aria fee#s %hem$? b$ Fiecare s%u#en% a 5re#a% cW%e t0e. l1/0:0.$ Profesorul le-a each s%u#en% has submi%%e# DISTR %hree assi!nmen%s %eacher-%he CL$2FPL$ACC-has corec%a% (5e %oa%e/ En%r-o sin!urL Ai$ correc%e# DG: all in a sin!le #a0 >7ach s%u#en% submi%%e# %hree assi!nmen%s$ The %eacher !ra#e# %hem (all/ in a sin!le #a0$? c$ G asis%en%L va no%a numele f.e/:01. st13ent$ El sin!ur va fi a5oi rLs5unAL%or #e an assis%an% 9ill no%e name-%he each$ G7N s%u#en% he alone 9ill be %hen res5onsible of %erminarea la %im5 a formali%LRilor #e Enscriere$ finishin!-%he a% %ime G7N formali%ies-%he$G7N of re!is%ra%ion >An assis%an% 9ill %a-e #o9n %he name of each s%u#en%$ Oe 9ill %hen be alone res5onsible for com5le%in! %he re!is%ra%ion formali%ies on %ime$? #$ F.e/a0e st13ent vrea sL se Enscrie la aces% curs$ each s%u#en% 9an%s SD'N R7FL re!is%er a% %his course X(XElF s-a 5re!L%i% %emeinic %oa%L vara$ he R7FL-has 5re5are# soli#l0 all summer-%he >7ver0 s%u#en% 9an%s %o re!is%er for %his course$ Oe 5re5are# himself in%ensivel0 all summer$? e$ N./.1n st13ent nu vrea sL se Enscrie la aces% curs$ no s%u#en% no% 9an%s SD'N R7FL re!is%er a% %his course X(ElF e com5le% ne5re!L%i%$ he is com5le%el0 un5re5are# >No s%u#en% 9an%s %o re!is%er for %his course$ Oe is com5le%el0 un5re5are#$? i$ Ion /a0e are %rei co5ii e fra%ele meu$ Ion 9ho has %hree chil#ren is bro%her-%he m0 >Ion 9ho has %hree chil#ren is m0 bro%her$? ii$ a$ Ion are t0e. o. 5e /a0e :aria le hrLneM%e$ Ion has %hree shee5 DG: 9hich :aria %hem$ ACC fee#s >Ion has %hree shee5 9hich :aria fee#s$? b$ Fiecare s%u#en% a 5re#a% cW%e t0e. l1/0:0. 5e /a0e 5rofesorul each s%u#en% has submi%%e# DISTR %hree assi!nmen%s DG: 9hich %eacher-%he
(++/
,=+
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies le-a corec%a% En%r-o sin!urL Ai$ CL$2FPL$ACC-has correc%e# in a sin!le #a0 >7ach s%u#en% submi%%e# %hree assi!nmen%s 9hich %he %eacher correc%e# in a sin!le #a0$? c$ G asis%en%L va no%a numele f.e/:01. st13ent /a0e va fi a5oi sin!ur rLs5unAL%or an assis%an% 9ill no%e name each$G7N s%u#en% 9hich 9ill be %hen alone res5onsible #e %erminarea la %im5 a formali%LRilor #e Enscriere$ of finishin! a% %ime G7N formali%ies-%he$G7N of re!is%ra%ion >An assis%an% 9ill %a-e #o9n %he name of each s%u#en% 9ho 9ill %hen be alone res5onsible for com5le%in! %he re!is%ra%ion formali%ies on %ime$? #$ XF.e/a0e st13ent /a0e vrea sL se Enscrie la aces% curs s-a 5re!L%i% each s%u#en% 9hich 9an%s SD'N R7FL re!is%er a% %his course R7FL-has 5re5are# %emeinic %oa%L vara$ soli#l0 all summer-%he e$ XN./. 1n st13ent /a0e e com5le% ne5re!L%i% nu vrea sL se Enscrie nei%her one s%u#en% 9hich is com5le%el0 un5re5are# no% 9an%s SD'N R7FL re!is%er la aces% curs$ a% %his course
In all %he sub-cases of (+=/ %he an%ece#en% an# %he ana5hor are in #is%inc% in#e5en#en% sen%ences$ In (+=/i %he an%ece#en% is a referen%ial e;5ression an# %he meanin! of %he ana5hor is cons%ruc%e# onl0 on %he basis of co-reference 9i%h %he an%ece#en%$ In %he various sub-cases of (+=/ii %he an%ece#en% is a non-referen%ial @uan%ifie# e;5ression an# %he meanin! of %he ana5hor is cons%ruc%e# in a more com5le; 9a0 on %he basis of %he e;5lici% con%en% of %he an%ece#en% an3 %he remain#er of %he sen%ence %ha% con%ains i%I in curren% lin!uis%ic 5arlance %his %05e of rela%ion is -no9n as >7-%05e ana5hora?$ (+=/ii-a illus%ra%es %he sim5les% -in# of 7%05e ana5horic rela%ion 9here %he ana5hor #eno%es %he %hree shee5 %ha% Ion o9ns an# %ha% 9ere e;5lici%l0 men%ione# in %he firs% sen%enceI no%e %ha% %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% Ion ma0 have a##i%ional shee5 is no% e;clu#e# since (+1/ is a non-con%ra#ic%or0 con%inua%ion of (+=/ii-a bu% onl0 %he #irec%l0 men%ione# shee5 are 5ar% of %he #eno%a%ion of %he ana5hor$
(+1/ Dar Ion mai are EncL 5a%ru oi Mi :aria refuAL sL le hrLneascL$ bu% Ion more has s%ill four shee5 an# :aria refuses SD'N %hem$ACC fee# >'u% Ion also has four a##i%ional shee5 an# :aria refuses %o fee# %hese$?
(+=/ii-b illus%ra%es a more com5le; si%ua%ion 9here %he (e;is%en%iall0/ @uan%ifie# an%ece#en% is cons%rue# in %he sco5e of ano%her (universall0/ @uan%ifie# e;5ressionI here %he ana5hor #eno%es %he %o%ali%0 of assi!nmen%s ob%aine# b0 summin! u5 %he %ri5les of assi!nmen%s submi%%e# b0 each s%u#en%$ (+=/ii-c illus%ra%es a #ifferen% -in# of com5le;i%03 %he an%ece#en% is universall0 @uan%ifie# an# #is%ribu%ive over a%omic in#ivi#uals (hence i%s !ramma%icall0 sin!ular s%a%us/ an# %he ana5hor a55ears %o be cons%rue# as an a%omic in#ivi#ual variable boun# b0 %ha% @uan%ifierI in 5ar%icular as a variable over s%u#en%s 9hose name 9as 6o%%e# #o9n b0 an assis%an%$ This abili%0 of #is%ribu%ive @uan%ifiers %o a55aren%l0 >reach across? in#e5en#en% sen%ence boun#aries is res%ric%e# %o s5ecial circums%ances -no9n as >mo#al embe##in!? in %he absence of 9hich a #is%ribu%ive cons%rual of %he ana5hor is rule# ou% as illus%ra%e# b0 (+=/ii-#$ Rou!hl0 5u% 9ha% licenses cross-sen%en%ial @uan%ifier sco5e in (+=/ii-c is %he fac% %ha% %he secon# sen%ence is cons%rue# 9i%h res5ec% %o a fu%ure mo#ali%0 %ha% is un#ers%oo# as inclu#e# in %he fu%ure mo#ali%0 in%ro#uce# in %he firs% sen%enceI in (+=/ii-# on %he o%her han# %here are no com5arable mo#ali%ies an# %hus no felici%ous cross-sen%en%ial @uan%ifier sco5e$ (+=/ii-e sho9s %ha% 9i%h ne!a%e# e;is%en%ial an%ece#en%s no #iscourse ana5hora is 5ossible 5resumabl0 because #efini%e ana5hors 5resu55ose %he e;is%ence of 9ha% %he0 #eno%e$ No9 observe %ha% %he ana5horic o5%ions an# res%ric%ions illus%ra%e# in %he various sub,=1
cases of (+=/ are full0 5arallele# b0 %hose foun# in %he corres5on#in! sub-cases of (++/I fur%hermore 6us% as 9i%h res5ec% %o (+=/ii-a (+1/ is a 5ossible an# non-con%ra#ic%or0 con%inua%ion of (++/ii-a$ This s%ri-in! 5arallelism confirms %he %hesis %ha% %he in%ernal 5ivo% of an a55osi%ive RCC is rela%e# %o %he e;%ernal 5ivo% in essen%iall0 %he 9a0 in 9hich #iscourse ana5hors are rela%e# %o #iscourse an%ece#en%s$ No%e %ha% in charac%eriAin! %he similari%0 be%9een %he %9o rela%ions I have use# %he %erm >essen%iall0? an# no% >e;ac%l0$? The reason is %ha% %here are af%er all cer%ain #ifferences be%9een a55osi%ive rela%ives an# in#e5en#en% #iscourse sen%ences %heir share# illocu%ionar0 an# ana5horic 5ro5er%ies no%9i%hs%an#in!$ For one %hin! a55osi%ives ma0 no% be use# as in#e5en#en% sen%ences in #iscourse %ha% is %o sa0 %he0 e;hibi% 5ro5er%0 (+/i$ For ano%her %he0 nee# %o have a s0n%ac%icall0 e;5resse# an%ece#en% in con%ras% %o #iscourses 9here i% is of%en sufficien% for an ana5hor %o have a sufficien%l0 salien% >an%ece#en%? in %he 5ra!ma%ic con%e;% as illus%ra%e# in (+2/$
(+2/ Ion a aver%iAa%-o #e nenumLra%e ori 5e :aria Mi i-a s5us cL Ion has 9arne#-her$ACC of coun%less %imes DG: :aria an# her$DAT-has %ol# %ha% #acL nu-Mi schimbL com5or%area e 5osibil ca el s-o uci#L$ if no%-R7FL chan!es behavior-%he is 5ossible %ha% he SD'N-her$ACC -ill >Ion has 9arne# :aria coun%less %imes an# has %ol# her %ha% if she #oesn?% chan!e her 9a0s he mi!h% -ill her$?
In %his e;am5le el ma0 refer %o Ion bu% i% ma0 also refer %o an unmen%ione# in#ivi#ual e$!$ :aria?s 6ealous husban#$ In con%ras% care in (+4/ canno% refer %o a con%e;%uall0 salien% bu% s0n%ac%icall0 unmen%ione# in#ivi#ual such as :aria?s husban# an# %he a55osi%ive clause canno% mean %ha% t8at .n3.2.31al 5romise# %o chan!e 8.s a%%i%u#e$
(+4/ Ion a aver%iAa%-o #e nenumLra%e ori 5e :aria care a 5romis sL-Mi Ion has 9arne#-her$ACC of coun%less %imes DG: :aria 9ho has 5romise# SD'N-R7FL schimbe a%i%u#inea$ chan!e a%%i%u#e-%he >Ion has 9arne# :aria coun%less %imes 9ho 5romise# %o chan!e her a%%i%u#e$?
Fur%hermore %he s0n%ac%ic an%ece#en% of an a55osi%ive rela%ive 5ronoun is sub6ec% %o s%ruc%ural locali%0 con#i%ions$ For e;am5le >on in (+4/ ma0 no% be cons%rue# as %he an%ece#en% of careI ra%her %he onl0 5ossible an%ece#en% of care is 5aria 9i%h %he resul% %ha% %he ran!e of cons%ruals available %o (+2/ an# (+4/ is @ui%e #ifferen% basicall0 because %he 5erson un#ers%oo# %o sa0/5romise some%hin! is Ion in %he former an# :aria in %he la%%er$ In Romanian %he locali%0 re@uiremen%s 6us% illus%ra%e# seem %o be 5re%%0 s%ron! in %he sense %ha% %he an%ece#en% nee#s %o be an elemen% of %he RC?s ma%ri; an# moreover one %ha% imme#ia%el0 5rece#es %he RC$ In some lan!ua!es e$!$ in German an a55osi%ive RC ma0 occur >e;%ra5ose#? a% %he en# of i%s ma%ri; an# nee# no% be a#6acen% %o %he 5ronoun?s an%ece#en%$ For e;am5le (+,/a is a com5le%el0 na%ural sen%ence in German$ In con%ras% a com5arable Romanian sen%ence e$!$ (+,/b is un!ramma%ical$
(+,/ a$ Nohann is% vor 9eni!en Ta!en nach Paris !eflo!en #er an einer Ta!un! Nohann is before fe9 #a0s %o Paris flo9n 9ho a% a$ DAT mee%in! %eilnehmen soll$ 5ar%-%a-e mus% >Nohann 9ho is su55ose# %o %a-e 5ar% in a conference fle9 %o Paris a fe9 #a0s a!o$? b$ XIon a 5leca% acum cW%eva Aile la Paris care %rebuie sL 5ar%ici5e la un con!res$ Ion has lef% a!o a-fe9 #a0s %o Paris 9ho mus% SD'N 5ar%ici5a%e a% a con!ress
,=2
A four%h fea%ure %ha% #is%in!uishes a55osi%ive RCCs from #iscourses 9i%h ana5hora is %ha% in #iscourse a seman%icall0 unsui%able an%ece#en% ma0 be >accommo#a%e#? 9hile in RCCs %his is no% 5ossible$ This 5oin% is illus%ra%e# b0 %he con%ras% be%9een (+./ an# (+</$
(+./ `n au%obuA nu se afla n./. 1n Cofe0$ Plecase 5robabil sL-Mi cum5ere in bus no% R7FL fin# nei%her one #river lef%-ha#$2SG 5robabl0 SD'N-R7FL bu0 ceva #e mWncare$ some%hin! of foo# >There 9as no #river on %he bus$ Oe ha# 5robabl0 lef% %o !e% some%hin! %o ea%$? X`n au%obus nu se afla n./. 1n Cofe0 /a0e 5lecase 5robabil sL-Mi in bus no% R7FL fin# nei%her one #river 9hich lef%$PLPF$2SG 5robabl0 SD'N-R7FL cum5ere ceva #e mWncare$ bu0 some%hin! of foo#
(+</
Thus (+./ nee# no% have %he absur# rea#in! %ha% someone 9ho #oes no% e;is% lef% %he bus %o bu0 some foo#$ Ra%her i% allo9s %he reasonable in%er5re%a%ion %ha% %he #river 9ho 9as su55ose# %o be on %he bus 9as in fac% some9here else$ In con%ras% onl0 %he absur# in%er5re%a%ion is available in (+</ 9hich is moreover also unacce5%able for %he same reasons %ha% (++/ii-e is$ For com5le%eness 9e ma0 no%e %ha% if in #a%a li-e (++/ii-e an# (+</ res%ric%ive RCs are subs%i%u%e# for %he a55osi%ive ones %he resul% is 5erfec%l0 acce5%able as can be seen b0 com5arin! (+B/i 9i%h (+B/ii$ The acce5%abili%0 of (+B/ii is unsur5risin! !iven earlier #iscussion 9hich es%ablishe# %ha% res%ric%ive RCCs #o no% involve %he -in# of ana5horic rela%ions foun# in a55osi%ive RCCs an# %ha% %he com5le; NPs foun# in RCCs #eno%e se%s 6us% as sim5le; NPs #o 9i%h %he onl0 #ifference %ha% %he former resul% from in%ersec%ion of NP 9i%h CP$ In sum (+B/ii is acce5%able for %he same reasons %ha% (+B/iii is$
(+B/ i$ XNici un s%u#en% care cunoaM%e limba chineAL nu cunoaM%e limba nei%her one s%u#en% 9hich -no9s lan!ua!e-%he Chinese no% -no9s lan!ua!e-%he !ermanL$ German ii$ Nici un s%u#en% care cunoaM%e limba chineAL nu cunoaM%e limba nei%her one s%u#en% 9hich -no9s lan!ua!e-%he Chinese no% -no9s lan!ua!e-%he !ermanL$ German >No s%u#en% 9ho s5ea-s Chinese s5ea-s German$? iii$ Nici un s%u#en% nu cunoaM%e limba !ermanL$ nei%her one s%u#en% no% -no9s lan!ua!e-%he German >No s%u#en% s5ea-s German$?
'efore %urnin! %o o%her seman%ic classes of RCCs i% seems a55ro5ria%e %o no%e %ha% un#er a55ro5ria%e circums%ances bo%h res%ric%ive an# a55osi%ive RCs ma0 i%era%e$ The i%era%ion of res%ric%ives is a s%rai!h%for9ar# ma%%er an# is illus%ra%e# b0 #a%a li-e (+C/i an# (1=/i$ The i%era%ion of a55osi%ives ho9ever some%imes 0iel#s #e!ra#e# resul%s as in (+C/ii an# (1=/ii$
(+C/ (1=/ i$ I li-e %he %ies [0ou 9ear] [%ha% 0our sis%er -ni%s for 0ou ]$ ii$ XThe0?ve !iven %he 6ob %o :a; [9ho has no @ualifica%ions] [9ho s%ar%s ne;% 9ee-]$ i$ `mi 5lac crava%ele [5e care le 5orRi] [5e care Ri me 5lease %ies-%he DG: 9hich CL$2FPL$ACC 9ear$1SG DG: 9hich 0ou$DAT le-a cum5Lra% sora %a ]$ CL$2FPL$ACC-has bou!h% sis%er-%he 0our
,=4
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies >I li-e %he %ies 0ou 9ear %ha% 0our sis%er bou!h% for 0ou$] ii$ XL-au an!a6a% 5e :arin [care e necalifica%] [care Ence5e sL lucreAe him$ACC-have$2PL hire# DG: :arin 9ho is un@ualifie# 9ho be!ins SD'N 9orsL5%LmWna vii%oare]$ 9ee--%he ne;%
Given %he seman%ics of res%ric%ive an# a55osi%ive RCs one ma0 e;5ec% bo%h of %hem %o i%era%e$ In 5ar%icular mul%i5le res%ric%ive RCs shoul# be able %o in%ersec% 9i%h each o%her an# 9i%h %he NP 9i%hin %he e;%ernal 5ivo% an# mul%i5le (#eclara%ive/ a55osi%ives shoul# be able %o 5rovi#e mul%i5le s%a%emen%s abou% %he e;%ernal 5ivo%$ Uh0 %hen are #a%a li-e (+C/ii an# (1=/ii unacce5%ableK As i% %urns ou% %he i%era%ion of a55osi%ives is in 5rinci5le 5ossible bu% nee#s %o sa%isf0 cer%ain 5ra!ma%ic coherence re@uiremen%s$ Ver0 rou!hl0 5u% each non-ini%ial a55osi%ive mus% >%a-e in%o accoun%? %he con%en% of %he 5rece#in! one(s/ e$!$ b0 reinforcin! %he claim ma#e b0 %he la%%er b0 in#ica%in! %ha% some%hin! is %he case in s5i%e of 9ha% %he 5rece#in! RC(s/ sai# e%c$ To see %his observe %ha% (+C/ii an# (1=/ii can be subs%an%iall0 im5rove# b0 minimal a##en#a as sho9n in (1+/ an# no%e also %ha% %he i%era%ion of a55osi%ives in can 0iel# a 5erfec%l0 acce5%able resul% as in (11/$
(1+/ KL-au an!a6a% 5e :arin care e necalifica% care /1 toate astea Ence5e him$ACC-have$2PL hire# DG: :arin 9ho is un@ualifie# 9ho 9i%h all %hese be!ins sL lucreAe sL5%LmWna vii%oare$ SD'N 9or9ee--%he ne;% >KThe0?ve !iven %he 6ob %o :arin 9ho has no @ualifica%ions 9ho nonet8eless s%ar%s 9or-in! ne;% 9ee-$ Ion care n-a %ermina% liceul care nici mLcar nu M%ie sL scrie sau Ion 9ho no%-has finishe# hi!h-school-%he 9ho nei%her even no% -no9s SD'N 9ri%e or sL ci%eascL vrea sL fie numi% #irec%ord SD'N rea# 9an%s SD'N be a55oin%e# #irec%or >Ion 9ho #i#n?% finish hi!h school 9ho can?% even rea# or 9ri%e 9an%s %o be a55oin%e# #irec%ord?
(11/
For com5le%eness 9e ma0 no%e %ha% i%era%e# res%ric%ive RCs are also no% invariabl0 5erfec%$ For e;am5le %he re#uce# version in (12/ seems less !oo# %han (+C/i an# (1=/i %he corres5on#in! full version of (12/ bein! 5referre#$
(12/ `mi 5lac crava%ele [5e care mi le-a arL%a% Ana ] KK (Mi/ me 5lease %ies-%he DG: 9hich me CL$FPL$ACC-has sho9n Ana an# [5e care mi le-a arL%a% Foia ]$ DG: 9hich me$DAT CL$FPL$ACC-has sho9n Foia >I li-e %he %ies [%ha% Ana sho9e# me] KK(an#/ [%ha% Foia sho9e# me]$
To a55recia%e %he 5ossible reason for %his no%e %ha% coor#ina%ion has a seman%ic effec% com5arable %o %ha% of i%era%ion e$!$ %he coor#ina%ion of %9o RCs (an# more !enerall0 of %9o e;5ressions #eno%in! se%s/ 0iel#s %he same ou%5u% as %heir i%era%ion i$e$ %he in%ersec%ion of %he %9o se%sI similarl0 %he coor#ina%ion of %9o a55osi%ive RCs %ha% #eno%e 5ro5osi%ions has %he same %ru%h con#i%ions as i%era%ion in %he sense %ha% %he ou%5u% of coor#ina%ion/i%era%ion is %rue 6us% in case each of %he in#ivi#ual 5ro5osi%ions is %rue$ The 5reference for i%era%ion vs$ coor#ina%ion seems %o be (5ar%l0/ #e%ermine# b0 %he follo9in! consi#era%ion3 9hen %he effec% of %he mul%i5le RCs is >cumula%ive? i%era%ion is usuall0 a% leas% as acce5%able as coor#ina%ion$ This coul# be seen in (11/ 9here %he secon# RC reinforces %he 5oin% ma#e b0 %he firs% an# can also be seen in (+Ci/ an# (1=i/$ Thus i% seems @ui%e na%ural %o %hinof %he se% of %ies %ha% %he a##ressee 9ears as inclu#in! i%ems %ha% 9ere no% bou!h% b0 his sis%er so %ha% %he secon# ,=,
RC ma0 be vie9e# as fur%her res%ric%in! an alrea#0 cons%ruc%e# se%I in con%ras% %here is no con%e;%ual reason for assumin! %ha% %he se% of %ies %ha% Ana sho9e# me is lar!er %han %he se% of %ies %ha% Foia sho9e# me an# coor#ina%ion of %he %9o RCs seems %o be a more na%ural al%erna%ive$ Uha%ever %he correc%ness of %hese las% remar-s 9ha% nee#s %o be remembere# is %ha% i%era%ion is an o5%ion for bot8 res%ric%ive an# a55osi%ive RCs$ 2.1.2. S.n4leton 0elat.2es Oavin! ho5efull0 clarifie# %he seman%ic #is%inc%ion be%9een res%ric%ives an# a55osi%ives 9e no9 %urn %o a number of a##i%ional seman%ic %05es$ :os% of %he cons%ruc%ions %o be #iscusse# can be !rou5e# in%o an overarchin! %hir# class 9hich a% leas% accor#in! %o man0 curren% anal0ses forms a 5ro5er subclass of %he class of res%ric%ives %ha% is %o sa0 of RCCs 9hose RC #eno%es a se% %ha% in%ersec%s 9i%h %he se% #eno%e# b0 NP$ Uha% #is%in!uishes %he %hir# class from broa#l0 #efine# res%ric%ives is %ha% %heir RC ne/essa0.l9 #eno%es a s.n4leton set (i$e$ a se% 9i%h e;ac%l0 one member 9hich ma0 be ei%her an a%om or a 5lurali%0/ a s%a%e of affairs %ha% is ar!uabl0 res5onsible for a varie%0 of res%ric%ions on %heir felici%ous @uan%ifica%ional force$ In vie9 of %hese res%ric%ions i% has become common %o vie9 %hem as formin! a %hir# class 9hich has been calle# b0 a varie%0 of names e$!$ >ma;imaliAin! RCCs? (in vie9 of a 5resume# formal o5era%ion of ma;imaliAa%ion/ an# >#efini%e RCCs?$ None of %hese %erms is en%irel0 a#e@ua%e 9i%h res5ec% %o %he en%ire %hir# class %he former because res%ric%ions on @uan%ifica%ion are in some cases no% %raceable %o formal o5era%ions an# %he la%%er because %he @uan%ifica%ional force is no% al9a0s res%ric%e# %o #efini%eness$ To avoi# such 5ar%iall0 mislea#in! %erminolo!0 9e 9ill refer %o %his class as >in%ersec%ive sin!le%on rela%ives$? The %erm >in%ersec%ive? has been a##e# in or#er %o #is%in!uish %he %hir# class from cer%ain cons%ruc%ions 9hose sin!le%on-#eno%in! RC ar!uabl0 #oes no% in%ersec% 9i%h NP %hus in effec% formin! a four%h class$ In or#er %o avoi# confusion %he %erm >res%ric%ive? 9ill hencefor%h be use# in a narro9er sense in 5ar%icular as #eno%in! %hose RCCs 9hose RC #oes no% necessaril0 #eno%e a sin!le%on$ 1$+$1$+$ In%ersec%ive sin!le%on rela%ives The necessaril0 sin!le%on s%a%us of %he RC has a number of conse@uences$ Firs% %he 50o5e0 in%ersec%ion o5%ion 9hich is %05icall0 available %o res%ric%ives is no9 unavailable because in%ersec%ion of an0 se% 9i%h a sin!le%on can onl0 0iel# a sin!le%on (or %he null se%/ so %ha% %he #eno%a%ion of CP 9ill in !eneral be 5ro5erl0 inclu#e# in %ha% of NP (e;ce5% in %hose cases 9here NP i%self #eno%es a sin!le%on/$ A secon# conse@uence is %ha% i%era%ion of sin!le%on-#eno%in! RCs ma0 no% resul% in 5ro5er in%ersec%ion ei%her 9i%h %he resul% %ha% %he i%era%ion of such RCs is %05icall0 infelici%ous$ De%ails on available cons%ruals 9ill be 5rovi#e# a% %he en# of sec%ion 1$1$ A %hir# conse@uence P %he mos% im5or%an% an# %he one %ha% is usuall0 vie9e# as charac%eriAin! %he class P is %ha% %he ran!e of @uan%ifica%ional o5%ions is limi%e#I in 5ar%icular #efini%e universal an# free choice @uan%ifica%ion are in !eneral felici%ous e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ion ho9ever is %05icall0 infelici%ous$ The 9i#el0 assume# reason for %his s%a%e of affairs is %ha% e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ion 9hich leaves o5en %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% %he en%i%0 9hose e;is%ence i% asser%s ma0 no% be uni@ue conflic%s 9i%h %he 5resu55osi%ion of uni@ueness im5ose# b0 %he sin!le%on s%a%us of %he RC$ In con%ras% #efini%e #e%ermina%ion 5ic-s ou% %he ma;imal en%i%0 9i%hin %he 5re#ica%e #eno%e# b0 %he RC an# universal @uan%ifica%ion e;haus%ivel0 enumera%es %he 5ar% of %ha% en%i%0 (I re%urn belo9 %o %he com5a%ibili%0 of such cons%ruc%ions 9i%h free-choice @uan%ifica%ion/$ There are a number of 9a0s in 9hich RCs ma0 emer!e 9i%h %he s%a%us of a necessar0
,=.
sin!le%on each of %hem re@uirin! a some9ha% #ifferen% anal0sis$ In 5ar%icular 9e ma0 #is%in!uish %hree ca%e!ories3 (A/ RCCs in 9hich %he sin!le%on s%a%us of %he RC a55ears %o be an inheren% 5ro5er%0 of %he cons%ruc%ion un#erivable from o%her fac%s (a% leas% as far as curren% -no9le#!e !oes/I ('/ RCCs in 9hich %he sin!le%on s%a%us of %he RC ma0 conceivabl0 be ar!ue# %o be #erivable from o%her formal 5ro5er%ies of %he cons%ruc%ionI an# (C/ RCCs in 9hich %he sin!le%on s%a%us of %he RC is a%%ribu%able %o %he fac%s abou% %he 9orl#$ In ca%e!or0 (A/ 9e fin# f0ee 0elat.2e an# /o00elat.2e RCCs in ca%e!or0 ('/ cer%ain ins%ances of e<te0nall9 8ea3e3 an# .nte0nall9 8ea3e3 RCCs an# in ca%e!or0 (C/ cer%ain cons%ruc%ions %ha% have no (9i#el0 -no9n/ name$ The cons%ruc%ions #eno%e# b0 %he four bol#face# %erms 9ill be #escribe# in some #e%ail a% %he be!innin! of sec%ion 1$1 9hich #eals 9i%h %he s0n%ac%ic %05olo!0 of RCCs$ Romanian 5ossesses free rela%ives an# since %he0 have no% 0e% been in%ro#uce# %heir #iscussion is #ela0e# un%il sec%ion 1$1$ In %he remain#er of %his sec%ion 9e 9ill loo- a% a number of e;%ernall0-hea#e# cons%ruc%ions %ha% belon! %o ca%e!ories ('/ an# (C/$ 1$+$1$+$+$ Rela%iviAa%ion from an e;is%en%ial con%e;% A 9ell--no9n an# 9i#el0 #iscusse# varie%0 of e;%ernall0-hea#e# sin!le%on RCCs is an en%i%0#eno%in! cons%ruc%ion charac%eriAe# b0 rela%iviAa%ion ou% of an e;is%en%ial con%e;%$ In 7n!lish an e;is%en%ial con%e;% is charac%eriAe# b0 %he e;5le%ive elemen% t!ere an# a 5os%-co5ular seman%icall0 >9ea-? nominal 9hich necessaril0 has narro9-sco5e e;is%en%ial forceI a 5reco5ular 5osi%ion for a nominal #oes no% re@uire e;is%en%ial force an# if %he nominal is e;is%en%iall0 @uan%ifie# i%s sco5e nee# no% be narro9$ In Romanian %here is no over% e;5le%ive so %ha% %he %9o %05es of co5ular cons%ruc%ions are #is%in!uishe# onl0 b0 %he rela%ive 5osi%ion of %he nominal an# %he verb$ The %9o %05es of cons%ruc%ion are illus%ra%e# in (14/ 9i%h Romanian an# 7n!lish #a%a (%he nominals are bol#face# for 5ers5icuousness/$
(14/ a$ T0e. b:.eA. sun% acum En !rL#inL$ %hree bo0s are no9 in !ar#en >T80ee bo9s are no9 in %he !ar#en$? b$ Sun% t0e. b:.eA. En !rL#inL acum$ are %hree bo0s in !ar#en no9 >There are no9 t80ee bo9s in %he !ar#en$?
In vie9 of %he @uan%ifica%ional free#om allo9e# %o 5re-co5ular nominals %his 5osi%ion is s%rai!h%for9ar#l0 accessible %o rela%iviAa%ion$ Uha% of rela%iviAa%ion ou% of %he 5os%-co5ular 5osi%ionK The issue is har# %o inves%i!a%e in Romanian since rela%iviAa%ion leaves a !a5 9hose 5osi%ion is har# %o i#en%if0$ In 7n!lish %he 5resence of %he over% e;5le%ive in#ica%es rela%iviAa%ion ou% of %he e;is%en%ial 5osi%ion$ As sho9n in (1,a/ rela%iviAa%ion %urns ou% %o be 5ossible$
(1,/ a$ The %hree bo0s (%ha%/ %here 9ere rr in %he !ar#en ma#e a lo% of noise$ b$ XThe %hree bo0s 9ho %here 9ere rr in %he !ar#en ma#e a lo% of noise$
No9 %he e;is%ence of #a%a li-e (1,/a is a prima facie 5uAAle because %he in#ivi#ual variable in %he !a5 is e;is%en%iall0 boun# 9i%hin %he rela%ive an# i% is %hus unclear ho9 i% can also be accessible %o abs%rac%ion as re@uire# b0 rela%iviAa%ion$ The commonl0 !iven ans9er %o %his 5uAAle is %ha% rela%iviAa%ion #oes no% %ar!e% %he e;is%en%iall0 boun# in#ivi#ual variable bu% ano%her variable 9i%hin %he !a5$ This assum5%ion is base# on %he con%ras% be%9een (1,/a an# (1,/b$ The 5ronoun &!o is %05e# for abs%rac%ion over variables of %he (human/ in#ivi#ual %05e onl0 bu% %he 5hone%icall0 null o5era%or %ha% causes %he !a5 in (1,/b is com5a%ible 9i%h variables of man0 o%her %05es$ A common assum5%ion is %ha% %he %ar!e% of abs%rac%ion is a ,=<
#e!ree/amoun% variable 9hich s5ecifies %he car#inali%0/amoun% of %he en%i%0/s%uff #eno%e# b0 %he noun$ Tha% such variables are 5ossible 9i%hin an e;is%en%ial con%e;% an# %ha% %he0 #o no% have %o be e;is%en%iall0 boun# is brou!h% ou% b0 sen%ences li-e t!ere &ere t!at many marbles on t!e table$ In sum %he assum5%ion is %ha% %he !a5 in (1,/a %ransla%es no% as ' bu% ra%her as de -many ' 9i%h %he ' variable %ar!e%e# b0 e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ion an# %he #e! variable b0 abs%rac%ion$ This solves %he 5uAAle no%e# above bu% confron%s us 9i%h a ne9 5uAAle$ If abs%rac%ion %ar!e%s a #e!ree variable ho9 come %he en%ire RCC #oes no% en# u5 #eno%in! a #e!ree in 5ar%icular a numberK To be sure %his o5%ion e;is%s in 5rinci5le as illus%ra%e# in (1./3
(1./ The number of 5ersons %ha% %here 9ere rr a% %he 5ar%0 e;cee#e# e;5ec%a%ions$
Oo9ever (1,/ sa0s %ha% %he noise 9as ma#e b0 bo0s no% b0 %he number %hree$ The @ues%ion is ho9 is an en%i%0 #eno%a%ion achieve# in such casesK The vir%uall0 inevi%able ans9er is %ha% %he e;is%en%iall0 close# in#ivi#ual variable nee#s %o be >#isclose#$? De--er (+CC2/ 5ro5ose# %ha% an%ece#en%s of e-%05e ana5hors in #iscourse be #isclose# b0 e@ua%in! %he @uan%ifica%ional boun# variable 9i%h a free variable 9hich can serve as basis for cons%ruc%in! an ana5hor$ This mechanism ho9ever seems ina55ro5ria%e for #a%a li-e (1,a/ insofar as i% canno% obviousl0 accoun% forn %he #eviance of (1,b/$ A 5referable al%erna%ive (5u% for9ar# b0 Grosu ) Lan#man +CCB/ runs alon! %he follo9in! lines3 The values over 9hich %he #e! variable ran!es are car#inali%ies of ent.t.es no% abs%rac% numbers$ Su55ose %hen %ha% in %he si%ua%ion #escribe# b0 %he rela%ive in (1,a/ each value of %he #e! variable in 5ar%icular + 1 an# 2 is 5aire# 9i%h an en%i%0 %ha% i% 5rovi#es %he car#inali%0 of$ If abs%rac%ion a55lies %o such 5airs %he resul% is a se% of 5airs of %he form e#e! en%f$ No9 if one coul# i#en%if0 an en%i%0 %hrou!h i%s car#inali%0 @uan%if0in! over %he car#inali%0 9ill au%oma%icall0 also 0iel# %he corres5on#in! en%i%0$ There is one ca%ch ho9ever %he corres5on#ence be%9een car#inali%ies an# %he en%i%ies %he0 measure is no% in !eneral one-one an# one can %hus no% unambi!uousl0 #e#uce an en%i%0 from 6us% an0 car#inali%0 5ic-e# ou% b0 @uan%ifica%ion$ There is one 5air ho9ever in 9hich a car#inali%0 is associa%e# 9i%h a uni@ue in#ivi#ual3 %he ma;imal car#inali%0$ This s%a%e of affairs 5oin%s %o %he #esire# o5era%ion for unambi!uousl0 ]e;%rac%in!] an en%i%0 from a car#inali%03 i!nore all 5airs e;ce5% %he ma;imal one$ This s%a%e of affairs can be ensure# b0 an o5era%ion of ma;imaliAa%ion 9hich ma5s a se% %o %he sin!le%on %ha% con%ains onl0 i%s ma;imal 5air$ To ensure %ha% %he a55ro5ria%e ma;imal 5air is a55ro5ria%el0 #efine# 9i%hin %he #eno%a%ion of %he rela%ive i% is sufficien% %o assume %ha% %he e;%ernal NP cons%rains %he e;is%en%iall0 @uan%ifie# variable D.t8.n t8e 0elat.2e (%his s%a%e of affairs is #escri5%ivel0 calle# ]recons%ruc%ion] an# i%s %echnical im5lemen%a%ion nee# no% concern us here/$ In %he minimal si%ua%ion #escribe# b0 %he rela%ive clause %he en%i%ies 9hose e;is%ence is asser%e# are #efine# an# so is %he car#inali%0 of %heir %o%al sum$ Accor#in!l0 %he RC can smoo%hl0 #eno%e a se% con%ainin! 6us% %he 5air forme# b0 %he ma;imal sum an# i%s car#inali%0$ Tha% bo%h members of %his 5air are #efine# 9i%hin %he rela%ive is brou!h% u5 b0 %he follo9in! #a%a 9hich e;hibi% %he con%ras%in! behaviour of %9o minimall0 #ifferen% res%ric%ive an# sin!le%on RCCs3
(1</ a$ The %hree bo0s 9ho 50obabl9 rr are in %he !ar#en ri!h% no9 ma0 come %o %he 5ar%0$ b$ The %hree bo0s %ha% %here 50obabl0 are rr in %he !ar#en ri!h% no9 ma0 come %o %he 5ar%0$
In (1</a t!ree boys is cons%rue# in i%s >visible? 5osi%ion %ha% is ou%si#e %he sco5e of %he mo#al a#verb 9i%hin %he RC 9hich %ar!e%s %he loca%ion of %he bo0s (i$e$ 9ha% is 5robable an# %hus no% absolu%el0 cer%ain is %ha% %he bo0s are no9 in %he !ar#en/$ In (1</b on %he o%her han# %he mos% na%ural in%er5re%a%ion is %ha% 5robabili%0 %ar!e%s %he number of %he bo0s (i$e$ %he 5ossibili%0 is lef% o5en %ha% %he bo0s ma0 be ei%her more or less numerous %han %hree an# %his inclu#es %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% %here ma0 be no bo0s in %he relevan% si%ua%ion/$ This sho9s clearl0 ,=B
%ha% %he e;%ernal noun an# i%s numeral are bo%h cons%rue# 9i%hin %he RC in 5ar%icular 9i%hin %he sco5e of %he mo#al a#verb$ The sin!le%on s%a%us of %he rela%ive is inconsis%en% 9i%h e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ion as illus%ra%e# b0 %he various infelici%ous versions of (1B/a c$
(1B/ a$ I %oo- a9a0 g%he (four/ all (%he/ ever0 bo%h msome mfe9 ma fe9 mfourh boo-(s/ %ha% %here 9ere/9as rr on %he #es-$ b$ qou ma0 %a-e gan0 %he lon!es%h boo- %ha% %here is rr on %he #es-$ c$ I #ran- g%he %9o li%ers of all %he msomeh 9ine %ha% %here 9ere/9as in %he bo%%le$
The reason 9h0 %hese versions are infelici%ous is ar!uabl0 %he follo9in!3 Gn %he one han# %heir RCCs are no% (easil0/ cons%ruable as elli5%ical 5ar%i%ives (no%e %ha% subs%i%u%in! e$!$ four of %he boo-s for four boo-s resul%s in a 5erfec%l0 acce5%able sen%ence/$ If so %he0 5ur5or% %o #eno%e four boo-s %ha% 9ere on %he #es- leavin! o5en %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% %here ma0 have been o%her boo-s on %he #es-$ 'u% %his 5ossibili%0 conflic%s 9i%h ma;imaliAa%ion 9hich im5lies %here are no o%her boo-s on %he #es- an# %his s%a%e of affairs resul%s in infelici%0$ In %he remainin! versions of (1B/a an# in (1B/b %here is no com5arable conflic% be%9een %he @uan%ifica%ion of %he RCC an# ma;imaliAa%ion 9i%hin %he rela%ive$ If %he RCC has #efini%e force #efini%eness sim5l0 5ic-s ou% %he uni@ue member of %he sin!le%on crea%e# b0 ma;imaliAa%ion an# if i% has universal force universal @uan%ifica%ion e;haus%ivel0 enumera%es %he 5ar%s of %he sin!le%on]s membersI i% is %hus unsur5risin! %ha% %he versions of (1B/a 9i%h #efini%e an# universal #e%erminers are felici%ous$ The #a%a in (1B/b also avoi# conflic% bu% in a #ifferen% 9a0$ The #e%erminer any has here free-choice force an# %hus assumes a >bac-!roun#? sum of en%i%ies from a smaller sum is selec%e#I in %he s5ecific case of (1B/b %he selec%e# sum is in fac% an a%om #ue %o %he sin!ular number of %he noun$ Similarl0 su5erla%ives also assume a bac-!roun# sum from 9hich an a%om or a smaller sum e;hibi%in! some 5ro5er%0 %o a hi!her #e!ree %han all %he o%her sum-5ar%s is sin!le# ou%$ In %he %9o versions of (1B/b ma;imaliAa%ion #efines %he bac-!roun# sum an# %he @uan%ifica%ion of %he RCC 5ic-s ou% an a%om ran#oml0 for free-choice an# accor#in! %o %he #e!ree of len!%h for %he su5erla%ive$ There is %hus no conflic% be%9een @uan%ifica%ion an# ma;imaliAa%ion hence %he felici%0 of %hese #a%a$ The #a%a in (1B/c sho9 %ha% %he res%ric%ions on #e%erminers e;%en# %o RCCs 9i%h mass hea# nouns 9hich %hus #eno%e >s%uff? ra%her %han in#ivi#uals$ As no%e# a% %he be!innin! of %his sec%ion e;%rac%ion from an e;is%en%ial con%e;% is #ifficul% %o reco!niAe in Romanian #ue %o %he absence of an over% e;5le%ive$ There is ho9ever ano%her fea%ure of Romanian 9hich ma-es i% eas0 %o reco!niAe RCs in 9hich abs%rac%ion over a #e!ree variable has o5era%e#3 rela%ive 5ronouns %05e# for abs%rac%ion over numerical #e!rees (in 5ar%icular car#inali%ies an# amoun%s/$ These are %he sin!ular forms ct% ct >ho9 much? an# %he 5lural forms ci% cte >ho9 man0? (%hese forms are 5rovi#e# in 5airs corres5on#in! %o %he masculine an# %he feminine res5ec%ivel0/$ :uch li-e %he null #e!ree o5era%ors of 7n!lish %hese over% rela%ive 5ronouns are foun# bo%h in RCCs %ha% #eno%e #e!rees (illus%ra%ion 5os%5one# un%il %he ne;% sec%ion/ an# in RCCs %ha% #eno%e in#ivi#uals$ In 5rinci5le one ma0 assume %ha% abs%rac%ion over #e!rees in en%i%0-#eno%in! CPs ma0 also occur in#e5en#en%l0 of %he e;is%en%ial con%e;% i$e$ in con%e;%s 9here #irec% abs%rac%ion over an in#ivi#ual variable is 5ossible an# %he #e!ree rela%ive 5ronouns of Romanian 5rovi#e e;5lici% su55or% for %his 5re#ic%ion$ A number of 5ro5er%ies of in#ivi#ual-#eno%in! RCCs 9i%h such 5ronouns (inclu#in! %he one 6us% allu#e# %o/ are illus%ra%e# in (1C/$
(1C/ a$ Cei cinci s5ioni gcare cWRih ge 5osibil e 5robabil cu si!uranRLh cL sun% rr %he five s5ies 9hich ho9-man0 is 5ossible is 5robable 9i%h cer%ain%0 %ha% are
,=C
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies 5rin%re noi %rebuie #emascaRi$ amon! us mus% uncovere# >The five s5ies g9ho %ha% %hereh g5ossibl0 5robabl0 cer%ainl0h are rr amon! us mus% be foun# ou%$? b$ ToRi s5ionii gcare cWRih sun% 5rin%re noi %rebuie #emascaRi$ All s5ies-%he 9hich ho9-man0 are amon! us mus% uncovere# >All %he s5ies g9ho %ha% %hereh are amon! us mus% be foun# ou%$? c$ Cei cinci in#iviAi gcare cWRih m-au a%aca% ieri %rebuie %rimiMi %he five !u0s 9hich ho9-man0 me$ ACC-have a%%ac-e# 0es%er#a0 mus% sen% cu %oRii la 5uMcLrie$ 9i%h all-%he %o 6ail >The five !u0s g9ho %ha%h a%%ac-e# me 0es%er#a0 mus% all be sen% %o 6ail$? #$ ToRi gcare cWRih m-au a%aca% ieri %rebuie %rimiMi la 5uMcLrie$ all 9hich ho9-man0 me$ ACC-have a%%ac-e# 0es%er#a0 mus% sen% %o 6ail >All (%hose/ g9ho %ha%h a%%ac-e# me 0es%er#a0 mus% be sen% %o 6ail$? e$ Am bLu% %oa%L berea gcare cW%Lh era En fri!i#er$ have #run- all beer-%he 9hich ho9-much 9as in fri#!e >I #ran- all %he beer g9hich %ha% %hereh 9as in %he fri#!e$? f$ Cei mai in%eli!enRi elevi gcare XcWRih sun% En clasa mea sun% Ion Mi :aria$ %he more in%elli!en% s%u#en%s 9hich ho9-man0 are in class-%he m0 are Ion an# :aria >The mos% in%elli!en% s%u#en%s %ha% %here are in m0 class are Ion an# :aria$? !$ gFiecare oriceh s%u#en% gcare XcW%h es%e En clasa mea %rebuie sL scrie ever0 an0 s%u#en% 9hich ho9-much is in class-%he m0 mus% SD'N 9ri%e o %eAL$ a %hesis >g7ver0 an0h s%u#en% %ha% %here is in m0 class mus% 9ri%e a %hesis$? h$ Grice s%u#enRi gcare XcWRih sun% En clasa mea %rebuie sL scrie o %eAL$ An0 s%u#en%s 9hich ho9-man0 are in class-%he m0 mus% SD'N 9ri%e a %hesis >An0 s%u#en%s %ha% %here are in m0 class mus% 9ri%e a %hesis$?
The versions of (1C/a 9i%h care an# ci con%ras% in meanin! in essen%iall0 %he 9a0 in 9hich (1</a an# (1</b #o %he mo#al a#verbs are cons%rue# as %ar!e%in! %he 9hereabou%s of %he s5ies in %he former cases an# %heir number in %he la%%er$ In (1C/b-# 9here %here are no mo#al a#verbs no #ifference in %ru%h con#i%ions seems %o be #e%ec%able (al%hou!h sub%le #ifferences in 5referre# circums%ances for use ma0 e;is%/$ (1C/a-b an# (1C/c-# each sho9 %ha% RCCs 9i%h ci are com5a%ible 9i%h bo%h #efini%e an# universal #e%erminers an# %he %9o 5airs of #a%a illus%ra%e res5ec%ivel0 %he 5ossibili%0 of rela%iviAin! ou% of e;is%en%ial an# ou% of none;is%en%ial con%e;%s$ P (1C/e illus%ra%es %he 5ossibili%0 of #a%a li-e (1C/b 9i%h mass nouns$ Finall0 (1C/f-h sho9 9hen con%ras%e# 9i%h %he corres5on#in! 7n!lish %ransla%ions %ha% %he Romanian #e!ree 5ronouns canno% be freel0 use# 9henever null o5era%ors 9i%h #e!ree im5or% ma0 be use# in 7n!lish$ '0 an# lar!e %he0 seem %o be usable 9hen %he CP-e;%ernal ma%erial inclu#es an e;5lici% numeral (as in (1C/a c/ or a non-#is%ribu%ive universal @uan%ifier (as in (1C/b # e/ bu% no% 9i%h su5erla%ives (as (1C/f/ or 9i%h #is%ribu%ive or free-choice #e%erminers (as in (1C/! h/$ Romanian RCs 9i%h #e!ree 5ronouns can un#er cer%ain circums%ances be cons%rue# a55osi%ivel0 (9i%h some9ha% mar!inal acce5%abili%0 unless a##i%ional clarif0in! ma%erial is use#/ as sho9n in (1C?/a$ No%e %ha% %he s%u#en%s 9ho #ie# are no% %he same as %hose havin! #inner 9i%h %he s5ea-er$ I% nee#s %o be s%resse# ho9ever %ha% no% all RCs 9i%h #e!ree 5ronouns are or even can be a55osi%ive$ Thus if %he flan-in! commas in (1C?/a are remove# as in (1C?/b 9e !e% %he absur# rea#in! %ha% 5eo5le havin! #inner 9i%h %he s5ea-er a% %he momen% of s5eech #ie# one #a0 earlier$ Fur%hermore universall0 @uan%ifie# #a%a li-e (1C/b # e #o no% na%urall0 allo9 flan-in! commas an# an a55osi%ive cons%rual$
,+=
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies (1C?/ a$ Cei cinci s%u#enRi K(a#icL a%WRia/ cWRi s%au acum cu noi la cinL %he five s%u#en%s meanin! %ha%-man0 ho9-man0 si% no9 9i%h us a% #inner au muri% ieri$ have #ie# 0es%er#a0 >Those five s%u#en%s (I mean / as man0 as are no9 havin! #inner 9i%h us #ie# 0es%er#a0$? b$ mCei cinci s%u#enRi cWRi s%au acum cu noi la cinL au muri% ieri$ %he five s%u#en%s ho9-man0 si% no9 9i%h us a% #inner have #ie# 0es%er#a0 >mThe five s%u#en%s havin! #inner 9i%h us ri!h% no9 #ie# 0es%er#a0$? c$ mToRi cWRi s%au acum cu noi la cinL au muri% ieri$ all ho9-man0 si% no9 9i%h us a% #inner have #ie# 0es%er#a0 >mAll %hose havin! #inner 9i%h us ri!h% no9 #ie# 0es%er#a0$?
A% %he same %ime #a%a li-e %he versions of (1C/a-e 9i%h #e!ree 5ronouns an# 9i%hou% comma in%ona%ion nee# %o be anal0%icall0 #is%in!uishe# from %he corres5on#in! versions 9i%h care since %he0 clearl0 involve abs%rac%ion over #e!rees$ Pen#in! more #e%aile# inves%i!a%ion of %heir seman%ics I 9ill assume %he0 have %he essen%ial seman%ics of 7n!lish #a%a li-e %hose in (1B/$ 1$+$1$+$1$ Rela%iviAa%ion from a #e!ree con%e;% The RCCs #iscusse# in %he 5rece#in! sec%ion have illus%ra%e# %he 5ossibili%0 of abs%rac%ion over #e!rees 9hen %he !a5 occurs in a >nominal? 5osi%ion #ue %o %he 5ossibili%0 of #e!ree >mo#ifica%ion? of nominals$ I% 9as fur%hermore sho9n %ha% such RCCs ma0 in 5rinci5le en# u5 #eno%in! ei%her #e!rees or en%i%ies 5ossessin! %he car#inali%0 in#ica%e# b0 #e!rees$ In %his sec%ion i% 9ill be sho9n %ha% %he same %9o o5%ions also e;is% 9hen %he !a5 occurs in a >#e!ree? 5osi%ion e$!$ in 5osi%ions li-e %hose in#ica%e# b0 bol#facin! in (2=/$
(2=/ a$ 'a!a6ul %Lu #e mWnL cWn%LreM%e no1: >.lo40a6e$ lu!!a!e-%he 0our of han# 9ei!hs nine -ilos >qour han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs n.ne >.los$? b$ Filmul a #ura% 3o1: o0e$ movie-%he has las%e# %9o hours >The movie las%e# tDo 8o10s$? c$ ioseaua se En%in#e Be/e >.lo6et0. #incolo #e 5eM%erL$ roa#-%he R7FL s5ans %en -ilome%ers be0on# of cave >The roa# runs on for ten >.lo6ete0s be0on# %he cave$?
The #a%a in (2+/-(21/ illus%ra%e %he 5ossibili%0 of cons%ruc%in! #e!ree-#eno%in! an# en%i%0#eno%in! RCCs$
(2+/ a$ [Cele nouL -ilo!rame cW% cWn%LreM%e rr ba!a6ul %Lu #e mWnL ] %he nine -ilos ho9-much 9ei!hs lu!!a!e-%he 0our of han# g#e5LMesc limi%a 5ermisL %e 5o% Em5ie#ica sL %e urci En avionh$ e;cee# limi%-%he 5ermi%%e# 0ou$ ACC can 5reven% SD'N R7FL climb in 5lane >The nine -ilos %ha% 0our han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs ge;cee# %he 5ermi%%e# allo9ance ma0 5reven% 0ou from boar#in! %he 5laneh$? b$ [Cele 5a%ru ore cW% #ureaAL rr filmul Ls%a ] #e5LMesc #ura%a %he four hours ho9-much las%s movie-%he %his e;cee# #ura%ion-%he me#ie a unui film$ avera!e G7N a$G7N movie >The four hours %ha% %his movie las%s rr e;cee#/e;cee#s %he avera!e #ura%ion of a movie$? c$ [Cei Aece -ilome%ri cW% se En%in#e rr Moseaua #incolo #e 5eM%erL ] sun% %he %en -ilome%ers ho9-much R7FL s5ans roa#-%he be0on# of cave are
,++
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies o #is%anRL mai mare #ecW% mL aM%e5%am$ a #is%ance more !rea% %han R7FL e;5ec%$I:PF$+SG >[The %en -ilome%ers %ha% %he roa# runs on for rr be0on# %he cave ] are a !rea%er #is%ance %han I e;5ec%e#$? (21/ a$ [X(Cele/ 5a%ru ore cW% a #ura% rr filmul Lla ] au coincis cu o %he four hours ho9-much has las%e# movie-%he %ha% have coinci#e# 9i%h a conferinRL care a avu% loc En Ci5ru$ conference 9hich has ha# 5lace in C05rus >[X(The/ four hours %ha% %ha% movie las%e# rr ] coinci#e# 9i%h a conference %ha% %oo5lace in C05rus$? b$ [X(Cei/ Aece -ilome%ri cW% se En%in#e rr Moseaua #incolo #e 5eM%erL ] %he %en -ilome%ers ho9-much R7FL s5ans roa#-%he be0on# of cave sun% 5lini #e hWr%oa5e$ are full of 5o%holes >[X(The/ %en -ilome%ers %ha% %he roa# runs on for rr be0on# %he cave ] are full of 5o%holes$?
The #a%a in (2+/ are unsur5risin! bu% %hose in (21/ are in%eres%in!$ Uha% %he0 sho9 is %ha% abs%rac%ion over #e!rees can !ive rise %o en%i%0-#eno%in! RCCs even 9hen %he !a5 #oes no% i%self inclu#e an in#ivi#ual variableI no%e %he infelici%0 of %he in#efini%e versions of %hese #a%a$ A55aren%l0 %he en%i%0 measure# b0 %he ma;imal #e!ree in %he se% forme# b0 abs%rac%ion can be #erive# from informa%ion 5rovi#e# else9here 9i%hin %he rela%ive$ In (21/b for e;am5le %his en%i%0 is %he 5or%ion of roa# %ha% be!ins a% %he cave an# runs be0on# i% an# 9hose len!%h is %en -ilome%ers$ 1$+$1$+$2$ Rela%iviAa%ion 9i%h non-!ramma%icall0 im5ose# res%ric%ions on #e%erminers Ue no9 %urn %o 9ha% 9e calle# >ca%e!or0 (C/? in %he in%ro#uc%ion %o sec%ion 1$+$1$+ i$e$ %o RCCs in 9hich res%ric%ions on #e%erminers are #e%ermine# b0 fac%s abou% %he 9orl#$ Consi#er firs% %he follo9in! #a%a 9hich #iffer minimall0 from %he 7n!lish #a%a in (2+/ in lac-in! %he #efini%e ar%icle (su5erficiall0 similar bu% seman%icall0 #is%inc% Romanian #a%a 9ill be brou!h% u5 an# #iscusse# in sec%ion 1$+$1$1/$
(22/ a$ m[Nine -ilos %ha% 0our han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs rr ] ge;cee# %he 5ermi%%e# allo9ance ma0 5reven% 0ou from boar#in! %he 5laneh$ b$ m[Four hours %ha% %his movie las%s rr ] e;cee#/e;cee#s %he avera!e #ura%ion of a movie$ c$ m[Ten -ilome%ers %ha% %he roa# runs on for rr be0on# %he cave ] are a !rea%er #is%ance %han I e;5ec%e#$
In %he corres5on#in! e;am5les of (2+/ in (2+/a in 5ar%icular %he com5le; NP #eno%es a sin!le%on because bo%h %he RC an# %he e;%ernal NP #eno%e sin!le%onsI %he RC because %he lu!!a!e has a uni@ue 9ei!h% an# %he NP because nine -ilos #eno%es a uni@ue 9ei!h%$ The com5le; NP %hus #eno%es %he se% of #e!rees %ha% 5rovi#e %he 9ei!h% of %he lu!!a!e and %ha% are i#en%ical %o nine -ilos$ Since %here is onl0 one such #e!ree %he #efini%e ar%icle is coerce#$ The coercion follo9s from %he fac% %ha% su55ression of %he ar%icle is cons%rue# as e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ion 9hich allo9s for %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% %he 9ei!h% of %he lu!!a!e ma0 no% be uni@ue an# P more seriousl0 P %ha% nine -ilos ma0 #eno%e more %han one #e!ree$ The la%%er im5lica%ion is more serious because %he 9ei!h% of %he lu!!a!e ma0 var0 9i%h si%ua%ions bu% %he value of nine -ilos ma0 no%$ To a55recia%e %he si!nificance of %hese fac%s consi#er %he #a%a in (24/$
(24/ a$ qour han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs g%he (5recise/ mah number of -ilos %ha% mine 9ei!hs$
,+1
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies b$ qour han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs a number of -ilos %ha% mine has gnever rarel0h 9ei!he#$ c$ mqour han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs nine -ilos %ha% mine has gnever rarel0h 9ei!he#$
The infelici%0 of %he in#efini%e version of (24/a ma0 be >re5aire#? b0 allo9in! for a mul%i5lici%0 of si%ua%ions in 5ar%icular si%ua%ions in 9hich %he lu!!a!e 9ei!hs #ifferen% numbers of -ilos as in (24/b bu% %his s%e5 #oes no% salva!e (22/c because %here are no si%ua%ions in 9hich nine -ilos #eno%es #ifferen% 9ei!h%s$ The #eviance of #a%a li-e %hose in (22/ is %hus no% salva!eable$ 'efore movin! on %o o%her cons%ruc%ions le% us no%e %ha% #a%a li-e (2+/ also allo9 universal @uan%ifica%ion of %he RCCs as illus%ra%e# in (2,/$
(2,/ qour han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs gall %he ever0 all nineh -ilo(s/ %ha% mine #oes$
This fac% ma0 be unsur5risin! bu% i% is 9or%h -ee5in! i% in min# because as 9ill be seen %he ne;% %9o cons%ruc%ions %o be consi#ere# in %his sec%ion #o no% allo9 %his o5%ion$ A firs% cons%ruc%ion e;hibi%s a !a5 in 5re#ica%e 5osi%ion an# %he en%ire RCC #eno%es a 5ro5er%0$ Pro5er%ies ma0 be !ra#able an# a55ear in a varie%0 of -in#s or be sim5l0 a 0es/no affair$ Ue focus here on %he la%%er o5%ion$ Thus in (2./ 9e are concerne# 9i%h Ion bein! or no% bein! an American ci%iAen no% 9i%h his bein! an American ci%iAen of a 5ar%icular -in# such as lo0al #islo0al e%c$
(2./ Ion es%e En fine [gce%LReanul mun ce%LReanh american gcare ceh a #ori% Ion is in en# ci%iAen-%he a ci%iAen american 9hich 9ha% has 9ishe# mama lui a%W% #e mul% ca el sL #evinL rr ]$ mo%her-%he his so much %ha% he SD'N become >Ion is finall0 g%he manh American ci%iAen %ha% his mo%her 9an%e# him so much %o become$?
Since %he non-!ra#able 5ro5er%0 A:7RICAN CITIF7N is uni@ue %he infelici%0 of %he in#efini%e version is e;5ec%e# (no%e %ha% if 9e allo9 for a -in# in%er5re%a%ion b0 subs%i%u%in! aa cum >such as? for ce %he in#efini%e version becomes 5erfec%l0 acce5%able more so in fac% %han %he #efini%e one/$ No%e also %ha% !iven %he lac- of variabili%0 of %he non-!ra#able 5ro5er%0 across si%ua%ions %he in#efini%e version of (2./ canno% be salva!e# b0 allo9in! a mul%i5lici%0 of si%ua%ions 9i%hin %he rela%ive as sho9n in (2</ (of course if aa cum >such as? is subs%i%u%e# for ce %here is no 5roblem 9i%h %he in#efini%e version/$
(2</ Ion es%e En fine [gce%LReanul mun ce%LReanh american care EncL nimeni #in Ion is in en# ci%iAen-%he a ci%iAen american 9hich 0e% noone in familia lui n-a reuMi% sL #evinL rr ]$ famil0-%he his no%-has mana!e# SD'N become >Ion is finall0 [g%he manh American ci%iAen %ha% no one in his famil0 has 0e% mana!e# %o become]$?
An in%eres%in! fea%ure of %he cons%ruc%ion un#er consi#era%ion is %ha% universal @uan%ifica%ion is infelici%ous as illus%ra%e# in (2B/$
(2B/ Ion Mi Gheor!he sun% En fine [(X%oRi/ ce%LRenii americani care mama lor Ion an# Gheor!he are in en# all ci%iAens-%he american 9hich mo%her-%he %heir a #ori% a%W% #e mul% ca ei sL #evinLrr ]$ has 9ishe# so much %ha% %he0 SD'N become >Ion an# Gheor!he are finall0 (Xall/ %he American ci%iAens %ha% %heir mo%her 9an%e# %hem so much %o become $?
,+2
The reason for %he #eviance of %he universall0 @uan%ifie# version of (2B/ is 5resumabl0 %he follo9in!3 In %he #efini%e version 5lurali%0 is merel0 %he resul% of mor5holo!ical a!reemen% 9i%h %he sub6ec% %he #eno%e# 5ro5er%0 bein! uni@ue 6us% as in (2./-(2</$ The universall0 @uan%ifie# version is infelici%ous because i% im5lies %here coul# be more %han one A:7RICAN CITIF7N 5ro5er%0 9hich is absur#$ No%e %ha% %he universall0 @uan%ifie# #a%a in (2,/ are no% infelici%ous because universal @uan%ifica%ion #oes no% a55l0 %o a #e!ree 9hich is uni@ue bu% ra%her %o %he measure uni%s in %erms of 9hich #e!rees are #efine# 9hich are no% uni@ue$ The las% cons%ruc%ion 9e 9ill consi#er in %his sec%ion is illus%ra%e# in (2C/$
(2C/ a$ [g:arele Xun mareh ma%ema%ician ce se s51ne cL ar fi rr >on] ar %rebui !rea%-%he a !rea% ma%hema%ician 9ha% R7FL sa0s %ha% 9oul# be Ion 9oul# nee# sL 5oa%L reAolva aceas%L 5roblemL$ SD'N can solve %his 5roblem >[The !rea% ma%hema%ician %ha% Ion alle4e3l9 is rr] shoul# be able %o solve %his 5roblem$? b$ [(XToRi/ marii ma%ema%icieni ce se s51ne cL ar fi rr >on i K!eor !e] all !rea% ma%hema%icians 9ha% R7FL sa0s %ha% 9oul# be Ion an# Gheor!he ar %rebui sL 5oa%L reAolva aceas%L 5roblemL$ 9oul# nee# SD'N can solve %his 5roblem >[(XAll/ %he !rea% ma%hema%icians %ha% Ion an# Gheor!he alle4e3l9 are rr] shoul# be able %o solve %his 5roblem$?
Uha% charac%eriAes %his cons%ruc%ion is %ha% %he !a5 is in 5os%-co5ular 5osi%ion an# %he #eno%a%ion of %he RCC is in effec% %he #eno%a%ion of %he co5ular sub6ec% (in i%alics in (2C// bu% as %he la%%er is in cer%ain 9orl#s #efine# b0 a mo#al e;5ression (verb or a#verb bol#face# in (2C// 9here i% cruciall0 5ossesses %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he RC-e;%ernal NP a 5ro5er%0 %ha% i% #oes no% necessaril0 5ossess in all %he 9orl#s %ha% are con%e;%uall0 %a-en in%o accoun%$ In (2C/a for e;am5le %he RCC #eno%es Ion as a !rea% ma%hema%ician a s%a%us he has accor#in! %o curren% rumors bu% no% necessaril0 in reali%0$ Since %his >version? of Ion is uni@ue in bein! full0 #efine# b0 all %he 5ro5er%ies commonl0 a%%ribu%e# %o Ion in con6unc%ion 9i%h %he sin!le #is%in!uishin! 5ro5er%0 of bein! a !rea% ma%hema%ician an# since %his is fur%hermore so in all %he 9orl#s in 9hich %his version is #efine# %his RCC behaves e;ac%l0 li-e %he 5rece#in! one3 i% is felici%ous onl0 9hen #efini%e all o%her forms of @uan%ifica%ion bein! e;clu#e# as sho9n b0 %he infelici%ous version of (2C/b$ 1$+$1$1$ Non-in%ersec%ive sin!le%on rela%ives Ue no9 %urn %o %he Romanian coun%er5ar%s of %he #evian% 7n!lish #a%a in (22/ 9hich are sho9n in (4=/$
(4=/ a$ [NouL -ilo!rame cW% cWn%LreM%e rr ba!a6ul %Lu #e mWnL ] nine -ilos ho9-much 9ei!hs lu!!a!e-%he 0our of han# g#e5LMesc limi%a 5ermisL %e 5o% Em5ie#ica sL %e urci En avionh$ e;cee# limi%-%he 5ermi%%e# 0ou$ ACC can 5reven% SD'N R7FL climb$1SG in 5lane >The nine -ilos %ha% 0our han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs ge;cee# %he 5ermi%%e# allo9ance ma0 5reven% 0ou from boar#in! %he 5laneh$? b$ [Pa%ru ore cW% #ureaAL rr filmul Ls%a ] #e5LMesc #ura%a me#ie four hours ho9-much las%s movie-%he %his e;cee# #ura%ion-%he avera!e a unui film$ G7N a$G7N movie >The four hours %ha% %his movie las%s e;cee# %he avera!e #ura%ion of a movie$? c$ [Fece -ilome%ri cW% se En%in#e rr Moseaua #incolo #e 5eM%erL ] e mai
,+4
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies %en -ilome%ers ho9-much R7FL s5ans roa#-%he be0on# of cave is more mul% #ecW% mL aM%e5%am$ much %han R7FL e;5ec%$I:PF$+SG >The %en -ilome%ers %ha% %he roa# runs on for be0on# %he cave is more %han I e;5ec%e#$?
Sur5risin!l0 %hese #a%a are acce5%able$ Im5or%an%l0 9hile an a55osi%ive cons%rual is in 5rinci5le 5ossible as illus%ra%e# in (4+/ i% is no% %he onl0 5ossible cons%rual of such cons%ruc%ions$
(4+/ a$ NouL -ilo!rame cW% cWn%LreM%e (Mi/ ba!a6ul %Lu #e mWnL mL vor Em5ie#ica nine -ilos ho9-much 9ei!hs also lu!!a!e-%he 0our of han# me 9ill$2 PL 5reven% sL mL urc En avion$ SD'N R7FL climb$+SG in 5lane >Nine -ilos as much as 0our han# lu!!a!e 9ei!hs 9ill 5reven% 0ou from boar#in! %he 5lane$? b$ Pa%ru ore cW% #ureaAL (Mi/ filmul %Lu i-au %rebui% lui CeAar four hours ho9-much las%s also movie-%he 0our him$ DAT-have nee#e# G'L Caesar sL %reacL Rubiconul SD'N 5ass Rubicon-%he >Four hours as much as 0our movie las%s also is 9ha% Caesar nee#e# %o cross %he Rubicon$? c$ Fece -ilome%ri cW% se En%in#e Moseaua #incolo #e 5eM%erL es%e mai mul% %en -ilome%ers ho9-much R7FL s5an roa#-%he be0on# of cave is more much #ecW% aM 5u%ea eu Eno%a$ %han 9oul#$+SG berable I s9im >Ten -ilome%ers as much as %he roa# runs be0on# %he cave is more %han I coul# s9im$?
Thus if %he sen%ences in (4+/ are 5ronounce# 9i%h comma in%ona%ion flan-in! %he RC as in#ica%e# %he RC #oes no% affec% %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he ma%ri; as is %05icall0 %he case in a55osi%ive cons%ruc%ions$ In (4+/a for e;am5le %he nine -ilos %ha% are claime# %o 5reven% >me? from boar#in! %he 5lane nee# have no%hin! %o #o 9i%h %he 9ei!h% of >0our? lu!!a!e %he0 ma0 sim5l0 be %he 9ei!h% of m0 lu!!a!e (%his rea#in! is es5eciall0 salien% in %he full version 9here i >also? is na%urall0 cons%rue# as im5l0in! i#en%i%0 of 9ei!h% be%9een 0our an# m0 lu!!a!e/$ In (4+/b four hours is sim5l0 un#ers%oo# as %he %ime %ha% Caesar nee#e# %o cross %he Rubicon an# %he RC merel0 a##s %he informa%ion %ha% %his %ime len!%h ha55ene# %o be i#en%ical %o %he #ura%ion of >0our? movie$ Finall0 in (4+/c %en -ilome%ers is cons%rue# as a #is%ance in a la-e sea or river 9hich is !rea%er %han %he ma;imal #is%ance I 9oul# be able %o s9im$ The sen%ences in (4+/ nee# no% ho9ever be u%%ere# 9i%h flan-in! comma in%ona%ion aroun# %he RC an# in %his case %he 9ei!h% %ime-len!%h an# s5a%ial #is%ance in#ica%e# b0 %he RC-e;%ernal ma%erial is cons%rue# as a 5ro5er%0 of %he RC sub6ec%s i$e$ of >0our? han# lu!!a!e >0our? movie an# %he s%re%ch of %he roa# %ha% be!ins a% %he (con%e;%uall0 relevan%/ cave res5ec%ivel0$ This can be a55recia%e# b0 con%ras%in! %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he #a%a in (4+/ 9i%h an# 9i%hou% comma in%ona%ion$ The cons%ruals 9i%h comma in%ona%ion 9ere #escribe# in %he 5rece#in! 5ara!ra5h$ Those 9i%hou% comma in%ona%ion are as follo9s3 (4+/a is un#ers%oo# as sa0in! %ha% %he fac% %ha% 0our lu!!a!e 9ei!hs nine -ilos 9ill someho9 5reven% me from boar#in! %he 5lane$ (4+/b is infelici%ous %here bein! no obvious coheren% in%er5re%a%ion %ha% ma-es %he #ura%ion of >0our movie? %he fac%or %ha% enable# Caesar %o com5le%e %he crossin! of %he Rubicon$ Finall0 (4+/c has %he s%ran!e cons%rual %ha% >I? shoul# be able %o s9im on lan#$ Thus a55ro;ima%e 7n!lish 5ara5hrases of %he RCCs in (4=/ mi!h% be >nine -ilos as %he 9ei!h% of 0our lu!!a!e? >four hours as %he #ura%ion of 0our movie? an# >%en -ilome%ers as %he measure of %he roa# from %he cave %o i%s en#$? Re%urnin! %o %he in%er5re%a%ion of %he #a%a in (4=/ 9e ma0 no%e imme#ia%el0 %ha% CP ,+,
an# NP canno% be combine# b0 in%ersec%ion$ If %he0 #i# %he0 coul# 5ur5or% %o be cons%rue# as in#efini%es an# 9oul# be infelici%ous for e;ac%l0 %he reason %ha% %he #a%a in (22/ 9ere seen %o be (essen%iall0 because i% 9oul# nee# %o be assume# %ha% e;5ressions li-e nine -ilos four hours %en -ilome%ers can in 5rinci5le #eno%e more %han one #e!ree on %he corres5on#in! scales/$ In fac% %he RCCs in (4=/ #o no% have in#efini%e force$ Ra%her %he0 are un#ers%oo# as #eno%in! %he 9ei!h% #ura%ion an# s5a%ial len!%h #eno%e# b0 %he RC-e;%ernal NP in %he s5ecific minimal si%ua%ion #escribe# b0 %he RC$ Gne 5ossible 9a0 of %hin-in! abou% %hem is b0 analo!0 %o 5ro5er names in s5ecific -in#s of si%ua%ion as in %he follo9in! e;am5le3
(41/ Con%e;%3 Nohn is bo%h %he 6u#!e an# %he han!man of some villa!e$ Jo8n as a 7134e has been on s%ri-e for %hree 9ee-s bu% Jo8n as a 8an46an hasn]% s%o55e# 9or-in! a sin!le #a0$
Gne 9a0 of loo-in! a% %he bol#face# e;5ressions in (41/ is %o vie9 %hem as #eno%in! %he se% of 5ro5er%ies %ha% Nohn has in %hose si%ua%ions 9here he cruciall0 5ossesses %he e;5lici%l0 men%ione# 5ro5er%0$ This a55roach ma0 be e;%en#e# %o %he RCCs un#er consi#era%ion$ I% is un-no9n a% %he momen% 9h0 %his %05e of RCC is foun# in Romanian (an# in a% leas% one o%her 'al-an lan!ua!e Albanian/ bu% no% in man0 o%her lan!ua!es such as 7n!lish French I%alian an# German$ Tha% is %o sa0 no !rammar-in%ernal fac%ors have been #e%ec%e# so far$ This conclu#es our #iscussion of %he seman%ic %05es foun# in RCCs 9i%h fini%e RCs$ 2.2. S9nta/t./ t95es The 5rinci5al s0n%ac%ic %05es of RCCs in %he lan!ua!es of %he 9orl# are %he follo9in!3 (i/ 7;%ernall0 hea#e# RCCs (ii/ In%ernall0 hea#e# RCCs (iii// Correla%ive RCCs an# (iv/ Free RCCs$ I% is im5or%an% %o -ee5 in min# %ha% %hese %erms are 5re-%heore%ical an# %ha% %he0 #o no% necessaril0 5rovi#e a 5recise or even correc% charac%eriAa%ion of %he classes of RCCs %he0 name$ 7;%ernall0 hea#e# RCCs 9hich have been e;%ensivel0 illus%ra%e# in %he 5rece#in! sec%ion consis% of an RC an# some e;%ernal ma%erial (%he la%%er in %urn %05icall0 consis%s of a D an# an NP/$ In Romanian an# 7n!lish %he RC follo&s %he e;%ernal ma%erial (a s%a%e of affairs %ha% is no% universall0 foun# in e;%ernall0 hea#e# RCCs/$ In Romanian %here is in mos% cases a !a5 9hich forms a chain 9i%h a #is5lace# 5hrase %ha% is over%l0 >visible? a% %he lef% 5eri5her0 of %he RC an# e;hibi%s %he Case an# 5re5osi%ional re@uiremen%s of %he 5osi%ion occu5ie# b0 %he !a5I %his 5hrase 9hich for lac- of a be%%er name 9e 9ill call %he >rela%ive 5hrase? is ei%her a rela%ive 5ronoun or a more com5le; 5hrase %ha% 5ro5erl0 inclu#es a rela%ive 5ronoun$ In some cases %he 5resence of %he !a5 is 5ar%l0 mas-e# b0 a >#oublin!? Accusa%ive or Da%ive cli%ic 5ronoun (see i- >her/him$DAT? in (42/iii/ 9hich is in#e5en#en%l0 foun# in Romanian 9i%h non-#is5lace# noun 5hrases un#er s5ecial circums%ances$ Re!ar#less of %he 5resence/absence of such a cli%ic RCCs e;hibi%in! a rela%ive 5hrase %ha% reflec%s %he Case/5re5osi%ional 5ro5er%ies of %he !a5 are sensi%ive %o %he so calle# >islan# cons%rain%s? (9hich are #escribe# an# illus%ra%e# more full0 in sec%ion 4 of %his cha5%er/$ Ue limi% here #emons%ra%ion of islan#-sensi%ivi%0 in rela%ion %o one sub-%05e of %he "Com5le; NP Cons%rain%& 9hich bloc-s e;%rac%ion ou% of DPs %ha% inclu#e a rela%ive clause$ (42/i-ii illus%ra%e %he sensi%ivi%0 of rela%iviAa%ion 9i%h a !a5 9i%h an# 9i%hou% a #oublin! cli%ic 5ronoun res5ec%ivel0$
(42/ i$ XFa%a /:0e.a Ri-am arL%a% #oi bLieRi care .-au %rimis rr !irl-%he 9hich$DAT 0ou$DAT-have$+ sho9n %9o bo0s 9hich her$DAT-have sen%
,+.
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies scrisori #e #ra!os%e a 5leca% la Paris$ le%%ers of love has lef% %o Paris ii$ XFa%a /1 /a0e Ri-am arL%a% #oi bLieRi care au #ansa% rr !irl-%he 9i%h 9hich 0ou$ DAT-have sho9n %9o bo0s 9hich have #ance# ieri searL a 5leca% la Paris$ 0es%er#a0 evenin! has lef% %o Paris iii$ Fa%a /a0e Ri-am arL%a% #oi bLieRi care .-au %rimis !irl-%he 9hich 0ou$ DAT-have sho9n %9o bo0s 9ho her$DAT-have sen% scrisori #e #ra!os%e a 5leca% la Paris$ le%%ers of love has lef% %o Paris >The !irl %ha% I have sho9n 0ou %9o bo0s 9ho have sen% her love le%%ers lef% for Paris$? iv$ Fa%a /a0e Ri-am arL%a% #oi bLieRi care au #ansa% asearL !irl-%he 9hich 0ou$ DAT-have sho9n %9o bo0s 9hich have #ance# las%-ni!h% cu Zea= 3Knsa[ a 5leca% la Paris$ 9i%h her has lef% %o Paris >The !irl 9ho I have sho9n 0ou %9o bo0s 9ho #ance# 9i%h her las% ni!h% lef% for Paris$?
In (42/i %he Da%ive Case of %he rela%ive 5ronoun in#ica%es %ha% i% has been #is5lace# from %he 5osi%ion of %he !a5I in (42/ii %he 5re5osi%ion cu cons%i%u%es evi#ence of #is5lacemen%$ The fac% %ha% bo%h e;am5les are #evian% in#ica%es %ha% %he 5resence/absence of a #oublin! cli%ic in no 9a0 affec%s islan# sensi%ivi%0$ The minimall0 #ifferen% e;am5les (42/iii-iv illus%ra%e ano%her rela%iviAa%ion o5%ion %ha% is available in %he collo@uial re!is%er of Romanian$ The RCs are ini%ia%e# b0 %he invarian% form care 9hich #oes no% reflec% %he Case or 5re5osi%ional re@uiremen%s of an RC-in%ernal 5ivo%$ Fur%hermore %he in%ernal 5ivo% is a #efini%e 5ronoun cli%ic in (42/iii an# non-cli%ic in (42/iv$ Cruciall0 %here is no islan#-sensi%ivi%0 in %hese e;am5les a s%a%e of affairs 9hich %a-en in con6unc%ion 9i%h %he invariance of care 5oin% %o %he conclusion %ha% no%hin! has been #is5lace# in such cases an# %ha% care is no% a rela%ive 5ronoun bu% sim5l0 a rela%ive com5lemen%iAer (com5arable e$!$ %o t!at in %he 7n!lish e;am5le t!e boo# t!at you &rote about/$ Pronouns li-e %hose in (42/ii-iv are usuall calle# >resum5%ive? 5ronouns$ In%ernall0 hea#e# RCCs an# Correla%ive RCCs are en%irel0 absen% from Romanian an# 7n!lish an# %herefore %he0 9ill no% be #iscusse# here$ Ue no9 %urn %o Free RCCs$ As far as over% a55earance !oes %hese cons%ruc%ions a55ear %o consis% en%irel0 of a &!-li-e clause bein! in fac% ver0 similar an# of%en su5erficiall0 i#en%ical %o embe##e# in%erro!a%ive clauses (also in man0 lan!ua!es o%her %han Romanian/$ There is ho9ever a ver0 im5or%an% #ifference be%9een in%erro!a%ives an# su5erficiall0 similar free RCCs3 The former #eno%e 5ro5osi%ions in 5ar%icular %he se% of 5ro5osi%ions %ha% are %rue ans9ers %o %he @ues%ion so %ha% %he &!-5hrase or 5hrases 9i%hin i% in no 9a0 func%ion as >5ivo%s?$ In con%ras% %he &!-5hrase of a free RCC (9hich unli-e in in%erro!a%ives is al9a0s uni@ue/ #e%ermines %he cate ory and lo ical type of %he RCC an# %hus #efini%el0 cons%i%u%es a 5ivo%$ As 9ill be seen belo9 free RCCs can be nominal a#6ec%ival 5re5osi%ional or a#verbial (much li-e a55osi%ives an# unli-e res%ric%ives3 see sec%ion 2$1/ an# %he0 ma0 #eno%e en%i%ies #e!rees or 5ro5er%ies$ Uha% ma-es %hem #ifferen% from e;%ernall0-hea#e# rela%ives is %ha% %here is a sin!le over% 5ivo% %he &!-5hrase$ Fur%hermore %he fac% %ha% %he &!-5hrase occurs a% %he lef%5eri5her0 of %he RCC i$e$ in a 5osi%ion 9here i%s in%ernal/e;%ernal s%a%us is no% au%oma%icall0 obvious (a si%ua%ion foun# in numerous lan!ua!es besi#es Romanian/ has !iven rise %o a mul%i5lici%0 of anal0ses concernin! %he s%ruc%ural s%a%us of %his 5ivo%$ There has been a !rea% #eal of #iscussion ar!uin! in favor of one of %he follo9in! %hree vie9s3 (i/ %he &!-5hrase is in%ernal %o %he RCI (ii/ %he &!-5hrase is e;%ernal %o %he RCI (iii/ %he &!-5hrase belon!s simul%aneousl0 %o %he RC an# %o i%s ma%ri;$ ,+<
For (iii/ %he &!-5hrase func%ions as bo%h in%ernal an# e;%ernal 5ivo%$ For (ii/ %he &!5hrase is an e;%ernal 5ivo% an# %he !a5 9i%hin %he rela%ive is %he in%ernal 5ivo%$ For (i/ %he issue of an e;%ernal 5ivo% is sli!h%l0 %ric-ier$ Gne can in 5rinci5le assume a null e;%ernal noun bu% one #oes no% have %o #o %his because such a noun 9oul# in an0 even% nee# %o be seman%icall0 vacuous$ Uha% #oes ho9ever seem %o be necessar0 (or a% leas% ar!uabl0 #esirable/ is %o assume a null e;%ernal func%ional ca%e!or0 in 5ar%icular a #e%erminer or o%her ca%e!or0-s5ecific func%ional ca%e!or0 9hich can accoun% for %he fac% %ha% free RCCs are in 5rinci5le freel0 license# in %he environmen%s in 9hich sim5le; 5hrases homoca%e!orial 9i%h %heir &!-5hrases are$ Revie9in! %he ar!umen%s for (i/-(iii/ !oes 9a0 be0on# %he sco5e of %his cha5%er an# 9ill un#er%a-e no%hin! of %he -in# here (%he in%eres%e# rea#er ma0 ho9ever consul% %he biblio!ra5h0/$ Suffice %o sa0 a% %his 5oin% %ha% %he au%hor of %his cha5%er fin#s %he ar!umen%s in favor of (i/ mos% convincin! an# %his anal0sis 9ill be assume# in %he remain#er of %his cha5%er$ A 5ar%ial illus%ra%ion of incon%rover%ible free RCCs is 5rovi#e# in (44/$ No%e %ha% %hose in (44/i-ii have nominal 5ivo%s an# occur in a nominal 5osi%ion (%ha% of #irec% ob6ec%/ 9hile %he one in (44/iii has a loca%ive a#verbial an# occurs in a loca%ive a#verbial 5osi%ion$ For a##i%ional illus%ra%ion of %he ca%e!orial >ma%chin!? re@uiremen% concernin! free FRCs an# %heir 5ivo%s see (4</-(4C/$
(44/ i$ Ion a mWnca% [Z/e /eea/e[ a mWnca% rr Mi :aria]$ Ion has ea%en 9ha% %ha%-9ha% has ea%en an# :aria >Ion a%e 9ha% :aria a%e$? ii$ Ion a En%Wlni% [5e /.ne a En%Wlni% rr Mi :aria]$ Ion has me% DG: 9ho has me% an# :aria >Ion me% 9ho :aria me%$? iii$ Ion locuieM%e [1n3e locuieM%e Mi :aria rr]$ Ion lives 9here lives an# :aria >Ion lives 9here :aria also lives$?
Seman%icall0 free FRCs e;hibi% %he res%ric%ions on @uan%ifica%ional force %ha% are %05ical of in%ersec%ive sin!le%on RCCs$ For e;am5le %he RCC in (44ii/ canno% be cons%rue# 9i%h e;is%en%ial force bu% onl0 9i%h #efini%e (5ossibl0 also universal/ force an# im5lies %ha% Ion me% (all/ %he 5eo5le %ha% :aria me% no% 6us% some of %hemI %hus if (44ii/ is con%inue# 9i%h (4,/ %he resul%in! #iscourse is con%ra#ic%or0$
(4,/ A #oua Ai Ion le-a En%Wlni% 5e celelal%e 5ersoane 5e care le %he secon# #a0 Ion %hem$ACC-has me% DG: %he-o%her 5ersons DG: 9hich %hem$ACC En%Wlnise :aria$ mee%$PLPF$2SG :aria >The ne;% #a0 Ion me% %he o%her 5ersons %ha% :aria ha# me%$?
In a##i%ion free RCCs ma0 also have %he essen%ial force of e;%ernall0-hea#e# rela%ives hea#e# b0 free-choice e;5ressions o9in! %o %he fac% %ha% %heir in%ernal 5ivo% ma0 be a free-choice e;5ression$ In !eneral free-choice e;5ressions ma0 have ei%her @uasi-universal force as in any beer t!ere is in t!e frid e is mine (9hich im5lies %ha% all %he beer in %he fri#!e is mine/ or !enuine >choice? force as in ta#e any boo# on t!is s!elf t!at you li#e (9hich is un#ers%oo# as an e;hor%a%ion %o %a-e one boo- ou% of %he 5lurali%0 of boo-s on %he shelf %he choice bein! free/$ Com5arable in%er5re%a%ions 9i%h free rela%ives are illus%ra%e# b0 (4./a an# (4./b$ :a;imaliAa%ion nee#s %o be assume# in %he anal0sis of %hese cons%ruc%ions 6us% as i% 9as in rela%ion %o e;%ernall0-hea#e# rela%ives 9i%h com5arable @uan%ifica%ional force (see #iscussion of %he relevan% version of (1B/b/ as illus%ra%e# b0 %he infelici%0 of usin! %he secon# sen%ence in ,+B
%hese e;am5les as a con%inua%ion of %he firs%$

(4./ a$ Ion mLnWncL [o0./e mLnWncL rr :aria] m#ar nu a%in!e al%e lucruri Ion ea%s 9ha%ever ea%s :aria bu% no% %ouches o%her %hin!s 5e care le mLnWncL :aria$ DG: 9hich CL$2FPL$ACC ea%s :aria >Ion ea%s 9ha%ever :aria ea%s mbu% #oes no% %ouch o%her %hin!s %ha% :aria ea%s$? b$ Ale!e [o0./e /a0te ERi 5lace] m#ar Rine con% cL sun% cLrRi care 5ic-$I:PF$1SG an0 boo- 0ou$DAT li-es bu% -ee5 accoun% %ha% are boo-s 9hich ERi 5lac Mi 5e care nu le 5oRi ale!e$ 0ou$DAT li-e$2PL an# DG: 9hich no% CL$2FPL$ACC can$1SG choose >Choose an0 boo- 0ou li-e mbu% #o no% for!e% %here are boo-s 0ou li-e 9hich 0ou ma0 no% choose$?
I% is im5or%an% %o s%ress %ha% %he %ar!e%e# variable nee# no% be an in#ivi#ual one$ In 5ar%icular i% ma0 also be a variable of %he %05e of #e!rees -in#s or 5ro5er%ies as illus%ra%e# in (4</-(4C/ res5ec%ivel0$
(4</ :Wine 5o% fi [o0./Kte s%icle #e bere Emi ceri sL cum5Lr rr ] 5e masa %a$ %omorro9 can be as man0 bo%%les of beer me$ DAT as-$1SG SD'N bu0 on %able 0our >Tomorro9 %here can be [ho9ever man0 bo%%les of beer 0ou as- me %o bu0] on 0our %able$? `Ri 5o% 5rocura [o0./e fel #e marfL #oreM%i rr ]$ 0ou$DAT can$+SG !e% an0 -in# of merchan#ise 9an%$1SG >I can !e% 0ou [9ha%ever -in# of merchan#ise 0ou #esire]$? Ion es%e as%LAi [g/eea/e= ^/eh a s5era% #in%o%#eauna mama lui cL va fi rr Ion is %o#a0 %ha%-9ha% 9ha% has ho5e# forever mo%her-%he his %ha% 9ill be cWn#va]3 res5ec%a% a#mira% Mi aco5eri% #e onoruri$ some%imes res5ec%e# a#mire# an# covere# of honors >Ion is %o#a0 [9ha% his mo%her al9a0s ho5e# he 9oul# be some #a0 ]3 res5ec%e# a#mire# an# full of honors$?
(4B/
(4C/
In conclu#in! our #iscussion of %he 5ro5er%ies of free RCs 9e 9ill a##ress a 5ro5er%0 %he0 share 9i%h o%her sin!le%on rela%ives an# 9hich 9as allu#e# %o in sec%ion 1$+3 i%era%ion 9i%h s%ric% in%ersec%in! im5or% 9hich is %he raison d.dtre of i%era%e# res%ric%ive RCs is %05icall0 e;clu#e# 9i%h sin!le%on RCs$ This is cer%ainl0 so 9i%h res5ec% %o free rela%ives$ Illus%ra%ions from 7n!lish an# Romanian are 5rovi#e# in (,=/-(,+/ res5ec%ivel0$
(,=/ (,+/ [Uha% Nohn sai#] [g%ha% X9ha%h u5se% :ar0 so much] canno% be reveale#$ a$ [Grice ar s5une Ion] [gcare Xoriceh n-ar fi 5e 5lacul neves%e-sii ] an0%hin! 9oul# sa0 Ion 9hich an0%hin! no%-9oul# be on %as%e-%he 9ife-his$ G7N va fi i!nora% #e res%ul familiei$ 9ill be i!nore# of res%-%he famil0-%he$G7N >Uha%ever Ion ma0 sa0 g%ha% X9ha%everh 9oul#n?% mee% 9i%h his 9ife?s a55roval 9ill be i!nore# b0 %he remain#er of %he famil0$? b$ K[Ce s5une Ion] [ce nu es%e 5e 5lacul neves%e-sii ] e #e obicei i!nora% #e 9ha% sa0s Ion 9ha% no% is on %as%e-%he 9ife-his$ G7N is usuall0 i!nore# of res%ul familiei$ res%-%he famil0-%he$G7N >Uha%ever Ion sa0s 9hich #oesn?% mee% his 9ife?s a55roval is usuall0 i!nore# b0 %he remain#er of %he famil0$?
No%e %ha% %he version of (,=/ 9i%h t!at in %he ri!h%mos% brac-e%e# s%ruc%ure is fine because %his ,+C
s%ruc%ure is in%er5re%able as an e;%ra5ose# res%ric%ive RC mo#if0in! %he lef%mos% %o-en of &!at$ The version 9i%h %9o %o-ens of &!at 9hich forces bo%h RCs %o be free rela%ives is com5le%el0 un!ramma%ical$ Similarl0 in (,+/a %he version 9i%h care is fine 9hile %he version 9i%h orice is %o%all0 ou%$ In %his e;am5le orice has been use# ra%her %han ce because as 9ill be seen in sec%ion 1$2 ce ma0 have ei%her 5ronoun or P more mar!inall0 P com5lemen%iAer s%a%us 9i%h %he resul% %ha% (,+/b is in a coun%er5ar% of bo%h versions of (,=/ an# is mar!inall0 acce5%able on %he rea#in! %ha% corres5on#s %o %he version of (,=/ 9i%h t!at$ The inabili%0 of free RCs %o in%ersec% in %he 9a0 res%ric%ive RCs #o is ar!uabl0 #ue %o %heir sin!le%on s%a%us %ha% is %o sa0 %o %he fac% %ha% %he in%ersec%ion of %9o sin!le%ons 9i%h #is%inc% members is null$ The inabili%0 of free RCs %o in%ersec% is also reveale# in %he follo9in! con%ras%3
(,1/ a$ 'Lia%ul [[care o iubeM%e 5e :aria] Mi [care o iubeM%e Mi 5e Iulia]] bo0-%he 9ho her$ACC loves DG: :aria an# 9ho her$ACC loves also DG: Iulia aM%ea5%L afarL$ 9ai%s ou%si#e >The bo0 [[9ho loves :aria] an# [9ho also loves Iulia]] is 9ai%in! ou%si#e$? b$ [Cine o iubeM%e 5e :aria] Mi [cine o iubeM%e Mi 5e Iulia] 9ho her$ACC loves DG: :aria an# 9ho her$ACC loves also DG: Iulia sL aM%e5%e afarL$ SD'N 9ai% ou%si#e >[Uho loves :aria] an# [9ho loves Iulia]] shoul# 9ai% ou%si#e$?
(,1/a is na%urall0 in%er5re%e# (in bo%h lan!ua!es/ as im5l0in! %ha% %he same bo0 simul%aneousl0 loves :aria an# Iulia$ (,1/b #oes no% im5l0 (in ei%her lan!ua!e/ %ha% %he same 5eo5le love :aria an# love Iulia (i% #oes no% e;clu#e %his 5ossibili%0 bu% #oes no% im5l0 i% ei%her/$ Presumabl0 coor#ina%ion in (,1/b is no% a% %he level of CP bu% a% %he level of DP$ For com5le%eness %9o more remar-s are in or#er here$ Firs% %he versions of (,=/-(,+/ 9i%h %9o free RCCs can be ma#e !ramma%ical if %he ri!h%mos% brac-e%e# s%ruc%ure is a 5aren%he%ical flan-e# b0 5auses in 9hich case i%s func%ion is %o res%a%e or >correc%? %he con%en% of %he lef%mos% brac-e%e# s%ruc%ure 5resen%in! i% from a #ifferen% 5ers5ec%ive$ Secon# %he effec% of coor#ina%ion an# i%era%ion is some9ha% #ifferen% %han in sin!le%on cons%ruc%ions of %he -in# illus%ra%e# in (2+/$ To see %his consi#er %he follo9in! mo#ifie# version of (2+/b$
(,2/ Cele %rei ore [cW% a #ura% conferinRa] (Mi/ [cW% a #ura% Mi %hose %hree hours ho9-much has las%e# conference-%he an# ho9-much has las%e# also 5roiec%area filmului] au coincis cu o fur%unL in Ci5ru$ 5ro6ec%ion-%he film-%he$G7N have coinci#e# 9i%h a s%orm in C05rus >The %hree hours [%ha% %he conference las%e#] (an#/ [%ha% %he movie also las%e# ] coinci#e# 9i%h a s%orm in C05rus$?
This e;am5le seems basicall0 acce5%able 9i%h coor#ina%ion as 9ell as 9i%h sim5le i%era%ion 9i%hou% 5aren%he%ical in%ona%ion so lon! as bo%h even%s 9ere simul%aneous an# ha# %he same #ura%ion$ This con%ras%s 9i%h %he behavior of free RCCs seen in (,1/b$ This s5ecial behavior of free RCCs 9hich as no%e# above 5oin%s %o an im5ossibili%0 %o con6oin %he %9o CPs is in nee# of fur%her s%u#0 an# 9e confine ourselves here %o no%in! i%$ 2.3. Mo058olo4./al t95es RCCs 9hose RC e;hibi%s an in%ernal !a5 an# in 5ar%icular %hose of Romanian ma0 (also/ be ,1=
classifie# accor#in! %o %he mor5holo!0 of %he elemen%s a% %he lef% 5eri5her0 of %heir RCs$ As 9as alrea#0 seen in %he e;am5les in (42/ Romanian RCs ma0 be!in ei%her 9i%h a rela%ive 5ronoun or 9i%h a com5lemen%iAerI 9e 9ill see la%er %ha% a rela%ive 5ronoun ma0 also have been #is5lace# as 5ar% of a lar!er 5hrase a 5henomenon -no9n as >Pie# Pi5in!?$ Ue no%e %ha% 7n!lish e;hibi%s in a##i%ion %o %hese %9o o5%ions a %hir#3 %he RC ma0 fail %o e;hibi% an0 over% in%ro#uc%or0 i%em (a si%ua%ion -no9n as >con%ac% rela%ives?/$ Concernin! rela%ive 5ronouns %hese are basicall0 homon0mous 9i%h in%erro!a%ive 5ronouns (see sec%ion 2$2$+/ e;ce5% %ha% cine >9ho? an# ce >9ha%? are no% use# as rela%ive 5ronouns in e;%ernall0 hea#e# rela%ives care >9hich? bein! use# 9i%h bo%h human an# nonhuman e;%ernal nouns$ ,ine an# ce are ho9ever use# in free RCCs$ Concernin! com5lemen%iAers 9e have seen %ha% invarian% care can have %his func%ion an# so can ce 9hich ma0 be subs%i%u%e# for care in (42/ 9i%h 5reserva%ion of insensi%ivi%0 %o islan# cons%rain%s$ The com5lemen%iAer s%a%us of ce in e;%ernall0-hea#e# rela%ives is brou!h% ou% bo%h b0 %he insensi%ivi%0 %o islan#s 6us% no%e# an# b0 %he fac% %ha% unli-e in%erro!a%ive ce an# %he rela%ive 5ronoun care i% is no% allo9e# af%er 5re5osi%ions as illus%ra%e# in (,4/ii$
(,4/ i$ :un%ele g/a0e= /eh se EnalRL En Aare e aco5eri% #e AL5a#L$ moun%ain-%he 9hich 9ha% R7FL rises in horiAon is covere# of sno9 >The moun%ain g9hich %ha%[ rises a% %he horiAon is covere# 9i%h sno9$? ii$ :un%ele la g/a0e= L/eh se ui%L :aria e foar%e Enal%$ moun%ain-%he a% 9hich 9ha% R7FL loo-s :aria is ver0 hi!h >The moun%ain a% g9hich X%ha%h :aria is loo-in! is ver0 hi!h$?
As a rela%ive com5lemen%iAer ce #iffers in s%a%us from cons%ruc%ion %o cons%ruc%ion$ Gne can #is%in!uish %hree %05es of si%ua%ion3 (A/ The e;%ernal 5ivo% is an over% full NP as in (,4/i or (,,/i in 9hich case i% has a li%erar0 some9ha% obsolescen% flavor$ ('/ There is no over% e;%ernal NP onl0 some form of %he #efini%e #e%erminer celI in %his case %he com5lemen%iAer is a full0 acce5%able al%ernan% of rela%ive 5ronouns as illus%ra%e# in (,,/ii$ (C/ The com5lemen%iAer cons%i%u%es %he onl0 !ramma%ical o5%ion$ This ha55ens 9hen %he (over%/ e;%ernal ma%erial is %he neu%ral coun%er5ar% of cel i$e$ ceea or %he >bare? @uan%ifier tot >all? as illus%ra%e# in (,,/iii-iv$ The fac% %ha% %he neu%ral form of %his #efini%e #e%erminer behaves #ifferen%l0 %han %he non-neu%ral forms ma0 a55ear sur5risin! bu% %he reason seems %o be %ha% %he neu%ral form an# %he com5lemen%iAer have con%rac%e# in%o a sin!le 9or# (as reflec%e# in %he s5ellin!/ cou5le# 9i%h %he fac% %ha% %here is no free form ceea$ 7vi#ence for con%rac%ion comes from %he behavior of ceea ce as a rela%ive 5ronoun in free RCCs a 5oin% %ha% 9ill be a##resse# in sec%ions 2$2$+ an# 2$2$1$1$
(,,/ i$ KFa%a ce Ri-a 5lLcu% nu se aflL acum En camerL$ !irl-%he 9ha% 0ou$DAT-has li-e# no% R7FL fin#s no9 in room >The !irl %ha% 0ou li-e# is no% in %he room no9$? ii$ Cei gce careh #oresc sL ia 5ar%e la curs %rebuie sL se Enscrie #in %im5$ Those 9ha% 9hich 9ish SD'N %a-e 5ar% a% course mus% SD'N R7FL re!is%er in %ime >Those {9ho %ha%} 9ish %o %a-e 5ar% in %he course mus% re!is%er earl0$? iii$ gCeea ce Xceea careh %e #eran6eaAL va fi su5rima%$ %ha% 9ha% %ha% 9hich 0ou$ ACC bo%hers 9ill be su55resse# >{Uha% X9hich} bo%hers 0ou 9ill be elimina%e#? iv$ To% gce Xcareh %e #eran6eaAL va fi su5rima%$ All 9ha% 9hich 0ou$ACC bo%hers 9ill be su55resse# >7ver0%hin! {%ha% X9hich} bo%hers 0ou 9ill be elimina%e#$?
2.$. S166a09 of /o00elat.ons a6on4 se6ant./= s9nta/t./ an3 6o058olo4./al t95es
,1+
The follo9in! correla%ions can be #e%ec%e# amon! %he %hree %05olo!ies of Romanian RCCs ou%line# an# illus%ra%e# in sec%ions 1$+$ 1$1$ an# 1$2$ res5ec%ivel03 (A/ 7;%ernall0 hea#e# RCCs ma0 e;hibi% a55osi%ive res%ric%ive or sin!le%on seman%ics$ ('/ Free RCCs have onl0 sin!le%on seman%ics as an inheren% 5ro5er%0$ (C/ All s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic %05es ma0 use rela%ive 5ronouns (9i%h ver0 fe9 e;ce5%ions/I e;%ernall0 hea#e# RCCs o%her %han a55osi%ives ma0 use a com5lemen%iAer un#er res%ric%e# circums%ances as a mar!inal o5%ion (e;ce5% in %he fe9 cases 9here 5ronouns are rule# ou%/$
3. D.st.n/t.2e 50o5e0t.es of s1b+t95es of RCCs

3.1. D.st.n/t.ons a6on4 se6ant./ t95es In sec%ion 1$ 9e no%e# an# illus%ra%e# %he follo9in! #is%inc%ive 5ro5er%ies of %he %hree ma6or seman%ic %05es of RCCs3 (I/ A55osi%ive RCs func%ion as illocu%ionar0 uni%s #is%inc% from %hose forme# b0 %heir ma%ricesI res%ric%ive an# sin!le%on RCs are illocu%ionaril0 in%e!ra%e# in%o %heir ma%rices$ (II/ The %hree %05es of RCCs #iffer in %he %05es of #e%ermina%ion/@uan%ifica%ion %he0 allo9$ Thus res%ric%ive RCCs are com5a%ible 9i%h ever0 -in# of #e%ermina%ion/@uan%ifica%ion foun# in sim5le; nominals$ A55osi%ive RCCs are com5a%ible onl0 9i%h %hose %05es of #e%ermina%ion/@uan%ifica%ion %ha% are com5a%ible 9i%h #iscourse-bin#in! of an an%ece#en%$ Sin!le%on RCCs are incom5a%ible 9i%h e;is%en%ial @uan%ifica%ion$ (III/ The %hree %05es of RCCs also #iffer in %he im5or% of i%era%ion of %heir RCs$ I%era%e# res%ric%ive RCs rel0 on mul%i5le se% in%ersec%ion each RC im5osin! an a##i%ional res%ric%ion on %he se% #efine# b0 %he 5ivo% NP$ I%era%e# a55osi%ive RCs e;5ress illocu%ionar0 5re#ica%ions abou% %heir an%ece#en% an# mus% sa%isf0 #iscourse coherence re@uiremen%s$ Sin!le%on RCs #o no% i%era%e e;ce5% as 5aren%he%ical reinforcemen%s or correc%ions of a sin!le non-5aren%he%ical RC$ 3.2. Cate4o0.al 3.st.n/t.ons The RCCs %ha% have a55eare# in our illus%ra%ions so far have been of nominal ca%e!or0$ The onl0 e;ce5%ion %o %his !eneraliAa%ion is %he free RCC in (4C/ 9hich is ca%e!oriall0 un#ers5ecifie# bein! com5a%ible 9i%h an0 con%e;%uall0 a55ro5ria%e 5re#ica%ive ca%e!or0$ In %his 5ar%icular e;am5le %he colon is follo9e# b0 APs bu% i% can in 5rinci5le also be follo9e# b0 NPs e$!$ un actor celebru i un tat bun >a famous ac%or an# a !oo# fa%her? or b0 PPs e$!$ ntr-o stare de pace sufleteasc >a% 5eace 9i%h himself?$ In %his sec%ion i% 9ill be sho9n %ha% some RCCs al%hou!h no% all ma0 be of o%her ca%e!ories as 9ell$ 7;%ernall0-hea#e# non-a55osi%ive RCCs are necessaril0 nominal 9he%her %he0 func%ion as ar!umen%s (as in (1i// or as 5re#ica%es (as in (2.//$ A55osi%ive RCCs on %he o%her han# occur in a 9i#e ran!e of ca%e!oriesI in 5ar%icular %he0 ma0 be of ca%e!or0 NP/DP AP VP IP an# CP$ Fur%hermore %he RCs e;hibi% s5ecial mor5holo!ical 5ro5er%ies 9hen %he e;%ernal 5ivo% (%he an%ece#en%/ is some%hin! o%her %han a nominal ar!umen% in 5ar%icular a nominal 5re#ica%e an a#6ec%ival 5re#ica%e a VP an in#e5en#en% sen%ence or a com5lemen% clause as in (,./-(.=/ res5ec%ivel0$ In all %hese ,11
e;am5les %he an%ece#en% is bol#face#$

(,./ (,</ (,B/ (,C/ (.=/ Ion e E1nF soA b1n ceea ce fra%ele lui n-a fos% nicio#a%L$ Ion is a husban# !oo# %ha% 9ha% bro%her-%he his no%-has been never >Ion is a !oo# husban# 9hich his bro%her never 9as$? Ion e /10a7os ceea ce fra%ele lui n-a fos% nicio#a%L$ Ion is brave %ha% 9ha% bro%her-%he his no%-has been never >Ion is brave 9hich his bro%her never 9as$? Ion se e<50.6: Nnt0+1n 6o3 ne4l.7ent ceea ce fra%ele lui nu face nicio#a%L$ Ion R7FL e;5resses in a 9a0 careless %ha% 9ha% bro%her-%he his no% #oes never >Ion e;5resses himself carelessl0 9hich his bro%her never #oes$? Ion a sos.t 315: 6.eB1l no5A.. ceea ce a Moca% 5e %oa%L lumea$ Ion has arrive# af%er mi#ni!h%-%he %ha% 9ha% has shoc-e# DG: all 9orl# >Ion arrive# af%er mi#ni!h% 9hich sur5rise# ever0bo#0$? Ion susRine /: 3o. C. /1 3o. fa/ /.n/. ceea ce fra%ele lui n-ar Ion claims %ha% %9o an# 9i%h %9o ma-e five %ha% 9ha% bro%her-%he his no% 9oul# susRine nicio#a%L$ claim never >Ion claims %ha% %9o an# %9o are five 9hich his bro%her 9oul# never claim$?
Thus in 7n!lish %he in%ernal 5ivo% is invariabl0 &!ic! even 9hen %he an%ece#en% is nominal an# #eno%es a human 5ro5er%0 (see (,.//$ In Romanian as in Romance lan!ua!es in !eneral %he a55osi%ive e;5ression is no% even clausalI ra%her i% a55ears %o be a DP %ha% 5ro5erl0 inclu#es an RC an# is hea#e# b0 a #emons%ra%ive 5ronoun an# 9hich none%heless has %he seman%ics of an a55osi%ive RC$ Tha% such e;5ressions are no% cons%rue# as DPs %05icall0 are can be a55recia%e# b0 con%ras%in! %he full version of (.+/ 9i%h i%s re#uce# version on %he one han# an# 9i%h (,./-(.=/ on %he o%her$
(.+/ gFa%a car%eah as%a (cea/ care i-a 5lLcu% lui Ion a%W% #e mul% !irl-%he boo--%he %his %he-one 9hich him$ DAT-has li-e# G'L Ion so of much nu i-a 5lLcu% mamei lui$ no% her$DAT-has li-e# mo%her-%he$DAT his >This g!irl boo-h (%he one/ g9ho %ha%h Ion li-e# so much #i# no% fin# favor 9i%h his mo%her$? Ion locuieM%e la Paris (acolo/ un#e locuieM%e Mi sora lui$ Ion lives a% Paris %here 9here lives also sis%er-%he his >Ion lives in Paris (%he 5lace/ 9here his sis%er also lives$? :aria a sosi% la ora cinci (a%unci/ cWn# era EncL 5rea #evreme 5en%ru cinL$ :aria has arrive# a% hour-%he five %hen 9hen 9as s%ill %oo earl0 for #inner >:aria arrive# a% five o?cloc- (%he %ime/ 9hen i% 9as %oo earl0 for #inner$? :aria mLnWncL re5e#e Mi 5e nemes%eca%e (aMa/ cum mLnWncL Mi sora ei$ :aria ea%s @uic-l0 an# on no%-che9in! li-e ho9 ea%s also sis%er-%he her >:aria ea%s @uic-l0 an# 9i%hou% che9in! gin %he 9a0 ash her sis%er also #oes$? :aria alear!L Ailnic cW%e Aece -ilome%ri (a%W%a/ cW% #e al%fel alear!L Mi :aria runs #ail0 DISTR %en -ilome%ers %ha%-much ho9-much ac%uall0 runs also sora ei$ sis%er- %he her >:aria runs %en -ilome%ers #ail0 g%he #is%ance ash her sis%er also runs$?
(.1/ (.2/ (.4/ (.,/
In %he full version of (.+/ %he a55osi%ive e;5ression is normall0 un#ers%oo# as anap!oric to earlier discourse or t!e non-lin uistic conte't ra%her %han 6us% %o %he e;5ression %ha% imme#ia%el0 5rece#es i% as is %he case in %he corres5on#in! re#uce# version an# in (,./-(.=//I in fac% %he a55osi%ive e;5ression in (.+/ %en#s %o have %he force of a remin#er$ A com5arable
,12
effec% if some9ha% less s%ron! is #e%ec%able 9i%h res5ec% %o %he full an# re#uce# versions of (.1/-(.2/$ In (.4/-(.,/ %he effec% is even 9ea-er i% bein! 5ossible %o cons%rue %he full versions in %he same 9a0 as %he re#uce# ones$ For com5le%eness i% ma0 be no%e# %ha% con%ras%s li-e %hose 6us% no%e# e;is% in o%her Romance lan!ua!es for e;am5le in French$ Thus %he full version of (../i con%ras%s 9i%h i%s re#uce# version an# 9i%h (../ii in %ha% %he e;5ression af%er %he comma %en#s %o have con%e;%ana5horic im5or% an# %he force of a remin#er$
(../ i$ Nean a embrass Ma0.e (celle/ @ui lui fai% la cour #e5uis lon!%em5s$ Nean has -isse# :arie %ha% 9ho him$ DAT ma-es %he cour% since lon! >Nean -isse# :arie 9ho has been cour%in! him for a lon! %ime$? ii$ Nean es% .ntell.4ent ce @ue son frpre n? es% 5as$ Nean is smar% %his %ha% his bro%her N7G is N7G >Nean is smar% 9hich his bro%her is no%?
The abili%0 %o e;hibi% non-nominal ca%e!orial s%a%us is also a 5ro5er%0 of free RCCs in bo%h Romanian an# 7n!lish$ This is illus%ra%e# in (.</i-ii 9here %he free RCCs have a#6ec%ival an# a#verbial s%a%us res5ec%ivel0$
(.</ i$ :aria 5oa%e fi [o0./Kt 3e se02.ab.l: i se cere sL fie]$ :aria can be as-much of hel5ful her$ DAT R7FL as- SD'N be >:aria can be [ho9ever hel5ful she is as-e# %o be]$? ii$ :aria 5oa%e aler!a [o0./Kt 3e 0e5e3e i se cere sL aler!e]$ :aria can run as-much of fas% her$ DAT R7FL as- SD'N run >:aria can run [ho9ever fas% she is as-e# %o run]$?
3.3. D.st.n/t.ons .n t8e nat10e an3 s.Be of G0elat.2e 580asesH 3.3.1. S.65le< 0elat.2e 580ases E0elat.2e 50ono1nsF The rela%ive 5ronouns are b0 an# lar!e i#en%ical 9i%h %he se% of in%erro!a%ive 5ronouns 9hich is 5rovi#e# belo93
(.B/ i$ Cine (NG:/ACC/ cui (DAT/G7N/ >9ho? ii$ Ce >9ha%? iii$ Care (NG:/ACC/ gcLrui(a/ :SG cLrei(a/ FSG cLror(a/ PLh (DAT/G7N/ >9hich? iv$ {CW% :SG cW%L FSG >ho9 much?I cWRi :PL cW%e FPL >ho9 man0?h (NG:/ACC/ cW%or(a/ (DAT/G7N/ >ho9 man0? v$ Dn#e >9here? vi$ CWn# >9hen? vii$ Cum >ho9? viii$ De ce >9h0?
Gbserve %ha% %he forms in (.B/ii v-viii are invarian% an# %ha% %he forms in (.B/i iii iv e;hibi% a limi%e# amoun% of inflec%ion$ In 5ar%icular %he form in (.B/i inflec%s for #irec%/obli@ue Case bu% no% for Gen#er or Number$ As else9here in Romanian %he #is%inc%ion be%9een NG: an# ACC is some%imes in#ica%e# b0 %he 5re-nominal ACC mar-er pe an# %he #is%inc%ion be%9een DAT an# G7N is some%imes in#ica%e# b0 %he 5re-nominal G7N mar-er al (%he circums%ances un#er 9hich %his mar-er is use# are #iscusse# in cha5%er ./$ The form in (.B/iii also inflec%s for Case an# %he obli@ue Case also inflec%s for Gen#er an# Number$ The form in (.B/iv inflec%s for Number an# Gen#er an# %he Plural also inflec%s for Case$ The full forms in (.B/iii-iv corres5on# %o 5ronominal uses an# %he re#uce# forms %o #e%erminer uses (i$e$
,14
9hen hea#in! a DP in 9hich %he0 e;hibi% an over% NP com5lemen%I on %his mor5holo!ical #is%inc%ion in Romanian see cha5%er +. *B cha5%er 2 *2/$ Gf %he forms in (.B/ de ce >9h0? is no% use# in an0 of %he core RCCs #escribe# so far in con%ras% %o 7n!lish 9here cons%ruc%ions li-e t!e reason &!y > did i% are 5ossible$ Concernin! %he remain#er of %he forms over%l0 hea#e# RCCs #isallo9 cine >9ho? an# ce >9ha%? usin! onl0 care >9hich? ins%ea# (as alrea#0 no%e# in sec%ion 1$2/$ Free RCCs allo9 all %he forms in (.B/i-vii an# also e;hibi% #ouble%s 9i%h 5refi;e# ori- 9hich have %he >freechoice? im5or% of 7n!lish forms 9i%h suffi;e# -ever$ Some illus%ra%ions of %he use of rela%ive 5ronouns in res%ric%ive a55osi%ive an# free RCCs are 5rovi#e# res5ec%ivel0 in (.C/-(<1/ (<2/-(<,/ an# (<./-(B1/$
(.C/ i$ gFa%a car%eah care Ri-a 5lLcu% nu se aflL acum En camerL$ !irl-%he boo--%he 9hich 0ou$ DAT-has li-e# no% R7FL fin#s no9 in room >{The !irl %he boo-} %ha% 0ou li-e# is no% in %he room no9$? ii$ S%u#enRii cLrora le-ai ceru% sL scrie un refera% vor sL S%u#en%s-%he 9hich$DAT %hem$DAT-have$1SG as-e# SD'N 9ri%e a 5a5er 9an% SD'N %e va#L$ 0ou$ACC see >The s%u#en%s %ha% 0ou as-e# %o 9ri%e a 5a5er 9an% %o see 0ou$? i$ Ion locuieM%e En car%ierul gEn care un#eh locuieM%i Mi %u$ Ion lives in nei!hborhoo#-%he in 9hich 9here live$1SG also 0ou >Ion lives in %he nei!hborhoo# {in 9hich 9here} 0ou also live$? ii$ Ion locuieM%e acolo gun#e XEn careh locuieM%i Mi %u$ Ion lives %here 9here in 9hich live$1SG also 0ou >Ion lives %here {9here Xin 9hich } 0ou also live$? i$ :aria a sosi% En momen%ul gEn care cWn#h ai a6uns Mi %u$ :aria has arrive# in momen%-%he in 9hich 9hen have1$ SG arrive# also 0ou >:aria arrive# a% %he momen% {in 9hich 9hen} 0ou also arrive#$? ii$ :aria a a6uns a%unci gcWn# XEn careh ai a6uns Mi %u$ :aria has arrive# %hen 9hen in 9hich have$1 SG arrive# also 0ou >:aria arrive# (%hen/ {9hen Xin 9hich} 0ou also arrive#$? i$ Felul gEn care cumh %e com5orRi %u mL #eran6eaAL$ 9a0-%he in 9hich ho9 R7FL behave$1SG 0ou me$ACC bo%hers >The 9a0 {in 9hich ho9} 0ou behave bo%hers me$? ii$ :aria se com5or%L aMa gcum XEn careh se com5or%L Mi Ion$ :aria R7FL behaves li-e/%he 9a0 ho9 in 9hich R7FL behaves also Ion >:aria behaves %he 9a0 Ion also behaves$? gFa%a car%eah as%a care i-a 5lLcu% lui Ion a%W% #e mul% i-a !irl-%he boo--%he %his 9hich him$ DAT-has li-e# G'L Ion so of much her$DAT-has 5lLcu% Mi mamei lui$ li-e# also mo%her-%he$DAT his >This g!irl boo-h 9hich Nohn li-e# so much his mo%her also li-e#$? Ion locuieM%e la Paris un#e locuieM%e Mi sora lui$ Ion lives a% Paris 9here lives also sis%er-%he his >Ion lives in Paris 9here his sis%er also lives$? :aria a sosi% la ora cinci cWn# era EncL 5rea #evreme 5en%ru cinL$ :aria has arrive# a% hour-%he five 9hen 9as s%ill %oo earl0 for #inner >:aria arrive# a% five o?cloc- 9hen i% 9as %oo earl0 for #inner$? i$ Cine El cunoaM%e 5e Ion nu 5oa%e #ecW% sL-l a#mire$ 9ho him$ACC -no9s DG: Ion no% can bu% SD'N-him$ACC a#mire >Uhoever -no9s Ion can?% hel5 a#mirin! him$? ii Gricine %raverseaAL 5o#ul %rebuie sL 5lL%eascL o %a;L$ 9hoever crosses bri#!e-%he mus% SD'N 5a0 a fee
(<=/
(<+/
(<1/
(<2/
(<4/ (<,/ (<./
,1,
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies >Uhoever crosses %he bri#!e mus% 5a0 a fee$? i$ Ce %e in%ereseaAL 5e %ine mL in%ereseaAL #e obicei Mi 5e mine$ 9ha% 0ou$ACC in%eres%s DG: 0ou me$ACC in%eres%s usuall0 also DG: me >Uha%ever in%eres%s 0ou in%eres%s me also$? ii$ Grice va a5are la oriAon% va fi semnala% #e En#a%L coman#an%ului$ 9ha%ever 9ill a55ear a% horiAon 9ill be si!nale# a% once comman#er-%he$ DAT >An0%hin! %ha% mi!h% a55ear in %he horiAon shoul# be si!nale# imme#ia%el0 %o %he comman#er$? i$ Care nu EnRele!e #e vorbL bunL va fi fLcu% sL EnRelea!L #e vorbL rea$ 9hich no% un#ers%an#s of 9or# !oo# 9ill be ma#e SD'N un#ers%an# of 9or# ba# >Uhoever #oesn?% un#ers%an# %hin!s in %he eas0 9a0 9ill be force# %o un#ers%an# %hem in %he har# 9a0? ii$ Gricare #oreM%e sL se Enscrie e bineveni%$ 9hoever 9ishes SD'N R7FL re!is%er is 9elcome >An0one 9ho 9an%s %o re!is%er is 9elcome$? i$ Sun% #is5us sL 5roce#eA e;ac% cum mi se cere sL 5roce#eA$ am 9illin! SD'N ac%$+SG e;ac%l0 ho9 me$DAT R7FL as-s SD'N ac%$+SG >I am 9illin! %o ac% e;ac%l0 %he 9a0 I am bein! as-e# %o ac%$? ii$ Ion 5oa%e cWn%a oricum i se cere sL cWn%e$ Ion can sin! an09a0 him$ DAT R7FL as-s SD'N sin!s >Ion can sin! an09a0 he is as-e# %o sin!$? i$ Vreau sL locuiesc un#e locuieM%i Mi %u$ 9an%$+SG SD'N live$+SG 9here live$1SG also 0ou >I 9an% %o live 9here 0ou live$? ii$ Sun% !a%a sL locuiesc oriun#e Ri se 5are Rie cL e caAul am rea#0 SD'N live$+SG 9hereever 0ou$ DAT R7FL seems 0ou$DAT %ha% is case-%he (sL locuiesc/$ SD'N live$+SG >I am rea#0 %o live an09here 0ou %hin- I shoul# (live/$? i$ Ion a 5leca% %ocmai cWn# a sosi% :aria$ Ion has lef% 5recisel0 9hen has arrive# :aria >Ion lef% 5recisel0 9hen :aria arrive#$? ii$ Ion va 5leca oricWn# i se cere sL 5lece$ Ion 9ill leave an0%hime him$DAT R7FL as-s SD'N leaves >Ion 9ill leave an0%ime he is as-e# %o leave$? i$ Ion bea #oar cW% Ei 5ermi%e #oc%orul$ Ion #rin-s onl0 ho9-much him$ DAT allo9s #oc%or-%he >Ion #rin-s onl0 as much as allo9e# b0 %he #oc%or$? ii$ Ion bea oricW% i se cere sL bea$ Ion #rin-s ever-much him$DAT R7FL as-s SD'N #rin-s >Ion #rin-s as much as he is re@uire# %o #rin-$?
(<</
(<B/
(<C/
(B=/
(B+/
(B1/
A fe9 remar-s on %he above e;am5les follo9$ The im5or% of %he loca%ive %em5oral an# manner 5ronouns unde cnd an# cum res5ec%ivel0 ma0 also be conve0e# b0 5re5osi%ions 9hose ob6ec% is %he 5ronoun care as illus%ra%e# in %he (i/ subcases of (<=/-(<1/I %he la%%er o5%ion is ho9ever e;clu#e# 9hen %he e;%ernal 5ivo% is an a#verbial 5ro-form as sho9n in %he (ii/ subcases of (<=/-(<1/ since care has no sui%able corres5on#in! e;%ernal 5ivo% un#er %hese circums%ances$ In (<./-(B1/ %he (i/ subcases illus%ra%e %he >5lain? 5ro-forms an# %he (ii/ subcases %he corres5on#in! free-choice forms$ The >#ivision of labor? be%9een %he 5lain an# free-choice forms of Romanian corres5on#s %o a cer%ain e;%en% %o 9ha% is foun# in 7n!lish e;ce5% %ha% %he ran!e of uses of bo%h -in#s of forms is more limi%e# in Romanian %han in 7n!lish 5ar%l0 #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he form ceea ce >%ha% 9hich? is >in com5e%i%ion? 9i%h ce ?9ha%? (some%hin! %ha% #oes no% ha55en in 7n!lish 9here RCCs ini%ia%e# b0 t!at &!ic! are s%il%e# in charac%er ,1.
an# #o no% cons%i%u%e a na%ural al%erna%ive %o 9ha%-RCCs/$ To illus%ra%e %he 5oin%s 6us% ma#e observe firs% %ha% 5lain an# free choice forms can some%imes be use# in%erchan!eabl0 in bo%h Romanian an# 7n!lish as illus%ra%e# in (B2/ 9here %he 5lain forms ma0 have free choice im5or%$ Fur%hermore bo%h ce an# ceea ce ma0 some%imes be use# in%erchan!eabl0 9i%h referen%ial im5or% as illus%ra%e# in (B4/$
(B2/ i$ Voi an!a6a 5e gcine oricineh Emi recomanAi %u$ 9ill$+SG hire DG: 9ho an0one me$DAT recommen#$1SG 0ou >I 9ill hire g9ho(m/ 9ho(m/everh 0ou recommen# %o me$? ii$ :L voi #uce gun#e oriun#eh mi se cere$ R7FL 9ill$+SG !o 9here an09here me$ DAT R7FL as-s >I 9ill !o g9here 9hereverh I am as-e# %o !o$? i$ gCe ceea ceh am vLAu% acolo m-a um5lu% #e s5aimL$ 9ha% %ha% 9ha% have$+ seen %here me$ ACC-has fille# of #rea# >Uha% I sa9 %here fille# me 9i%h #rea#$? ii$ gCe ceea ceh mi-a s5us :aria nu mi-a 5lLcu% #eloc$ 9ha% %ha% 9ha% me$ DAT-has %ol# :aria no% me$DAT-has li-e# a% all >Uha% :aria %ol# me 9as no% a% all %o m0 li-in!$?
(B4/
The free-choice forms of 7n!lish can ho9ever also be use# 9i%h referen%ial im5or% (an# in fac% accom5anie# b0 a 5oin%in! !es%ure/ %he func%ion of P ever bein! %o in#ica%e %ha% %he s5ea-er vie9s %he i#en%i%0 of %he #eno%e# en%i%0 as unim5or%an%I %his is no% 5ossible in Romanian 9here onl0 a 5lain form ma0 be use# as sho9n in (B,/$
(B,/ i$ I !ave %he boo- %o 9hoever is si%%in! over %here (ri!h% no9/$ ii$ Am #a% car%ea gXoricui cuih se aflL acum 5e cana5ea$ have$+ !iven boo--%he an0one$ DAT 9ho$DAT R7FL fin#s no9 on couch >I !ave %he boo- %o {X9hoever 9hom} is on %he couch ri!h% no9$?
Fur%hermore %he use of ceea ce is 5referre# %o %he use of ce (or even re@uire#/ in a% leas% %9o si%ua%ions3 (i/ 9hen %he free RCC is 5re#ica%ive an# (ii/ 9hen i% is of %he so calle# >%rans5aren%? varie%0 i$e$ 9hen i% has %he essen%ial im5or% of a >he#!e?$ Poin% (i/ 9as illus%ra%e# in (4C/ 5oin% (ii/ is illus%ra%e# belo93
(B</ Ion mLnWncL gceeace Kceh 5are a fi un co%le% #e 5orc (#ar ar 5u%ea En 5rinci5iu Ion ea%s %ha% 9ha% 9ha% seems %o be a s%ea- of 5or- bu% 9oul# can in 5rinci5le sL fie Mi o falcL #e mL!ar/$ SD'N be also a 6a9 of #on-e0 >Ion ea%s 9ha% loo-s li-e a 5or- s%ea- (bu% in 5rinci5le i% coul# also be a #on-e0 6a9/$?
A 5lausible reason for %his 5reference is %ha% ce seems easier %o cons%rue 9i%h %he essen%ial im5or% of orice %han ceeace an# subs%i%u%ion of orice for one of %hese %9o forms in %he %hree e;am5les 6us% men%ione# 0iel#s com5le%el0 unacce5%able resul%s$ :ore !enerall0 i%ems 9i%h free-choice im5or% are e;clu#e# in 5seu#o-clef%s an# %rans5aren% free rela%ives in !eneral an# are 5ossible in 5re#ica%ive free rela%ives onl0 9hen license# b0 some i%em in %he ma%ri; e$!$ b0 a mo#al verb as in (4C]/ (cf$ 9i%h (4C//$
(4C]/ Ion 5oa%e #eveni orice vrea mama lui (ca el/ sL #evinL #e 5il#L #oc%or Ion can become an0%hin! 9an%s mo%her-%he his %ha% he SD'N become e$!$ #oc%or avia%or e%c$ avia%or >Ion can become an0%hin! his mo%her 9an%s him %o become e$!$ #oc%or avia%or e%c$?
,1<
3.3.2. Co65le< 0elat.2e 580ases EP.3e P.5.n4F In mos% of %he cons%ruc%ions e;amine# in sec%ion 2$+$+$ (e;ce5% for %he (i/ subcases of (<=/(<1// RCs 9ere ini%ia%e# b0 a rela%ive 5hrase %ha% consis%e# e;clusivel0 of a rela%ive 5ronoun$ I% is ho9ever 5ossible for rela%ive 5hrases %o properly inclu#e a sim5le; rela%ive elemen% 9i%h %he ran!e of o5%ions #ifferin! from cons%ruc%ion %o cons%ruc%ion$ There are a number of 9a0s of anal0Ain! %his s%a%e of affairs one of 9hich relies on %he assum5%ion %ha% some fea%ure >5ercola%es u59ar#? from %he sim5le; rela%ive 9or# %o some 5hrase %ha% 5ro5erl0 con%ains i% an# %hereb0 >licenses? %he 5resence of %he la%%er in RC-ini%ial 5osi%ion$ This vie9 9ill be a#o5%e# here$ :o#els of !rammar 9hich assume %ha% rela%ive 9or#s/5hrases are >born? in %he 5osi%ion of %he !a5 an# !e% raise# from %here #escribe %he raisin! of com5le; 5hrases as a >Pie# Pi5in!? 5henomenon 9i%h %he rela%ive 9or# 5la0in! %he role of %he >5ie# 5i5er? (on %he analo!0 of %he Pie# Pi5er from Oamelin/ e$!$ b0 %ri!!erin! fea%ure 5ercola%ion an# 9i%h %he remain#er of %he 5hrase 5la0in! %he role of %he >ra%s?$ The 5resence of a sim5le; vs$ a com5le; rela%ive 5hrase a% %he be!innin! of an RC has conse@uences for seman%ics in a 9a0 %ha% can be a55recia%e# b0 e;aminin! %he follo9in! 5air3
(BB/ i$ S%u#en%ul care s5ui cL rr #oarme e bolnav$ s%u#en%-%he 9ho sa0$1SG %ha% slee5s is sic>The s%u#en% 9ho 0ou sa0 is aslee5 is sic-? ii$ omul En buAunarul cLruia s5ui cL au fos% !Lsi%e #ro!urile es%e un man-%he in 5oc-e%-%he 9hich$G7N sa0$1SG %ha% have been foun# #ru!s-%he is a ce%LRean res5ec%abil ci%iAen res5ec%able >The man in 9hose 5oc-e% 0ou sa0 %ha% %he #ru!s have been foun# is a res5ec%able ci%iAen?
In (BB/i %he chain forme# b0 care an# %he !a5 cons%i%u%es %he in%ernal 5ivo% of %he RCC bu% in (BB/ii %he chain forme# b0 n bu(unarul cruia an# %he !a5 is no% a 5ivo% in an0 useful sense$ Ra%her if an0%hin! i% is cruia %ha% cons%i%u%es %he in%ernal 5ivo%$ To !e% %he seman%ics ri!h% one mus% someho9 >#econs%ruc%? %he rela%ive 5hrase in (BB/b in a 9a0 %ha% allo9s %he RCC %o be in%er5re%e# as essen%iall0 >%he man ; such %ha% 0ou sa0 %ha% %he #ru!s have been foun# in ;?s 5oc-e%?$ From %he 5ers5ec%ive of %he various -in#s of RCCs foun# in bo%h Romanian an# 7n!lish Pie# Pi5in! o5%ions a55ear %o be mos% liberal in a55osi%ive RCCs some9ha% more limi%e# in res%ric%ive RCCs an# severel0 res%ric%e# in free RCCs$ This s%a%e of affairs seems %o hol# cross-lin!uis%icall0$ Ue no9 5rocee# %o illus%ra%e %he various o5%ions available in Romanian com5arin! %hem 9i%h %he o5%ions available in 7n!lish$ 2$2$1$+$ Pie# Pi5in! in e;%ernall0-hea#e# RCCs T!PE I3 Uhen a rela%ive 9or# is %he ob6ec% of a P(re5osi%ion/ %he P al9a0s 5ie#-5i5es 9i%h i%s ob6ec% (in con%ras% %o 7n!lish 9here ob6ec%s of Ps ma0 be fron%e# 9i%hou% %he P %his bein! in fac% %he 5referre# o5%ion in mos% cases/$ This is illus%ra%e# in (BC/i-ii 9i%h res5ec% %o res%ric%ive an# a55osi%ive RCCs res5ec%ivel0 (9e omi% illus%ra%ion of %he fac% %ha% Romanian #isallo9s cons%ruc%ions 9i%h ]or5han] 5re5osi%ions such as t!e student )&!o* you &ere tal#in to 9here to is no% follo9e# b0 a nominal e;5ression even %hou!h i% is un#ers%oo# %ha% ]0ou] 9ere necessaril0 %al-in! %o someone/$
(BC/ i$ S%u#en%ul cu care vorbeai vrea sL 5LrLseascL universi%a%ea$ s%u#en%-%he 9i%h 9hich %al-$I:PF$1SG 9an%s SD'N leave universi%0-%he >The s%u#en% %o 9hom 0ou 9ere %al-in! 9an%s %o leave %he universi%0$? ii$ Ion cu care vorbeai acum un minu% vrea sL 5LrLseascL universi%a%ea$
,1B
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies Ion 9i%h 9hich %al-$I:PF$1SG no9 a minu%e 9an%s SD'N leave universi%0-%he >Ion %o 9hom 0ou 9ere %al-in! a minu%e a!o 9an%s %o leave %he universi%0$?
T!PE II? A secon# form of Pie#-Pi5in! foun# in e;%ernall0-hea#e# RCCs concerns nominals %ha% consis% of a >5ossessor? 5ivo% an# i%s >5ossesse#? noun$ The 5ossessor 9hich e;hibi%s Geni%ive Case ma0 ei%her follo9 %he 5ossesse# N as in (C=/ or 5rece#e i% as in (C+/ (in %he la%%er case an# more !enerall0 9henever %he 5ossessor fails %o imme#ia%el0 follo9 a 5ossesse# N bearin! %he encli%ic #efini%e ar%icle %he 5ossessor nee#s %o e;hibi% %he 5re5osi%ional !eni%ive mar-er al/$ The 5renominal 5osi%ion of %he !eni%ive (ar!uabl0 #ue %o reor#erin! 9i%hin DP/ is s5ecific %o rela%ive an# in%erro!a%ive 5ronouns o%her9ise bein! res%ric%e# %o %he 5oe%ic s%0le as an archaism (see Cha5%er ,/$ As can be !a%here# from %he 5rime# e;am5les Pie# Pi5in! of %he 5ossesse# N is obli!a%or0 6us% as in %he 7n!lish Sa;on Geni%ive cons%ruc%ion$ :oreover %he or#er NP&!-Geni%ive is onl0 allo9e# if combine# 9i%h Pie#-Pi5in! of %05e I (see (C=/i-ii vs$ iii iv/3
(C=/ i$ S%u#en%ul cu mama cLruia s5ui cL ai vorbi% rr e bolnav$ s%u#en%-%he 9i%h mo%her-%he 9hich$G7N sa0$1SG %ha% have$1SG %al-e# is sic>The s%u#en% 9hose mo%her 0ou sa0 0ou %al-e# %o is aslee5 is sic- $? i_$ XS%u#en%ul (a/ cLruia s5ui cL ai vorbi% cu mama rr e bolnav$ s%u#en%-%he (G7N/ 9hich$G7N sa0$1SG %ha% have$1SG %al-e# 9i%h mo%her-%he is sicii$ Ion cu mama cLruia s5ui cL ai vorbi% rr e bolnav$ Ion 9i%h mo%her-%he 9hich$G7N sa0$1SG %ha% have$1SG %al-e# is sic>Ion 9hose mo%her 0ou sa0 is aslee5 0ou %al-e# %o is sic-$? ii_$ XIon (a/ cLruia s5ui cL ai vorbi% cu mama e bolnav$ Ion (G7N/ 9hich$G7N sa0$1SG %ha% have$1SG %al-e# 9i%h mo%her-%he is siciii$ X S%u#en%ul mama cLruia s5ui cL rr #oarme e bolnav$ s%u#en%-%he mo%her-%he 9hich$G7N sa0$1SG %ha% slee5s is sic>The s%u#en% 9hose mo%her 0ou sa0 is aslee5 is sic-$? iv$ X Ion mama cLruia s5ui cL rr #oarme e bolnav$ Ion mo%her-%he 9hich$G7N sa0$1SG %ha% slee5s is sic>Ion 9hose mo%her 0ou sa0 is aslee5 is sic-$? i$ S%u#en%ul a cLrui mamL s5uneai cL rr #oarme e bolnav$ s%u#en%-%he G7N 9hich$G7N mo%her sa0$I:PF$1SG %ha% slee5s is sic>The s%u#en% 9hose mo%her 0ou sai# 9as aslee5 is sic-$? i_$ XS%u#en%ul a cLrui s5uneai cL rr mamL #oarme e bolnav$ s%u#en%-%he G7N 9hich$G7N sa0$ I:PF$1SG %ha% mo%her slee5s is sicii$ Ion a cLrui mamL s5uneai cL rr #oarme e bolnav$ Ion G7N 9hich$G7N mo%her sa0$I:PF$1SG %ha% slee5s is sic>Ion 9hose mo%her 0ou sai# 9as aslee5 is sic-$? ii_$ XIon a cLrui s5uneai cL rr mamL #oarme e bolnav$ Ion G7N 9hich$G7N sa0$ I:PF$1SG %ha% mo%her slee5s is sic-
(C+/
In !eneral Pie# Pi5in! of various %05es ma0 combine$ For e;am5le %05e I an# II ma0 #o so in %he sense %ha% a com5le; nominal of %05e II ma0 be %he ob6ec% of a P in 9hich case bo%h %he 5ossesse# N an# %he P mus% 5ie#-5i5e 9i%h %he nominal as in (C1/$
(C1/ i$ S%u#en%ul cu mama cLruia s%L%eai #e vorbL e bolnav$ s%u#en%-%he 9i%h mo%her-%he 9hich$G7N si%$I:PF$1SG a% %al- is sic>The s%u#en% %o 9hose mo%her 0ou 9ere %al-in! is sic-$? ii$ Ion cu mama cLruia s%L%eai #e vorbL nu #e mul% e bolnav$ Ion 9i%h mo%her-%he 9hich$G7N si%$I:PF$1SG a% %al- no% of much is sic>Ion %o 9hose mo%her 0ou 9ere %al-in! no% lon! a!o is sic-$?
,1C
T!PE III? In bo%h lan!ua!es 9hen %he 5ivo% is %he ob6ec% of a P an# %he resul%in! PP serves as com5lemen% of an a#6ec%ive %he 5referre# rela%iviAa%ion o5%ion is for as li%%le ma%erial as 5ossible %o be #ra!!e# alon! (in Romanian bu% no% in 7n!lish %he P mus% be #ra!!e# alon!I see remar-s on TqP7 I/ %he PP %o un#er!o fron%in! leavin! %he remain#er of %he AP behin# as in (C2/$ A% %he same %ime %he en%ire AP ma0 un#er!o #isloca%ion bu% onl0 in ver0 formal s%0le an# onl0 in a55osi%ive cons%ruc%ions as illus%ra%e# b0 %he con%ras% be%9een (C4/ an# (C,/ 9hich e;hibi% a55osi%ive an# res%ric%ive RCCs res5ec%ivel0$
(C2/ i$ S%u#en%ul #e care nici un 5rofesor nu are mo%ive sL fie mWn#ru rr s%u#en%-%he of 9hich nei%her one %eacher no% has reasons SD'N be 5rou# va %rebui sL 5LrLseascL Mcoala$ 9ill nee# SD'N leave school-%he >The s%u#en% (9ho/ no %eacher has reasons %o be 5rou# of 9ill have %o leave school$? ii$ Ion #e care niciun 5rofesor nu are mo%ive sL fie mWn#ru rr Ion of 9hich no %eacher no% has reasons SD'N be 5rou# va %rebui sL 5LrLseascL Mcoala$ 9ill nee# SD'N leave school-%he >Ion 9ho no %eacher has reasons %o be 5rou# of rr 9ill have %o leave school$ i$ ì cunosc bine 5e fraRii %Li cel mai Enal% #in%re care e %hem$ACC -no9$+SG 9ell DG: bro%hers-%he 0our %he more %all of 9hich is fLrL En#oialL Ion$ 9i%hou% #oub% Ion >I am 9ell ac@uain%e# 9i%h 0our bro%hers %he %alles% of 9hom is un#oub%e#l0 Ion$? ii$ L-am cunoscu% #e curWn# 5e fiul %Lu mWn#ru #e care nu ai him$ACC-have$+ -no9n of soon DG: son-%he 0our 5rou# of 9hich no% have $1SG absolu% nici un mo%iv sL fii$ absolu%el0 nei%her one reason SD'N be >I have recen%l0 become ac@uain%e# 9i%h 0our son 5rou# of 9hom 0ou have absolu%el0 no reasons %o be$? i$ mì cunosc bine 5e bLieRii cel mai Enal% #in%re care nu %rece #e %hem$ACC -no9$+SG 9ell DG: bo0s-%he %he more %all of 9hich no% 5asses of +$,= m$ +$,= m >mI am 9ell ac@uain%e# 9i%h %he bo0s %he %alles% of 9hom is belo9 +$,= m$? ii$ m`l cunosc bine 5e s%u#en%ul mWn#ru #e care sun% %oRi 5rofesorii$ him$ACC -no9$+SG 9ell DG: s%u#en%-%he 5rou# of 9hich are all %eachers-%he >mI am 9ell ac@uain%e# 9i%h %he s%u#en% 5rou# of 9hom is ever0 %eacher$?
(C4/
(C,/
T!PE I'? Ano%her hi!hl0 formal Pie# Pi5in! o5%ion 9hich li-e %he 5rece#in! one is limi%e# %o a55osi%ive RCCs in bo%h Romanian an# 7n!lish is %he Pie# Pi5in! of a non-fini%e VP or clause$ Some illus%ra%ions are 5rovi#e# in (C./$
(C./ i$ Am fLcu% #e curWn# cunoM%inRa unui mare savan% a #iscu%a En mo# serios have$+ ma#e of soon ac@uain%ance-%he one$ G7N !rea% savan% %o #iscuss in 9a0 serious cu care mi-ar cere cunoM%inRe 5e care nu le am$ 9i%h 9hich me$DAT-9oul# re@uire -no9le#!e$PL DG: 9hich no% CL$2FPL$ACC have >I have recen%l0 ma#e %he ac@uain%ance of a !rea% scholar %o carr0 ou% serious #iscussions 9i%h 9hom 9oul# re@uire -no9le#!e I #o no% 5ossess$? ii$ S-au fLcu% #e curWn# un numLr #e 5ro5uneri 5en%ru a le 5une En R7FL-have ma#e of soon a number of 5ro5osals for %o CL$2FPL$ACC 5u% in a5licare 5e care ne-ar %rebui resurse financiare 5e care nu a55lica%ion DG: 9hich us$DAT-9oul# nee# resources financial DG: 9hich no% le avem$ CL$2FPL$ACC have
,2=
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies >A number of 5ro5osals have recen%l0 been ma#e %o im5lemen% 9hich 9oul# re@uire financial resources %ha% 9e #o no% have$?
T!PE '? A las% form of Pie# Pi5in! 9hich li-e %05es III an# IV is res%ric%e# %o a55osi%ive RCCs involves Pie# Pi5in! of a DP hea#e# b0 care >9hich? 9hich P im5or%an%l0 P is a #e%erminer no% a 5ronoun as 9as %he case in earlier e;am5les$ The NP com5lemen% of D ma0 be i#en%ical %o an NP %ha% occurs in %he an%ece#en% as in (C</i bu% %his is no% al9a0s so as sho9n in (C</ii$
(C</ i$ Guvernul a fLcu% o 5ro5unere cu ramificaRii mul%i5le Mi com5le;e !overnmen%-%he has ma#e a 5ro5osal 9i%h ramifica%ions mul%i5le an# com5le; care 5ro5unere fusese #e6a fLcu%L #e o5oAiRie cu mulRi ani En urmL$ 9hich 5ro5osal be$PLPF alrea#0 ma#e of o55osi%ion 9i%h man0 0ears a!o >The !overnmen% has recen%l0 ma#e a 5ro5osal 9i%h mul%i5le an# com5le; im5lica%ions a 5ro5osal 9hich ha# alrea#0 been ma#e b0 %he o55osi%ion man0 0ears a!o$? ii$ 7 5osibil ca !uvernul sL #emisioneAe En curWn# En care caA va urma is 5ossible %ha% !overnmen%-%he SD'N resi!ns in soon in 9hich case 9ill follo9 o lun!L 5erioa#L #e incer%i%u#ine 5oli%icL$ a lon! 5erio# of uncer%ain%0 5oli%ical >I% is 5ossible for %he !overnmen% %o fall soon in 9hich case a lon! 5erio# of 5oli%ical uncer%ain%0 9ill follo9$?
2$2$1$1$ Pie# Pi5in! an# Case/P >ma%chin!? in Free RCCs Pie# Pi5in! in free RCCs is #is%inc%l0 more limi%e# cross-lin!uis%icall0 %han in a55osi%ive RCCs Pie# Pi5in! of %05es II III an# IV of %he 5rece#in! sec%ion bein! com5le%el0 im5ossible$ Com5arison 9i%h res%ric%ive RCCs 0iel#s a more com5le; 5ic%ure$ Gn %he one han# free RCCs allo9 Pie# Pi5in! of %05e V 9hich as no%e# above is 5ossible in a55osi%ives bu% no% in res%ric%ivesI on %he o%her han# Pie# Pi5in! of %05e II is in !eneral e;clu#e#$ Ue be!in b0 illus%ra%in! Pie# Pi5in! of %05e V$ The rela%ive elemen%s %ha% can hea# a DP (i$e$ rela%ive #e%erminers/ are ce >9ha%? orice >9ha%ever? an# oricare >9hichever? as illus%ra%e# in (CB/ an# (4B/$ Those %ha% can hea# a De!ree Phrase (i$e$ rela%ive #e!ree 9or#s/ are orict >ho9ever much? an# i%s inflec%e# forms see (4</ an# (.</$ All %hese i%ems ma0 %ri!!er %he Pie# Pi5in! of %he lar!er 5hrases %he0 hea# (for convenience %he earlier e;am5les 6us% referre# %o are re5ro#uce# belo9/$
(CB/ a$ Voi cum5Lra [Zo0./e= o0./a0e[ /a0te 3es50e f.B./: eM%i !a%a sL-mi 9ill$+SG bu0 9ha%ever 9hichever boo- abou% 5h0sics are$1SG rea#0 SD'N-me$DAT vinAi rr ]$ sell$1SG >I 9ill bu0 [9hichever boo- abou% 5h0sics 0ou are rea#0 %o sell me ]$? b$ Ci%esc Y/e /a0te ci%eM%i Mi %uZ rea#$+SG 9ha% boo- rea#$1SG also 0ou >I?m rea#in! %he same boo- as 0ou? c$ Am ales Y/e 6aC.n: am vru%Z have$+ chosen 9ha% car have$+ 9an%e# >I/Ue chose %he/9hichever car I/9e 9an%e#? #$ Am veni% Y/1 /e 6aC.n: am 5u%u% Z have$+ come 9i%h 9ha% car have$+ coul# >I/Ue came in 9ha%ever car I/9e coul#? :Wine 5o% fi [o0./Kte s%icle #e bere Emi ceri sL cum5Lr rr ] 5e %omorro9 can$2PL be ho9ever-man0 bo%%les of beer me$ DAT as-$1SG SD'N bu0$+SG on
(4</
,2+
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies masa %a$ %able-%he 0our >Tomorro9 %here can be [ho9ever man0 bo%%les of beer 0ou as- me %o bu0] on 0our %able$? `Ri 5o% 5rocura [o0./e fel #e marfL #oreM%i rr ]$ 0ou$DAT can$+SG !e% 9ha%ever -in# of merchan#ise 9an%$1SG >I can !e% 0ou [9ha%ever -in# of merchan#ise 0ou #esire]$? i$ :aria 5oa%e fi [o0./Kt 3e se02.ab.l: i se cere sL fie]$ :aria can be ho9ever-much of hel5ful her$ DAT R7FL as-s SD'N be >:aria can be [ho9ever hel5ful she is as-e# %o be]$? ii$ :aria 5oa%e aler!a [o0./Kt 3e 0e5e3e i se cere sL aler!e]$ :aria can run ho9ever-much of fas% her$ DAT R7FL as-s SD'N runs >:aria can run [ho9ever fas% she is as-e# %o run]$?
(4B/
(.</
Discussion an# illus%ra%ion of res%ric%ions on Pie# Pi5in! of %05e II are 5os%5one# un%il af%er 9e have %a-en a loo- a% an a##i%ional class of res%ric%ions on free RCCs 9hich nee# %o be carefull0 #is%in!uishe# from Pie# Pi5in! 5ro5er$ The res%ric%ions a% issue 9hich are commonl0 -no9n as >ma%chin! effec%s? #iffer in na%ure an# severi%0 from lan!ua!e %o lan!ua!e an# 5reven% %he affi;al Case an#/or 5re5osi%ional 5ro5er%ies of %he rela%ive 5ronoun/5hrase from #ifferin! (in cer%ain 9a0s/ from %he affi;al Case an#/or P %ha% %he RCC 9oul# be e;5ec%e# %o e;hibi% if i% ha# an over% hea#$ There are no com5arable ma%chin! re@uiremen%s on RCCs 9i%h over% in%ernal or e;%ernal 5ivo%s$ Ue be!in b0 #iscussin! %he ma%chin! 5henomenon 9i%h res5ec% %o affi;al Case$ Dnli-e some lan!ua!es %ha% re@uire full mor5holo!ical ma%chin! in free RCCs Romanian has %he 9ea-er re@uiremen% %ha% 9hen obli@ue an# non-obli@ue Cases clash %he over% 5ivo% (9hich in RCCs is %he in%ernal one/ mus% realiAe %he obli@ue Case$ This can be seen 9i%h res5ec% %o %he coun%er5ar%s of &!o)ever* 9hich are )ori*cine (non-obli@ue/ an# )ori*cui (obli@ue/$ Illus%ra%ive #a%a are 5rovi#e# belo9$
(CC/ i$ [gC1.= L/.neh Ei e foame ] %rebuie sL munceascL$ 9ho$DAT 9ho him$DAT is hun!r0 mus% SD'N 9or-s >Uho(ever/ is hun!r0 nee#s %o 9or-$? ii$ Voi %rimi%e ca#ouri numai [g/1.= L/.neh mL iubeM%e]$ 9ill$+SG sen# 5resen%s onl0 9ho$DAT 9ho me$ACC loves >I 9ill sen# 5resen%s onl0 %o 9ho(ever/ loves me$?
In (CC/i %he rela%ive 5ronoun bears %he Da%ive Case re@uire# 9i%hin %he RC irres5ec%ive of %he fac% %ha% %he RCC an# %hus %he null e;%ernal 5ivo% re@uire Nomina%ive Case$ In (CC/ii %he rela%ive 5ronoun is %he sub6ec% of %he RC an# %hus ou!h% %o bear Nomina%ive Case bu% since %he RCC an# %he null e;%ernal 5ivo% re@uire Da%ive Case cine in#uces un!ramma%icali%0$ Oo9ever since Romanian allo9s a re5air s%ra%e!0 calle# >Case A%%rac%ion? 9hereb0 %he Case of %he RCC ma0 be over%l0 realiAe# on %he rela%ive 5ronoun %his e;am5le is !ramma%ical 9i%h cui$ Par%l0 similar effec%s are foun# 9i%h Ps 9hich 5la0 b0 an# lar!e s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic roles similar %o %hose of Case lan!ua!es #ifferin! in %he e;%en% %o 9hich %he0 ma-e use of Case an#/or Ps %o e;5ress s5ecific s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic func%ionsI %o ca5%ure %he func%ional 5arallelism be%9een affi;al Case an# Ps 9e 9ill use %he %erm >Sase? for %he union of %he %9o ca%e!ories$ The #a%a in (+==/ illus%ra%e Sase conflic%s com5arable %o %ha% in (CC/i e;ce5% %ha% %he obli@ue Sase is here 5re5osi%ional ra%her %han affi;al$ No%e %ha% 6us% as in (CC/i onl0 %he versions 9i%h over%l0 realiAe# obli@ue Sase are !ramma%ical$
(+==/ i$ [gC1 /.ne= L/.neh iese :aria] e un om #e nimic$
,21
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies 9i%h 9ho 9ho !oes-ou% :aria is a man of no%hin! >The one 9i%h 9hom :aria !oes ou% is a nobo#0$? ii$ [gLa /e= L/eh se ui%L :aria] cos%L (#e obicei/ mulRi bani$ a% 9ha% 9ha% R7FL loo-s :aria cos%s usuall0 man0 mone0 >Uha% :aria loo-s a% usuall0 cos%s a lo% of mone0$?
I% ma0 be no%e# here %ha% %he 5ro5ose# 5arallelism be%9een affi;al an# 5re5osi%ional Sase lea#s %o %he e;5ec%a%ion %ha% 6us% as %here are free RCCs 9i%h ma%chin! affi;al Sase %here ou!h% %o be free RCCs 9i%h ma%chin! P-Sase (i$e$ in 9hich bo%h %he ma%ri; an# %he RC re@uire a 5ar%icular P bu% onl0 %he one in %he RC is over%l0 realiAe#/$ This e;5ec%a%ion is confirme# b0 #a%a li-e (+=+/$
(+=+/ i$ Voi an!a6a [5e o0./.ne Emi recomanAi %u]$ 9ill hire DG: an0one me$DAT recommen# 0ou >I 9ill hire an0one 0ou recommen#$? ii$ Sun% !a%a sL lucreA [/1 /.ne lucreAi Mi %u]$ am rea#0 SD'N 9or-$+SG 9i%h 9ho 9or-$1SG also 0ou >I am rea#0 %o 9or- 9i%h %he/an0 5erson 0ou 9or- 9i%h$? iii$ Nu %e ui%a [la /e se ui%L :aria]d no% R7FL loo- a% 9ha% R7FL loo-s :aria >Don?% 9a%ch 9ha% :aria 9a%chesd? iv$ 'icicle%a as%a 5rovine [3e 1n3e ne-au fos% %rimise Mi celelal%e vehicole ]$ bi-e-%he %his comes of 9here us$DAT-have been sen% also %he-o%her vehicles >The bi-e comes from (%here/ 9here %he o%her vehicles ha# been sen% %o us$? v$ Ion s-a aMeAa% %ocmai [5e /e vroia soRia lui sL se culce]$ Ion R7FL-has sa% 5recisel0 on 9ha% 9an%e# 9ife-%he his SD'N R7FL lie >Ion sa% 5recisel0 on 9ha% his 9ife 9an%e# %o slee5 on$?
In %his connec%ion 9e ma0 also no%e %ha% a% leas% some #a%a %ha% e;hibi% ce 9i%h P-Sase have varian%s 9i%h ceea ce >%ha% 9hich? 9hich su!!es%s %ha% %his i%em is no% necessaril0 cons%ruable as an RC-e;%ernal #emons%ra%ive follo9e# b0 a (con%rac%e#/ rela%ive com5lemen%iAer as %he se@uence cel ce >he %ha%? an# i%s inflec%e# varian%s mus% be bu% can (also/ be anal0Ae# as a rela%ive 5ronoun$ This can be a55recia%e# b0 con%ras%in! (+=1/ 9hich is basicall0 acce5%able 9i%h (+=2/i 9hich is severel0 #evian% an# 9hose 5ur5or% can onl0 be ren#ere# b0 a s%rai!h%for9ar# e;%ernall0-hea#e# RCC such as (+=2/ii$ If ceea ce 9ere %o be al9a0s anal0Ae# as an e;%ernal #emons%ra%ive follo9e# b0 a com5lemen%iAer #a%a li-e (+=1/ii 9oul# be e;5ec%e# %o be as #evian% as (+=2/i con%rar0 %o fac%$
(+=1/ i$ Ion s-a aMeAa% %ocmai [5e /eea /e vroia soRia lui sL se culce]$ Ion R7FL-has si% 5recisel0 on %ha% 9ha% 9an%e# 9ife-%he his SD'N R7FL slee5 >Ion sa% 5recisel0 on %he %hin! %ha% his 9ife 9an%e# %o slee5 on$? ii$ Ion se ocu5L [3e /eea /e se ocu5L Mi :aria]$ Ion R7FL occu5ies of %ha% 9ha% R7FL occu5ies also :aria >Ion %a-es care of 9ha% :aria %a-es care? i$XIon se ocu5L 3e /e. /e se ocu5L Mi :aria$ Ion R7FL occu5ies of %hose 9ha% R7FL occu5ies also :aria ii$ Ion se ocu5L 3e /e. 3e /a0e se ocu5L Mi :aria$ Ion R7FL occu5ies of %hose of 9hich R7FL occu5ies also :aria >Ion %a-es care of %hose of 9hom :aria also %a-es care$?
(+=2/
Sase conflic%s %ha% involve #is%inc% obli@ue Sases are no% allo9e# in Romanian even if %he over%l0 realiAe# Sase is ar!uabl0 more obli@ue %han %he unrealiAe# one$ Thus cross-lin!uis%ic ,22
#a%a 5oin% %o %he e;is%ence of a hierarch0 of Sase obli@ueness 9hich mar-s cer%ain %05es of PSase in 5ar%icular comi%a%ive Sase as more obli@ue %han affi;al Da%ive Sase$ None%heless #a%a li-e (+=4/ 9here %he Da%ive Sase re@uire# b0 %he ma%ri; is unrealiAe# an# %he comi%a%ive Sase re@uire# b0 %he RC is realiAe# are severel0 #evian%$
(+=4/ X:L voi a#resa [/1 /.ne iese :aria]$ R7FL 9ill$+SG a##ress 9i%h 9hom !oes-ou% :aria
For com5le%eness 9e 9ill no%e here an a##i%ional -in# of res%ric%ion %ha% seem %o affec% cer%ain free RCCs %ha% are o%her9ise consis%en% 9i%h %he charac%eriAa%ion of Sase-ma%chin! o5%ions brou!h% u5 several 5ara!ra5hs earlier$ I% is usuall0 assume# %ha% Sase-ma%chin! cons%ruc%ions are al9a0s acce5%able re!ar#less of %he func%ional s%a%us of %he Cases$ This assum5%ion relies on #a%a li-e (+=C/i ((+=C/ii 9hich con%ras%s in acce5%abili%0 9i%h (+=Cii/ brin!in! ou% %he fac% %ha% 7n!lish is unli-e Romanian a lan!ua!e %ha% re@uires full ma%chin!/$ No%e %ha% in %he former e;am5le &!at receives Acc Case 9i%hin %he RC 9hile %he RCC receives Nom Case in %he ma%ri; bu% %he com5a%ibili%0 of &!at 9i%h bo%h Cases is a55aren%l0 sufficien% %o ensure full acce5%abili%0$
(+=C/ i$ [S8at I sa9] 5lease# me$ ii$ X[At D8at :ar0 s%ares] is usuall0 e;5ensive$
Oo9ever mor5holo!ical ma%chin! is in !eneral sufficien% onl0 for #irec% Cases in 5ar%icular NG: an# ACC$ Insofar as obli@ue Sases are concerne# %he0 usuall0 also nee# %o ma%ch in func%ional an# seman%ic im5or%$ This re@uiremen% a55ears %o be sa%isfie# in (+=+/ii-v 9here %he various obli@ue 5re5osi%ions are cons%rue# in %he same 9a0 9i%h res5ec% %o RC an# %he ma%ri; even 9hen %he verbs in %he %9o clauses are no% i#en%ical (as in (+=+/iv-v/$ In (++=/i on %he o%her han# %he im5or% of %he DAT in %he ma%ri; 9here i% sa%isfies a 5re5osi%ion an# %he RC 9here i% sa%isfies a verb a55ear %o be %oo far a5ar% for full acce5%abili%0I similarl0 in (++=/ii %he senses of cu in %he ma%ri; an# in %he RC seem %o be %oo #ifferen%$
(++=/ i$ KXProiec%ul a reuMi% #a%ori%L [/1. i-a 5lLcu%-o 5e :aria]$ 5ro6ec%-%he has succee#e# %han-s 9ho$ DAT him$DAT-has li-e#-her$ACC DG: :aria ii$ KXSun% !a%a sL lucreA [/1 Eo0.F/.ne %e #is%reAi %u]$ am rea#0 SD'N 9or- 9i%h 9ho(ever/ R7FL amuse$1SG 0ou iii$ KXSun% !a%a sL invi% [5e Eo0.F/.ne ca# ful!i #e AL5a#L]$ am rea#0 SD'N invi%e on/DG: 9ho(ever/ fall fla-es of sno9
(++=/iii reveals an in%eres%in! as5ec% of %his res%ric%ion$ The 5re5osi%ion pe is some%imes a necessar0 concomi%an% of ACC Case an# 9oul# %hus a55ear %o have non-obli@ue s%a%us (%he e;ac% #is%ribu%ion of %his elemen% 9ill be #iscusse# in %he secon# volume/$ So lon! as pe func%ions as ACC mar-er in bo%h clauses as for e;am5le in (+=+/i an0 choice of verb 0iel#s acce5%able ou%5u%s$ If ho9ever pe nee#s %o func%ion as Acc mar-er in %he ma%ri; an# as (#irec%ional/ loca%ive mar-er in %he RC as in (++=/iii unacce5%abili%0 resul%s$ Oavin! ou%line# an# illus%ra%e# %he ma6or res%ric%ions on Sase-(non/ma%chin! in Romanian 9e %urn %o %he res%ric%ions on Pie# Pi5in! of %05e II 9hich 9ere allu#e# %o earlier in %his sec%ion$ T9o com5le%el0 unacce5%able ins%ances of Pie# Pi5in! of a DP b0 a 5ossessor in (S5ec DP/ are illus%ra%e# in %he (i/ subcases of (+++/-(++1/ (a55ro;ima%e versions of %heir in%en#e# meanin!s are 5rovi#e# b0 %he corres5on#in! (ii/ subcases/$
(+++/ i$X[Casa Eo0.F/1. e #e vWnAare] %rebuie sL s%ea lWn!L %elefon En 5ermanenRL
,24
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies house-%he 9ho(ever/$G7N is on sale mus% SD'N s%a0 near 5hone in 5ermanence ii$ Persoana a cLrei casL e #e vWnAare %rebuie sL s%ea lWn!L %elefon 5erson-%he G7N 9hich$G7N house is on sale mus% SD'N s%a0 near 5hone En 5ermanenRL$ in 5ermanence >The 5erson 9hose house is on sale nee#s %o s%a0 b0 %he 5hone all %he %ime$? (++1/ i$XVoi ne!ocia cu fiica cea mare [a Eo0.F/1. casL a fos% vWn#u%L 9ill$+SG ne!o%ia%e 9i%h #au!h%er-%he %he bi! G7N 9ho(ever/$G7N house has been sol# sL5%LmWna %recu%L]$ 9ee--%he las% ii$ Voi ne!ocia cu fiica cea mare a 5ersoanei a cLrei casL 9ill$+SG ne!o%ia%e 9i%h #au!h%er-%he %he bi! G7N 5erson-%he$G7N G7N 9hich$G7N house a fos% vWn#u%L sL5%LmWna %recu%L$ has been sol# 9ee--%he las% >I 9ill ne!o%ia%e 9i%h %he ol#er #au!h%er of %he 5erson 9hose house has been sol# las% 9ee-$?
Gbserve %ha% %he #eviance of %he (i/ subcases is no% a%%ribu%able %o viola%ions of con#i%ions on Sase-(non/ma%chin!$ In (+++i/ %he over% in%ernal 5ivo% has obli@ue (Geni%ive/ Case an# %he RCC has unrealiAe# Nom Case a s%a%e of affairs %olera%e# b0 %he !rammar of Romanian (cf$ (CCi//$ In (++1/ bo%h %he in%ernal 5ivo% an# %he RCC have Geni%ive Case in bo%h ins%ances 9i%h 5ossessive im5or%$ The severe #eviance of %hese #a%a can %hus no% be blame# on Sase 5roblems an# a55ears %o be #ue %o a ban on %05e II Pie# Pi5in!$ SummariAin! free RCCs allo9 Pie# Pi5in! of %05e I (see (+==/-(+=1// an# V (see e$!$ (CB// an# #isallo9 Pie# Pi5in! of %05es II III an# IV$ In conclu#in! %his sec%ion a remar- abou% %he (5ar%ial/ Sase-ma%chin! effec%s is in or#er$ I% 9as 5ro5ose# in sec%ion 1$1 %ha% free RCCs are DPs or PPs hea#e# b0 a null func%ional ca%e!or0 ra%her %han bare clauses$ In !eneral bare clauses #o no% e;hibi% Sasema%hin! effec%s of an0 sor%$ In 5ar%icular none are foun# in cons%ruc%ions 9i%h embe##e# in%erro!a%ive clauses$ In com5le; DPs or PPs ho9ever such effec%s are some%imes foun# in 5ar%icular in si%ua%ions 9here one of %he ar!uabl0 un#ers%oo# 5ivo%s is no% over%l0 e;5resse#$ An illus%ra%ion of %his s%a%e of affairs %ha% #oes no% involve RCCs is 5rovi#e# in (++,/ 9i%h com5ara%ive s%ruc%ures (%he bol#face# 5hrase is %he e;%ernal 5ivo% an# %he !a5 %he in%ernal one/$ Gbserve %ha% 6us% as in RCCs (see e$!$ (CC// cer%ain forms of misma%ch are allo9e# an# o%hers are no%$
(++2/ i$ Ion i-a 5reAen%a% :ariei mai 61lte 5e0soane #ecW% i-a 5reAen%a% Ion CL$DAT-has in%ro#uce# :aria$DAT more man0 5ersons %han his$DAT-has in%ro#uce# vreo#a%L ea lui rr$ ever she him$DAT >Ion in%ro#uce# %o :aria more 5ersons %han she has ever in%ro#uce# %o him$? ii$ Am scris mai 61lto0 a1to0. #ecW% ai scris %u vreo#a%L have$+ 9ri%%en more man0$ DAT au%hors %han have$1SG 9ri%%en 0ou ever >I 9ro%e %o more au%hors %han 0ou have ever 9ri%%en %o? iii$ Ion a 5reAen%a%-o 5e :aria mai 61lto0 5e0soane #ecW% Ion has in%ro#uce#-her$ACC DG: :aria more man0$ DAT 5ersons %han i-a 5reAen%a% vreo#a%L ea lui rr$ him$DAT-has in%ro#uce# ever she him$ DAT >Ion has in%ro#uce# :aria %o more 5ersons %han she has ever in%ro#uce# %o him$? iv$ XIon i-a 5reAen%a% :ariei mai 61lte 5e0soane #ecW% l-a Ion her$DAT-has in%ro#uce# :aria$DAT more man0 5ersons %han him$ACC-has 5reAen%a% vreo#a%L ea 5e el rr $ in%ro#uce# ever she DG: him
,2,
Thus (++2/i-ii sho9 %ha% com5ara%ive cons%ruc%ions are acce5%able 9hen %he Cases ma%ch 9he%her %he0 are #irec% or obli@ueI (++2/iii-iv sho9 %ha% %he Cases #o no% nee# %o ma%ch 5rovi#e# %ha% %he over% Case is more obli@ue %han %he null one$ In sec%ion , 9e 9ill e;amine a cons%ruc%ion 9hich is ar!uabl0 ]non-core] in %ha% numerous fac%s (9hich 5ro5erl0 inclu#e %he %o%al absence of Sase-ma%chin!/ 5oin% %o a bare CP s%a%us an# %he cons%ruc%ion is none%heless no% in%er5re%e# as a 5ro5osi%ion or se% of 5ro5osi%ion bu% as an e;is%en%ial !eneraliAe# @uan%ifier$
$. Poss.ble 4a5 lo/at.ons

In 5rinci5le !a5s 9i%hin RCs (crea%e# 9i%hou% or 9i%h Pie#-Pi5in!/ ma0 be loca%e# in ar!umen% 5osi%ions in a#verbial 5osi%ions an# in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions bo%h 9i%hin %he ma%ri; an# 9i%hin a com5lemen% clause sub6ec% %o a number of res%ric%ions usuall0 -no9n as >islan# cons%rain%s?$ Some illus%ra%ions follo9 (%he s0n%ac%ic func%ion of %he !a5 is in#ica%e# a% %he ri!h% of each e;am5le/I in (++4/ %he !a5 is in %he RC?s ma%ri; clause in (++,/ in a subor#ina%e clause$
(++4/ a$ Co5ilul [care [ rr 5lWn!e]] %rebuie calma% S1b7e/t chil#-%he 9hich cries nee#s calme# >The chil# 9ho is cr0in! nee#s %o be calme#$? b$ Co5ilul [5e care [l-ai crescu% rr ]] e bolnav D.0e/t Ob7e/t chil#-%he DG: 9hich he$ACC-have raise# is sic>The chil# 9hom 0ou have raise# is sic-$? c$ Co5ilul [cLruia [(i/-ai #a% rr un ca#ou]] rW#e EncWn%a% In3.0e/t Ob7e/t chil#-%he 9hich$DAT him$DAT-have !iven a 5resen% lau!hs #eli!h%e# >The chil# %o 9hom 0ou have !iven a 5resen% lau!hs 9i%h #eli!h%$? #$ CuRi%ul [cu care [%Liem 5Wine rr ]] e ascuRi% Inst016ental A371n/t -nife-%he 9i%h 9hich cu%$+PL brea# is shar5 >The -nife 9hich 9e cu% brea# 9i%h is shar5$? e$ Locuim acolo [un#e [au locui% 5LrinRii noM%ri rr ]] Pla/e A32e0b live$+PL %here 9here have live# 5aren%s-%he ours >Ue live %here 9here our 5aren%s live#$? f$ Vom veni numai a%unci [cWn# [a6un!eRi voi %oRi rr ]] T.6e A32e0b 9ill$+PL come onl0 %hen 9hen arrive$1PL 0ou(PL/ all >Ue 9ill come onl0 9hen all of 0ou arrive$? !$ Ion es%e fLrL nici un #ubiu marele !Wn#i%or Ion is 9i%hou% nei%her one #oub% !rea%-%he %hin-er [ce [a fos% rr 5e vremuri %a%Ll lui]] P0e3./ate 9ha% has been on %imes fa%her-%he his >Ion is 9i%hou% an0 #oub% %he !rea% %hin-er his fa%her 9as in %he ol# #a0s$? h$ :arele ma%ema%ician [ce [5are a fi rr Ion]] va 5u%ea !rea%-%he ma%hema%ician 9ha% seems %o be Ion 9ill can reAolva sL s5erLm 5roblema En %im5 recor#$ EI1at.2e P0e3./ate solve SD'N ho5e$+PL 5roblem-%he in %ime recor# >The !rea% ma%hema%ician %ha% Ion seems %o be 9ill ho5efull0 be able %o solve %he 5roblem in recor# %ime$? a$ Co5ilul [care se 5are cL [ rr 5lWn!eZZ ar %rebui calma%$ S1b7e/t chil#-%he 9hich R7FL seems %ha% cries 9oul# nee# calme# >The chil# 9ho seems %o be cr0in! 9oul# nee# %o be calme#$? b$ Co5ilul Y 5e care se s5une cL Yl-ai crescu% rr Z e bolnav D.0e/t Ob7e/t chil#-%he DG: 9hich R7FL sa0s %ha% he$ACC-have raise# is sic-
(++,/
,2.
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies >The chil# 9hom %he0 sa0 0ou have raise# is sic-$? c$ Co5ilul YcLruia mi s-a #a% a EnRele!e cL Y(i/-ai chil#-%he 9hich$DAT him$DAT R7FL-has !iven %o un#ers%an# %ha% him$ DAT-9oul#$1SG fi #a% rr o 6ucLrieZZ rW#e EncWn%a% In3.0e/t Ob7e/t PRF !iven a %o0 lau!hs #eli!h%e# >The chil# %o 9hom 9e !a%here# 0ou have !iven a %o0 is lau!hin! 9i%h #eli!h%$? #$ CuRi%ul Ycu care ni s-a s5us cL Y5u%em %Lia 5Wine rr ZZ -nife-%he 9i%h 9hich us$DAT R7FL-has %ol# %ha% can$+PL cu% brea# nu e #es%ul #e ascuRi% Inst016ental A32e0b no% is enou!h of shar5 >The -nife 9hich 9e 9ere %ol# 9e coul# cu% brea# 9i%h is no% shar5 enou!h$? e$ Locuim acolo Y un#e am afla% nu #e mul% cL live$+PL %here 9here have foun# ou% no% of much %ha% Yau locui% Mi 5LrinRii voM%ri rr ZZ Pla/e A32e0b have live# also 5aren%s-%he 0ours >Ue live %here 9here 9e have recen%l0 foun# ou% 0our 5aren%s also live#$? f$ Vom veni a%unci YcWn# bLnuim cL veRi 9ill$+PL come %hen 9hen su55ose$+PL %ha% 9ill$1PL Ya6un!e Mi voi rr ZZ T.6e A32e0b arrive also 0ou(PL/ >Ue 9ill come 9hen !$ Ion es%e fLrL En#oialL marele !Wn#i%or Ion is 9i%hou% #oub% !rea%-%he %hin-er Yce M%im cu %oRii cL Ya fos% rr 5e vremuri %a%Ll luiZZ P0e3./ate 9ha% -no9$+PL 9i%h all-%he %ha% has been on %imes fa%her-%he his >Ion is un#oub%e#l0 %he !rea% %hin-er 9e all -no9 his fa%her 9as in %he ol# #a0s$? h$ :arele ma%ema%ician Yce se s5une cL Y ar fi fos% rr Ion ZZ n-a avu% !rea%-%he ma%hema%ician 9ha% R7FL sa0s %ha% 9oul# PRF been Ion no%-has ha# 5robabil nicio#a%L #ificul%LRi En nici un #omeniu al ma%ema%icii 5robabl0 never #ifficul%ies in nei%her one #omain G7N ma%ema%hics-%he$G7N EI1at.2e P0e3./ate >The !rea% ma%hema%ician %ha% Ion is sai# %o have been has 5robabl0 never ha# #ifficul%ies in an0 #omain of ma%hema%ics$?
The islan# cons%rain%s o5era%ive in Romanian are no% ver0 #ifferen% from %hose foun# in 7n!lish an# 6us% as in 7n!lish %he0 affec% no% 6us% rela%ive clauses bu% a 9hole class of cons%ruc%ions %ha% e;hibi% >unboun#e# #e5en#encies?$ In rela%ive clauses %he #e5en#encies concern %he !a5 an# %he rela%ive 5ronoun or null o5era%or an# such #e5en#encies are sai# %o be >unboun#e#? because %he !a5 ma0 be foun# no% onl0 in a com5lemen% of %he ma%ri; bu% also in a com5lemen% of a com5lemen% of %he ma%ri; an# more !enerall0 in arbi%raril0 com5le; recursive s%ruc%ures of %his -in#$ A su!!es%ive illus%ra%ion of %his s%a%e of affairs is 5rovi#e# in (++./$
(++./ Can#i#a%ul YcLruia :aria ne-a s5us YcL Ion a informa%-o can#i#a%e-%he 9hich$DAT :aria us$DAT-has %ol# %ha% Ion has informe#-her$ACC 5e cumna%a lui YcL e 5osibil YcL Ei va scrie rr ZZZZ a #ecis DG: sis%er-in-la9-%he his %ha% is 5ossible %ha% him$ DAT 9ill 9ri%e has #eci#e# sL-Mi re%ra!L can#i#a%ura$ SD'N-his 9i%h#ra9 can#i#ac0-%he >The can#i#a%e %ha% :aria %ol# us %ha% Ion ha# informe# his sis%er-in-la9 i% 9as 5ossible he 9oul# 9ri%e %o rr has #eci#e# %o 9i%h#ra9 his can#i#ac0$?
Uhile in 5rinci5le unboun#e# such #e5en#encies are no% unres%ric%e#$ In 5ar%icular %he0 are ill-forme# if one of %he #e5en#en% elemen%s (in 5ar%icular %he !a5/ bu% no% %he o%her is ,2<
con%aine# 9i%hin an islan#$ Ue illus%ra%e belo9 a fe9 of %he islan#s %ha% are o5era%ive in Romanian (%he name# islan# is in#ica%e# b0 %he s0mbol >m?/$ Co65le< DPs D.t8 an RC?
(++</ XCan#i#a%ul Ycu care :aria cunoaM%e Ym fiecare ale!L%or Ycare a vo%a% rr ZZZ can#i#a%e-%he 9i%h 9hich :aria -no9s ever0 elec%or 9hich has vo%e# s-a re%ras #in viaRa 5oli%icL$ R7FL-has 9i%h#ra9n from life-%he 5oli%ical
Co65le< DPs D.t8 a no1n /o65le6ent?

(++B/ XCan#i#a%ul Ycu care Ion re!re%L Ym fa5%ul YcL :aria a vo%a% rr ZZZ can#i#a%e-%he 9i%h 9hich Ion re!re%s fac%-%he %ha% :aria has vo%e# s-a re%ras #in viaRa 5oli%icL$ R7FL-has 9i%h#ra9n from life-%he 5oli%ical
A32e0b.al /la1ses?
(++C/ XCan#i#a%ul Y5e care Ion a 5LrLsi% oraMul Ym #in cauAL cL :aria El can#i#a%e-%he DG: 9hich Ion has lef% %o9n-%he of cause %ha% :aria him$ ACC sim5a%iAeaAL rr ZZ s-a re%ras #in viaRa 5oli%icL$ s0m5a%hiAes R7FL-has 9i%h#ra9n from life-%he 5oli%ical
Coo03.nate te06s?
(+1=/ a$ XFa%a Y5e care Ion !irl-%he DG: 9hich Ion e Famfira$ is Famfira b$ XFa%a Y 5e care Ion !irl-%he DG: 9hich Ion e Famfira$ is Famfira YYmo iubeM%e rr Z Mi Y o urLM%e 5e :ariaZZZ her$ACC loves an# her$ACC ha%es DG: :aria YYo iubeM%e 5e :aria Z Mi Ymo urLM%e rr ZZZ her$ACC loves DG: :aria an# her$ACC ha%es
There is one circums%ance ho9ever un#er 9hich !a5s are allo9e# 9i%hin islan#s in 5ar%icular in coor#ina%e s%ruc%ures if all %he %erms are !a55e# in 5arallel fashion$
(+1+/ Fa%a Y 5e care YYIon o iubeM%e rr Z Mi YGheor!he o urLM%e rr ZZZ !irl-%he DG: 9hich Ion her$ACC loves an# Gheor!he her$ACC ha%es e Famfira$ is Famfira >The !irl %ha% Ion loves an# Geor!e ha%es is Famfira$?
A5ar% from islan# cons%rain%s 7n!lish e;hibi%s a res%ric%ion 9hich #isallo9s %he e;%rac%ion of a sub6ec% imme#ia%el0 5rece#e# b0 a com5lemen%iAer an# %his cons%rain% is absen% from Romanian as sho9n belo9$
(+11/ i$ Persoana Ycare M%ii bine YcL rr %e a#mirLZZ %e-a cLu%a% 5erson-%he 9hich -no9$1SG 9ell %ha% 0ou$ ACC a#mires 0ou$ ACC-has searche# #e cW%eva ori$ of several %imes >XThe 5erson 9ho 0ou -no9 %ha% rr a#mires 0ou has been loo-in! for 0ou$?
,2B
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies ii$ Persoana Ycare nu M%iu EncL Y#acL rr o va 5lace 5e :ariaZZ 5erson-%he 9hich no% -no9$+SG 0e% if her$ACC 9ill li-e DG: :aria e mama %a$ is mo%her-%he 0our >XThe 5erson 9ho I #on?% -no9 0e% 9he%her rr 9ill li-e :aria is 0our mo%her$?
%$ Non+.n3./at.2e RCCs
All %he RCCs of Romanian #iscusse# so far ha# %he RC?s verb in %he in#ica%ive moo#$ Ue 9ill no9 consi#er RCs 9hose verb is in some non-in#ica%ive form$ Three 5ossibili%ies are a%%es%e#3 sub6unc%ive su5ine an# infini%ive$ Non-in#ica%ive RCCs fall in%o %9o broa# ca%e!ories 9hich ar!uabl0 belon! %o %he core an# %he 5eri5her0 of !rammar res5ec%ivel0$ Ue #iscuss %hem in %ha% or#er$ %.1. Co0e RCCs These RCCs are e;%ernall0 hea#e# an# have %he rou!h im5or% of 7n!lish infini%ival RCCs such as %he one in (+1./$
(+12/ YAn oin%men% Y%o 5u% rr on 5ainful burnsZZ 9ill be sen% %o 0ou b0 mail$
The Romanian coun%er5ar%s of #a%a li-e (+12/ #o no% ho9ever use %he infini%ival moo# (a% leas% no% in %he con%em5orar0 s%an#ar# lan!ua!e/$ The essen%ial im5or% of (+12/ can be ren#ere# 9i%h ei%her a su5ine or a sub6unc%ive as illus%ra%e# in (+14/$
(+14/ i$ YG alifie Y#e 5us rr 5e arsuri #ureroaseZZ ERi va fi %rimisL 5rin 5oM%L$ an oin%men% of 5u% on burns 5ainful 0ou$ DAT 9ill be sen% b0 mail >An oin%men% %o 5u% on 5ainful burns 9ill be sen% %o 0ou b0 mail$? ii$ YG alifie Ycare rr sL aline arsuri #ureroaseZZ ERi va fi %rimisL 5rin 5oM%L$ an oin%men% 9hich SD'N relieve burns 5ainful 0ou$ DAT 9ill be sen% b0 mail >An oin%men% %o relieve 5ainful burns 9ill be sen% %o 0ou b0 mail$?
In mos% cases ho9ever onl0 %he sub6unc%ive is a 5ossible o5%ion because %he su5ine is basicall0 5ossible onl0 9hen %he !a5 is %he #irec% ob6ec% of %he RC (see cha5%er C **2$+ 2$2/$ Tha% is %o sa0 %he su5ine ma0 no% be use# 9i%h a #ifferen% !a5 loca%ion or 9i%h a #irec% ob6ec% !a5 %ha% is loca%e# in a subor#ina%e clause 9i%hin %he RC$ For e;am5le %he follo9in! #a%a have no su5ine coun%er5ar%s$
(+1,/ i$ Cau% o secre%arL care rr sL 5oa%L s%eno!rafia$ search$+SG a secre%ar0 9hich SD'N can 9ri%e-in-shor%han# >I?m loo-in! for a secre%ar0 9ho can 9ri%e in shor%han#$? ii$ Cau% o asis%en%L cu care rr sL 5o% #iscu%a ches%iuni 5rofesionale$ search$+SG an assis%an% 9i%h 9hich SD'N can$+SG #iscuss ma%%ers 5rofessional >I?m loo-in! for an assis%an% 9i%h 9hom I can #iscuss 5rofessional ma%%ers$? iii$ Cau% o secre%arL cLreia sL-i 5o% Encre#inRa rr #osare com5le;e$ search$+SG a secre%ar0 9hich$DAT SD'N-her$DAT can$+SG en%rus% files com5le; >I?m loo-in! for a secre%ar0 %o 9hom I coul# en%rus% com5le; files$? i$ Cau% o secre%arL care sL fiu convins cL rr 5oa%e %ra#uce orice search$+SG a secre%ar0 9hich SD'N be$+SG convince# %ha% can$2SG %ransla%e an0 ma%eriale En cel 5uRin %rei limbi$ ma%erials in %he li%%le %hree lan!ua!es >I?m loo-in! for a secre%ar0 of 9hom I am convince# she can %ransla%e an0 ma%erials in
(+1./
,2C
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies a% leas% %hree lan!ua!es$? ii$ Cau% o secre%arL cLreia sL ne fie clar cL i se 5o% search$+SG a secre%ar0 9hich$DAT SD'N us$DAT be$2SG clear %ha% her$DAT R7FL can$2PL Encre#inRa rr orice fel #e lucrLri$ %rus% an0 -in# of 5a5ers >I?m loo-in! for a secre%ar0 9ho coul# clearl0 be %rus%e# an0 -in# of 5a5ers$? iii$ Cau% o secre%arL 5e care sL fiu convins cL :aria nu ar eAi%a search$+SG a secre%ar0 DG: 9hich SD'N be$+SG convince# %ha% :aria no% 9oul# hesi%a%e s-o an!a6eAe rr$ SD'N-her$ACC hire >I?m loo-in! for a secre%ar0 9hom I?m convince# :aria 9oul#n?% hesi%a%e %o hire$?
%.2. Non+/o0e e<.stent.al RCCs Romanian 5ossesses alon! 9i%h o%her lan!ua!es (in 5ar%icular Slavic Romance an# a fe9 o%her lan!ua!es bu% no% %he ma6or Germanic lan!ua!es inclu#in! 7n!lish/ a cons%ruc%ion %ha% has %he im5or% of a non-s5ecific e;is%en%ial DP bu% seems %o consis% en%irel0 of a bare CP an# is ar!uabl0 an RCC %ha% belon!s %o %he 5eri5her0 of %he !rammar in 5ossessin! no RCe;%ernal 5ivo% over% or null$ In Romanian an# a number of o%her lan!ua!es %his cons%ruc%ion e;hibi%s su5erficial similari%ies 9i%h bo%h free RCCs an# embe##e# in%erro!a%ive com5lemen%s bu% #iffers bo%h s0n%ac%icall0 an# seman%icall0 from each of %hese %9o cons%ruc%ions in a number of 9a0s$ For reasons %ha% 9ill become clear belo9 9e 9ill call %hese cons%ruc%ions :o#al 7;is%en%ial Cons%ruc%ions (:7Cs/$ Concernin! in%erro!a%ives :7Cs have ver0 #ifferen% seman%ics bein! in%er5re%e# as e;is%en%ial GeneraliAe# 8uan%ifiers (G8s/ 9hile in%erro!a%ives are in%er5re%e# as se%s of 5ro5osi%ions$ Concernin! s0n%a; an# mor5ho-s0n%a; :7Cs are almos% in#is%in!uishable from embe##e# in%erro!a%ives in Romanian (e;ce5% for %he fac% %ha% %he0 ma0 unli-e %he la%%er e;hibi% sub6unc%ive moo#/ bu% are eas0 %o #is%in!uish from %he la%%er if cross-lin!uis%ic evi#ence (e$!$ from Oun!arian an# :o#ern Oebre9/ is %a-en in%o accoun%$ Concernin! free RCCs :7Cs #iffer from %hem seman%icall0 in havin! e;is%en%ial ra%her %han #efini%e or freechoice force as 9ell as mor5ho-s0n%ac%icall0 in havin! ei%her infini%ive or sub6unc%ive ra%her %han in#ica%ive moo# an# in #isallo9in! rela%ive 5ronouns of %he free-choice %05e i$e$ %hose 9i%h a 5refi;e# ori- >-everI a##i%ional less imme#ia%el0 a55aren% #ifferences 9ill be in#ica%e# belo9$ An illus%ra%ion of a :7C is 5rovi#e# in (+1<i/$ I%s im5or% is rou!hl0 com5arable %o %ha% of %he e;%ernall0-hea#e# RCCs in %he Romanian an# 7n!lish versions of (+1<ii/$
(+1</ i$ Nu am Y5e cine ginvi%a sL invi%h la nun%L ]$ no% have$+SG DG: 9hom invi%e$INF SD'N invi%e$+SG %o 9e##in! ii$ Nu am Y5e nimeni Y5e care sL-l invi% la nun%LZZ$ no% have$+SG DG: noone DG: 9hich SD'N-him$ACC invi%e+SG %o 9e##in! >I have noone g%o invi%e %ha% I can invi%eh %o %he 9e##in!$?
Oo9ever :7Cs #iffer from RCCs li-e %hose in (+1</ii in havin! a #is%inc%l0 more limi%e# #is%ribu%ion 9hich moreover #iffers si!nifican%l0 cross-lin!uis%icall0 Romanian bein! a ra%her %oleran% lan!ua!e in %his res5ec%$ For e;am5le RCCs li-e %hose in (+1</ii ma0 func%ion as sub6ec%s of %he verb a sosi >%o arrive? bu% :7Cs have lo9 acce5%abili%0 in %his si%ua%ion as illus%ra%e# in (+1B/$
(+1B/ i$ Cineva care sL aibL !ri6L #e co5ii a sosi% nu #e mul%$ someone 9hich SD'N have$2 care of chil#ren has arrive# no% of much >Someone %o %a-e care of %he -i#s has 6us% arrive#$?
,4=
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies ii$KXCine sL aibL !ri6L #e co5ii a sosi% nu #e mul%$ 9ho SD'N have care of chil#ren has arrive# no% of much
Ue 9ill e;amine %he issue of %he #is%ribu%ion of :7Cs in more #e%ail af%er 5rovi#in! some ar!umen%s %ha% %he0 are bare clauses$ The ar!umen%a%ion res%s on a com5arison of :7Cs 9i%h embe##e# in%erro!a%ives on %he one han# %hese bein! incon%rover%ible bare CPs an# 9i%h free RCCs on %he o%her %hese bein! ar!uabl0 com5le; DPs$ The ensuin! #iscussion 9ill 5rovi#e su55or% bo%h for %he %hesis %ha% :7Cs are bare CPs an# for %he %hesis %ha% free RCCs are com5le; DPs$ A firs% 5oin% is %ha% com5le; DPs are s%ron! e;%rac%ion islan#s (see (++<// an# %ha% nonin#ica%ive in%erro!a%ive com5lemen%s are no% islan#s in Romanian as illus%ra%e# in (+1C/i$ Free RCCs on %he o%her han# are s%ron! islan#s as illus%ra%e# in (+1C/ii$ No9 e;%rac%ion ou% of :7Cs is as acce5%able as ou% of non-in#ica%ive in%erro!a%ive com5lemen%s as sho9n b0 a com5arison of (+1C/i an# (+1C/iii$ Fur%hermore e;%rac%ion ou% of :7Cs is si!nifican%l0 more acce5%able %han e;%rac%ion ou% of free RCCs or e;%ernall0-hea#e# RCCs 9i%h a non-in#ica%ive RC as can be seen b0 com5arin! (+1C/iii 9i%h (+1C/ii an# (+1C/iv$ All %his 5oin%s %o %he conclusion %ha% free RCCs are com5le; DPs (as 5ro5ose# an# ar!ue# on in#e5en#en% !roun#s in sec%ions 1$1 an# 2$2$1$1/ an# %ha% :7Cs are bare CPs$
(+1C/ i$ Des5re cei nu M%ii Ycu cine6 sL vorbeM%i rr6 rri ZK abou% 9ha% no% -no9$1SG 9i%h 9ho SD'N %al-$1SG >Uha% is such %ha% #on?% 0ou -no9 9ho %o %al- %o abou% i%K? ii$ XDes5re cei nu ai 5e Ycine6 rr6 vorbeM%e cu :aria rri Z En clasa %aK abou% 9ha% no% have$1SG DG: 9ho s5ea-s 9i%h :aria in class-%he 0our iii$ Des5re cei nu ai Ycu cine6 gvorbi sL vorbeM%ih rr6 rri ZK abou% 9ha% no% have$1SG 9i%h 9ho %al-$INF SD'N %al-$1SG >Uha% is such %ha% 0ou have no one 9i%h 9hom %o #iscuss i%K? iv $KXDes5re cei nu ai Y5e nimeni Ycu care6 sL vorbeM%i rr6 rri ZZK abou% 9ha% no% have$1SG DG: nobo#0 9i%h 9ho SD'N %al-$1SG
A secon# ar!umen% in favor of %he conclusion 6us% reache# is %ha% %he Sase-ma%chin! effec%s an# %he cons%rain% on Pie# Pi5in! of %05e II #iscusse# in sec%ion 2$2$1$1 in rela%ion %o free RCCs 9hich are en%irel0 absen% from in%erro!a%ive com5lemen%s (see (+2=// are also absen% from :7Cs (see (+2+//$
(+2=/ i$ Nu M%iu Ycu cine sL vorbescZ$ no% -no9$+SG 9i%h 9ho SD'N %al-$+SG >I #on?% -no9 9ho %o %al- %o$? ii$ Nu M%iu Ycu fiica cui sL mai vorbescZ$ no% -no9$+SG 9i%h #au!h%er-%he 9ho$DAT SD'N more %al-$+SG >I #on?% -no9 9i%h 9hose #au!h%er I can s%ill %al-$? i$ N-am Ycu cine gvorbi sL vorbeschZ$ no%-have$+SG 9i%h 9ho %al-$INF SD'N %al-$+SG >There is nobo#0 9i%h 9hom I can %al-$? ii$ N-am Ycu fiica cui sL mai vorbescZ$ no%-have$+SG 9i%h #au!h%er-%he 9ho$DAT SD'N more %al-$+SG >There is nobo#0 9i%h 9hose #au!h%er I can s%ill %al-$?
(+2+/
The si!nificance of %he lac- of ma%chin! effec%s in (+2=/i an# (+2+/i ma0 no% be imme#ia%el0 a55aren% since Romanian also %olera%es misma%che# free RCCs in ob6ec% 5osi%ion as no%e# in sec%ion 2$2$1$1 an# as sho9n in (+21/ii$
,4+
Rela%ive Clause Cons%ruc%ions an# Dnboun#e# De5en#encies (+21/ i$ Am cum5Lra% Y ce o in%eresa 5e :ariaZ$ have$+ bou!h% 9ha% R7FL in%eres%$I:PF DG: :aria >Ue bou!h% %he %hin! :aria 9as in%eres%e# in$? ii$ Am cum5Lra% Yla ce se ui%a :ariaZ$ have$+ bou!h% a% 9ha% R7FL loo-$I:PF :aria >Ue bou!h% %he %hin! :aria 9as loo-in! a%$?
I% shoul# be no%e# ho9ever %ha% a% leas% some s5ea-ers of Romanian feel %ha% #a%a li-e (+21/ii are more >mar-e#? %han ma%chin! #a%a li-e (+21/i 9hile #a%a li-e (+2=/i are (+2+/i are 6u#!e# as com5le%el0 s%rai!h%for9ar# b0 all s5ea-ers$ Fur%hermore from a cross-lin!uis%ic 5ers5ec%ive numerous lan!ua!es %ha% re@uire s%ric% ma%chin! in free RCCs im5ose no res%ric%ions on #a%a li-e (+2=/i an# (+2+/ii$ Ue illus%ra%e %his 5oin% in rela%ion %o French$
(+22/ i$XNe #%es%e Y @ui :arie s?es% a##resseZ$ I ha%e %o 9ho :arie R7FL-is a##resse# ii$ Ne me #eman#e Y @ui :arie s?es% a##resseZ$ I R7FL as%o 9ho :arie R7FL-is a##resse# >I 9on#er 9ho has :arie %al-e# %o$? iii$ Ne n?ai 5lus Y @ui m?a#resserZ$ I no%-have more %o 9hom R7FL a##ress$INF >I have no one %o %al- %o an0more$?
Ue ma0 conclu#e from %he above %ha% %he !eneral lac- of ma%chin! effec%s in in%erro!a%ive com5lemen%s (9hich are bare CPs/ s%ren!%hens %he 5ro5osal ma#e in sec%ion 2$2$1$1 %o %he effec% %ha% ma%chin! effec%s are a 5ro5er%0 of com5le; DPs/PPs 9i%h in%ernal an# e;%ernal 5ivo%s in 9hich e;ac%l0 one of %he 5ivo%s is null an# %hus %ha% free RCCs 5ossess a null e;%ernal 5ivo%$ This resul% in con6unc%ion 9i%h %he lac- of ma%chin! effec%s in :7Cs 5rovi#es fur%her su55or% for %he %hesis %ha% :7Cs are bare CPs$ These conclusions concernin! free RCCs an# :7Cs are fur%her su55or%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% :7Cs allo9 Pie# Pi5in! of %05e II 6us% li-e in%erro!a%ive com5lemen%s an# unli-e free RCCs (see (+++/-(++1//$ A %hir# ar!umen% in favor of %he 5ro5ose# vie9 of free RCCs an# :7Cs is 5rovi#e# b0 %he (im/5ossibili%0 of mul%i5le in%ernal 5ivo%s$ Thus mul%i5le &!-li-e 5hrases are allo9e# in in%erro!a%ive cons%ruc%ions in man0 5robabl0 mos% lan!ua!es bu% %he0 are !enerall0 #isallo9e# in fini%e RCCs (even 9hen %he0 9oul# ar!uabl0 ma-e seman%ic sense/ as illus%ra%e# b0 %he con%ras% in (+24/$
(+24/ a$ :L En%reb Y/.ne 5e /.ne vrea sL 5rin#LZ$ R7FL as-$+SG 9ho DG: 9ho 9an%s SD'N ca%ch >I 9on#er Y9ho 9an%s %o ca%ch 9homZ$? b$XYC.ne a #ansa% /1 /.ne ieri searLZ se vor cLsL%ori sL5%LmWna vii%oare$ 9ho has #ance# 9i%h 9ho 0es%er#a0 evenin! R7FL 9ill marr0 9ee--%he ne;% In%en#e# meanin!3 >The 5air of in#ivi#uals %ha% #ance# las% ni!h% 9ill !e% marrie# ne;% 9ee-$? b_$ X YC.ne /1 /.ne a #ansa% ieri searLZ se vor cLsL%ori sL5%LmWna vii%oare$ 9ho 9i%h 9ho has #ance# 0es%er#a0 evenin! R7FL 9ill$2PL marr0 9ee--%he ne;%
Im5or%an%l0 9ha% 9e ma0 call %he >basic? class of :7Cs also allo9s mul%i5le &!-5hrases as illus%ra%e# in (+2,/ (9hich ma0 be ima!ine# u%%ere# b0 a ma%chma-er/ 5oin%in! %o %he conclusion %ha% %hese cons%ruc%ions are bare clauses$
(+2,/ Nu mai avem Y5e /.ne /1 /.ne Em5erechiaZ no% more have$+PL DG: 9ho 9i%h 9ho ma%ch$INF >Ue no lon!er have 5airs of in#ivi#uals 9e can ma%ch$?
,41
The seman%ic force of %he :7C in (+2,/ is %ha% of an e;is%en%ial !eneraliAe# @uan%ifier of or#ere# 5airs of in#ivi#uals$ The cross-lin!uis%ic varia%ion e;hibi%e# b0 :7Cs is ra%her com5le; an# nee# no% be e;amine# here in #e%ail$ I% is ho9ever im5or%an% %o no%e %ha% %he0 form %9o 5rinci5al classes (9i%h fur%her sub#ivions/ in %he lan!ua!es 9here %he0 are foun#$ The basic class e;hibi%e# b0 all lan!ua!es 9i%h :7Cs consis%s of :7Cs %ha% occur in con%e;%s %ha% asser% e;is%ence an# 9hich are %05icall0 foun# in %he lan!ua!es of %he 9orl# 9i%h coun%er5ar%s of %he verbs be an#/ or !ave$ All %he e;am5les 5rovi#e# so far in %his sec%ion fall in %his ca%e!or0$ Some lan!ua!es ho9ever also e;hibi% :7Cs as ar!umen%s of 5re#ica%es %ha% #eno%e comin! in%o e;is%ence in%o >vie9? or in%o someone?s 5ossession$ Romanian is one such lan!ua!e an# a fe9 e;am5les are 5rovi#e# belo9$
(+2./ a$ `Ri voi %rimi%e Ycu ce sL %e bLrbiereM%iZ$ 0ou$DAT 9ill$+SG sen# 9i%h 9ha% SD'N R7FL shave$1SG >I 9ill sen# 0ou 9ha% %o shave 9i%h? b$ YCine sL ne scoa%L #in buclucZ EncL nu s-a nLscu%$ 9ho SD'N us$ACC !e%s-ou% of %rouble 0e% no% R7FL-has born >The one 9ho coul# !e% us ou% of %rouble is no% born 0e%$? c$ Am !Lsi% En fine Ycine sL su5rave!heAe co5iiiZ$ Oave$+ foun# in en# 9ho SD'N su5ervises chil#ren-%he >I have finall0 foun# %he 5erson 9ho 9oul# %a-e care of %he chil#ren$?
This >e;%en#e#? class of :7Cs is more res%ric%e# %han %he basic one no% onl0 crosslin!uis%icall0 bu% also in%ra-lin!uis%icall0$ For e;am5le %he basic class ma0 be forme# in Romanian 9i%h ei%her %he infini%ive or %he sub6unc%ive 9hile %he e;%en#e# class can be forme# 9i%h %he sub6unc%ive onl0$ Fur%hermore i% is no% clear %ha% acce5%able :7Cs 9i%h mul%i5le &!-5hrases e;is% in %he e;%en#e# class$ The follo9in! e;am5le ar!uabl0 ma-es seman%ic sense (assume >I? am sen#in! >0ou? bo%h %he ma%erials an# %he %ools nee#e# for ins%alla%ion/ bu% i%s acce5%abili%0 is hi!hl0 @ues%ionable$
(+2</ KX`Ri voi %rimi%e Yce cu ce sL ins%aleAi En noul %Lu a5ar%amen%Z$ 0ou$DAT 9ill$+SG sen# 9ha% 9i%h 9ha% SD'N ins%all$1SG in ne9-%he 0our a5ar%men%
This conclu#es our 5resen%a%ion of %he 5rinci5al 5ro5er%ies of :7Cs$
,42
Deverbal Nouns
11. De2e0bal No1ns

(AL7VANDRA CGRNIL7SCD **1$1-1$, AL7VANDRA CGRNIL7SCD CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN ) IGN GIDRG7A **+ 1$+ 2 AL7VANDRA CGRNIL7SCD 7L7NA SGAR7 CAR:7N DG'RGVI7SGRIN ) IGN GIDRG7A *4 CA:7LIA STAN ) IGN GIDRG7A *,/
1. Int0o31/t.on? De2e0bal No1ns an3 t8e.0 A0416ent St01/t10e

+$+ The mor5holo!0 of #everbal nouns +$1 The ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of #everbal nouns +$2$ Ar!umen% realiAa%ion in com5le; even% nounsI %he Noun H Gb6ec% an# %he Noun H Sub6ec% confi!ura%ions
2. No6.nal.Bat.on of t0ans.t.2e an3 1na//1sat.2e 2e0bs? t8e NO st01/t10e

1$+ Dis%in!uishin! be%9een Com5le; 7ven% Nouns an# Sim5le Deverbal Nouns 1$1 Double ob6ec% verbs 1$2 Are NG s%ruc%ures J5assiveJK 1$4$ Verbs 9i%h a clausal com5lemen% 1$,$ Dnaccusa%ive verbs
3. No6.nal.Bat.on of 1ne04at.2e 2e0bs? t8e NS st01/t10e $. As5e/t an3 no6.nal.Bat.on

4$+ Verbal As5ec%ual Classes an# 7ven%uali%0 As5ec% 4$1$ 7ven%uali%0 as5ec% in C7Ns 4$2$ The as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of %he su5ine 4$4$ PluraliAa%ion an# #e%erminer selec%ion in C7Ns
%. S.65le 3e2e0bal no1ns an3 ot8e0 no6.nals D.t8 e2ent+0elate3 0ea3.n4s

,$+$ The rea#in!s of sim5le #everbal nouns ,$1$ Sim5le even% nouns (S7Ns/ ,$2$ A!en%-nominaliAa%ions ,$4$ G%her nouns 9i%h even%-rela%e# rea#in!s
,44
Deverbal Nouns
1. Int0o31/t.on? De2e0bal No1ns an3 t8e.0 A0416ent St01/t10e

This cha5%er is #evo%e# %o %he #escri5%ion of noun 5hrases hea#e# b0 nouns #erive# from verbs (#everbal nouns/$ Amon! such nouns %hose forme# 9i%h infini%ival or su5ine suffi;es are more 5ro#uc%ive bein! foun# 9i%h %he !rea% ma6ori%0 of verbs 9hile o%her nominal suffi;es a55l0 %o a more res%ric%e# number of verbs$ :oreover infini%ival an# su5ine-base# nouns are remar-able bo%h from a mor5holo!ical an# a s0n%ac%ic 5oin% of vie9$ Gn %he mor5holo!ical si#e %he infini%ival an# su5ine suffi;es are no% e;clusivel0 nominal bu% ins%ea# %he0 are - or use# %o be - verbal3 %he - re suffi; 9as verbal in La%in an# s%ill ha# verbal uses in ol# Romanian %herefore i% is %ra#i%ionall0 calle# >lon! infini%ive?I 9e 9ill con%inue %o use %he label >infini%ival? here bu% i% mus% be -e5% in min# %ha% in %he 5resen%-#a0 lan!ua!e %hese forms are e;clusivel0 nominal$ The su5ine suffi; is i#en%ical %o %he 5as% 5ar%ici5le suffi;$ Gn %he s0n%ac%ic si#e infini%ive- an# su5ine-base# nouns are also s5ecial insofar as %he0 ma0 (bu% nee# no%/ inheri% 5ar% of %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of %he verbs %he0 are #erive# from$ 'ecause of %heir s5ecial s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies %hose #everbal nouns %ha% can be sho9n %o have verb-li-e ar!umen% s%ruc%ure 9ill be referre# %o as >com5le; even% nouns - C7Ns? %o be -e5% #is%inc% from %he o%her #everbal nouns 9hich have a canonical nominal s0n%a; (some can also have an ar!umen% s%ruc%ure/ an# 9ill be calle# >sim5le #everbal nouns - SDNs?$ As 9e 9ill see infini%ive- an# su5ine-base# nouns ma0 lac- (verbal/ ar!umen% s%ruc%ure in 9hich case %he0 behave e;ac%l0 li-e SDNs$ Ue 9ill %herefore %rea% infini%ivebase# an# su5ine-base# nouns as ambi!uous be%9een C7Ns an# SDNs #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he0 have or #o no% have verbal ar!umen% s%ruc%ure$ The s0n%ac%ic #is%inc%ion be%9een C7Ns an# SDNs #oes no% have a clear seman%ic coun%er5ar%$ 'ecause %he0 are #erive# from verbs bo%h C7Ns an# SDNs ma0 have an even%ive rea#in! (e$!$ atacare >a%%ac-in!? atac >a%%ac-? anali(area $ anali(a )datelor* >%he anal0sis (of %he #a%a/? vi(itare $ vi(it >visi%?/$ C7Ns 9ill be sho9n %o be s5ecial insofar as %he0 canno% have non-even%ive rea#in!s e$!$ %he0 canno% be in%er5re%e# as resul%s of even%s (e$!$ ruptur >brea- ri5? scrisoare >le%%er?/ %hemes of even%s (mncare >foo#?/ or a!en%s of even%s (traductor >%ransla%or?/ e%c$ Such in%er5re%a%ions are 5ossible 9i%h SDNs$ 1.1. T8e 6o058olo49 of no6.nal.Bat.ons NominaliAa%ions are mor5holo!icall0 com5le; 9or#s full0 or a% leas% 5ar%l0 anal0Aable for %he s5ea-er$ From a s0nchronic #escri5%ive 5ers5ec%ive %he e%0molo!0 of %he nominaliAa%ion is less im5or%an%$ I% is #ifficul% (an# of%en irrelevan%/ %o es%ablish 9he%her a 5ar%icular 9or# 9as %a-en over (inheri%e# or borro9e#/ from ano%her lan!ua!e or 9he%her i% 9as crea%e# in Romanian$ From %he 5oin% of vie9 of %he curren% s5ea-er a re!ressive #eriva%ive noun li-e omor >-illin!? or denun >#enuncia%ion? en%er%ains %he same rela%ion 9i%h %he base verb a omor >-ill? a denuna >#enounce? as %he French borro9in! atac >a%%ac-? en%er%ains 9i%h %he e@uall0 borro9e# verb a ataca >%o a%%ac-?$ As far as 9or# forma%ion is concerne# Romanian is a suffi;al lan!ua!e in 9hich verbs can be nominaliAe# b0 means of suffi;a%ion$ Ui%h res5ec% %o %he in%ernal s%ruc%ure of %he 9or# %he nominaliAin! suffi; is vie9e# as %he hea# 9hich #e%ermines %he s0n%ac%ic ca%e!or0 of %he #erive# 9or# as 9ell as some abs%rac% nominal conce5%ual ca%e!or0 (>even%? >ins%rumen%? >a!en%? >5lace? e%c$/$ Thus nouns such as intrare >en%rance? ieire >e;i%? #erive# from %he verbs a intra >en%er? a iei >e;i%? (ma0/ #esi!na%e %he PLAC7 9here 0ou en%er or e;i% res5ec%ivel0$ The base verb su55lies (mos% of/ %he #escri5%ive con%en% of %he #erive# noun$ ,4,
Deverbal Nouns
(+/ ru V in%raen%er
N N -re INF
Romanian has a lar!e number of nominaliAin! suffi;es an# %he combina%ion of %he verb an# %he suffi; is of%en accom5anie# b0 mor5ho-5honolo!ic chan!es$ 'elo9 9e !ive a lis% of %he nominaliAin! suffi;es of Romanian 9i%h illus%ra%ive e;am5les$ +$ *he infinitive suffi+ -re is 5rece#e# b0 %he infini%ive s%em vo9el charac%eris%ic of each verbal con6u!a%ion3
(1/ - are (cnta $ cntare >sin!/sin!in!? manifesta $ manifestare >manifes% / manifes%a%ion?/ - Wre (cobor / coborre >#escen# / #escen%?/ - re (9i%h accen%e# %heme vo9el -e-/ ( vedea $ vedere >see / seein!?/ - ere (9i%h unaccen%e# %heme vo9el -e-/ (ale e $ ale ere >choose / choice?/ - ire (sosi $ sosire >arrive / arrival?/
Ui%h verbs 9hose s%em vo9el is - a 5rece#e# b0 a 5ala%al soun# (consonan%/ %he nominaliAin! suffi; is realiAe# as -ere (ra%her %han -are/3 calc!ia P calc!iere >%o co50/ co50?$ The suffi;es -are / -ire charac%eris%ic of verbs 9hose s%em vo9els are - a an# res5ec%ivel0 -i e;ce5%ionall0 combine 9i%h verbal bases belon!in! %o o%her con6u!a%ion classes3 a crede / cre(are >believe / belief?I nate " nscare (besi#es %he more fre@uen% natere/ >!ive bir%h / bir%h?$ The infini%ive suffi; is %he mos% 5ro#uc%ive nominaliAin! suffi; in Romanian a%%achin! %o an over9helmin! ma6ori%0 of verbs$ A rela%ivel0 small 5ercen%a!e of %hese infini%ive-base# nouns can onl0 func%ion as sim5le #everbal nouns e$!$ mncare >foo#?$ :os% of %hem can also be in%er5re%e# as com5le; even% nouns e$!$ traducere >%ransla%ion?$ 1$ *he supine suffi+ is i#en%ical %o %he suffi; of %he 5assive 5ar%ici5le$ Li-e %he infini%ive i% has several 5osi%ional varian%s #e5en#in! on %he con6u!a%ion class of %he verb3
(2/ -a% (cnta $ cntat >sin! / sin!in!?/ -i% (sosi $ sosit >come / comin!?/ -W% (ocr $ ocrt >insul% / insul%in!?/ -s ( mer e $ mers >9al- / 9al-in!?/ -u% (ine $ inut >-ee5 / -ee5in!?/ -% (fri e $ fript >fr0 / fr0in!?/
Al%hou!h %he su5ine suffi; is sli!h%l0 less 5ro#uc%ive %han %he infini%ive suffi; i% also a%%aches %o a lar!e number of verbs$ As a resul% %he ma6ori%0 of verbs have %9o nominaliAe# forms one base# on %he infini%ive an# %he o%her one on %he su5ine3
(4/ a$ cntare $ cntat b$ sosire $ sosit c$ aducere $ adus #$ cdere $ c(ut e$ de(batere $ de(btut >sin!in!? >arrivin!? >brin!in!? >fallin!? >#eba%in!?
'esi#e %he seman%ic an# s0n%ac%ic #ifferences %o be #iscusse# in sec%ions 2 an# 4 %here is also a s%0lis%ic #ifference be%9een %he %9o 5ro#uc%ive nominaliAa%ions3 in man0 cases %he su5ine ,4.
Deverbal Nouns
nominaliAa%ion is informal familiar or 5o5ularI correla%ivel0 i% is less a55licable %o mo#ern borro9in!s an# is less 5ro#uc%ive in con%em5orar0 Romanian$ The infini%ive is s%0lis%icall0 unmar-e# an# is hi!hl0 5ro#uc%ive 9i%h mo#ern borro9in!s$ 2$ ,ther nominali-ing suffi+es. The e;am5les in (i/-(iii/ belo9 !ive a non-e;haus%ive lis% of suffi;es %ha% a%%ach %o verbal roo%s an# 0iel# even% nouns$ No%e %ha% unli-e su5ine an# infini%ival suffi;es %hese o%her suffi;es a%%ach %o a limi%e# number of nouns3 (i/ Inheri%e#3
-(L/ciune (nela $ nelciune >#eceive / #ece5%ion? ru a $ ru ciune >5ra0 / 5ra0er?/ -(L/mWn% (+ura $ +urmnt >s9ear / oa%h?/ -%oare / -soare (vna $ vntoare >hun% / hun%in!?I nin e $ ninsoare >sno9?/
(ii/
'orro9in!s (in %he #ecreasin! or#er of 5ro#uc%ivi%0/3

-(a/i/u/Rie (or ani(a $ or ani(aie >or!aniAe / or!aniAa%ion? nutri $ nutriie >nourish / nu%ri%ion? substitui $ substituie >subs%i%u%e / subs%i%u%ion?/ -Riune / siune (a omite $omisiune >%o omi% / omission?/ -a6 (peria $ peria+ >brushin!?/ -men% (antrena $ antrenament >%rain / %rainin!? bombarda $bombardament >bomb / bombin!?/ -ealL -ialL (clipi $ clipeal >blin- / 9in-?I roni $ ronial >nibble?/ -iM -uM (sui $ sui >climb? luneca $ lunecu >sli#e?/ -in! (dribla $driblin >#ribble?I presa $ presin >5ress?/
(iii/ Develo5e# in Romanian3 In %his class 9e ma0 inclu#e %he feminine form of (5assive/ 5ar%ici5ial suffi;es 9hich unli-e %he su5ine suffi; is use# onl0 9i%h a hi!hl0 res%ric%e# number of verbs an# #oes no% 0iel# C7Ns3
-a%L (+udeca $ +udecat >6u#!e / 6u#!men%?/ -u%L (bate $ btut >hi% / hi%%in! fol- #ance?/
Fero-suffi; #eriva%ion is also a ver0 5ro#uc%ive means of verb-%o-noun #eriva%ion 9hich 5ro#uces feminine nouns en#in! in - (luda $ laud >5raise?/ or neu%ers en#in! in a consonan% (a abandona $ abandon >aban#on?I a asalta $ asalt >rush?/$ 1.2. T8e a0416ent st01/t10e of 3e2e0bal no1ns Re!ar#less of 9he%her %he0 are buil% 9i%h infini%ive/su5ine suffi;es or 9i%h o%her suffi;es nouns #erive# from verbs ma0 resemble %he base-verb in #eno%in! even%uali%ies (,a-b/ bu% %he0 of%en also #evelo5 a more concre%e in%er5re%a%ion (.a-b/3
(,/ a$ 7;5rimarea liberL a o5iniilor 5en%ru cunoaM%erea a#evLrului e;5ress$INF-%he free G7N o5inions-%he$G7N for -no9$INF-%he %ru%h-%he$G7N es%e o 5rac%icL #emocra%icL is a 5rac%ice #emocra%ic >The free e;5ression of o5inions in or#er %o -no9 %he %ru%h is a #emocra%ic 5rac%ice? b$ DiscuRia #in%re !uvern Mi sin#ica%e 5Lrea cL nu se mai %erminL #iscussion-%he be%9een !overnmen% an# unions seeme# %ha% no% R7FL more en#s >%he #iscussion be%9een %he !overnmen% an# %he unions seeme# never-en#in!? a$ 7;5rimarea #in e;em5lul #e 5e %ablL es%e !reMi%L$ e;5ress$INF-%he from e;am5le-%he from blac-boar# is 9ron! >%he e;5ression in %he e;am5le on %he blac-boar# is 9ron!? b$ DiscuRia #in aces% 5ara!raf mi se 5are su5erfluL$
(./
,4<
Deverbal Nouns #iscussion-%he from %his 5ara!ra5h me$ DAT R7FL seems su5erfluous >%he #iscussion in %his 5ara!ra5h seems su5erfluous %o me?
An im5or%an% 5ar% of %his cha5%er 9ill be concerne# 9i%h a sub-class of %hose forms %ha% #esi!na%e even%uali%ies (even%s ac%ivi%ies 5rocesses/$ The nouns belon!in! %o %his sub-class P 9hich 9e label comple' event nouns (C7N/ " 9ill be sho9n %o !ave verbal ar ument structure% an# more s5ecificall0 %he same ar!umen% s%ruc%ure as %he corres5on#in! verb$ The e;am5les belo9 illus%ra%e ar!umen% inheri%ance in C7Ns3
(</ a$ Ion vorbeM%e ne5oli%icos cu subal%ernii En mo# in%enRiona%$ (A!en%/ Ion s5ea-s ru#el0 9i%h subor#ina%es-%he in manner in%en%ional >Ion s5ea-s ru#el0 9i%h %he subor#ina%es in%en%ionall0$? a?$ Vorbi%ul ne5oli%icos al lui Ion cu subal%ernii are sL-l cos%e$ s5ea-$SDP-%he ru#el0 G7N G'L Ion 9i%h subor#ina%es-%he has SD'N-him cos% >Ion?s s5ea-in! ru#el0 9i%h %he subor#ina%es 9ill cos% him$? b$ Au #LrWma% biserica acum Aece ani (Theme/ have$2PL #emolishe# church-%he no9 %en 0ears >The0 #emolishe# %he church %en 0ears a!o? b?$ #LrWmarea bisericii acum Aece ani #emolish$INF-%he church-%he$G7N no9 %en 0ears >%he #emoli%ion of %he church %en 0ears a!o? c$ Ion recur!e la me%o#e mo#erne$ (A!en% Goal/ Ion resor%s %o me%ho#s mo#ern >Ion uses mo#ern me%ho#s$? c?$ Recursul lui Ion la me%o#e mo#erne En cerce%Lrile sale resor%$SDP-%he G'L Ion %o me%ho#s mo#ern in researches-%he his >Ion?s use of mo#ern me%ho#s in his research? #$ I-au ri#ica% imuni%a%ea 5arlamen%arL sena%orului ((A!en%/ Theme Goal/ him-have$2PL remove# immuni%0-%he 5arliamen%ar0 sena%or-%he$ DAT >The0 remove# %he sena%or?s 5arliamen%ar0 immuni%0? #?$ (5roce#ura #e/ ri#icare a imuni%LRii 5arlamen%are 5roce#ure-%he of remove$ INF G7N immuni%0-%he$G7N 5arliamen%ar0 sena%orului sena%or-%he$DAT >%he 5roce#ure of removin! %he sena%or?s 5arliamen%ar0 immuni%0? e$ Au %ransmis arme 5LrRilor care a#mi% as%fel #e EncLlcLri$ have$2PL %ransmi%%e# 9ea5ons 5ar%s-%he$DAT 9hich a#mi% %his--in# of %rans!ressions >The0 %ransmi%%e# 9ea5ons %o %he 5ar%ies %ha% a#mi% such %rans!ressions? e?$ %ransmi%erea #e arme 5LrRilor care a#mi% as%fel #e EncLlcLri %ransmi%$INF-%he of 9ea5ons 5ar%s-%he$DAT 9hich a#mi% %his--in# of %rans!ressions >%he %ransmission of 9ea5ons %o %he 5ar%ies %ha% a#mi% such %rans!ressions?
Uhile ar!umen%s realiAe# in %he verbal #omain as sub6ec%s an# ob6ec%s (s%ruc%ural cases/ receive !eni%ive case in nominaliAa%ions o%her ar!umen%s (in%ro#uce# b0 5re5osi%ions or mar-e# b0 %he #a%ive case P >inheren% cases?/ -ee5 %hose mar-ers in nominaliAa%ions$ No%e %ha% in some %05es of DPs %he !eni%ive in Romanian is e;5resse# b0 a 5re5osi%ion (see Cha5%er ./ P a 9i%h uninflec%e# #e%erminers de 9i%h bare nouns$ In %he follo9in! 9e 9ill inclu#e %hese cons%i%uen%s un#er %he hea#in! >Geni%ive? base# 5recisel0 on %he observa%ion %ha% %he obli!a%or0 ob6ec% of C7Ns ma0 be e;5resse# ei%her b0 %he mor5holo!ical !eni%ive or b0 %hese 5re5osi%ional cons%ruc%ions3
(B/ achiAiRionarea gaces%ui imobil / a %rei imobile / #e imobileh #e cL%re 5urchase$INF-%he %his$G7N buil#in! / G7N %hree buil#in!s / of buil#in!s b0
,4B
Deverbal Nouns 5rimLrie %o9n council >%he 5urchase of %his buil#in!/of %hree buil#in!s/of buil#in!s b0 %he %o9n council?
G%her subca%e!oriAe# cons%i%uen%s (5re5osi%ional ob6ec%s secon#ar0 ob6ec%s small clause 5re#ica%es an# A#vPs/ as 9ell as #ifferen% %05es of a#6unc%s are b0 an# lar!e i#en%ical in corres5on#in! sen%ences an# nominaliAa%ions since %he func%ional s%ruc%ure of %he verb is no% involve# in 5ro6ec%in! %hem$ Oere are a fe9 e;am5les3 - Subca%e!oriAe# 5re5osi%ional ob6ec%s3
(C/ a$ Ion se s5ri6inL #e 5ere%e$ Ion R7FL leans a!ains% 9all >Ion is leanin! a!ains% %he 9all? a?$ s5ri6ini%ul lui Ion #e 5ere%e$ lean$SDP-%he G'L Ion a!ains% 9all >Ion?s leanin! a!ains% %he 9all? b$ Au 5relun!i% vacanRa cu #ouL sL5%LmWni$ have$2PL e;%en#e# vaca%ion-%he 9i%h %9o 9ee-s >The0 e;%en#e# %he vaca%ion for %9o 9ee-s? b?$ 5relun!irea vacanRei cu #ouL sL5%LmWni$ e;%en#$INF-%he vaca%ion-%he$G7N 9i%h %9o 9ee-s >%he e;%ension of %he vaca%ion 9i%h %9o 9ee-s?
- Small clauses3
(+=/ a$ G5era romWnL a #eveni% ins%i%uRie #e s%a% En ciu#a unor #ificul%LRi o5era-%he Romanian has become ins%i%u%ion of s%a%e #es5i%e some$ DAT #ifficul%ies >The Romanian G5era became a s%a%e ins%i%u%ion #es5i%e some #ifficul%ies? a?$ #evenirea G5erei romWne ins%i%uRie #e s%a% En ciu#a unor become$INF-%he o5era-%he$G7N Romanian ins%i%u%ion of s%a%e #es5i%e some$ DAT #ificul%LRi #ifficul%ies >%he Romanian G5era?s becomin! a s%a%e ins%i%u%ion #es5i%e some #ifficul%ies? b$ L-au numi% 5e Ion (ca/ 5reMe#in%e him-have$2PL a55oin%e# DG: Ion as 5resi#en% >The0 a55oin%e# Ion (as/ 5resi#en%? b?$ numirea lui Ion (ca/ 5reMe#in%e a55oin%$INF-%he G'L Ion as 5resi#en% >Ion?s a55oin%men% (as/ 5resi#en%?
- A#verbials (local PPs %em5oral a#6unc%s manner a#6unc%s 5ur5ose a#6unc%s/3

(++/ a$ Ion a aler!a% #e acasL 5WnL la McoalL En mare !rabL Ion has run from home un%il %o school in bi! hurr0 >Ion ran from home %o %he school in a hurr0? a?$ aler!a%ul lui Ion #e acasL 5WnL la McoalL En mare !rabL run$SDP-%he G'L Ion from home un%il %o school in bi! hurr0 >Ion?s runnin! from home %o school in a hurr0? b$ Ion a in%ra% En 5oli%icL ca sL facL bani Ion has en%ere# in 5oli%ics so-%ha% SD'N ma-es mone0 >Ion en%ere# 5oli%ics %o ma-e mone0? b?$ in%rarea lui Ion En 5oli%icL 5en%ru a face bani$ en%er$INF-%he G'L Ion in 5oli%ics for %o ma-e mone0
,4C
Deverbal Nouns >Ion?s en%rance in 5oli%ics %o ma-e mone0? a$ Au sa%isfLcu% cererile un %im5 have$2PL sa%isfie# #eman#s-%he a 9hile >The0 sa%isfie# %he #eman#s for a 9hile? a?$ sa%isfacerea un %im5 a cererilor sa%isf0$INF-%he a 9hile G7N #eman#s-%he$G7N >%he sa%isfac%ion of #eman#s for a 9hile? b$ 7i ci%esc Aiarul ore En%re!i En fiecare Ai %he0 rea# ne9s5a5er-%he hours en%ire in ever0 #a0 >The0 rea# %he ne9s5a5er for hours ever0 #a0? b?$ ci%i%ul #e Aiare ore En%re!i En fiecare Ai rea#$SDP-%he of ne9s5a5ers hours en%ire in ever0 #a0 >%he rea#in! of ne9s5a5ers for hours ever0 #a0?
(+1/
Gne s0s%ema%ic #ifference be%9een DPs an# clauses re!ar#s manner as5ec%ual an# %em5oral a#verbs3 reu >har#?% ur ent >ur!en%l0? rabnic >fas%?% nentr(iat >ra5i#l0?% necontenit >con%inuousl0?% constant >cons%an%l0?% permanent >5ermanen%l0?% frecvent >fre@uen%l0?% tr(iu >la%el0? e%c$ These are !enerall0 re5lace# b0 a#6ec%ives3
(+2/ a$ Ion a 5leca% ur ent la Paris Ion has lef% ur!en%l0 %o Paris >Ion lef% ur!en%l0 for Paris? a?$ 5lecarea ur ent a lui Ion la Paris$ leave$INF-%he ur!en% G7N G'L Ion %o Paris >Ion?s ur!en% #e5ar%ure for Paris? b$ Ion a in%ra% tr(iu En 5oli%icL Ion has en%ere# la%e in 5oli%ics >Ion en%ere# la%e in 5oli%ics? b?$ in%rarea tr(ie a lui Ion En 5oli%icL en%er$INF-%he la%e G7N G'L Ion in 5oli%ics >Ion?s la%e en%rance in 5oli%ics?
8ui%e of%en for %he same infini%ival or su5ine #erive# noun 9e fin# e;am5les 9here i% has verbal ar!umen% s%ruc%ure as 9ell as e;am5les 9here i% #oes no% have verbal ar!umen% s%ruc%ure as is %he case for e'primare in (,/a vs (./a above$ :os% #everbal nouns buil% 9i%h 5urel0 nominal suffi;es (i$e$ o%her %han infini%ival or su5ine/ #o no% have (verbal/ ar!umen% s%ruc%ure$ Consi#er 5airs such as afirmare / afirmaie >affirma%ion? 9here %he firs% buil% 9i%h %he ]infini%ival] -re has ar!umen% s%ruc%ure (hence %he obli!a%or0 5resence of %he #irec% ob6ec%/ 9hile %he secon# #oes no% have ar!umen% s%ruc%ure3
(+4/ a$ afirmarea a#evLrului affirm$INF-%he %ru%h-%he$G7N >%he affirma%ion of %ru%h? b$ XafirmaRia a#evLrului affirma%ion-%he %ru%h-%he$G7N c$ afirmaRia aceas%a (a lui Ion/ affirma%ion-%he %his G7N G'L Ion >%his affirma%ion (of Ion?s/?
In %his 5air of e;am5les %he lac- of ar!umen% s%ruc%ure correla%es 9i%h a >resul%a%ive? in%er5re%a%ion3 %he e;am5le in (+4/c means >%he %hin!s %ha% Ion sai#? 9hereas (+4/a means >%he even%/fac% of affirmin! %he %ru%h?$ Oo9ever %he lac- of ar!umen% s%ruc%ure is com5a%ible 9i%h an even%ive/5rocess in%er5re%a%ion as in e;am5le (,/b above$ G%her e;am5les of %he same %05e ,,=
Deverbal Nouns
are !iven belo93

(+,/ a$ Lu5%a a fos% !rea / a #ura% Aile En%re!i fi!h%-%he has been har# / has las%e# #a0s en%ire >The fi!h% 9as %ou!h / las%e# for #a0s? b$ I s-a fLcu% rLu En %im5ul unui an%renamen% him R7FL-has !o% sic- #urin! a$G7N %rainin! >Oe/She !o% sic- #urin! a %rainin! session?
In sum all nouns #erive# from verbs inheri% %he #escri5%ive con%en% i$e$ %he same le'ical conceptual structure of %he verb$ 'u% onl0 a sub-class of verb-#erive# nouns P here labele# >com5le; even% nouns? (C7Ns/ - inheri% %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of %he corres5on#in! verb$ All %hose nouns %ha% are #erive# from verbs bu% #o no% have ar!umen% s%ruc%ure 9ill be referre# %o as >sim5le #everbal nouns? (SDNs/$ Infini%ival an# su5ine nominaliAa%ions are ambi!uous bein! able %o func%ion ei%her as C7Ns or as SDNs 9hereas nouns base# on o%her suffi;es are unambi!uousl0 SDNs e;ce5% for a fe9 verbs %ha% lac- ei%her an infini%ival or a su5ine nominaliAa%ion$ The #is%inc%ion be%9een C7Ns an# SDNs #oes no% 5erfec%l0 correla%e 9i%h %he even%ive in%er5re%a%ion3 %he even%ive in%er5re%a%ion is %he onl0 5ossible in%er5re%a%ion of C7NsI SDNs on %he o%her han# ma0 have several in%er5re%a%ions amon! 9hich %he (sim5le/ even%ive one (cf$ sec%ion ,/$ 1.3. A0416ent 0eal.Bat.on .n /o65le< e2ent no1ns_ t8e No1n V Ob7e/t an3 t8e No1n V S1b7e/t /onf.410at.ons The s0n%ac%ic realiAa%ion of ar!umen%s #e5en#s on %he functional structure of %he DP an# of %he clause res5ec%ivel0 9hich are #ifferen%$ The clause has sufficien% func%ional s%ruc%ure %o license a% leas% %9o s%ruc%ural cases3 %he Nomina%ive (license# b0 %ense/ an# %he Accusa%ive associa%e# 9i%h (some func%ional ca%e!or0 of/ %ransi%ive verbs$ In con%ras% Romanian DPs have onl0 one s%ruc%ural case %he Geni%ive an# %his lea#s %o im5or%an% #ifferences be%9een %he s0n%a; of %ransi%ive C7Ns an# %he s0n%a; of %ransi%ive verbs re!ar#in! %he manner in 9hich %he ob6ec% an# %he sub6ec% of %he 5re#ica%ion are realiAe# as sho9n in %he e;am5les belo9$ If bo%h are 5resen% %he !eni%ive is assi!ne# %o %he ob6ec% an# %he sub6ec% is in%ro#uce# b0 %he a!en%ive 5re5osi%ion de )ctre* >b0? use# in 5assives3
(+./ a$ Ion a re#ac%a% aces% ar%icol En #ouL sL5%LmWni$ Ion has 9ri%%en %his 5a5er in %9o 9ee-s >Ion 9ro%e %his 5a5er in %9o 9ee-s$? b$ re#ac%area aces%ui ar%icol #e cL%re Ion En #ouL sL5%LmWni$ 9ri%e$INF-%he %his$G7N 5a5er b0 Ion in %9o 9ee-s >%he 9ri%in! of %his 5a5er b0 Ion in %9o 9ee-s?
I% is curren%l0 assume# for Romance lan!ua!es o%her %han Romanian as 9ell as for 7n!lish %ha% #everbal nouns @ualif0 as C7Ns i$e$ as nouns 9i%h verbal ar!umen% s%ruc%ure onl0 if t!e internal ar ument of %he base-verb is realiAe# in %he nominaliAa%ion$ This !eneraliAa%ion also hol#s in Romanian bu% onl0 for infini%ive C7Ns as illus%ra%e# in %he 5air of e;am5les belo93 %he firs% e;am5le in 9hich %he in%ernal ar!umen% (DG of %he verb/ is realiAe# func%ions as a C7N an# as such i% allo9s for %he 5resence of an as5ec%ual mo#ifierI %he secon# e;am5le in 9hich i% is %he sub6ec% ra%her %han %he ob6ec% %ha% is realiAe# func%ions as an SDN an# %herefore %he a#verb is un!ramma%ical$ No%e also %he #ifference in in%er5re%a%ion even%ive for (+</a resul%a%ive for (+</b3
,,+
Deverbal Nouns (+</ a$ %ra#ucerea aces%ui %e;% En %rei sL5%LmWni %ransla%e$INF-%he %his$G7N %e;% in %hree 9ee-s >%he %ransla%ion of %his %e;% in %hree 9ee-s? b$ %ra#ucerea lui Dan DuRescu (XEn %rei sL5%LmWni/ %ransla%e$INF-%he G'L Dan DuRescu in %hree 9ee-s >%he %ransla%ion of Dan DuRescu (Xin %hree 9ee-s/?
Never%heless Romanian su5ine C7Ns 9ill be sho9n %o 5rovi#e an in%eres%in! coun%ere;am5le %o %he !eneraliAa%ion men%ione# above$ Thus in an e;am5le such as (+B/ i% is %he sub6ec% ra%her %han %he ob6ec% %ha% is realiAe# as a Geni%ive an# never%heless %hese nouns 5ass all %he o%her %es%s of !enuine C7Ns (see sec%ion 1$+ for %he %es%s/$ In 5ar%icular %he A!en% of %he su5ine is able %o con%rol a ra%ionale clause3
(+B/ ci%i%ul lui Ion la micul #e6un 5en%ru a-Mi enerva soacra rea#$SDP-%he G'L Ion a% brea-fas% for %o-2$R7FL$DAT irri%a%e mo%her-in-la9-%he >Ion?s rea#in! a% brea-fas% %o irri%a%e his mo%her-in-la9?
I% has been sho9n %ha% C7Ns are as5ec%uall0 mar-e#$ The as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of C7Ns are res5onsible for licensin! as5ec%ual a#verbial mo#ifiers$ This issue 9ill be e;amine# in sec%ion 4$
2. No6.nal.Bat.ons of t0ans.t.2e an3 1na//1sat.2e 2e0bs? t8e No1n V Ob7e/t /onf.410at.on ENOF
2.1. D.st.n41.s8.n4 betDeen Co65le< E2ent No1ns an3 S.65le De2e0bal No1ns In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill 5resen% %he #ia!nos%ic %es%s %ha% hel5 us #is%in!uish be%9een C7Ns an# SDNs$ The #is%inc%ion be%9een C7Ns an# SDNs is clear-cu% in %he case of nouns #erive# from %ransi%ive verbs/verbs havin! a #ee5 ob6ec% (%ransi%ives an# unaccusa%ives/$ For %hese verbs i% has been no%ice# %ha% %he realiAa%ion of %he ob6ec% as a !eni%ive is correla%e# 9i%h o%her s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies 9hich 9ill be lis%e# belo9$ Therefore a s5ecial ca%e!or0 9as reco!niAe# 9hich is charac%eriAe# b0 %he co-occurrence of %hese 5ro5er%ies P a ca%e!or0 labele# >com5le; even% noun?$ This is %he reason 9h0 9e 5resen% %he %es%s #is%in!uishin! C7Ns from SDNs in %he sec%ion #e#ica%e# %o nominaliAa%ions of %ransi%ive an# unaccusa%ive verbs$ The %erm C7Ns can be e;%en#e# %o su5ine base# #everbal nouns base# on uner!a%ive verbs$ These nominaliAa%ions #iffer from canonical C7Ns in %ha% %he Geni%ive corres5on#s %o %he e;%ernal ar!umen% (%he sub6ec%/ bu% %he0 never%heless 5ass all %he o%her %es%s of C7Ns (see sec%ion 2/$ 2.1.1. T8e .nte0nal a0416ent The 5resence of %he ob6ec% is obli!a%or0 in C7Ns #erive# from %ransi%ive verbs$ I%s absence lea#s %o un!ramma%icali%0 as sho9n in e;am5les (+Cb/ - (1=b/ belo9$ In %he e;am5les belo9 9e use verbal bases for 9hich one suffi; is s5ecialiAe# for C7Ns (here %he >infini%ive? - re/ con%ras%in! 9i%h o%her suffi;es 9hich are s5ecialiAe# for SDNs (-ie% -ur/$
(+C/ a$ Cum5Lrarea unei case En fiecare an es%e obsesia lui Ion$ bu0$INF-%he a$G7N house in ever0 0ear is obsession-%he G'L Ion >'u0in! a house ever0 0ear is Ion?s obsession? b$ XCum5Lrarea En fiecare an es%e obsesia lui Ion$ bu0$INF-%he in ever0 0ear is obsession-%he G'L Ion
,,1
Deverbal Nouns >'u0in! ever0 0ear is Ion?s obsessions? a$ #eclararea averilor #emni%arilor m-a sur5rins$ #eclare$INF-%he for%unes-%he$G7N #i!ni%aries-%he$G7N me-has sur5rise# >%he #eclara%ion of %he #i!ni%aries? !oo#s sur5rise# me?? b$ X#eclararea aceas%a m-a sur5rins$ #eclare$INF-%he %his me-has sur5rise# >%his #eclara%ion sur5rise# me?
(1=/
No%e ho9ever %ha% %he ob6ec% can e;ce5%ionall0 be absen% if i% is imme#ia%el0 re%rievable from %he con%e;% (in (1+a/ %he a!en% PP sho9s %ha% %his is a C7N see %he %es% in 1$+$1 belo9/3
(1+/ a$ De la cum5Lrarea #e cL%re s%a% En%re5rin#erea a fos% mereu En 5ier#ere from bu0$INF-%he b0 s%a%e en%er5rise-%he has been al9a0s in loss >From %he 5urchase b0 %he s%a%e %he en%er5rise has al9a0s been in #efici%? b$ (con%e;%3 s5ea-in! of a buil#in!/ A %recu% ceva %im5 #e la inau!urare Mi EncL n-a cum5Lra%-o nimeni has 5asse# some %ime from inau!ura%e$INF an# s%ill no%-has bou!h%-i% nobo#0 >I% has been a 9hile since %he inau!ura%ion an# s%ill nobo#0 has bou!h% i%?
The e;am5les in (11/ are also un!ramma%ical since %he Geni%ive-mar-e# DP corres5on#s %o %he e;%ernal ra%her %han %he in%ernal ar!umen%3
(11/ a$ XCum5Lrarea lui Ion En fiecare an es%e 5rea scum5L (9i%h >on[a!en%/ bu0$INF-%he G'L Ion in ever0 0ear is %oo e;5ensive >Ion?s bu0in! ever0 0ear is %oo e;5ensive? b$ XDeclararea #emni%arilor m-a sur5rins (9i%h demnitari[a!en%/ #eclare$INF-%he #i!ni%aries-%he$G7N me-has sur5rise# >%he #i!ni%aries #eclara%ion sur5rise# me?
The SDNs base# on %he same verbs clearl0 #iffer from infini%ive-base# C7Ns insofar as %he0 ma0 be ar!umen%less3
(12/ a$ Aces%ea sun% cum5LrL%urile fLcu%e #e Ion$ %hese are 5urchases-%he ma#e b0 Ion >These are %he %hin!s Ion bou!h%? b$ Aces%ea sun% #eciAiile /#eclaraRiile lua%e /fLcu%e aAi #e Parlamen%$ %hese are #ecisions-%he /#eclara%ions-%he %a-en/ma#e %o#a0 b0 Parliamen% >These are %he #ecisions ma#e/#eclara%ions !iven %o#a0 b0 %he Parliamen%?
Correla%ivel0 %he e;5resse# ar!umen% of sim5le #everbal nouns nee# no% be %he ob6ec%/in%ernal ar!umen% bu% i% ma0 be %he sub6ec%/e;%ernal ar!umen%3
(14/ a$ Aces%ea sun% cum5LrL%urile lui Ion$ %hese are 5urchases-%he G'L Ion >These are Ion?s 5ro#uc%s? b$ #eclaraRia mar%orilor m-a sur5rins$ #eclara%ion-%he 9i%nesses-%he$G7N me-has sur5rise# >%he 9i%nesses? #eclara%ion sur5rise# me?
The 5resence of %he ob6ec% is a necessar0 bu% no% sufficien% con#i%ion for a #everbal N %o func%ion as a C7N$ In %he e;am5les belo9 %he infini%ive-base# Ns clearl0 have resul% rea#in!s 9hich in#ica%es %ha% %he0 func%ion as SDNs even %hou!h %he in%ernal ar!umen% is le;icaliAe#3 ,,2
Deverbal Nouns
(1,/
a$ Tra#ucerile succesive ale romanului se aflL la 'ibilio%eca %ransla%e$INF-%he successive G7N novel-%he$G7N R7FL fin# a% librar0-%he Aca#emiei Aca#em0-%he$G7N >The successive %ransla%ions of %he novel are in %he Aca#em0?s Librar0? b$ Din%re in%er5re%Lrile aces%ui concer% #e 'ach cea mai bunL es%e amon! 5erformances$INF-%he %his$G7N concer% of 'ach %he more !oo# is a lui Rich%er G7N G'L Rich%er >Amon! %he 5erformances of %his 'ach concer%o %he bes% is %he one b0 Rich%er?
The fac% %ha% %he 5resence of %he ob6ec% #oes no% e;clusivel0 charac%eriAe verbal C7N is e;5ec%e# since cer%ain non-#erive# nouns e$!$ foto rafie >5ho%o!ra5h? or tablou >5ic%ure? have nominal ar!umen% s%ruc%ure an# %he Geni%ive 9i%h 9hich %he0 can be buil% ma0 corres5on# %o ei%her %heir A!en% or %heir Theme (as 9ell as %o a Possessor 9hich is ho9ever no% 5ar% of %heir ar!umen% s%ruc%ure/3
(1./ Fo%o!rafia :ariei 5ho%o-%he :aria$G7N [ 5ho%o %ha% re5resen%s :aria [ 5ho%o %a-en b0 :aria [ 5ho%o 5ossesse# b0 :aria
(Theme/ (A!en%/ (Possessor/
I% is im5or%an% %o observe %ha% accor#in! %o %he s0n%ac%ic %es%s 5resen%e# here some nouns %ha% refer %o even%uali%ies behave li-e SDNs$ For e;am5le for %he verb invada >%o inva#e? 9e fin# %he 5air inva(ie $ invadare >invasion? 9here bo%h nouns refer %o inva#in! even%sI %he noun inva(ie >invasion?% 9hich @ualifies as an SDN #oes no% refer %o a more concre%e ob6ec% %han invadare >inva#in!?I no%e %ha% i% ma0 receive %em5oral 5re#ica%es (see (1B/c/ su!!es%in! %ha% i% refers %o an en%i%0 loca%e# in %ime P an even%uali%0$
(1</ a$ Inva#area Romei (#e cL%re barbari/ inva#e$INF-%he Rome-%he$G7N b0 barbarians >%he invasion of Rome b0 barbarians? b$ XInva#area barbarilor ( a Romei/ (9i%h barbarian[a!en%/ inva#e$INF-%he barbarians-%he$G7N G7N Rome-%he$G7N >%he barbarians? invasion of Rome? a$ InvaAia barbarilor invasion-%he barbarians-%he$G7N >%he barbarians? invasion? b$ XInvaAia Romei #e cL%re barbari invasion-%he Rome-%he$G7N b0 barbarians >%he invasion of Rome b0 barbarians? c$ InvaAia a Ence5u% la ora 2/ a fos% foar%e ra5i#L/a #ura% %rei Aile$ invasion-%he has be!un a% hour 2/ has been ver0 fas% / has las%e# %hree #a0s >The invasion be!an a% 2 o?cloc-/9as ver0 @uic-/las%e# %hree #a0s$?
(1B/
The same observa%ions hol# for %he 5airs discutare $ discuie% vi(itare$vi(it3
(1C/ a$ Discu%area aces%or ches%iuni (#e cL%re membrii consiliului/ #iscuss$INF-%he %hese$G7N issues b0 members-%he council-%he$ G7N m-a su5Lra%$ me-has u5se%
,,4
Deverbal Nouns >The #iscussion of %hese issues (b0 %he members of %he council/ u5se% me? b$ XDiscu%area (membrilor consiliului/ m-a su5Lra%$ #iscuss$INF-%he members-%he$G7N council-%he$G7N me-has u5se% (9i%h membrilor consiliului [ a!en%/ >The #iscussion of %he members of %he council u5se% me? c$ ViAi%area muAeului m-a 5lic%isi% visi%$INF-%he museum-%he$G7N me-has bore# >Visi%in! %he museum bore# me? #$ XViAi%area %uriM%ilor m-a 5lic%isi% (9i%h turiti [ a!en%/ visi%$INF-%he %ouris%s-%he$G7N me-has bore# >The %ouris%s? visi%in! bore# me? a$ DiscuRia aces%or ches%iuni (KK #e cL%re membrii consiliului/ #iscussion-%he %hese$G7N issues b0 members-%he council-%he$ G7N >%he #iscussion of %hese issues (b0 %he members of %he council/? b$ DiscuRia membrilor consiliului #iscussion-%he members-%he$G7N council-%he$G7N >%he #iscussion of %he council?s members? c$ En %im5ul #iscuRiei #urin! #iscussion-%he$G7N >#urin! %he #iscussion? #$ DiscuRia (aces%or ches%iuni/ a #ura% mul% #iscussion-%he %hese$G7N issues has las%e# much >The #iscussion of %hese issues has las%e# for lon!? e$ ViAi%a lui Ion la muAeu a #ura% mul% visi%-%he G'L Ion a% museum has las%e# much >Ion?s visi% %o %he museum las%e# for lon!?
(2=/
The e;am5les in (1</ (1C/ sho9 %ha% C7Ns are !ramma%ical onl0 if %he ob6ec% surfaces as a Geni%ive-mar-e# DP$ The e;am5les (1B/ (2=/ in#ica%e %ha% SDNs are no% cons%raine# in %his 9a0 an# in fac% %he0 are more acce5%able if %he Geni%ive-mar-e# DP corres5on#s %o %he e;%ernal ar!umen%/sub6ec% ra%her %han %o %he in%ernal ar!umen%/ob6ec%$ Never%heless as in#ica%e# in (1B/c (2=/c-e such #everbal nouns have an even%ive in%er5re%a%ion$ To s%ress %he 5oin% ma#e here %he 5resence of an in%ernal ar!umen% (realiAe# as a Geni%ive-mar-e# DP/ is a necessar0 con#i%ion for a #everbal noun of a %ransi%ive verb %o func%ion as a C7N$ SDNs nee# no% an# in some cases canno% %a-e Geni%ive-mar-e# ob6ec%s re!ar#less of 9he%her %he0 are in%er5re%e# as referrin! %o (concre%e/ resul%s or %o even%s$ The 5resence of %he in%ernal ar!umen% ho9ever #oes no% e;clusivel0 charac%eriAe C7N because some SDNs as 9ell as non-#erive# nouns (e$!$ >5ic%ure nouns?/ ma0 have a non-inheri%e# >nominal-%05e? ar!umen% s%ruc%ure an# in 5ar%icular %he0 ma0 selec% in%ernal ar!umen%s$ 2.1.2. T8e e<te0nal a0416ent As alrea#0 observe# above %he Geni%ive-mar-e# ar!umen% of %ransi%ive-base# C7Ns mus% corres5on# %o %he in%ernal ar!umen% an# correla%ivel0 %he e;%ernal ar!umen% (9hich is usuall0 %he A!en% bu% ma0 also be Cause 7;5eriencer or Reci5ien%/ is ei%her no% realiAe# or is realiAe# as a PP 9hich can be hea#e# ei%her b0 %he s5ecialiAe# 5re5osi%ion for %he e;%ernal ar!umen% of 5assives P de ctre >b0? (see par >b0? in French/ P or b0 %he more va!ue 5re5osi%ion de >b0/of? (see de in French/3
(2+/ a$ Em5rLM%ierea norilor #e cL%re/#e vWn% (Causer/ #is5erse$INF-%he clou#s-%he$G7N b0 /b0 9in# >%he #is5ersion of %he clou#s b0 %he 9in#? b$ #is5reRuirea maselor #e cL%re/#e clasa 5oli%icL (7;5eriencer/ #es5ise$INF-%he masses-%he$G7N b0 /b0 class-%he 5oli%ical
,,,
Deverbal Nouns >%he con%em5% of %he 5oli%ical class %o9ar#s %he 5eo5le? c$ 5rimirea 5ache%ului #e cL%re/#e Ion receive$INF-%he 5ac-a!e-%he$G7N b0 /b0 Ion >%he recei5% of %he 5ac-a!e b0 Ion? #$ #LrWma%ul bisericilor #e cL%re s%a% #emolish$SDP-%he churches-%he$G7N b0 s%a%e >%he #emoli%ion of %he churches b0 %he s%a%e?
(Reci5ien%/ (A!en%/
De ctre >b0? re@uires %he 5resence of %he Gb6ec% as sho9n b0 %he im5ossibili%0 of leavin! ou% %he Geni%ive Gb6ec% in %he infini%ive e;am5le (21/b or %he su5ine e;am5le (22/b$
(21/ a$ Cum5Lrarea aces%ei case #e cL%re Ion a fos% inu%ilL$ bu0$INF-%he %his$G7N house b0 Ion has been useless >The bu0in!/5urchase of %he house b0 Ion 9as useless$? b$ XCum5Lrarea #e cL%re Ion a fos% inu%ilL bu0$INF-%he b0 Ion has been useless >Ion?s bu0in! 9as useless$? (22/ a$ DLrWma%ul bisericilor #e cL%re s%a% a fos% o eroare$ #emolish$SDP-%he churches-%he$G7N b0 s%a%e has been a mis%a-e >The #emoli%ion of %he churches b0 %he s%a%e 9as a mis%a-e$? b$ XDLrWma%ul #e cL%re s%a% a fos% o eroare$ #emolish$SDP-%he b0 s%a%e has been a mis%a-e$ >The #emoli%ion b0 %he s%a%e 9as a mis%a-e$?
As 9e have seen (e;$ (11/ (1</b (1C/b/ %he Sub6ec% (A!en%/ canno% occur alone in %he Geni%ive Case$ Since in C7Ns %here is onl0 one Geni%ive 5osi%ion %he Sub6ec% an# %he Gb6ec% canno% bo%h a55ear as ar!umen%s in %he Geni%ive Case3
(24/ a$ XCum5Lrarea maMinii a lui Ion a fos% inu%ilL$ bu0$INF-%he car-%he$G7N G7N G'L Ion has been useless b$ XCum5Lrarea lui Ion a maMinii a fos% inu%ilL bu0$INF-%he G'L Ion G7N car-%he$G7N has been useless c$ XCum5Lrarea #e maMini a lui Ion a fos% inu%ilL bu0$INF-%he of cars G7N G'L Ion has been useless a$ X#LrWma%ul bisericilor al s%a%ului a fos% o eroare$ #emolish$SDP-%he churches-%he$G7N G7N s%a%e-%he$G7N has been a mis%a-e b$ X#LrWma%ul s%a%ului al bisericilor a fos% o eroare #emolish$SDP-%he s%a%e-%he$G7N G7N churches-%he$G7N has been a mis%a-e c$ X#LrWma%ul #e biserici al s%a%ului a fos% o eroare #emolish$SDP-%he of churches G7N s%a%e-%he$G7N has been a mis%a-e
(2,/
'0 con%ras% as 9e have seen sim5le #everbal nouns ma0 realiAe %he A!en% as a !eni%ive$ In %his case %he ob6ec% (9hich is no% obli!a%or0/ can be realiAe# as a PP$
(2./ a$ invaAia Germaniei asu5ra Cehoslovaciei invasion-%he German0-%he$G7N over CAechoslova-ia-%he$G7N >German0?s invasion of CAechoslova-ia? b$ viAi%a lui Ion la muAeu visi%-%he G'L Ion a% museum >Ion?s visi% %o %he museum?
Turnin! no9 %o SDNs inclu#in! cer%ain infini%ive-base# nouns (9hich as 9e sa9 are ambi!uous be%9een C7Ns an# SDNs/ %he0 allo9 %he 5resence of a PP corres5on#in! %o %he
,,.
Deverbal Nouns
e;%ernal ar!umen% bu% in %his case %he onl0 5re5osi%ion is de >b0/of? (de ctre >b0? is e;clu#e#/$ Thus in e;am5les such as (2</ descriere >#escri5%ion? an# traducere >%ransla%ion? %he e;%ernal ar!umen% is in%ro#uce# b0 de an# %he in%ernal ar!umen% can bu% nee# no% be e;5resse# b0 a Geni%ive DPI correla%ivel0 %he #everbal nouns in %hese e;am5les are in%er5re%e# as referrin! %o %he resul% of %he ac%ion of #escribin! or %ransla%in! ra%her %han %o %he even% i%self3
(2</ a$ G #escriere #e /X#e cL%re Sa#oveanu es%e a#esea foar%e 5oe%icL$ a #escribe$INF de / de ctre Sa#oveanu is of%en ver0 5oe%ic >a #escri5%ion b0 Sa#oveanu is of%en ver0 5oe%ic? b$ G %ra#ucere #e / X#e cL%re Dan DuRescu se recunoaM%e ime#ia%$ a %ransla%e$INF de / de ctre Dan DuRescu R7FL reco!niAes imme#ia%el0 >a %ransla%ion b0 Dan DuRescu can be reco!niAe# easil0?
Com5are %he e;am5les in (2B/ buil% 9i%h %he same infini%ive-base# nouns$ In %his case ho9ever %hese DPs func%ion as C7Ns #ue %o %he 5resence of de ctre 9hich in %urn re@uires %he in%ernal ar!umen% %o be 5resen%3
(2B/ a$ Descrierea #e cL%re Sa#oveanu a frumuseRilor :ol#ovei es%e a#esea #escribe$INF-%he b0 Sa#oveanu G7N beau%ies-%he$G7N :ol#avia-%he$G7N is of%en foar%e 5oe%icL$ ver0 5oe%ic >The #escri5%ion of :ol#avia?s beau%ies b0 Sa#oveanu is of%en ver0 5oe%ic? a?$ XDescrierea #e cL%re Sa#oveanu es%e a#esea foar%e 5oe%icL$ #escribe$INF-%he b0 Sa#oveanu is of%en ver0 5oe%ic >The #escri5%ion b0 Sa#oveanu is of%en ver0 5oe%ic? b$ %ra#ucerea #e cL%re un Ence5L%or a unui %e;% a%W% #e #ificil nu ar fi %ransla%e$INF-%he b0 a be!inner G7N a$G7N %e;% so #ifficul% no% 9oul# be o #eciAie bunL$ a #ecision !oo# >The %ransla%ion b0 a be!inner of such a #ifficul% %e;% 9oul#n?% be a !oo# #ecision? b?$ X%ra#ucerea #e cL%re un Ence5L%or nu ar fi o #eciAie bunL %ransla%e$INF-%he b0 a be!inner no% 9oul# be a #ecision !oo# >The %ransla%ion b0 a be!inner 9oul#n?% be a !oo# #ecision?
The 5rohibi%ion of %9o !eni%ives illus%ra%e# in (24/-(2,/ #is%in!uishes C7Ns from o%her nouns %ha% ma0 have (nominal/ ar!umen% s%ruc%ure such as picture-nouns an# SDNs3 %he la%%er allo9 %o a cer%ain e;%en% %9o !eni%ives one corres5on#in! %o %he Theme %he o%her #eno%in! %he au%hor or 5ossessor (on co-occurrin! !eni%ives see Cha5%er ./3
(2C/ a$ bus%ul lui 'ee%hoven al bunicii mele bus%-%he G'L 'ee%hoven G7N !ran#mo%her-%he$G7N m0 >m0 !ran#mo%her?s bus% of 'ee%hoven? b$ %ra#ucerea lui e;celen%L a Ilia#ei %ransla%e$INF-%he his e;cellen% G7N Ilia#$G7N >his e;cellen% %ransla%ion of Ilia#?
2.1.3. T8e6at./ a37e/t.2es SDNs also allo9 %hema%ic a#6ec%ives i$e$ a#6ec%ives corres5on#in! %o %he a!en% an# %heme %he%a-roles$ Such a#6ec%ives are e;clu#e# 9i%h C7Ns3
(4=/ a$ a%acul !erman asu5ra re#u%ei a%%ac--%he German over for%-%he$ G7N
,,<
Deverbal Nouns >%he German a%%ac- on %he for%? a?$ Xa%acarea !ermanL a re#u%ei a%%ac-$INF-%he German G7N for%-%he$G7N >%he German a%%ac- of %he for%? b$ 5ro#ucRia cerealierL a RomWniei 5ro#uc%ion cereal$ADN G7N Romania-%he$G7N >Romania?s cereal 5ro#uc%ion? b?$X5ro#ucerea cerealierL (#e cL%re RomWnia/ 5ro#uce$INF-%he cereal$ADN b0 Romania >%he cereal 5ro#uc%ion b0 Romania? c$ #eclaraRia !ermanL #eclara%ion-%he German >%he German #eclara%ion? c?$ X#eclararea !ermanL (a rLAboiului/ #eclare$INF-%he German G7N 9ar-%he$ G7N >%he German #eclara%ion of %he 9ar? c&$ X#eclara%ul !erman (al rLAboiului/ #eclare$SDP-%he German G7N 9ar-%he$ G7N
2.1.$. As5e/t1al 6o3.f.e0s C7Ns have in%ernal %em5oral s%ruc%ure %herefore as5ec%ual mo#ifiers li-e constant >cons%an%? frecvent >fre@uen%? are license#$ No%e %ha% i% is onl0 in %he sin!ular %ha% %he 5resence of frecvent is a reliable %es% for C7Ns3
(4+/ (41/ S%u#ierea cons%an%L a #ocumen%elor es%e o necesi%a%e s%u#0$INF-%he cons%an% G7N #ocumen%s-%he$G7N is a necessi%0 >The cons%an% s%u#0 of %he #ocumen%s is a necessi%0$? Fuma%ul cons%an% al %rabucurilor i-a ruina% sLnL%a%ea$ smo-e$SDP-%he cons%an% G7N ci!ars-%he$G7N him$DAT-has ruine# heal%h-%he >The cons%an% smo-in! of ci!ars has ruine# his heal%h$?
The follo9in! e;am5les sho9 %ha% even%ive SDNs #on?% allo9 such mo#ifiers as o55ose# %o C7Ns base# on %he same verbs3
(42/ a$ viAi%area cons%an%L a muAeelor$ visi%$INF-%he cons%an% G7N museums-%he$G7N >%he cons%an% visi%in! of museums? b$ XviAi%a cons%an%L a muAeelor visi%-%he cons%an% G7N museums-%he$G7N >%he cons%an% visi% of museums? a$ #eclararea s5ora#icL a averilor #e cL%re #emni%ari #eclare$INF-%he s5ora#ic G7N for%unes-%he$G7N b0 #i!ni%aries >%he s5ora#ic #eclara%ion of !oo#s b0 %he #i!ni%aries? b$ X#eclaraRia s5ora#icL a 5rimului minis%ru 5rivin# averile #eclara%ion-%he s5ora#ic G7N 5rime-%he$G7N minis%er re!ar#in! for%unes-%he >%he 5rime minis%er?s s5ora#ic #eclara%ion re!ar#in! %he !oo#s?
(44/
2.1.%. Lo/al.Be0s Ano%her %es% %ha% allo9s us %o #is%in!uish be%9een C7Ns an# SDNs is %he form of localiAin! mo#ifiers (PPs an# a#verbials e;5ressin! %he loca%ion in s5ace or %ime/$ This %es% is s5ecific %o Romanian$ As a !eneral rule localiAers mus% be 5rece#e# b0 an e;%ra 5re5osi%ion de 9hen %he0 mo#if0 un#erive# nouns (see cha5%er B *1$1$+/$ For e;am5le3
,,B
Deverbal Nouns (4,/ a$ Car%ea es%e aici boo--%he is here >The boo- is here? b$ car%ea X(#e/ aici boo--%he de here >%he boo- (from/ here?
In %he case of #everbal nouns de is rule# ou% 9i%h C7Ns an# obli!a%or0 9i%h SDNs$ In o%her 9or#s re!ar#in! %he form of localiAers C7Ns 5a%%ern 9i%h verbs 9hereas sim5le #everbal nouns 5a%%ern 9i%h un#erive# nouns$ Thus (4</a an# c are C7Ns as in#ica%e# b0 %he as5ec%ual mo#ifiers frecvent >fre@uen%? repetat >re5ea%e#?$ Correla%ivel0 de-mo#ifiers are e;clu#e# as sho9n in (4./b an# #3
(4./ a$ semnarea frecven%L a unor #ocumen%e la 'ucureM%i si!n$INF-%he fre@uen% G7N some$G7N #ocumen%s a% 'uchares% >%he fre@uen% si!nin! of cer%ain #ocumen%s in 'uchares%? b$ Xsemnarea frecven%L a unor #ocumen%e #e la 'ucureM%i si!n$INF-%he fre@uen% G7N some$G7N #ocumen%s de a% 'uchares% >%he fre@uen% si!nin! of cer%ain #ocumen%s from 'uchares%? c$ cWn%a%ul re5e%a% al unor cWn%ece in%erAise la 5e%receri sin!$SDP-%he re5ea%e# G7N some$G7N son!s forbi##en a% 5ar%ies >%he re5ea%e# sin!in! of cer%ain forbi##en son!s a% 5ar%ies? #$ XcWn%a%ul re5e%a% al unor cWn%ece in%erAise #e la 5e%receri$ sin!$SDP-%he re5ea%e# G7N some$G7N son!s forbi##en de a% 5ar%ies >%he re5ea%e# sin!in! of cer%ain forbi##en son!s from 5ar%ies?
SDNs re@uire de before localiAers3

(4</ a$ viAi%a noas%rL #e sWmbL%a %recu%L visi%-%he our de Sa%ur#a0 las% >our visi% las% Sa%ur#a0? b$ #eclaraRia #in 5arlamen% a 5rimului minis%ru #eclara%ion-%he de-in 5arliamen% G7N 5rime-%he$G7N minis%er >%he 5rime minis%er?s #eclara%ion in %he 5arliamen%? c$ In%er5re%area #e la Paris a ac%orului a #eAamL!i% 5erform$INF-%he de a% Paris G7N ac%or-%he$G7N has #isa55oin%e# >The ac%or?s 5erformance in Paris 9as #isa55oin%in!$?
If %he loca%ive PP is sub-ca%e!oriAe# i% can a55ear 9i%hou% de even in SDNs3

(4<?/ viAi%a la 61Be1 #e sWmbL%a %recu%L visi%-%he a% museum de Sa%ur#a0 las% >%he visi% %o %he museum las% Sa%ur#a0?
2.1.&. Cont0ol b9 an .65l./.t A4ent An im5or%an% 5ro5er%0 of C7Ns is %ha% %he A!en% even if i% is onl0 im5lici% is seman%icall0 ac%ive an# as such i% ma0 license o%her cons%i%uen%s associa%e# 9i%h %he A!en% role an# ma0 be involve# in 5henomena of a!reemen% an# con%rol$ Thus %he im5lici% A!en% ma0 con%rol %he sub6ec% of a ra%ionale clause3
(4B/ EnfrWn!erea ra5i#L a Germaniei 5en%ru a 5une ca5L% rLAboiului #efea%$INF-%he ra5i# G7N German0-%he$G7N for %o 5u% en# 9ar-%he$DAT >%he ra5i# #efea% of German0 %o 5u% an en# %o %he 9ar?
,,C
Deverbal Nouns (4C/ ci%i%ul 5oeAiei cu !las %are 5en%ru a memora mai re5e#e rea#$SDP-%he 5oem-%he$G7N 9i%h voice lou# for %o memoriAe more fas% >%he rea#in! of %he 5oem in a lou# voice %o memoriAe i% fas%er?
Con%rol b0 %he A!en% in a ra%ionale clause is com5le%el0 unavailable for SDNs$ Com5are3
(,=/ a$ In%er5re%area rolului Coana ChiriRa En %raves%i 5en%ru a sa%isface in%er5re%$INF-%he role-%he$G7N Coana ChiriRa in %raves%i for %o sa%isf0 ca5riciile 5ublicului a #us la cea mai mare realiAare a aces%ui ac%or$ ca5rices-%he 5ublic-%he$G7N has le# %o %he more bi! realiAa%ion G7N %his$G7N ac%or >The in%er5re%a%ion en travesti of %he role of Coana ChiriRa in or#er %o sa%isf0 %he ca5rices of %he au#ience has le# %o %his ac%or?s mos% im5or%an% 5erformance? b$ XIn%er5re%area lui :iluRL Gheor!hiu 5en%ru a sa%isface !us%urile 5ublicului in%er5re%$INF-%he G'L :iluRL Gheor!hiu for %o sa%isf0 %as%es-%he au#ience-%he$ G7N a rLmas #e referinRL$ has remaine# of reference >The in%er5re%a%ion of :iluRL Gheor!hiu in or#er %o sa%isf0 %he au#ience?s 5references has become a reference?
The e;am5le in (,=/a is acce5%able because %he infini%ive-base# noun func%ions as a C7N #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he Geni%ive DP corres5on#s %o %he %heme/ob6ec%I since an im5lici% A!en% is seman%icall0 ac%ive in C7Ns i% can con%rol in%o %he ra%ionale clause$ The e;am5le in (,=/b on %he o%her han# canno% func%ion as a C7N since %he Geni%ive corres5on#s %o %he a!en%/sub6ec%$ In %his case %he A!en% is 5ar% of %he ar!umen% s%ruc%ure of a SDN an# as such i% canno% con%rol in%o %he ra%ionale clause 9hich e;5lains %he un!ramma%icali%0 of (,=/b$ 2.2. Do1ble ob7e/t 2e0bs The im5or%ance of %he in%ernal ar!umen% for C7Ns is fur%her confirme# b0 #ouble ob6ec% verbs %ha% is verbs %ha% subca%e!oriAe a #irec% ob6ec% an# an in#irec% ob6ec% in %he Da%ive case al%erna%in! 9i%h a PP hea#e# b0 la3 a acorda >%o assi!n?% a atribui >%o confer?% a aranta >%o !uaran%ee?% a mprumuta >%o borro9?% a drui >%o !ive?% a cumpra >%o bu0? a promite >%o 5romise? a f dui >%o 5romise? a ncredina >%o en%rus%? e%c$ Generall0 %he s0n%a; of %he C7N is %he same as %ha% of %he verb bu% i% is more cons%raine#$ a/ As in %he verbal cons%ruc%ion %he Da%ive canno% occur unless %he in%ernal ar!umen% is also 5resen%$ The in%ernal ar!umen% a55ears as an inflec%ional or 5re5osi%ional Geni%ive$
(,+/ a$ 7i au acor#a% g 5remii / 5remiile /#ouL 5remii h gs%u#enRilor /la s%u#enRi h %he0 have a%%ribu%e# 5riAes / 5riAes-%he /%9o 5riAes s%u#en%s-%he$ DAT /%o s%u#en%s >The0 a9ar#e# 5riAes/%he 5riAes/%9o 5riAes %o (%he/ s%u#en%s? b$ X7i au acor#a% s%u#enRilor /la s%u#enRi %he0 have a%%ribu%e# s%u#en%s-%he$DAT/%o s%u#en%s >The0 a9ar#e# %o (%he/ s%u#en%s? c$ acor#area g #e 5remii / a #ouL 5remii / 5remiilor h s%u#enRilor$ a%%ribu%e$INF-%he of 5riAes / G7N %9o 5riAes / 5riAes-%he$G7N s%u#en%s-%he$DAT >%he a9ar#in! of 5riAes/of %9o 5riAes/of %he 5riAes/%o %he s%u#en%s? #$ Xacor#area s%u#enRilor a%%ribu%e$INF-%he s%u#en%s-%he$DAT >%he a%%ribu%ion %o s%u#en%s? a$ 7i Em5rumu%L cLrRi vecinilor %he0 len# boo-s nei!hbors-%he$DAT >The0 len# boo-s %o %he nei!hbors? b$ `m5rumu%a%ul #e cLrRi vecinilor es%e un 5ros% obicei
(,1/
,.=
Deverbal Nouns len#$SDP-%he of boo-s nei!hbors-%he$DAT is a ba# habi% >Len#in! of boo-s %o %he nei!hbors is a ba# 5rac%ice?
As 9i%h mono%ransi%ive verbs %he A!en% sub6ec% canno% be 5ro6ec%e# in %he C7N bu% i% can be e;5resse# as a de ctre a#6unc%3
(,2/ cum5Lrarea #e 6ucLrii gco5iilor orfani /la co5iii orfani h #e cL%re membri bu0$INF-%he of %o0s chil#ren-%he$DAT or5hans/%o chil#ren-%he or5hans b0 members ai 5arlamen%ului G7N 5arliamen%-%he$G7N >%he 5urchase of %o0s %o or5han chil#ren/%o or5hans b0 members of %he 5arliamen%?
b/ In %he #ouble ob6ec% nominaliAa%ion %he 9or# or#er is fi;e# an# %he Da%ive IG mus% follo9 %he DG$ This con%ras%s 9i%h %he free 9or# or#er of %he same cons%i%uen%s in %he verbal cons%ruc%ion$
(,4/ a$ acor#area #e 5remii s%u#enRilor a9ar#$INF-%he of 5riAes s%u#en%s-%he$DAT >%he a9ar#in! of 5riAes %o s%u#en%s? b$ Xacor#area s%u#enRilor #e 5remii a%%ribu%e$INF-%he s%u#en%s-%he$DAT of 5riAes c$ S-au acor#a% numeroase 5remii s%u#enRilor R7FL-have$2PL a9ar#e# numerous 5riAes s%u#en%s-%he$ DAT >The s%u#en%s have been a9ar#e# numerous 5riAes? #$ S-au acor#a% s%u#enRilor numeroase 5remii R7FL-have$2PL a9ar#e# s%u#en%s-%he$DAT numerous 5riAes >The s%u#en%s have been a9ar#e# numerous 5riAes?
The reverse or#er is hi!hl0 mar-e# an# involves focus on %he final in%ernal ar!umen%3
(,,/ Au %rLi% emoRia a%ribuirii ins%i%uRiei lor a numelui have$2PL live# emo%ion-%he a%%ribu%e$INF$G7N ins%i%u%ion-%he$DAT %heir G7N name-%he$G7N tAvram Iancu& Avram Iancu >The0 live# %he emo%ion of %he assi!nin! of %he name "Avram Iancu& %o %heir ins%i%u%ion?
If %he IG is a PP 9i%h la >%o? 9or# or#er is free in %he C7N as 9ell$

(,./ a$ cum5Lrarea la cW% mai mulRi s%u#enRi #e noi echi5amen%e bu0$INF-%he %o ho9-much more man0 s%u#en%s of ne9 e@ui5men%s >%he 5urchase %o a !rea% number of s%u#en%s of ne9 e@ui5men%s? b$ cum5Lrarea #e noi echi5amen%e la cW% mai mulRi s%u#enRi bu0$INF-%he of ne9 e@ui5men%s %o ho9-much more man0 s%u#en%s >%he 5urchase of ne9 e@ui5men%s %o a !rea% number of s%u#en%s? c$ acor#area la a%W%ea 5ersoane a 5remiului Aca#emiei a9ar#$INF-%he %o so-man0 5ersons G7N 5riAe-%he$G7N Aca#em0-%he$G7N >%he a9ar#in! %o so man0 5eo5le of %he Aca#em0 5riAe? #$ acor#area 5remiului Aca#emiei la a%W%ea 5ersoane a9ar#$INF-%he 5riAe-%he$G7N Aca#em0-%he$G7N %o so-man0 5ersons >%he a9ar#in! of %he Aca#em0 5riAe %o so man0 5eo5le? a$ acor#area 5remiului Aca#emiei a%W%or 5ersoane a9ar#$INF-%he 5riAe-%he$G7N Aca#em0-%he$G7N so-man0$ DAT 5ersons >%he a9ar#in! of %he Aca#em0 5riAe %o so man0 5eo5le? b$ Kacor#area a%W%or 5ersoane a 5remiului Aca#emiei
(,</
,.+
Deverbal Nouns a9ar#$INF-%he so-man0$ DAT 5ersons G7N 5riAe-%he$G7N Aca#em0-%he$G7N >%he a9ar#in! %o so man0 5eo5le of %he Aca#em0 5riAe? a$ un caA #e aruncare a mLr!Lri%arelor la 5orci a case of %hro9$INF-%he G7N 5earls-%he$G7N %o 5i!s >a case of %hro9in! 5earls %o 5i!s? b$ un caA #e aruncare la 5orci a unor mLr!Lri%are a case of %hro9$INF-%he %o 5i!s G7N some$G7N 5earls >a case of %hro9in! %o 5i!s some 5earls?
(,B/
Oere are a fe9 a%%es%e# e;am5les of #ouble ob6ec% C7Ns$

(,C/ a$ 5roce#ura #e ri#icare a imuni%LRii 5arlamen%are sena%orului 5roce#ure-%he of remove$INF G7N immuni%0-%he$G7N 5arliamen%ar0 sena%or-%he$DAT >%he 5roce#ure of 9aiver of %he 5arliamen%ar0 immuni%0 of %he sena%or? b$ vWnAarea a 4< #e elico5%ere arma%ei bel!iene sell$INF-%he G7N 4< of helico5%ers arm0-%he$DAT 'el!ian >%he sale of 4< helico5%ers %o %he 'el!ian arm0? c$ %ransmi%erea #e arme 5LrRilor care a#mi% as%fel #e EncLlcLri %ransmi%$INF-%he of arms 5ar%s-%he$DAT 9ho a#mi% %his--in# of %rans!ressions >%he %ransmission of 9ea5ons %o 5ar%ies %ha% a#mi% such %rans!ressions?
2.3. A0e NO st01/t10es G5ass.2eH^ 'ecause in all NG (i$e$ NounHGb6ec%/ s%ruc%ures %he Sub6ec%/ A!en% is ei%her absen% or e;5resse# as a Pre5P hea#e# b0 de )ctre* >b0? as in %he 5assive cons%ruc%ion i% has of%en been su!!es%e# %ha% NG s%ruc%ures are %he nominal analo!ue of 5assive sen%ences3
(.=/ a$ Casa a fos% vWn#u%L #e (cL%re/ vechii 5ro5rie%ari house-%he has been sol# b0 former-%he o9ners >The house 9as sol# b0 i%s former o9ners? b$ vWnAarea casei #e cL%re vechii 5ro5rie%ari$ sell$INF-%he house-%he$G7N b0 former-%he o9ners >%he salin! of %he house b0 i%s former o9ners?
The analo!0 9i%h %he 5assive is ho9ever limi%e#$ Firs% %here are s%ruc%ures 9hich ma0 be nominaliAe# bu% no% 5assiviAe#$ For e;am5le C7Ns license an a#6ec%ival 5re#ica%ive a#6unc% on %he im5lici% A!en% bu% %his is no% %rue of 5assives$
(.+/ a$ con#ucerea maMinii bea%$ #rive$INF-%he car-%he$G7N #run>%he #rivin! of %he car 9hile #run-? b$ X:aMina a fos% con#usL bea%$ car-%he has been #riven #run>The car 9as #riven #run-$?
Secon#l0 a de ctre 5hrase is no% %he si!n of 5assive bu% of an A!en% role$ Thus de ctre 5hrases a55ear in C7Ns #erive# from in%ransi%ive verbs for 9hich %here is no corres5on#in! 5assive clause$
(.1/ a$ Aces%e %rei RLri au recurs la forRL En si%uaRii #e criAL %hese %hree coun%ries have resor%e# %o force in si%ua%ions of crisis >These %hree coun%ries use# force in crisis si%ua%ions? b$ Recur!erea /recursul la forRL in si%uaRii #e criAL #e cL%re aces%e RLri
,.1
Deverbal Nouns resor%$INF-%he/ resor%$SDP-%he %o force in si%ua%ions of crisis b0 %hese coun%ries 5oa%e #eclanMa un conflic% mon#ial can cause a conflic% 9orl#9i#e >The use of force in crisis si%ua%ions b0 %hese coun%ries can !ive rise %o a !lobal conflic%?
Thir#l0 i% has been ar!ue# %ha% %he as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of !enuine 5assive nominals i$e$ %hose 9hich are base# on %he movemen% of %he Gb6ec% %o %he Sub6ec% 5osi%ion as in %he 7n!lish e;am5le (.2// are #ifferen% from %he as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of %he or#inar0 com5le; even% nominaliAa%ions of %ransi%ive verbs$ Thus in e;am5les of %he %05e in (.2/a-b %he 5assive nominals is %elic an# re6ec%s #ura%ive for 5hrases$ In con%ras% %he Romanian infini%ive nominaliAa%ion is com5a%ible 9i%h bo%h in an# for 5hrases %ha% is i% is as5ec%uall0 uncons%raine#3
(.2/ (.4/ a$ X%he ci%0?s rebuil#in! for cen%uries b$ %he ci%0?s rebuil#in! in %9en%0 0ears a$ mo#erniAarea oraMului %im5 #e o su%L #e ani mo#erniAe$INF-%he ci%0-%he$G7N %ime of a hun#re# of 0ears >%he mo#erniAa%ion of %he ci%0 for a hun#re# 0ears? b$ mo#erniAarea oraMului En #oi ani mo#erniAe$INF-%he ci%0-%he$G7N in %9o 0ears >%he mo#erniAa%ion of %he ci%0 in %9o 0ears?
No%e ho9ever %ha% %he #a%a 5resen%e# above #o no% in#ica%e %ha% C7Ns #iffer from 5assive confi!ura%ions in !eneral bu% onl0 from 5assives 9i%h 5reverbal sub6ec%s$ The con%ras%s #isa55ear if 9e use im5ersonal se-5assives3
(.,/ a$ :aMina nu se con#uce bea%$ car-%he no% se #rives #run>Gne #oes no% #rive a car #run-?$ b$ S-a recurs la forRL in si%uaRii #e criAL se-has resor%e# %o force in si%ua%ions of crisis >Force has been use# in crisis si%ua%ions?
Ue ma0 %hus conclu#e %ha% %here is an im5or%an% similari%0 be%9een NG C7Ns an# (im5ersonal/ 5assive clauses in %ha% bo%h lac- an e;%ernal ar!umen% 5ro6ec%e# in s0n%a;$ Since %he sub6ec% is !enerall0 no% 5resen% in C7Ns i% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% nominaliAin! o5era%ions a55l0 %o VPs %ha% lac- %he e;%ernal ar!umen% bu% con%ain %he in%ernal ar!umen%$ 2.$. 'e0bs D.t8 a /la1sal /o65le6ent Transi%ive verbs %ha% %a-e clauses as ar!umen%s sho9 severe res%ric%ions in %he 5ossibili%0 of formin! C7Ns$ :an0 verbs form C7Ns 9hen %heir ar!umen% is a DP bu% no% 9hen %he ar!umen% is a clause$ Thus if %he DP ar!umen% is re5lace# b0 a CP ar!umen% of t!e same verb% %he infini%ive C7N is sim5l0 no% 5ossible an0 more$ Oere is a lis% of verbs %ha% acce5% bo%h CP an# DP Gb6ec%s3
(../ admite >a#mi%? afirma >affirm? accentua >em5hasiAe? e'plica >e;5lain? certifica >cer%if0? declara >#eclare? deduce >infer? divul a >#ivul!e? meniona >men%ion? raporta ?re5or%? opti >9his5er? susine >hol#? su era >su!!es%? ima ina >ima!ine? t dui >#en0? visa >#ream? citi >rea#? scrie >9ri%e? presupune >su55ose? remarca >remar-? observa >observe? demonstra >5rove? ar umenta >ar!ue? socoti >rec-on? considera >consi#er? pretinde >claim? plnui >5lan? calcula >rec-on? dori >9ish? recunoate >a#mi%? e%c$
,.2
Deverbal Nouns
Uhile %he verb acce5%s bo%h DP an# CP com5lemen%s as e;am5les (.</a (.B/a belo9 sho9 %he infini%ive nominaliAa%ion acce5%s only %he DP (.<b .Bb/I %he CP is com5le%el0 e;clu#e# as sho9n b0 %he ill-forme#ness of (.</c an# (.B/c$ 7;am5les become acce5%able if a noun is inser%e# %o hea# %he CP in a noun H com5lemen% cons%ruc%ion (see (#/ e;am5les belo9/$
(.</ a$ Au afirma% a#evLrul / cL Primul :inis%ru a #emisiona%$ have$2PL asser%e# %ru%h-%he /%ha% 5rime-%he minis%er has resi!ne# >The0 asser%e# %he %ru%h/ %ha% %he 5rime minis%er ha# resi!ne#?$ b$ afirmarea a#evLrului asser%$INF-%he %ru%h-%he$G7N >%he asser%ion of %he %ru%h? c$ Xafirmarea cL Primul :inis%ru a #emisiona%$ asser%$INF-%he %ha% 5rime-%he minis%er has resi!ne# #$ afirmarea fa5%ului cL Primul :inis%ru a #emisiona% asser%$INF-%he fac%-%he$G7N %ha% 5rime-%he minis%er has resi!ne# >%he asser%ion of %he fac% %ha% %he Prime :inis%er resi!ne#? a$ Au e;5lica% %eorema /cL Primul :inis%ru a #emisiona%$ have$2PL e;5laine# %heorem-%he/ %ha% 5rime-%he minis%er has resi!ne# >The0 e;5laine# %he %heorem/ %ha% %he 5rime minis%er ha# resi!ne#? b$ e;5licarea %eoremei e;5lain$INF-%he %heorem-%he$G7N >%he e;5lana%ion of %he %heorem? c$ Xe;5licarea cL Primul :inis%ru a #emisiona%$ e;5lain$INF-%he %ha% 5rime-%he minis%er has resi!ne# #$ e;5licarea fa5%ului cL Primul :inis%ru a #emisiona% e;5lain$INF-%he fac%-%he$G7N %ha% 5rime-%he minis%er has resi!ne# >%he e;5lana%ion of %he fac% %ha% %he 5rime minis%er resi!ne#?
(.B/
In con%e;%s 9here an ac%ivi%0 in%er5re%a%ion is 5ossible %he su5ine mar!inall0 allo9s CP Gb6ec%s 9hile %he infini%ive is s%ill e;clu#e#3
(.C/ a$ KSoco%i%ul /Xsoco%irea cW% va cos%a e;cursia i-a lua% rec-on$SDP-%he/ rec-on$INF-%he ho9-much 9ill cos% %ri5-%he him$ DAT-has %a-en mul% %im5 much %ime >Rec-onin! ho9 much %he %ri5 9oul# cos% %oo- him much %ime$? b$ KRa5or%a%ul /Xra5or%area cL obiec%ivele au fos% a%inse #evenise un obicei$ re5or%$SDP-%he/ re5or%$INF-%he %ha% !oals-%he have been a%%aine# become$ PLPF a habi% >Re5or%in! %ha% %he !oals ha# been a%%aine# ha# become a habi%$? c$ KDeclara%ul /X#eclararea cL %o%ul e En re!ulL nu reAolvL 5roblemele #eclare$SDP-%he/ #eclare$INF-%he %ha% ever0%hin!-%he is in or#er no% solves 5roblems-%he >Declarin! %ha% ever0%hin! is all ri!h% #oes no% solve %he 5roblems$?
The absence of CPs in infini%ive C7Ns as 9ell as %heir mar!inal occurrence in %he su5ine NS s%ruc%ure ma0 in#ica%e %ha% CP com5lemen%s #o no% func%ion as ob6ec%s in NG s%ruc%ures$ Ue conclu#e %ha% %he re@uiremen% of an ob6ec% 5osi%ion for infini%ive com5le; even% nominaliAa%ions of %ransi%ive verbs refers %o case-mar-e# ob6ec%s$ The #ifferen% behavior of %he su5ine in %his res5ec% is more !eneral as 9e 9ill sho9 in sec%ion 2 (#evo%e# %o uner!a%ive verbs/$ 2.%. Una//1sat.2e 2e0bs In%ransi%ive verbs are ei%her uner!a%ive (e$!$ a munci >%o 9or-?% a aler a >%o run? e%c$/ or ,.4
Deverbal Nouns
er!a%ive/unaccusa%ive (e$!$ a veni >%o come?% a pleca >%o leave?% a urca >%o climb?% a cobor >#escen#? e%c$/ #e5en#in! on 9he%her %heir onl0 ar!umen% is >e;%ernal? (in 9hich case i% usuall0 has %he A!en% role/ or >in%ernal? (in 9hich case i% has a Theme role e;5ressin! an un#er!oer P an en%i%0 9hich un#er!oes a chan!e of s%a%e/$ Dner!a%ive verbs !enerall0 e;5ress ac%ivi%ies$ Romanian lac-s mos% of %he %es%s %ha% #is%in!uish be%9een %hese %9o classes e$!$ i% has no au;iliar0 selec%ion (li-e I%$ essere vs$ avere% Fr$ dtre vs$ avoir/ nor an0 coun%er5ar% of %he French en cli%ic$ The onl0 %es% is %he 5ossibili%0 of a resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5ial (i$e$ a 5ar%ici5le 9hich ma0 be use# a%%ribu%ivel0 in absolu%e 5ar%ici5ial cons%ruc%ions as a 5re#ica%e af%er co5ula an# in small clauses/ 9i%h unaccusa%ives unli-e uner!a%ives3
(<=/ a$ A6uns acasL Io s-a #us ime#ia% En bucL%Lrie$ arrive# home Ion R7FL-has !one imme#ia%el0 %o -i%chen >Gnce arrive# home Ion imme#ia%el0 9en% %o %he -i%chen$? b$ Veni% 5e ne5usL masL Ion a fos% 5rimi% 5ros%$ come une;5ec%e#l0 Ion has been receive# ba#l0 >Arrive# une;5ec%e#l0 Ion 9as ba#l0 %rea%e#$? c$ Ion vorbea cu %uriM%ii coborWRi #in %ren$ Ion %al-$I:PF 9i%h %ouris%s-%he #escen#e# from %rain >Ion 9as %al-in! 9i%h %he %ouris%s #escen#e# from %he %rain$? #$ :aria e sosi%L #e la ora ,$ :aria is arrive# since hour , >:aria has arrive# since , o?cloc-$? a$ X:unci% 5rea mul% Ion n-a 5u%u% sL ^ 9or-e# %oo much Ion no%-has coul# SD'N^ >(havin!/ 9or-e# %oo muh Ion coul#n?%^? b$ XCWn%a% #e #imineaRL Ion era bine #is5us$ sun! of mornin! Ion 9as 9ell #is5ose# c$ XIon vorbea cu %uriM%ii cWn%aRi Ion s5ea-$I:PF 9i%h %ouris%s-%he sun! >Ion 9as s5ea-in! %o %he %ouris%s (havin!/ sun!? #$ XIon e rWs$ Ion is lau!he#
(<+/
Refle;ive verbs - re!ar#less of 9he%her %he0 are inheren%l0 refle;ive reci5rocal 5assive or mi##le P @ualif0 as unaccusa%ives$ If b0 NG s%ruc%ures 9e un#ers%an# cons%ruc%ions in 9hich %he in%ernal ar!umen% is realiAe# as a !eni%ive nominaliAa%ions base# on unaccusa%ive verbs mus% be consi#ere# NG s%ruc%ures$ The %es%s in 1$+ sho9 in#ee# %ha% infini%ive nominaliAa%ions #erive# from unaccusa%ives in 9hich %he Theme ar!umen% is realiAe# as a !eni%ive @ualif0 as C7Ns3
(<1/ %he$G7N >%he fre@uen% #e5ar%ure of em5lo0ees before %he en# of %he 5ro!ram? b$ revenirea ac%orilor 5e scenL 5en%ru a 5rimi a5lauAe re%urn$INF-%he ac%ors-%he$G7N on s%a!e for %o receive a55lause >%he ac%ors? re%urn on s%a!e %o receive %he a55lause? c$ EmbolnLvirea cLlL%orilor En avion !e%-ill$INF-%he %ravelers-%he$G7N on 5lane >%he 5assen!ers? !e%%in! ill on %he 5lane? a$ 5lecarea frecven%L a an!a6aRilor acasL Enain%e #e sfWrMi%ul 5ro!ramului leave$INF-%he fre@uen% G7N em5lo0ees-%he$G7N home before of en#-%he 5ro!ram-
,.,
Deverbal Nouns
(<1/a con%ains %he as5ec%ual mo#ifier frecvent >fre@uen%l0? (<1/b sho9s con%rol in%o a 5ur5ose clause (<1/c #is5la0s a loca%ive PP 9i%hou% de$ 7;ce5%ionall0 9i%h verbs 9hich #o no% have an infini%ive nominaliAa%ion o%her #everbal suffi;es ma0 form C7Ns P as %he %es%s belo9 sho9 for %he noun apariie >a55earance? %he onl0 even% noun #erive# from aprea >a55ear? (in (<2/a 9e see %he as5ec%ual mo#ifier frecvent (<4/b sho9s con%rol in%o a 5ur5ose clause (<2/c sho9s a localiAer 9i%hou% de/3
(<2/ a$ a5ariRia frecven%L #e 5e%e 5e obraA e o carac%eris%icL a vWrs%ei a55earance-%he fre@uen% of s5o%s on chee- is a charac%eris%ic G7N a!e-%he$G7N >The fre@uen% a55earance of s5o%s on %he chee- is a fea%ure of %his a!e? b$ a5ariRia lui neanunRa%L acolo 5en%ru a s%Wrni sur5riAL a55earance-%he his unannounce# %here for %o crea%e sur5rise >his unannounce# a55earance %here in or#er %o crea%e sur5rise? c$ a5ariRia aces%ei 5robleme acum a55earance-%he %his$G7N 5roblem no9 >%he a55earance of %his 5roblem no9?
3. No6.nal.Bat.ons of 1ne04at.2e 2e0bs? t8e NS st01/t10e

Cross-lin!uis%ic s%u#ies have s%resse# %ha% %here is a !eneral #e5en#ence be%9een %he 5resence of %he in%ernal ar!umen% an# C7N forma%ion$ Since %he e;%ernal ar!umen% is !enerall0 no% 5resen% in C7Ns i% has been 5ro5ose# %ha% nominaliAa%ion o5era%es on VPs %ha% lac- %he e;%ernal ar!umen% bu% con%ain %he in%ernal ar!umen%$ If onl0 %he sub6ec%/a!en% is 5resen% %he #erive# noun is e;5ec%e# %o func%ion as a SDN$ This em5irical !eneraliAa%ion hol#s in 7n!lish as 9ell as all Romance lan!ua!es o%her %han Romanian3 (<4/ An a#nominal Geni%ive 5hrase e;5ressin! an e;%ernal ar!umen% can a55ear onl0 in SDNs$
Romanian ho9ever onl0 5ar%l0 conforms %o %he Romance 5a%%ern in %ha% i% 5resen%s a clear e;am5le of C7N 9here onl0 %he e;%ernal ar!umen% is over%l0 e;5resse#$ This 5a%%ern is confine# %o %he su5ine suffi; (9i%h a fe9 e;ce5%ions concernin! infini%ive-base# nominaliAa%ions of verbs %a-in! a PP com5lemen%/ an# %o uner!a%ive verbs (inclu#in! %ransi%ives 9hich ma0 have an in%ransi%ive use/$ The fac% %ha% su5ine nominaliAa%ions 9i%h %he e;%ernal ar!umen% realiAe# as a !eni%ive are C7Ns is sho9n b0 %he follo9in! %es%s3 +$ Con%rol$ The over% A!en% can con%rol in%o a ra%ionale clause in su5ine NS nominaliAa%ions3
(<,/ ci%i%ul lui Ion la micul #e6un 5en%ru a-Mi enerva soacra rea#$SDP-%he G'L Ion a% brea-fas% for %o-R7FL$DAT anno0 mo%her-in-la9-%he >Ion?s rea#in! a% brea-fas% %o anno0 his mo%her-in-la9?
1$ As5ec%ual mo#ifiers li-e constant ]cons%an%]% frecvent ]fre@uen%] are acce5%able in su5ine NS nominaliAa%ions3
(<./ Ci%i%ul lui frecven% cu !las %are i-a EmbunL%LRi% 5ronunRia rea#$SDP-%he his fre@uen% 9i%h voice lou# him$ DAT-has im5rove# 5ronuncia%ion-%he ]Ois fre@uen% rea#in! in a lou# voice has im5rove# his 5ronuncia%ion$]
,..
Deverbal Nouns
2$ LocaliAers 9i%hou% de$ The su5ine NS s%ruc%ure %a-es localiAers 9i%hou% de ((<</# is onl0 5ossible if de has %he >abla%ive? meanin! >s%ar%in! 9i%h %o#a0?/3
(<</ a$ cWn%a%ul lui Ion la baie rea#$SDP-%he G'L Ion a% ba%hroom >Ion?s sin!in! in %he ba%hroom? b$ XcWn%a%ul lui Ion #e la baie rea#$SDP-%he G'L Ion de a% ba%hroom c$ :ersul lui la birou as%LAi l-a cos%a% viaRa !o$SDP-%he his a% office %o#a0 him-has cos% life-%he >Ois !oin! a% %he office %o#a0 has cos% him his life? #$ (X/:ersul lui la birou #e as%LAi l-a cos%a% viaRa !o$SDP-%he his a% office de %o#a0 him-has cos% life-%he
SummariAin! %he su5ine NS s%ruc%ures have all %he charac%eris%ic 5ro5er%ies of C7Ns$ The si!nificance of %he Romanian su5ine NS s%ruc%ure for %he %heor0 of nominaliAa%ions an# for com5ara%ive s%u#ies is consi#erable3 a/ The su5ine NS s%ruc%ure clearl0 #is5roves %he !eneraliAa%ion in (<,/ accor#in! %o 9hich %he sub6ec%ive !eni%ive al9a0s correla%es 9i%h a SDN$ b/ I% also #is5roves %he !eneraliAa%ion %ha% a #everbal noun func%ions as a C7N onl0 if i% has an in%ernal ar!umen% realiAe# as a !eni%ive DP$ Oo9ever %he su5ine NS s%ruc%ure #oes no% #is5rove %he !eneraliAa%ion %ha% an in%ernal ar!umen% if 5resen% mus% be realiAe# in %he corres5on#in! C7N$ In#ee# %he su5ine NS s%ruc%ure is res%ric%e# %o in%ransi%ive verbs (inclu#in! verbs 9hich ma0 be %ransi%ive bu% also have an in%ransi%ive use/$ Transi%ive verbs 9hich #o no% have an in%ransi%ive use (i$e$ %hose %ransi%ives %ha% re@uire an over% ob6ec%/ #o no% allo9 %he NS s%ruc%ure3
(<B/ a$ XDLrWma%ul s%a%ului a fos% o !reMealL #emolish$SDP-%he s%a%e-%he$G7N has been a mis%a-e b$ XDescrisul #e%alia% al lui Ion nu-i EncWn%L 5e 5rofesori #escribe$SDP-%he #e%aile# G7N G'L Ion no%-%hem #eli!h%s DG: %eachers c$ XVo5si%ul lui Ion En bucL%Lrie mL enerveaAL 5ain%$SDP-%he G'L Ion in -i%chen me irri%a%es #$ XTLia%ul :ariei la orice orL nu e un obicei bun cu%$SDP-%he :aria$G7N a% an0 hour no% is a habi% !oo#
The verbs allo9in! %he NS su5ine C7N fall in%o %9o !rou5s3 i/ verbs 9hich #o no% re@uire an over% ob6ec% (i$e$ uner!a%ives or %ransi%ives %ha% allo9 an uner!a%ive use/I ii/ refle;ive verbs$ 'elo9 9e !ive e;am5les for each of %hese classes$ a/ %ransi%ive verbs 9hich have an in%ransi%ive uner!a%ive use e$!$ cnta >sin!? scrie >9ri%e? picta >5ain%? mnca >ea%? recita >reci%e? fuma >smo-e? citi >rea#? tricota >-ni%?3
(<C/ a$ CWn%a%ul lui Ion En baie En fiecare searL Ei enerveaAL 5e vecini sin!$SDP-%he G'L Ion in ba%hroom in ever0 evenin! CL$ACC anno0s DG: nei!hbors >Ion?s sin!in! in %he ba%hroom ever0 ni!h% anno0s %he nei!hbors? b$ Ci%i%ul lui noa5%ea 5WnL la orice orL nu e un obicei bun rea#$SDP-%he his ni!h%-%he un%il a% an0 hour no% is a habi% !oo# >Ois rea#in! un%il an0 %ime of %he ni!h% is no% a !oo# habi%? c$ Trico%a%ul :ariei En bucL%Lrie mL enerveaAL -ni%$SDP-%he :aria$G7N in -i%chen me anno0s >:aria?s -ni%%in! in %he -i%chen anno0s me?
b/ uner!a%ive verbs e$!$ dormi >slee5? aler a >run? mer e >!o?3 ,.<
Deverbal Nouns
(B=/
a$ Dormi%ul lui Ion #u5L-amiaAa a #eveni% o necesi%a%e slee5$SDP-%he G'L Ion af%ernoon-%he has become a necessi%0 >Ion?s slee5in! in %he af%ernoon has become a necessi%0? b$ Aler!a%ul lui Ion #u5L au%obuA En fiecare #imineaRL ne amuAL 5e %oRi run$SDP-%he G'L Ion af%er bus in ever0 mornin! us amuses DG: all >Ion?s runnin! af%er %he bus ever0 mornin! ma-es us all lau!h? c$ :ersul lui Ion #evreme la serviciu nu i-a folosi% la nimic !o$SDP-%he G'L Ion earl0 a% 9or- no% him$ DAT-has serve# %o no%hin! >Ion?s !oin! earl0 a% 9or- #i#n?% #o him an0 !oo#?
c/ refle;ive verbs %ha% e;5ress an ac%ivi%0 9hich is normal %o 5erform on oneself e$!$ a )se* spla >9ash (oneself/? a )se* mbrca >#ress (oneself//? a )se* brbieri >shave (oneself/?3
(B+/ a$ Ion se s5alL 5e mWini En fiecare searL 0 Ion R7FL 9ashes on han#s in ever0 evenin! >Ion 9ashes his han#s ever0 evenin!$? b$ s5Lla%ul lui Ion 5e mWini En fiecare searL 9ash$SDP-%he G'L Ion on han#s in ever0 evenin! >Ion?s 9ashin! his han#s ever0 evenin!? c$ 'Lrbieri%ul lui la mieAul no5Rii Ei #eran6eaAL 5e bLieRi$ shave$SDP-%he his a% mi##le-%he ni!h%-%he$G7N CL$ACC bo%hers DG: bo0s >Ion?s shavin! himself a% mi#ni!h% bo%hers %he bo0s$?
Ue shoul# no%e %ha% no% all of %he verbs 9hich ma0 have an uner!a%ive or refle;ive/reci5rocal use have an NS su5ine com5le; even% nominaliAa%ion$ There are also cases for 9hich a NS C7N is mar!inal or onl0 acce5%e# b0 some s5ea-ers$ As 9e have seen in %he mor5holo!0 sec%ion (see +$+/ %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion in !eneral is informal familiar or 5o5ular an# less 5ro#uc%ive in con%em5orar0 Romanian$ As 9e 9ill see in %he sec%ion 4 %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion is also #is%in!uishe# b0 some s5ecial as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies bein! normall0 associa%e# %o a habi%ual/i%era%ive meanin!$ A si!nifican% #ifference be%9een C7Ns #erive# from %ransi%ive verbs an# %hose #erive# from uner!a%ives is %he fac% %ha% %he !eni%ive-mar-e# ar!umen% re5resen%in! %he sub6ec% ma0 al9a0s be absen% in uner!a%ive nominaliAa%ions 9hile %he !eni%ive-ar!umen% of NG s%ruc%ures is obli!a%or0 (e;ce5% for ver0 s5ecial elli5sis si%ua%ions see sec%ion 1$+$+$ above/$ Thus %he follo9in! e;am5les of su5ines al%hou!h no% sho9in! an0 !eni%ive ar!umen% @ualif0 as C7Ns accor#in! %o %he %es%s (lac- of de 9i%h localiAers %he as5ec%ual a#6ec%ive frecvent/3
(B1/ a$ #ormi%ul Aiua slee5$SDP-%he #a0-%he >#a0%ime slee5? b$ 5ic%a%ul (X#e/ la Paris 5ain%$SDP-%he (Xde/ in Paris >5ain%in! in Paris? c$ mWnca%ul frecven% la ore ne5ermise ea%$SDP-%he fre@uen% a% hours forbi##en >%he fre@uen% ea%in! a% forbi##en %imes?
In %hese cases in %he absence of an over% sub6ec% ei%her %he a!en% is con%rolle# or a !eneric rea#in! ob%ains3
,.B
Deverbal Nouns (B2/ a$ Ion a renunRa% la mWnca%ul la ore ne5ermise Ion has !iven-u5 a% ea%$SDP-%he a% hours forbi##en >Ion has !iven u5 on ea%in! a% forbi##en %imes? b$ :Wnca%ul la orice orL e nesLnL%os ea%$SDP-%he a% an0 hour is unheal%h0 >7a%in! a% an0 %ime is unheal%h0?
Ue leave i% o5en here if %here is an im5lici% ar!umen% s0n%ac%icall0 5resen%I ho9ever %his recalls %he si%ua%ion of arbi%rar0 PRG in sub6ec% infini%ives$ Com5arin! %he #is%ribu%ion of infini%ive an# su5ine suffi;es 9i%h in%ransi%ive verbs one can no%ice %ha% infini%ives form C7Ns 9i%h unaccusa%ives (see sec%ion 1$4 above/ bu% never 9i%h uner!a%ives$ Some uner!a%ive verbs allo9 infini%ive nominaliAa%ions (e$!$ trire >leavin!?% stare >s%a%e?% lucrare >9or-in!?/ bu% such forms seem %o @ualif0 as SDNs$ Si!nifican%l0 %he !rea% ma6ori%0 of uner!a%ive verbs have onl0 %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion % 9hich mos% of %he %ime @ualifies as a C7Ns$ No%e %ha% some of %he su5ine nominaliAa%ions #o no% seem %o allo9 over% sub6ec%s3
(B4/ a rW#e (lau!h/ a 5lWn!e(cr0/ a res5ira(brea%he/ a #ormi(slee5/ a munci (9or-/ a lucra(9or-/ a cLlL%ori (%ravel/ a sforLi(snore/ a lL%ra(bar-/ a mieuna(me9/ a %rLi (live/ a locui (live/ a s%a (s%a0/ a Aace (lie/ a ciri5i (chir5/ a vorbi(s5ea-/ a of%a (si!h/ a 5loua (rain/ a nin!e (sno9/ a sLl%a (6um5/ a urla (roar/ Uner ative verbs >nfinitives XrW#ere 5lWn!ere (sim5le #ev$ N/ Xres5irare X#ormire Xmuncire lucrare (sim5le #ev$ N/ XcLlL%orirea XsforLire XlL%rare Xmieunare %rLire(sim5le #ev$ N$/ locuirea (sim5le #ev$ N/ s%are (sim5le #ev$ N/ XAacere Xciri5ire vorbire (sim5le #ev$ N/ of%are(sim5le #ev$ N/ X5louare Xnin!ere XsLl%are Xurlare 9upines rWs (sim5le #ev$N/ 5lWns (sim5le #ev$N/ res5ira% #ormi% munci% lucra% cLlL%ori% sforLi% lL%ra% mieuna% %rLi% locui% s%a% ALcu% ciri5i% vorbi% of%a% 5loua% nins sLl%a% urla%
Turnin! no9 %o unaccusa%ives 9e have no%ice# alrea#0 %ha% %he0 allo9 %he infini%ive C7N (see sec%ion 1$,/$ Su5ine C7Ns are allo9e# for %hose unaccusa%ives for 9hich %he onl0 ar!umen% has a!en%ive 5ro5er%ies 9hich allo9s %hem %o behave li-e uner!a%ives in cer%ain confi!ura%ions$ Com5are sosi >come? 9i%h crete >%o increase? scdea >%o #ecrease? (in %heir in%ransi%ive use/3
(B,/ Sosi%ul musafirilor la ore ne5o%rivi%e mL #eran6eaAL ea%$SDP-%he !ues%s-%he$G7N a% hours ina55ro5ria%e me bo%hers >Gues%s? comin! a% ina55ro5ria%e hours bo%hers me?
,.C
Deverbal Nouns (B./ a$ XCrescu%ul necon%rola% al 5reRurilor 5une En 5rime6#ie comerRul$ increase$SDP-%he uncon%rolle# G7N 5rices-%he$G7N 5u%s in #an!er %ra#e-%he >The uncon%rolle# raise of 5rices en#an!ers %he %ra#e? b$ XScLAu%ul salariilor ne En!ri6oreaAL 5e %oRi$ #ecrease$SDP-%he salaries-%he$G7N us 9orries DG: all >The salar0 #ecrease 9orries us all? Unaccusative verbs3 a veni(come/ a 5leca(leave/ a a%eriAa(lan#/ a sosi (arrive/ a urca (ascen#/ a coborE (#escen#/ a creM%e (!ro9 increase/ a scL#ea (#ecrease/ >nfinitives venire 5lecare a%eriAare sosire urcare coborWre creM%ere scL#ere 9upines veni% 5leca% a%eriAa% sosi% urca% coborW% Xcrescu% (GS as a %rans$/ XscLAu% (GS as a %rans$/
(B</
There are ho9ever uner!a%ive verbs 9hich allo9 an infini%ive NS C7N$ These are verbs 9hich #iffer from %he verbs in (B</ b0 obli!a%oril0 %a-in! a PP com5lemen%3
(BB/ a$ a colabora cu >%o collabora%e 9i%h? colaborarea lui frecven%L cu :aiorescu la 'ucureM%i collabora%e$INF-%he his fre@uen% 9i%h :aiorescu a% 'uchares% >his fre@uen% collabora%ion 9i%h :aiorescu in 'uchares%? b$ a accede la >%o reach !e% %o rise %o? acce#erea cuiva la 5u%ere En%r-un %im5 a%W% #e scur% access$INF-%he someone$G7N %o 5o9er in a %ime so shor% >someone?s access %o 5o9er in such a shor% %ime? c$ a adera la >%o a#here %o? a#erarea RomWniei la D7 ganul aces%ah / gEn%r-un %im5 a%W% #e scur%h a#here$INF-%he Romania-%he$G7N %o 7D 0ear-%he %his / in a %ime so shor% >Romania?s a#hesion %o 7D %his 0ear/in such a shor% %ime? #$ a recur e la >%o a55eal %o resor% %o? recur!erea lor frecven%L la forRL / recursul lui frecven% la me%o#e resor%$INF-%he %heir fre@uen% %o force / resor%$SDP-%he his fre@uen% %o me%ho#s ne%ra#iRionale un%ra#i%ional >%heir fre@uen% use of force/his fre@uen% use of un%ra#i%ional me%ho#s?
In sum %he infini%ive com5le; even% nominaliAa%ion is s5ecialiAe# for verbs havin! an in%ernal ar!umen% 9hile %he su5ine com5le; even% nominaliAa%ion can also a55l0 %o verbs 9hose onl0 ar!umen% is e;%ernal$
$. As5e/t an3 no6.nal.Bat.ons

Uh0 is i% %ha% %he su5ine C7N allo9s %he NS s%ruc%ure 9i%h uner!a%ives 9hereas %he infini%ive C7N #oes no% #o soK An ans9er ma0 emer!e b0 e;aminin! %he secon# essen%ial 5ro5er%0 of C7Ns namel0 %he fac% %ha% C7Ns (in con%ras% 9i%h SDNs/ have as5ec% (in%ernal %em5oral s%ruc%ure/$ In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill sho9 %ha% %he s0n%ac%ic #ifference be%9een %he infini%ive an# %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion correla%es 9i%h an as5ec%ual con%ras%3 9hereas infini%ive C7Ns have %he as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of %he corres5on#in! VP su5ine C7Ns have a 5ar%icular as5ec%ual ,<=
Deverbal Nouns
in%er5re%a%ion (%he0 are ei%her habi%ual or in%er5re%e# as a 5lurali%0 of sub-even%s/$ Ue are %hus le# %o conclu#e %ha% %he su5ine inflec%ion con%ribu%es as5ec%ual informa%ion 9hereas %he infini%ive inflec%ion #oes no% #o so$ In %he li%era%ure on as5ec% an im5or%an% #is%inc%ion is #ra9n be%9een situation$eventuality aspect an# vie&point aspect$ The la%%er concerns in%erac%ion 9i%h %em5oral reference$ Vie95oin% as5ec% such as im5erfec%ive an# 5erfec%ive 5resen%s %he even% as com5le%e# or on!oin! 9i%h res5ec% %o a reference %ime$ Since vie95oin% as5ec% seems %o be irrelevan% for %he as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of nominaliAa%ions 9e 9ill be concerne# onl0 9i%h even%uali%0 as5ec%$ In a##i%ion %he su5ine inflec%ion 9ill be sho9n %o con%ribu%e a 5lural even% in%er5re%a%ion %ri!!erin! effec%s on %he overall as5ec%ual value of %he C7N$ $.1. 'e0bal As5e/t1al Classes an3 E2ent1al.t9 As5e/t De5en#in! on %he even%uali%0 #escri5%ion %ha% %he0 conve0 verbs have been classifie# in%o four as5ec%ual classes3 s%a%es (e$!$ ti >-no9? poseda >5ossess?/ ac%ivi%ies/5rocesses (e$!$ rde >lau!h? umbla >9al-?/ achievemen%s i$e$ 5unc%ual %ransi%ions (e$!$ e'ploda >e;5lo#e? si >fin#?/ an# accomplis!ments% i$e$ durative transitions (e$!$ scrie >9ri%e? citi >rea#?/$ Transi%ions (5unc%ual - achievemen%s an# #ura%ive - accom5lishmen%s/ involve an inheren% culmina%ion$ S%a%es an# ac%ivi%ies (5rocesses/ lac- an inheren% en#5oin% an# correla%ivel0 ma0 be charac%eriAe# as >homo!eneous?3 %he even%uali%0 %ha% %he0 #escribe hol#s a% all %he (relevan%/ sub-in%ervals of %he in%erval in 9hich %he even%uali%0 as a 9hole hol#s$ For %ransi%ive verbs %he as5ec%ual class ma0 #e5en# on %he manner (!ra#ual incremen%al %o%al e%c$/ in 9hich %he verb is rela%e# %o i%s ob6ec% (%he Theme/$ Non-s%a%ive verbs 9hich #o no% affec% %heir Theme in an incremen%al manner #escribe processes or activities as in %he e;am5le belo93
(BC/ Sisif a Em5ins bolovanul ore En%re!i$ Sis05hus has 5ushe# roc--%he hours en%ire >Sis05hus 5ushe# %he roc- for hours$?
The s%an#ar# %es% 9hich #is%in!uishes %ransi%ions from ac%ivi%ies an# s%a%es is %he combina%ion 9i%h cer%ain %em5oral mo#ifiers3 n-PPs combine onl0 9i%h accom5lishmen%s (#ura%ive %ransi%ions/ e;5ressin! %he %ime ela5se# un%il %he culmina%ion 9hile PPs in%ro#uce# b0 vreme de% timp de >for? combine onl0 9i%h ac%ivi%ies an# s%a%es e;5ressin! %he #ura%ion of %he 5rocess or s%a%e3
(C=/ a$ A com5us melo#ia En%r-o orL /X%im5 #e o orL has com5ose# son!-%he in an hour/ %ime of an hour >Oe com5ose# %he son! in an hour/for an hour? b$ A cWn%a% %im5 #e Aece minu%e / XEn Aece minu%e has sun! %ime of %en minu%es/ in %en minu%es >Oe sun! for %en minu%es/in %en minu%es?
The four as5ec%ual classes enumera%e# above are relevan% no% onl0 for %he classifica%ion of verbs bu% %he0 also charac%eriAe 5hrasal 5ro6ec%ions e$!$ %he VP or %he 9hole sen%ence$ The even%uali%0 as5ec% of a sen%ence is #e%ermine# com5osi%ionall0 %a-in! in%o accoun% %he as5ec%ual class of %he verb bu% also %he 5resence or absence of in%ernal ar!umen%s an# %heir seman%ic 5ro5er%ies (9he%her %he0 are @uan%iAe# or no%/$ De5en#in! on 9he%her %he ar!umen%s of %he verb are homo!eneous or #iscre%e/@uan%iAe# %he even%uali%0 #escribe# a% %he 5hrasal level ma0 @ualif0 as an ac%ivi%0 or as a %ransi%ion al%hou!h %he verb i%self classifies as a %ransi%ion (accom5lishmen% or ,<+
Deverbal Nouns
achievemen%/$ Thus non-s%a%ive verbs 9hich affec% %heir Theme in an incremen%al manner belon! %o %he as5ec%ual classes of achievemen%s or accom5lishmen%s bu% never%heless %he VP @ualifies as an ac%ivi%0 9henever %he0 combine 9i%h a homo!eneous/non-@uan%iAe# DP such as a bare 5lural or bare sin!ular as in (C+a/$ The VP #escribes a %ransi%ion 9hen %he ob6ec% is a @uan%iAe# DP as in (C+b/3
(C+/ a$ Ieri :aria a scris scrisori %oa%L #imineaRa /vreme #e o orL 0es%er#a0 :aria has 9ri%%en le%%ers all mornin!-%he/ %ime of an hour >qes%er#a0 :aria 9ro%e le%%ers all mornin! / for an hour? b$ Ieri :aria a scris o scrisoare En #ouL ore$ 0es%er#a0 :aria has 9ri%%en a le%%er in %9o hours >qes%er#a0 :aria 9ro%e a le%%er in %9o hours?
Conversel0 a verb %ha% @ualifies as an ac%ivi%0 can a55ear in a VP %ha% #escribes an accom5lishmen% 5rovi#e# %ha% %he sen%ence con%ains an a##i%ional ar!umen% referrin! %o a final s%a%e as e;em5lifie# b0 %he !oal PP in %he follo9in! e;am5le 9hich refers %o %he final s%a%e of a movemen% un#er!one b0 %he %heme3
(C1/ Sisif a Em5ins bolovanul 5WnL En vWrful mun%elui En 2 ore Sis05hus has 5ushe# roc--%he un%il a% %o5-%he moun%ain-%he$ G7N in 2 hours >Sis05hus 5ushe# %he roc- %o %he %o5 of %he moun%ain for hours$?
$.2. E2ent1al.t9 as5e/t .n CENs $.2.1. T8e as5e/t1al /lass of t8e base For even%ive (i$e$ non-s%a%ive/ bases %he even%uali%0 as5ec% of %he corres5on#in! VP #oes no% seem %o cons%rain nominaliAa%ion3 bo%h %he infini%ive an# %he su5ine suffi;es can a%%ach %o ac%ivi%ies accom5lishmen%s an# achievemen%s$ NominaliAa%ion 9ill be sho9n %o be cons%raine# for s%a%ive bases$ 'elo9 9e briefl0 illus%ra%e %he combina%ion of nominaliAa%ion suffi;es 9i%h even%ive bases an# re%urn %o #iscuss %hem more carefull0 in sec%ion 4$1$1$ a/ ac%ivi%0 C7Ns3
(C2/ a$ ci%irea #e romane rea#$INF-%he of novels b$ ci%i%ul #e romane rea#$SDP-%he of novels >%he rea#in! of novels?
b/ accom5lishmen% C7Ns3
(C4/ a$ cons%ruirea 5o#ului buil#$INF-%he bri#!e-%he$G7N b$ cons%rui%ul 5o#ului buil#$SDP-%he bri#!e-%he$G7N >%he buil#in! of %he bri#!e?
c/ achievemen% C7Ns3
(C,/ a$ sosirea lui Ion la cinL arrive$INF-%he G'L Ion a% #inner >Ion?s arrival a% #inner?
,<1
Deverbal Nouns b$ sosi%ul lui Ion cu En%WrAiere la En%Wlnirile im5or%an%e arrive$SDP-%he G'L Ion 9i%h #ela0 a% mee%in!s im5or%an% >Ion?s arrivin! la%e a% im5or%an% mee%in!s?
Ue no%e ho9ever %ha% a seman%ic #ifference also connec%e# 9i%h as5ec% se5ara%es %he %9o suffi;es in %ha% for ins%ance for achievemen% bases %he su5ine is onl0 5ossible 9i%h an i%era%ive/habi%ual meanin! an issue %o 9hich 9e 9ill come bac- belo9 (see 4$2/$ S%a%ive bases on %he o%her han# usuall0 #o no% %o !ive rise %o C7Ns$ Su5ine-base# nominals are al%o!e%her #isallo9e# for s%a%ive verbs$ Infini%ive-base# nominals corres5on#in! %o s%a%ive verbs can be foun# bu% %he0 !enerall0 behave li-e SDNs$ 'elo9 9e !ive a brief #escri5%ion of %he 9a0 in 9hich various %05es of s%a%ive bases cons%rain nominaliAa%ions3 a/ :an0 %ransi%ive s%a%ive verbs #o no% allo9 a !eni%ive G bu% in%ro#uce %he G b0 a 5re5osi%ion ins%ea# 9hich in#ica%es %ha% %he0 are SDNs3 a iubi >love?% a ur >ha%e?% a ti >-no9 a crede >believe? a conine >con%ain?3
(C./ a$ Ion iubeM%e ar%a$ / iubirea lui Ion 5en%ru ar%L/KKiubirea ar%ei (X#e cL%re Ion/ Ion loves ar%-%he/ love$INF-%he G'L Ion for ar% / love$INF-%he ar%-%he$G7N b0 Ion >Ion loves ar% / Ion?s love for ar% / X%he love of ar% (b0 Ion/? b$ Ion urLM%e li%era%ura / ura lui Ion faRL #e li%era%urL Ion ha%es li%era%ure-%he / ha%e-%he G'L Ion %o9ar#s li%era%ure >Ion ha%es li%era%ure / Ion?s ha%e for li%era%ure? b_$ Xura /XurWrea /KKurW%ul li%era%urii ha%e-%he/ ha%e$INF-%he/ ha%e$SDP-%he li%era%ure-%he$G7N >%he ha%e/KKha%in! for li%era%ure? c$ Ion o cre#e 5e :aria / Xcre#erea :ariei / XcreAu%ul :ariei Ion CL$ACC believes DG: :aria / believe$INF-%he :aria$G7N/ believe$SDP-%he :aria$G7N >Ion believes :aria / %he belief of :aria / %he believin! of :aria? c_$ cre#inRa En DumneAeu /Encre#erea En :aria belief-%he in Go# /%rus%$INF-%he in :aria >%he fai%h in Go# / %he %rus% in :aria?
b/ A fe9 infini%ive nominaliAa%ions of %ransi%ive s%a%ive verbs (e$!$ cunoatere >-no9le#!e? nele ere >un#ers%an#in!?/ allo9 a !eni%ive G an# mar!inall0 allo9 an a!en% PP 9hich in#ica%es %ha% %he0 ma0 0iel# a C7N3 cunoate >-no9? nele e >un#ers%an#?$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %he 5ossibili%0 of a C7N %05e of #erive# nominal ma0 be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he relevan% verbs ma0 also have a %ransi%ion in%er5re%a%ion (>come %o -no9 come %o un#ers%an#?/3
(C</ a$ Ion cunoaM%e a#evLrul$ / cunoaM%erea a#evLrului (K#e cL%re Ion/ Ion -no9s %ru%h-%he / -no9$INF-%he %ru%h-%he$G7N b0 Ion >Ion -no9s %he %ru%h / %he -no9le#!e of %he %ru%h (Kb0 Ion/? b$ Vechii !reci EnRele!eau al%fel lumea / EnRele!erea lumii ancien%-%he Gree-s un#ers%oo# #ifferen%l0 9orl#-%he/ un#ers%an#$ INF-%he 9orl#-%he$G7N (#e cL%re vechii !reci/ b0 ancien% Gree-s >Ancien% Gree-s un#ers%oo# %he 9orl# #ifferen%l0 / %he ancien% Gree-s? un#ers%an#in! of %he 9orl#?
c/ S%a%ive verbs %ha% %a-e inheren% Da%ive 7;5eriencers an# Nomina%ive Themes as sub6ec%s #o no% 0iel# C7Ns a% all3 a trebui >be necessar0 nee#? a plcea >5lease? a sta bine >fi%? a se cuveni >sui%? a$o$
(CB/ a$ PLlLria Emi %rebuie /X%rebuirea 5LlLriei mie ha%-%he me$DAT nee#s / nee#$INF-%he ha%-%he$G7N me$DAT
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Deverbal Nouns >I nee# %he ha%? b$ PLlLria Emi 5lace /X5lLcu%ul 5LlLriei mie ha%-%he me$DAT 5leases/ 5lease$SDP-%he ha%-%he$G7N me$DAT >I li-e %he ha%?
#/ verbs of s%a%e 9hich %a-e PP com5lemen%s such as a depinde de >%o #e5en# on? a consta din >%o consis% of? also resis% infini%ive an# su5ine nominaliAa%ion (9hile as 9e sa9 in sec%ion 2 above e;$ (BB/ non-s%a%ive verbs from %he ver0 same s0n%ac%ic class ma0 0iel# infini%ive or su5ine C7Ns/3
(CC/ X#e5in#erea lui #e ceva /KK#e5insul lui #e ceva$ #e5en#$INF-%he his of some%hin!/ #e5en#$SDP-%he his of some%hin! >his #e5en#in! on some%hin!?
e/ 5s0ch-verbs 9i%h accusa%ive e;5eriencers in %heir s%a%ive uses also ma0 onl0 !ive rise %o SDN an# no% %o C7Ns as sho9n b0 %he con%ras%s be%9een b an# b_ c an# c_/3
(+==/ a$ Aceas%L M%ire mL sur5rin#e /mL uluieM%e /mL enerveaAL %his ne9s me su5rises /me amaAes /me anno0s >%hese ne9s sur5rise me / amaAe me / irri%a%e me? b$ Xsur5in#erea mea #e cL%re aceas%L M%ire sur5rise$INF-%he m0 b0 %his ne9s b_$ sur5riAa / sur5rin#erea mea la aceas%L M%ire sur5rise-%he / sur5rise$INF-%he m0 a% %his ne9s >m0 sur5rise a% %hese ne9s? c$ Xuluirea mea #e cL%re aceas%L M%ire$ amaAe$INF-%he b0 %his ne9s c_$ uluirea mea la aceas%L M%ire amaAe$INF-%he m0 a% %his ne9s >m0 amaAemen% a% %hese ne9s?
There is %hus an obvious 5reference for even%ive bases in C7Ns$ S%a%ive nominals of%en #is5la0 a #is%inc% ar!umen% 5a%%ern in%ro#ucin! %he %heme b0 a 5re5osi%ion (ins%ea# of %he !eni%ive/$ $.2.2. Tel./.t9 The firs% as5ec%ual 5ro5er%0 %o be observe# in C7Ns is %he fac% %ha% %he0 conve0 %elici%0 vs$ a%elici%0$ I% can be %herefore assume# %ha% %he0 ma0 inheri% %he as5ec%ual value of %he base VP$ Oo9ever %his as5ec%ual value of %he base is as 9e 9ill see in %he ne;% sec%ion shif%e# b0 %he su5ine inflec%ion 9hich conve0s 5lural even% in%er5re%a%ion$ In %he NG s%ruc%ure base# on %ransi%ive an# unaccusa%ive verbs %he C7N can be in%er5re%e# ei%her as a transition (accom5lishmen% or achievemen%/ or as an activity #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he ob6ec% is @uan%iAe# or no% an# #e5en#in! on %he as5ec%ual %05e of %he verb$ Ui%h a55ro5ria%e @uan%iAe# ob6ec%s %he NG s%ruc%ure 5asses all %he classical accom5lishmen%s %es%s3 a/ The NG s%ruc%ures acce5% n >in? mo#ifiers (9hich measure ou% %he #is%ance be%9een %he be!innin! of %he ac%ivi%0 an# %he culmina%ion 5oin%/3
(+=+/ a$ cons%ruirea 5o#ului En #ouL luni buil#$INF-%he bri#!e-%he$G7N in %9o mon%hs >%he buil#in! of %he bri#!e in %9o mon%hs? b$ ci%i%ul Aiarelor #e #imineaRL En%r-o orL (>nfinitive/ (9upine/
,<4
Deverbal Nouns rea#$SDP-%he ne9s5a5ers-%he$G7N of mornin! in an hour >%he rea#in! of %he mornin! ne9s5a5ers in an hour?
b/ The NG s%ruc%ures a55ear in %he 5hrase a trebui F-timp pentru b >%a-e V-much %ime %o?3
(+=1/ a$ I-au %rebui% numai #ouL luni 5en%ru scrierea romanului ( >nfinitive/ him$DAT-have nee#e# onl0 %9o mon%hs for 9ri%e$INF-%he novel-%he$G7N >Oe %oo- onl0 %9o mon%hs for %he 9ri%in! of %he novel$? b$ Le-au %rebui% #ouL luni 5en%ru %Lia%ul lemnelor (9upine/ %hem$#a%-have nee#e# %9o mon%hs for cu%$ SDP-%he 9oo#-%he$G7N >The0 %oo- %9o mon%hs for %he cu%%in! of %he 9oo#$?
c/ The NG 5hrases ma0 occur as #irec% ob6ec%s of %he verbs a termina$a isprvi >finish?3
(+=2/ a$ Au %ermina% #e6a cons%ruirea 5o#ului$ have$2PL finishe# alrea#0 buil#$INF-%he bri#!e-%he$G7N >The0 have alrea#0 finishe# %he buil#in! of %he bri#!e$? b$ 7l a %ermina% #e6a ci%i%ul 5resei #e #imineaRL$ he has finishe# alrea#0 rea#$SDP-%he 5ress-%he$G7N of mornin! >Oe has alrea#0 finishe# %he rea#in! of %he mornin! 5ress$? (>nfinitive/ (9upine/
In con%ras% %he choice of homo!eneous DPs such as bare 5lurals or !eneric #efini%e 5lurals in#uces a 5rocess or activity in%er5re%a%ion of %he NG s%ruc%ure$
(+=4/ a$ cons%ruirea ca%e#ralelor vreme #e secole (>nfinitive/ buil#$INF-%he ca%he#rals-%he$G7N %ime of cen%uries >%he buil#in! of %he ca%he#rals for cen%uries? b$ ci%i%ul #e Aiare /Aiarelor ore En%re!i 5e Ai ( 9upine/ rea#$SDP-%he G7N ne9s5a5ers/ne9s5a5ers-%he$G7N hours en%ire on #a0 >%he rea#in! of ne9s5a5ers / of %he ne9s5a5ers for hours #ail0?
Li-e9ise %he ac%ivi%0 in%er5re%a%ion a55ears in C7Ns of %ransi%ive verbs 9hich are le;icall0 s5ecifie# as ac%ivi%ies an# #o no% con%ain an a##i%ional ar!umen% in%ro#ucin! a final s%a%e3
(+=,/ 5ur%area aceleiaMi cLmLMi %im5 #e 14 #e ore 9ear$INF-%he same$G7N shir% %ime of 14 of hours >%he 9earin! of %he same shir% for 14 hours?
In con%ras% 9i%h %he NG s%ruc%ure (base# on ei%her %he su5ine or %he infini%ive/ 9hich inheri%s %he as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies of %he base (bu% see %he #iscussion belo9 for %he su5ine C7Ns in sec%ion 4$2 belo9/ allo9in! bo%h accom5lishmen% an# ac%ivi%0 rea#in!s %he su5ine NS s%ruc%ure is interpretable only as an activity $ The NS su5ine is %hus com5a%ible 9i%h ac%ivi%0 mo#ifiers (for 5hrases/ bu% incom5a%ible 9i%h accom5lishmen% mo#ifiers (in 5hrases/$
(+=./ a$ 5escui%ul lui Ion En a5e %ulburi ani n Mir0 fish$SDP-%he G'L Ion in 9a%ers %rouble# 0ears in ro9 >Ion?s fishin! in %rouble# 9a%ers for 0ears in a ro9? b$ X5escui%ul lui Ion En a5e %ulburi n doi ani fish$SDP-%he G'L Ion in 9a%ers %rouble# in %9o 0ears >Ion?s fishin! in %rouble# 9a%ers in %9o 0ears? a$ cWn%a%ul lui En baie ore n Mir
(+=</
,<,
Deverbal Nouns sin!$SDP-%he his in ba%hroom hours in ro9 >his sin!in! in %he ba%hroom for hours in a ro9? b$ XcWn%a%ul lui En baie n (ece minute sin!$SDP-%he his in ba%hroom in %en minu%es >his sin!in! in %he ba%hroom in %en minu%es?
Secon#l0 %he NS s%ruc%ure is no% felici%ous 9i%h a trebui F-timp pentru >%a-e V-much %ime for?$
(+=B/ a$ XAu %rebui% ani n ir 5en%ru 5escui%ul lui Ion En a5e %ulburi (NS/ have nee#e# 0ears in ro9 for fish$ SDP-%he G'L Ion in 9a%ers %rouble# >Ion?s fishin! in %rouble# 9a%ers %oo- 0ears? b$ I-au %rebui% ani n ir 5en%ru cum5Lra%ul maMinii (NG/ him$DAT-have nee#e# 0ears in ro9 for bu0$ INF-%he car-%he$G7N >I% %oo- him 0ears in a ro9 %o bu0 %he car$?
The ac%ivi%0 in%er5re%a%ion of %he NS su5ine is in#uce# b0 %he absence of an affec%e# ob6ec% (%heme/ 9hich can in#uce an en#-5oin%$ The Sub6ec% (A!en%/ even if 5resen% does not determine or chan!e %he as5ec%ual class of %he 5re#ica%ion$ This sec%ion has sho9n %ha% infini%ive an# su5ine C7Ns have %he even%uali%0 as5ec% of %he corres5on#in! VP$ The NG s%ruc%ure is in%er5re%e# as %elic (%ransi%ion/ or a%elic (ac%ivi%0/ #e5en#in! on %he seman%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he verbal base an# of %he ob6ec%$ The NS s%ruc%ure lac-in! a (#ee5/ ob6ec% (Theme/ is onl0 a%elic (unless an a##i%ional ar!umen% in%ro#uces an en#5oin%$/$ Oo9ever in %he ne;% sec%ion 9e 9ill see %ha% %he su5ine inflec%ion con%ribu%es a habi%ual meanin! shif%in! %he as5ec%ual value of %he C7N$ This habi%ual or i%era%ive meanin! is com5a%ible 9i%h %elici%03 i% is 5resen% in e;am5les li-e (+=+/b 9hich are %elic bu% never%heless in%er5re%e# as habi%ual$ $.3# T8e as5e/t1al 50o5e0t.es of t8e s15.ne In %his sec%ion 9e 9ill sho9 %ha% %he su5ine con%ribu%es a 5ar%icular as5ec%ual value 9hich in mos% con%e;%s corres5on#s %o a habi%ual in%er5re%a%ion$ In some o%her con%e;%s %he su5ine can be sho9n %o in#uce a 5lurali%0-of-sub-even%s rea#in!$ Since %he habi%ual rea#in! can i%self be vie9e# as corres5on#in! %o a 5lurali%0 of even%s 9e ma0 assume %ha% %he #efinin! charac%eris%ic of su5ine nominaliAa%ions is %heir 5lurac%ionali%03 %he su5ine inflec%ion 5luraliAes %he even% an# %hus in#uces i%era%ive or habi%ual meanin!s$ T9o 5ro5er%ies of %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion have come ou%3 a/ The su5ine shares %he 5ro5er%ies of %he infini%ive in %he NG s%ruc%ure as far as si%ua%ion %05e (even%uali%0 as5ec%/ is concerne#$ b/ Gnl0 %he su5ine nominal a55ears in %he NS s%ruc%ure 9hich is Y-%elicZ unless an a##i%ional ar!umen% or an a#6unc% s5ecif0in! an en#5oin% is 5resen%$ Fur%hermore for mos% verbs 9hich have bo%h infini%ive an# su5ine C7Ns %he su5ine %en#s %o e;5ress a habi%ual/i%era%ive ac%ion (bu% see also belo9 for some e;ce5%ions/$ The 5ossibili%0 %o re5lace a su5ine nominal 9i%h %he 5hrase t!is !abit as 9ell as %he com5a%ibili%0 9i%h &!enever-clausal mo#ifiers illus%ra%e# belo9 su55or%s %his i#ea3
(+=C/ a$ Fuma%ul lui Ion En bucL%Lrie Ai #e Ai mL calcL 5e nervi$ smo-e$SDP-%he G'L Ion in -i%chen #a0 b0 #a0 me s%e5s on nerves >Ion?s smo-in! in %he -i%chen #a0 b0 #a0 !e%s on m0 nerves$? b$ Gbiceiul lui Ion #e a fuma En bucL%Lrie mL calcL 5e nervi$ habi%-%he G'L Ion of %o smo-e in -i%chen me s%e5s on nerves >Ion?s habi% of smo-in! in %he -i%chen !e%s on m0 nerves$? c$ Fuma%ul lui Ion En bucL%Lrie ori #e cW%e ori se enerveaAL e un obicei 5ros%$
,<.
Deverbal Nouns smo-e$SDP-%he G'L Ion in -i%chen an0%ime R7FL irri%a%es is a habi% ba# >Ion?s smo-in! in %he -i%chen 9henever he !e%s irri%a%e# is a ba# habi%?
The un!ramma%icali%0 of %he su5ine-base# nominaliAa%ion in (++=/a can be e;5laine# if 9e assume %ha% %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion is le!i%ima%e onl0 if i% #escribes an i%era%ive even%uali%0 9hich clashes 9i%h once-onl0 even%uali%ies3 since an en%i%0 canno% be more %han one %ime %he %heme of a -illin! even% #ill 9i%h a sin!ular ob6ec% im5lies a sin!le even% 9hich conflic%s 9i%h %he i%era%ivi%0 %ha% is re@uire# b0 %he su5ine$ Therefore %he su5ine is rule# ou% in %his con%e;%$ If %he ob6ec% is 5lural as in (++=/b %he su5ine is 5ossible because reference %o a 5lurali%0 of even%s becomes 5ossible (for each en%i%0 in %he #omain of %he 5lural ob6ec% %here is a #is%inc% -illin! even%/$ No%e %ha% %he infini%ive is fine in bo%h con%e;%s3
(++=/ a$ uci#erea /Xucisul 6urnalis%ului #e cL%re mafia 5oli%icL -ill$INF-%he/ -ill$SDP-%he 6ournalis%-%he$G7N b0 mafia-%he 5oli%ical >%he -illin! of %he 6ournalis% b0 %he 5oli%ical mafia? b$ uci#erea /ucisul 6urnaliM%ilor #e cL%re mafia 5oli%icL -ill$INF-%he/-ill$SDP-%he 6ournalis%s-%he$G7N b0 mafia-%he 5oli%ical >%he -illin! of %he 6ournalis%s b0 %he 5oli%ical mafia?
Ue can conclu#e %ha% %he su5ine suffi; in%ro#uces a 5lurali%0 of even%s$ De5en#in! on %he con%e;% %his ma0 0iel# i%era%ive/habi%ual rea#in!s$ This !eneraliAa%ion seems %o be challen!e# b0 e;am5les of %he %05e in (+++/ belo9 in 9hich %he su5ine nominaliAa%ion refers %o a sin!le 5ain%in! even% 9hich %oo- %9o hours$
(+++/ a$ Vo5si%ul 5ere%elui a #ura% #ouL ore 5ain%$SDP-%he 9all-%he$G7N has las%e# %9o hours >The 5ain%in! of %he 9all %oo- %9o hours? b$ Vo5sirea 5ere%elui a #ura% #ouL ore 5ain%$INF-%he 9all-%he$G7N has las%e# %9o hours >The 5ain%in! of %he 9all %oo- %9o hours?
No%e ho9ever %ha% %he su5ine su!!es%s %ha% %he 5ain%in! even% subsumes a 5lurali%0 of various sub-even%s of a 5ossibl0 #ifferen% -in#3 e$!$ %a-in! all %he furni%ure ou% of %he room coverin! %he floor 9i%h a 5ro%ec%ive clo%h 5re5arin! %he 5ain% %he 5ain%in! i%self %he cleanin! af%er9ar#s e%c$ This %05e of in%er5re%a%ion is absen% in %he corres5on#in! infini%ive-base# nominaliAa%ion in (+++/b$ The 5lurali%0 %ha% is in#uce# b0 su5ine nominaliAa%ions also hol#s for cases li-e (+=1/b (+=B/b in sec%ion 4$1 9hich are e5iso#ic bu% in%ernall0 5lural$ In%er5re%a%ions of %his %05e are usuall0 5ossible 9i%h durative %ransi%ions P accom5lishmen%s P 9hich allo9 an in%er5re%a%ion in 9hich several sub-even%s lea# %o %he culmina%ion of %he main even%$ For achievemen%s 9hich are 5unc%ual %his %05e of in%er5re%a%ion is bloc-e# an# as a conse@uence %he 5lurali%0 of even%s re@uire# b0 %he su5ine can onl0 be sa%isfie# b0 an i%era%ive in%er5re%a%ion 9hich in e;am5les such as (++1/ is ma#e 5ossible b0 a 5lural Theme3
(++1/ a$ GLsirea comorii a fos% un noroc fin#$INF-%he %resure-%he$G7N has been a luc>The fin#in! of %he %reasure has been a ma%%er of luc-? b$ GLsirea #e comori e un noroc fin#$INF-%he of %resures is a luc>The fin#in! of %reasures is a ma%%er of luc-? c$ KKGLsi%ul comorii a fos% un noroc fin#$SDP-%he %resure-%he$G7N has been a luc-
,<<
Deverbal Nouns >%he fin#in! of %he %reasure has been a ma%%er of luc-? #$ GLsi%ul #e comori e un noroc fin#$SDP-%he of %resures is a luc>The fin#in! of %reasures is a ma%%er of luc-? e$ GLsi%ul comorii a #ura% mul%$ ( si is here an accom5lishmen%/ fin#$SDP-%he %resure-%he$G7N has las%e# much >The fin#in! of %reasures %oo- a lon! %ime?
Ue ma0 conclu#e %ha% %he su5ine con%ribu%es a 5lurac%ional o5era%or %ha% combines 9i%h %he even%uali%0 as5ec% conve0e# b0 %he VP base of %he nominaliAa%ion$ Su5ine nominaliAa%ions are in%er5re%e# ei%her as a (habi%ual/i%era%ive/ 5lurali%0 of even%s or as a sin!le even% %ha% can be #ecom5ose# in%o a sum of sub-even%s (9i%h accom5lishmen%s/$ Given %ha% accom5lishmen%s are bo%h %elic an# #ura%ive %he0 ma0 receive bo%h in%er5re%a%ions in %he su5ine$ Com5are %he e;am5les belo93 (++2/a an# e #escribe a sin!le %elic even% (an accom5lishmen%/ 9hich ma0 be #ecom5ose# in%o sub-even%s$ In (++2/b-# %he nominaliAa%ion refers %o a 5lurali%0 of even%s havin! a habi%ual/i%era%ive in%er5re%a%ion$
(++2/ a$ A#ormi%ul co5ilului mi-a lua% #ouL ore asearL$ 5u%-%o-slee5$SDP-%he chil#-%he$G7N me-has %a-en %9o hours las% ni!h% >Pu%%in! %o slee5 %he chil# %oome %9o hours las% ni!h%? b$ A#ormi%ul co5ilului #e cL%re mama es%e normal$ 5u%-%o-slee5$SDP-%he chil#-%he$G7N b0 mo%her-%he is normal >The 5u%%in! %o slee5 of %he chil# b0 %he mo%her is normal? c$ A#ormi%ul co5ilului #e cL%re mama lui l-a fLcu% sL nu mai 5u%-%o-slee5$SDP-%he chil#-%he$G7N b0 mo%her-%he his him-has ma#e SD'N no% more 5oa%L a#ormi sin!ur can$2 slee5 alone >The 5u%%in! %o slee5 of %he chil# b0 his mo%her ma#e him inca5able of !e%%in! %o slee5 alone? #$ :Wnca%ul micului #e6un 5e %erasL mL bine#is5une ea%$SDP-%he li%%le-%he$G7N lunch on %errace me cheers-u5 >7a%in! brea-fas% on %he %errace cheers me u5? e$ :Wnca%ul micului #e6un 5e %erasL mi-a ocu5a% %oa%L #imineaRa as%LAi$ ea%$SDP-%he li%%le-%he$G7N lunch on %errace me$DAT-has occu5ie# 9hole mornin!-%he %o#a0 >7a%in! brea-fas% on %he %errace %oome %he 9hole mornin! %o#a0?
Ac%ivi%ies also allo9 a sin!le-even% rea#in! of %he su5ine as in (++4/$ Ue consi#er %ha% %his is 5ossible because %he0 can also be in%er5re%e# as com5ose# of sub-even%s$
(++4/ Vorbi%ul lui Ion la %elefon nu se mai %erminL$ %al-$SDP-%he G'L Ion on 5hone no% R7FL more en#s >Ion?s %al-in! on %he 5hone is never en#in!?
In conclusion %he 5lurac%ional o5era%or in%ro#uce# b0 %he su5ine ma0 ei%her 5luraliAe %he even% or rein%er5re% an accom5lishmen% or ac%ivi%0 as a sum of several sub-even%s$ $.$. Pl10al.Bat.on an3 3ete06.ne0 sele/t.on .n CENs Accor#in! %o %he curren% vie9 on nominaliAa%ions 5lural mar-in! cons%i%u%es a fur%her %es% %ha% #ifferen%ia%es be%9een C7Ns an# SDNsI onl0 %he la%%er allo9 %he 5lural3
(++,/ a$ XThe assi!nmen%s of t!e problems %oo- a lon! %ime$ (C7N/ b$ The assi!nmen%s 9ere lon!$ (SDN/
,<B
Deverbal Nouns
Oo9ever Romanian infini%ives challen!e %his claim because in some con%e;%s %he0 #o allo9 5lural mar-in! in cer%ain con%e;%s$ In %he follo9in! e;am5les %he 5assive an# %he #a%ive com5lemen% in#ica%e %ha% %he infini%ive is a C7N3
(++./ #emolLrile /X#emola%urile frecven%e ale car%ierelor vechi #e cL%re #emolish$INF$PL-%he/ #emolish$SDP$PL-%he fre@uen%$PL G7N @uar%ers-%he$G7N ol# b0 comuniM%i communis%s >%he fre@uen% #emoli%ions of ol# @uar%ers b0 %he communis%s? a%ribuirile frecven%e #e #ecoraRii !eneralilor #e arma%L #e cL%re a9ar#$INF$PL-%he fre@uen%$PL of #ecora%ions !enerals-%he$DAT of arm0 b0 !uvernul #e %ranAiRie nu au EnMela% 5e nimeni !overnmen%-%he of %ransi%ion no% have foole# DG: nobo#0 >%he fre@uen% a9ar#in!s of #ecora%ions %o arm0 !enerals b0 %he %ransi%ion !overnmen% #i#n?% fool an0one?
(++</
In%eres%in!l0 %he same #oes no% hol# for %he su5ine C7N 9hose 5lural form is en%irel0 un!ramma%ical$ I% ma0 be ar!ue# %ha% %his im5ossibili%0 is #ue %o %he 5lurac%ional o5era%or in%ro#uce# b0 %he su5ine$ In %he 5revious sub-sec%ion i% 9as ar!ue# %ha% %he su5ine in%ro#uces a 5lurac%ional o5era%or even in cases 9here i% a55ears %o refer %o a sin!le boun#e# even% (see #iscussion aroun# e;am5les (+++/-(++2//$ Ue ma0 %hus e;5lain %he im5ossibili%0 of 5luraliAin! %he su5ine b0 %he im5ossibili%0 of a55l0in! a 5luraliAa%ion o5era%ion %9ice$ The unavailabili%0 of 5lural mar-in! !enerall0 correla%es 9i%h res%ric%ions on #e%erminers3 %he in#efini%e ar%icle #is%ribu%ive #e%erminers (inclu#in! free choice an# ne!a%ive #e%erminers/ an# car#inals are e;clu#e# (see cha5%er 2 sec%ion ./$ As e;5ec%e# infini%ive C7Ns allo9 all #e%erminers 9hile %he su5ine #isallo9s %he in#efini%e ar%icle #is%ribu%ives an# car#inals3
(++B/ a$ `ncLlcarea /o EncLlcare a #re5%urilor omului #e cL%re 5rim-minis%ru %res5ass$INF-%he /a %res5ass$INF G7N ri!h%s-%he$G7N man-%he$G7N b0 5rime-minis%er l-ar 5u%ea cos%a scaunul minis%erial him-9oul# can cos% chair-%he minis%erial >The/A viola%ion of human ri!h%s b0 %he 5rime minis%er coul# cos% him his 5osi%ion? b$ `ncLlca%ul /Xun EncLlca% al #re5%urilor omului #e cL%re %res5ass$SDP-%he/ a %res5ass$SDP G7N ri!h%s-%he$G7N man-%he$G7N b0 5rim-minis%ru l-ar 5u%ea cos%a scaunul minis%erial 5rime-minis%er him-9oul# can cos% chair-%he minis%erial >The/Aviola%ion of human ri!h%s b0 %he 5rime minis%er coul# cos% him his 5osi%ion? c$ orice EncLlcare /Xorice EncLlca% al #re5%urilor omului #e cL%re an0 %res5ass$INF/ an0 %res5ass$SDP G7N ri!h%s-%he$G7N man-%he$G7N b0 !uvern !overnmen% >an0 viola%ion of human ri!h%s b0 %he !overnmen%? #$ #ouL EncLlcLri / X#ouL EncLlca%uri ale #re5%urilor omului %9o %res5ass$INF$PL / %9o %res5ass$SDP$PL G7N ri!h%s-%he$G7N man-%he$G7N #e cL%re !uvern b0 !overnmen% >%9o viola%ions of human ri!h%s b0 %he !overnmen%? e$ nicio EncLlcare /Xniciun EncLlca% al #re5%urilor omului no %res5ass$INF/ no %res5ass$SDP G7N ri!h%s-%he$G7N man-%he$G7N #e cL%re !uvern
,<C
Deverbal Nouns b0 !overnmen% >no viola%ion of human ri!h%s b0 %he !overnmen%?
%. S.65le 3e2e0bal no1ns an3 ot8e0 no1ns D.t8 e2ent+0elate3 0ea3.n4s

In sec%ion 1$+ 9e sho9e# %ha% SDNs an# C7Ns have #ifferen% s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies$ Gn %he seman%ic si#e 9hile C7Ns are al9a0s #escri5%ions of even%s SDNs ma0 #escribe ei%her even%s or o%her elemen%s of %he le;ical conce5%ual s%ruc%ure associa%e# 9i%h %he verb3 %he resul% (ma%erial or abs%rac%/ of %he even% (e$!$ drmtur P ma%erial resul% from a #emolishin! even%/ %he 5lace of %he even% (e$!$ nc!isoare >5rison? P 5lace 9here somebo#0 is enclose#/ %he ins%rumen% (storctor (ins%rumen% use# for s@ueeAin!// %he a!en% ( solicitant P 5erson 9ho solici%s/ %he %heme (bnuial >sus5icion? P 9ha% is sus5ec%e#/ e%c$ Uhile in man0 cases %he same suffi; can mean even% resul% %heme or 5lace a!en%ive suffi;es are #ifferen%$ Therefore %he0 9ill be %rea%e# in a se5ara%e sec%ion$ Al%hou!h %he 5resen% cha5%er is mainl0 concerne# 9i%h #everbal nouns 9e 9ill a## a subsec%ion on o%her nouns 9i%h even%-rela%e# rea#in!s$ %.1. T8e 0ea3.n4s of s.65le 3e2e0bal no1ns In Romanian as 9ell as in o%her lan!ua!es SDNs ma0 refer %o even%s$ This %05e of SDNs have been calle# simple event nominals (S7Ns/ as o55ose# %o comple' event nominals$ These %erms ca5%ure %he h05o%hesis %ha% %he even%s #escribe# b0 S7Ns lac- in%ernal %em5oral s%ruc%ure? (9hich 9oul# e;5lain %he lac- of as5ec%ual mo#ifiers see 1$+$4/ in con%ras% 9i%h C7Ns 9hich #escribe comple' events 9hich have %em5oral s%ruc%ure an# as5ec%ual 5ro5er%ies as #iscusse# above$ S7Ns ma0 #evelo5 non-even%ive in%er5re%a%ions base# on me%on0mic shif%s es%ablishe# b0 vir%ue of %he seman%ic rela%ions be%9een %he elemen%s of %he verb?s le;ical conce5%ual s%ruc%ure$ These me%on0mic #evelo5men%s are @ui%e 5ro#uc%ive an# s0s%ema%ic %hou!h ver0 #iverse$ a/ manner of ac%ivi%03
(++C/ Gr!aniAarea Mi funcRionarea fiecLrei Camere or!aniAe$INF-%he an# func%ion$INF-%he each$G7N Chamber >%he manner in 9hich each Chamber is or!aniAe# an# func%ions&
b/ ma%erial resul% of %he even% (mos% fre@uen% rea#in!/3

(+1=/ denumire >name$INF? "name&I lucrare )tiinific* >9or-$INF (scien%ific/? "(scien%ific/ 9or-&I cldire >buil#$INF? "buil#in!&
c/ %heme (un#er!oer/3
(+1+/ mncare >ea%$INF? "foo#&I butur >#rin--tur? "#rin-&I drpntur >ruin-tur? "ruin&
#/ collec%ive A!en% (sel#om/3

(+11/ crmuire >rule$INF? "!overnmen%&I conducere >lea#$INF? "lea#ershi5 ([lea#ers/ !overnmen%& (+12/ cu voie #e la s%L5Wnire 9i%h 5ermission from lea#$INF >9i%h 5ermission from %he lea#ers?
e/ ins%rumen% of %he ac%ion3
,B=
Deverbal Nouns
(+14/ bttor >ins%rumen% %o hi% bea%?I spltor >ins%rumen% %o 9ash?
f/ 5lace of %he even%3

(+1,/ apus >se%$SDP? "sunse%I 9es%&I rsrit >rise$SDP? "sunriseI eas%&I parcare >5ar-$INF? "5ar-in! 5ar-in! lo%&
A charac%eris%ic 5ro5er%0 of #everbal even% nouns is %heir polysemy$ This is es5eciall0 %rue for cer%ain suffi;es such as3 %he infini%ive -re% -iune$-siune% -ie$-sie %he Aero suffi;$ A cursor0 e;amina%ion of %he #ic%ionar0 sho9s %ha% %he infini%ive -re suffi; has %he 9i#es% ran!e of meanin!s allo9in! man0 me%on0mic #evelo5men%s$ The ca5aci%0 of %he infini%ive %o #evelo5 a lar!e scale of rea#in!s is correla%e# %o i%s 5ro#uc%ivi%0 in Romanian$ Oere are a fe9 e;am5les3
(+1./ ieire (e iei >e;i% !o ou%?/ a$ even% of !oin! ou% 3 ieMirea lui Ion #in camerL e;i%$INF-%he G'L Ion from room >Ion?s !oin! ou% of %he room? b$ e;i%3 Aci#en%ul a avu% loc la ieMirea #in locali%a%e acci#en%-%he has %a-en 5lace a% e;i%$ INF-%he from %o9n >The acci#en% %oo- 5lace a% %he e;i% of %he %o9n?
G%her e;am5les are intrare >en%erin!/en%rance?I desc!idere >o5enin! (even%// o5enin! (resul%/?I pornire >s%ar%in!/s%ar%?I sosire >arrival (even% or 5lace/?$ Deverbal nouns forme# 9i%h -iune$-siune% -ie$-sie an# Aero-#erive# nominals can also be 5ol0semous3
(+1</ omisiune (e omite >%o omi%?/ a$ 7ven%3 un caA #e omisiune an ins%ance of omission b$ Resul% of %he even% Theme of %he even%3 Gmisiunea #e la 5a!ina Aece e cea mai !ravL omission-%he from 5a!e-%he %en is %he more serious >The omission on 5a!e %en is %he mos% serious one? (+1B/ pa( (e p(i >%o !uar#?/ a$ 7ven%3 AcRiunea #e 5aAL a fos% or!aniAa%L 5ros%$ ac%ion-%he of !uar# has been or!aniAe# ba#l0 >The !uar#in! ac%ivi%0 9as ba#l0 or!aniAe#? b$ A!en%3 Ion es%e 5aAL la oi$ Ion is !uar# a% shee5 >Ion is !uar# for %he shee5?
The su5ine suffi; is some9ha% less 5ol0semous$ S%ill i% ma0 e;5ress %he 5lace of %he even% as 9ell as %he resul%$ No%e fur%hermore %ha% non-even%ive su5ine nominaliAa%ions are no% onl0 less 5ol0semous bu% also rare (onl0 a fe9 i%ems can be foun# in %he #ic%ionar0/3
(+1C/ nceput (e ncepe >be!in?/
,B+
Deverbal Nouns a$ even%3 A veni% la Ence5u%ul s5ec%acolului$ has come a% be!in$SDP-%he sho9-%he$G7N >Oe came a% %he be!innin! of %he sho9? b$ resul%3 Ci%eM%e Ence5u%ul fraAei rea#$I:PV$1SG be!in$SDP-%he sen%ence-%he$G7N >Rea# %he be!innin! of %he sen%enced? (+2=/ apus (e apune >sunse%?/ a$ even%3 Priveam a5usul soarelui$ 9a%ch$I:PF$+SG se%$SDP-%he sun-%he$G7N >I 9as 9a%chin! %he sunse%? b$ 5lace3 :er!eam cL%re a5us !o$I:PF$+PL %o9ar#s (sun/se%$SDP >Ue 9ere !oin! 9es%?
In a##i%ion %o %he sim5le even%/resul% 5ol0sem0 alrea#0 no%e# an in%eres%in! %05e of 5ol0sem0 is %he #is%inc%ion of %he %9o main subeven%s of %he even%3 %he 5rocess 5ar% or %he ensuin! s%a%e$
(+2+/ e'tenuare (e e'tenua >e;haus%?/3 a$ 5rocess rea#in!3 7;%enuarea lui la birou #e cW%eva luni Encoace l-a a#us 7;haus%$INF-%he his a% office since fe9 mon%hs a!o him-has brou!h% En 5ra!ul bolii in %reshhol#-%he illness-%he$G7N >Ois !e%%in! e;haus%e# a% %he office over %he las% fe9 mon%hs brou!h% him on %he ver!e of illness? b$ resul%in! s%a%e con#i%ion3 SuferL #e e;%enuare fiAicL Mi 5sihicL$ Suffers from e;haus%$INF 5h0sical an# men%al >Oe suffers from 5h0sical an# men%al e;haus%ion? decdere (edecdea >fall in%o #eca0 #ecline?/ a$ 5rocess rea#in!3 DecL#erea Im5eriului Roman a fos% un 5roces %re5%a% #eca0$INF-%he em5ire-%he$G7N Roman has been a 5rocess !ra#ual >The #eca0 of %he Roman 7m5ire has been a !ra#ual 5rocess? b$ resul%in! s%a%e con#i%ion3 DecL#erea En care se aflL aces% im5eriu es%e #e5lorabilL #eca0$INF-%he in 9hich R7FL fin#s %his em5ire is #e5lorable >The #eca0 of %his em5ire is #e5lorable?
(+21/
Some%imes 5ol0sem0 ma0 !ive rise %o con%e;%ual ambi!ui%03 in one an# %he same con%e;% more %han in%er5re%a%ion ma0 be a55ro5ria%e3
(+22/ Acci#en%ul a avu% loc la ieMirea #in locali%a%e acci#en%-%he has %a-en 5lace a% e;i%$ INF-%he from %o9n >The acci#en% %oo- 5lace a% %he e;i% of %he %o9n (9hen %he0 9ere leavin! %he %o9n a% a 5lace %hrou!h 9hich one leaves/$?
%.2. S.65le e2ent no1ns ESENsF As 9e men%ione# in sec%ion + mos% #everbal suffi;es are s5ecialiAe# for SDNs allo9in! a% ,B1
Deverbal Nouns
mos% %he sim5le even% in%er5re%a%ion$ A% leas% for %ransi%ive verbs %here is of%en a s5ecialiAa%ion3 one suffi; forms a C7N (%ha% mus% combine 9i%h a !eni%ive ob6ec%/ ano%her suffi; forms a S7N 9hich onl0 allo9s a !eni%ive sub6ec% an# of%en #is5la0s o%her rea#in!s3
(+24/ a$ #is5unerea 5ieselor #is5ose$INF-%he 5ieces-%he$G7N >%he #is5osi%ion 5lacemen% of %he 5ieces? b$ #is5oAiRia lui Ion #is5osi%ion-%he G'L Ion >Ion?s #is5osi%ion/moo#? a$ cunoaM%erea fa5%elor -no9$INF-%he fac%s-%he$G7N >%he -no9le#!e of %he fac%s? b$ cunoM%inRa lui Ion -no9le#!e-%he G'L Ion >Ion?s -no9le#!e? a$ biruirea a#versarului #efea%$INF-%he enem0-%he$G7N >#efea%in! of %he enem0? b$ biruinRa lui Ion asu5ra #uMmanului #efea%-%he G'L Ion over enem0-%he$G7N >Ion?s #efea% of %he enem0? a$ bombar#area oraMului bomb$INF-%he ci%0-%he$G7N >%he bombin! of %he ci%0? b$ bombar#amen%ul americanilor asu5ra oraMului bombin!-%he Americans-%he$G7N over ci%0-%he$G7N >%he Americans? bombin! of %he ci%0? a$ inves%irea banilor inves%$INF-%he mone0-%he$G7N >inves%in! %he mone0? b$ inves%iRia lui Ion inves%men%-%he G'L Ion >Ion?s inves%men%? a$ bombLnirea co5iilor scol#$INF-%he chil#ren-%he$G7N >%he scol#in! of %he chil#ren? b$ bombLni%ul bL%rWnei scol#-%he ol# 9oman-%he$G7N >%he ol# 9oman?s com5lainin!? a$ chel%uirea banilor s5en#$INF-%he mone0-%he$G7N >%he s5en#in! of %he mone0? b$ chel%uielile lui Ion e;5enses-%he G'L Ion >Ion?s e;5enses? a$ ra5or%area realiALrilor re5or%$INF-%he achievemen%s-%he$G7N >%he re5or%in! of %he achievemen%s? b$ ra5or%ul comisarului re5or%-%he ins5ec%or-%he$G7N >%he ins5ec%or?s re5or%?
(+2,/
(+2./
(+2</
(+2B/
(+2C/
(+4=/
(+4+/
S7Ns #iffer in %heir behavior re!ar#in! %he sub6ec% an# ob6ec% of %he base verb$ Thus some
,B2
Deverbal Nouns
S7Ns ma0 combine 9i%h %he ar!umen% #esi!na%in! %he ob6ec% of %he base verb licensin! i% in %he !eni%ive case$ G%hers onl0 allo9 %he sub6ec% in %he !eni%ive$ Com5are %he 5airs ac!i(iie (S7N/ / ac!i(iionare (C7N/ posesie (S7N/ / posedare (C7N/ 9i%h %he 5air bnuial (S7N/ / bnuire (C7N/$ Ac!i(iie >ac@uisi%ion? an# posesie >5ossession? ma0 occur bo%h 9i%h a sub6ec% !eni%ive an# 9i%h an ob6ec% !eni%iveI bnuial >sus5icion? uni@uel0 occurs 9i%h a !eni%ive sub6ec%$
(+41/ a$ AchiAiRia /achiAiRionarea %erenurilor anul aces%a ac@uisi%ion-%he/ac@uire$INF-%he lan#s-%he$G7N 0ear-%he %his >%he ac@uisi%ion of lan#s %his 0ear? b$ achiAiRia lui Ion /XachiAiRionarea lui Ion ac@uisi%ion-%he G'L Ion/ ac@uire$INF-%he G'L Ion >Ion?s ac@uisi%ion? (+42/ a$ 5osesia /5ose#area averii %im5 #e #oi ani 5ossession-%he/5ossess$INF-%he for%une-%he$G7N %ime of %9o 0ears >%he 5ossession of for%une for %9o 0ears? b$ 5osesia lui Ion /X5ose#area lui Ion (GS if >on[in%ernal ar!umen%/ 5ossession-%he G'L Ion/5ossess$INF-%he G'L Ion >Ion?s 5ossession? (+44/ a$ bLnuirea /XbLnuiala lui Ion #e crimL sus5ec%$INF-%he/sus5icion-%he G'L Ion of mur#er (e someone sus5ec%s Ion of mur#er/ b$ bLnuiala /XbLnuirea lui Ion sus5icion-%he/ sus5ec%$INF-%he G'L Ion (e Ion sus5ec%s some%hin!/
S7Ns !enerall0 #o no% license con%rol in %he 5ur5ose clause3

(+4,/ Xcons%rucRia casei 5en%ru a locui En ea cons%ruc%ion-%he house-%he$G7N for %o live in i% >%he buil#in! of %he house in or#er %o live in i%?
As 9e have alrea#0 seen in 4$1$+ (e;$ (C.// some S7Ns allo9 9ha% corres5on#s %o %he in%ernal ar!umen% of %he verb %o a55ear as a 5re5osi%ional 5hrase license# b0 %he le;ical conce5%ual s%ruc%ure of %he verb (ins%ea# of a !eni%ive/3
(+4./ a$ viAi%a la muAeu visi%-%he a% museum >%he visi% %o %he museum? b$ a#miraRia lui Ion 5en%ru :onica a#mira%ion-%he G'L Ion for :onica >Ion?s a#mira%ion for :onica?
I% shoul# be recalle# %ha% o%her 5ro5er%ies (see *1$+/ al9a0s #ifferen%ia%e be%9een S7Ns an# C7Ns$ Thus i% is no% 5ossible %o use de ctre >b0? for %he e;%ernal ar!umen% in S7Ns in clear con%ras% 9i%h C7Ns3
(+4</ a$ XviAi%a la muAeu #e cL%re Ion (S7N/ visi%-%he a% museum b0 Ion b$ viAi%area muAeului #e cL%re Ion (C7N/ visi%$INF-%he museum-%he$G7N b0 Ion >%he visi% of %he museum b0 Ion?
,B4
Deverbal Nouns
S7Ns have limi%e# 5ossibili%ies of licensin! as5ec%ual mo#ifiers3

(+4B/ a$ XaviAul /refuAul 5roiec%ului En Aece minu%e (S7N/ a55roval-%he/ refusal-%he 5ro6ec%-%he$G7N in %en minu%es b$ aviAarea /refuAarea 5roiec%ului En Aece minu%e (C7N/ a55rove$INF-%he/refuse$INF-%he 5ro6ec%-%he$G7N in %en minu%es >%he a55roval/ %he re6ec%ion of %he 5ro6ec% in %en minu%es?
Perha5s un#er %he influence of o%her lan!ua!es cer%ain Aero-#erive# nominals seem %o #evelo5 even% rea#in!s$ Some ma0 for ins%ance %a-e localiAers 9i%hou% de3
(+4C/ AnaliAa En labora%or es%e in#ica%L En aces% momen% / va avea loc mWine anal0sis-%he in labora%or0 is in#ica%e# in %his momen%/ 9ill %a-e 5lace %omorro9 >The anal0sis in %he lab is recomman#able a% %his momen% / 9ill %a-e 5lace %omorro9?
This can also be observe# for some even%ive nouns #erive# b0 suffi;es o%her %han %he infini%ival an# su5ine/$
(+,=/ e;%racRia cLrbunelui En Valea Niului e;%rac%ion-%he coal-%he$G7N in Valea Niului >%he e;%rac%ion of coal in Valea Niului?
As 9e have seen in 1$, above (e;$ <2/ %hese suffi;es ma0 allo9 a C7N if %he verb is even%ive (es5eciall0 if i% e;5resses a %ransi%ion/ an# i% has nei%her an infini%ive nor a su5ine nominaliAa%ion (see apariie >a55earance comin! ou% a#ven%?/$ %.3. A4ent+no6.nal.Bat.ons In %he case of suffi;es 9hich form A!en% nominaliAa%ions in Romanian i% can be sai# %ha% %he suffi; e;%ernaliAes %he A!en% variable in %he le;ical conce5%ual s%ruc%ure of %he verb so %ha% %he meanin! of %he nominal is "%he V 9ho Vs&$ :ore !enerall0 %hese nominals #esi!na%e %he causer of %he even% 9here an YAnima%e causerZ is an a!en% 9hile a Y-Anima%eZ causer is an ins%rumen%$ There is a lar!e !rou5 of such suffi;es !iven belo9 in %he #ecreasin! or#er of %heir fre@uenc03
(+,+/ -tor " muncitor >9or-er? -ant$ent " solicitant >5e%i%ioner? -a " uci a >-iller? -re " cntre >sin!er? pln re >5lain%ive? -aci "tr aci >%ri!!er? -u " lin u >fla%%erer? -mnt " n rmnt >fer%iliAer? (onl0 ins%rumen%al/ -nic " datornic >#eb%or? -bil " contribuabil >%a;5a0er?
A!en% nominaliAa%ions ma0 inheri% some of %he s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he verbal base$ The mos% verb-li-e of all is %he suffi; -tor bu% o%her suffi;es as 9ell (e$!$ -nt/ inheri% some of %he s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies of %he verbal base3 a$ The in%ernal ar!umen% of %he verb ma0 a55ear as a !eni%ive3
(+,1/ a$ con#ucL%orul s%a%ului
,B,
Deverbal Nouns lea#er-%he s%a%e-%he$G7N >%he lea#er of %he s%a%e? b$ !uverna%orul 5rovinciei !overner-%he 5rovince-%he$G7N >%he !overnor of %he 5rovince? c$ uci!aM #e co5ii -iller of chil#ren >chil# -iller?
b$ The0 allo9 %he Da%ive IG alon!si#e of %he in%ernal ar!umen% as no%ice# for %he com5le; even%-rea#in!3
(+,2/ a$ 7l es%e un a#ucL%or #e 5rofi% En%re5rin#erii he is a brin!er of 5rofi% com5an0-%he$DAT >Oe is a brin!er of benefi% for %he com5an0? b$ 7l es%e un #eschiAL%or #e #rumuri cerce%Lrii he is a o5ener of roa#s research-%he$ DAT >Oe is an o5ener of 9a0s for research? c$ familii En care e;is%au EnchinL%ori lui DumneAeu families in 9hich e;is%e# 9horshi5ers G'L Go# >families in 9hich %here 9ere 9orshi5ers of Go#?
c$ The0 allo9 %he same %em5oral mo#ifiers as %he verb3

(+,4/ a$ s%u#en% %im5 #e #oi ani al facul%LRii noas%re s%u#en% %ime of %9o 0ears G7N facul%0-%he$G7N our >s%u#en% of our facul%0 for %9o 0ears? b$ absolven% anul aces%a al facul%LRii noas%re !ra#ua%e 0ear-%he %his G7N facul%0-%he$G7N our >%his 0ear?s !ra#ua%e of our facul%0?
#$ The0 allo9 @uan%ifiers %05ical of verbs3

(+,,/ cWM%i!L%orul #e #ouL ori /5en%ru a #oua oarL al %rofeului$ 9inner-%he of %9o %imes /for %he secon# %ime G7N 5riAe-%he$G7N >%he %9o-%imes / secon#-%ime 9inner of %he 5riAe?
%.$. Ot8e0 no1ns D.t8 e2ent+0elate3 0ea3.n4s In a##i%ion %o nouns #irec%l0 #erive# from verbs %here are o%her nouns %ha% ma0 have even% or even%-rela%e# rea#in!s$ Some of %hese nouns are mor5holo!icall0 rela%e# %o #everbal nouns b0 means of 9or# forma%ion rules %hus bein! in#irec%l0 connec%e# %o verbs o%hers are mor5holo!icall0 sim5le3 +$ Nouns #erive# from even%-nominaliAa%ions b0 5refi;a%ion an# com5oun#in!3 a/ nouns #erive# b0 5refi;a%ion3 antipoluare >an%i5ollu%ion?% coarticulaie >coar%icula%ion?% coproducie >co5ro#uc%ion?% postcalculaie >5os%5ro#uc%ion? e%c$ In all such cases %here is no corres5on#in! verb bu% %here is a #everbal noun %o 9hich %he 5refi; is a##e#3
(+,./ poluare >5ollu%ion? s antipoluare >an%i5ollu%ion?
b/ nouns resul%in! b0 com5osi%ion 9i%h a semi-5refi;3
,B.
Deverbal Nouns (+,</ traciune >%rac%ion? filmare >filmin!? e e !ipotraciune >horse %rac%ion? macrofilmare >macrofilmin!?
c/ com5oun#s3
(+,B/ ucidere >-illin!? s omucidere >homici#e?
1$ Dn#erive# nouns 9hose le;ical meanin! is %ha% of an even%3 The s0n%a; of %hese nouns is close %o %ha% of #everbal nouns 9i%h 9hich %he0 ma0 be s0non0mous3
(+,C/ conflict >conflic%? (^lupt >fi!h%?* e$!$ conflict de interese >conflic% of in%eres%s? e'od >e;o#us? ([mi rare >mi!ra%ion?/ e$!$ e'od al populaiei >mi!ra%ion of 5o5ula%ion? drum >roa# 9a0 6ourne0? e$!$ drumul lui >on la mare >Ion?s 6ourne0 %o %he sea?
2$ Nouns rela%e# %o a verbal cons%ruc%ion3 Some nouns are forme# 9i%h a!en%ive suffi;es no% from verbal bases bu% from a noun #eno%in! an even% or %he %heme of an im5lici% verb3
(+.=/ drume (e drum >9a0 6ourne0&/ >%raveler? mesa er (e mesa+ >messa!e?/ >5erson 9ho carries a messa!e? cf$ a purta $ duce $ aduce un mesa+ >%o carr0 / brin! a messa!e?
,B<
Pro5er Names
12. P0o5e0 Na6es

:IOAL7A :IRGN-FDL7A CAR:7N DG'RGVI7-SGRIN ) IGN GIDRG7A
,. Int0o31/t.on? 3ef.n.t.on an3 6a.n s9nta/t./ 50o5e0t.es 1. P0o5e0 na6es an3 t8e 3ef.n.te a0t./le
+$+$ The forms "a an# "u in an%hro5on0ms3 en#in!s or #efini%e ar%iclesK +$1$ Defini%e common nouns use# as 5ro5er names +$2$ To5on0ms
2. T8e .nte0nal st01/t10e of DPs 8ea3e3 b9 50o5e0 na6es

1$+$ Res%ric%ive 5os%nominal mo#ifiers 1$1$ Prenominal mo#ifiers 1$2$ Ten%a%ive anal0sis 1$4$ Pro5er names follo9e# b0 #efini%e DPs an# mo#ifiers in%ro#uce# b0 cel 1$,$ Pro5er names 5rece#e# b0 common nouns
3. P0o5e0 na6es 1se3 as /o66on no1ns

2$+$ Derive# common noun in%er5re%a%ions 2$1$ S5ecial uses in 9hich %he referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion is 5reserve#
$. P0o5e0 na6es .n 50e3./at.2e 5os.t.on
,BB
Pro5er Names
,. Int0o31/t.on? 3ef.n.t.on an3 6a.n s9nta/t./ 50o5e0t.es

Pro5er names an# common nouns have #ifferen% seman%ic 5ro5er%ies3 9hereas %he la%%er #eno%e classes of en%i%ies base on share# 5ro5er%ies %he former refer #irec%l0 %o in#ivi#uals$ 7ach 5ro5er name is associa%e# 9i%h a s5ecific en%i%0 b0 a conven%ion of a !iven s5ea-in! communi%0$ The reference of %he 5ro5er name is cons%an% across si%ua%ions i$e$ i% is a ri!i# #esi!na%or as illus%ra%e# b0 %he con%ras% be%9een (+/a 9hich is a (5ossibl0/ %rue 5ro5osi%ion an# (+/b 9hich is a con%ra#ic%ion3
(+/ a$ Ale;an#er %he Grea%?s 5rofessor mi!h% no% have been Aris%o%le$ b$ Aris%o%le mi!h% no% have been Aris%o%le$
The 5ro5er%0 of bein! ri!i# #esi!na%ors se%s 5ro5er names a5ar% from o%her e;5ressions 9hich have a uni@ue referen% such as #efini%e #escri5%ions$ Des5i%e %his #ifference bo%h 5ro5er names an# #efini%e #escri5%ions refer %o a uni@ue con%e;%uall0 !iven en%i%0 an# hence are "non-choice DPs&$ This enables %he occurrence of %he #efini%e ar%icle 9i%h 5ro5er names use# referen%iall0$ Romanian is one of %he lan!ua!es 9hich ins%an%ia%es %his o5%ion bu% onl0 in a res%ric%e# number of cases3 %he #efini%e ar%icle is use# 9i%h %o5on0ms (in%e!ra%e# in %he lan!ua!e/ an# some an%hro5on0ms in %he obli@ue case$ The seman%ic #is%inc%ion be%9een 5ro5er names an# common nouns is also reflec%e# a% %he s0n%ac%ic level$ In 5ar%icular %he0 #iffer 9i%h res5ec% %o %heir abili%0 %o have a referen%ial use in ar!umen% 5osi%ion in %he absence of #e%erminers a 5ossibili%0 Romanian ins%an%ia%es in %he case of an%hro5on0ms an# non in%e!ra%e# %o5on0ms3
(1/ a$ Ion ci%eM%e$ Ion rea#s >Ion is rea#in!? b$ ProfesorX(ul/ ci%eM%e$ 5rofessor(-%he/ rea#s >X(The/ 5rofessor is rea#in!$?
In %hese e;am5les 5ro5er names func%ion as >full noun 5hrases? P DPs 9i%h a s5ecial mo#ifica%ion 5a%%ern$ The0 behave as DPs bo%h 9i%h res5ec% %o %heir selec%ion 5ro5er%ies (see (1/ above/ an# %o %he a#6unc%s 9i%h 9hich %he0 combine P as in (2/ 9here %he0 a#mi% an a55osi%ion3
(2/ a$ :ihai cu care mL cer%asem cu o searL En urmL venise sL-mi :ihai 9i%h 9hich R7FL fi!h%$PLPF$+SG 9i%h an evenin! a!o come$PLPF$2SG SD'N-me$DAT cearL ier%are$ as-$2 for!iveness >:ihai 9i%h 9hom I ha# ha# an ar!umen% on %he 5revious evenin! ha# come %o a5olo!iAe$? b$ 7l cu care mL cer%asem cu o searL En urmL venise sL-mi he 9i%h 9hich R7FL fi!h%$PLPF$+SG 9i%h an evenin! a!o come$ PLPF$2SG SD'N-me$DAT cearL ier%are$ as-$2 for!iveness >Oim 9i%h 9hom I ha# ha# an ar!umen% on %he 5revious evenin! ha# come %o a5olo!iAe$? c$ 'Lia%ul ei cu care mL cer%asem cu o searL En urmL venise bo0-%he her 9i%h 9hich R7FL fi!h%$PLPF$+SG 9i%h an evenin! a!o come$ PLPF$2SG sL-mi cearL ier%are$ SD'N-me$DAT as-$2 for!iveness >Oer son 9i%h 9hom I ha# ha# an ar!umen% on %he 5revious evenin! ha# come %o a5olo!iAe$?
,BC
Pro5er Names
In a##i%ion noun 5hrases hea#e# b0 5ro5er names have a number of s5ecial s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies mainl0 concernin! %heir in%ernal s%ruc%ure (see sec%ion 1 belo9/$ Uhen %he 5ro5er name #eno%es a class ra%her %han an in#ivi#ual %here are various in%er5re%a%ions %ha% are 5ossible in a##i%ion %o %he #enomina%ive one (see sec%ion 2 for %he in%er5re%a%ions of 5ro5er names/I class-#eno%in! 5ro5er names are s0n%ac%icall0 i#en%ical %o common nouns %he onl0 #ifference bein! %he rela%ion 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle$ As 9e 9ill #iscuss in #e%ail in %he follo9in! sec%ion %he behavior 9i%h res5ec% %o %he #efini%e ar%icle #oes no% #e5en# on %he #eno%a%ion of %he 5ro5er name bu% on i%s form an# i%s le;ical-seman%ic %05e$
In a##i%ion %o 5ro5er nouns %here are o%her e;5ressions %ha% behave seman%icall0 as 5ro5er names$ Gne such case 9hich subsumes 5ro5er nouns is %he me%alin!uis%ic use (see sec%ion 4/ of an0 lin!uis%ic e;5ression 9hich can refer %o i%self 9hen use# in @uo%a%ion mar-s3 (i/ (ii/ "A scrie& comes from La%in$ "The Sreu%Aer sona%a& is %he %i%le of a novel b0 Tols%oi$
The referen%s of 5ro5er names are es%ablishe# b0 conven%ion3 e$!$ >on% Ale'andru% 5aria are names of in#ivi#uals in#ica%in! masculine/feminine !en#er 9hile Krivei or Oe' are names of #o!s$ No%e %ha% %he 5ro5er name has no #escri5%ive con%en% as in#ica%e# b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o overri#e %he conven%ion e$!$ b0 namin! m0 %omca% Ale'andru$
1. P0o5e0 na6es an3 t8e 3ef.n.te a0t./le

1.1. T8e fo06s a an3 u .n ant80o5on96s? en3.n4s o0 3ef.n.te a0t./les^ As a resul% of %he inflec%ional na%ure of %he #efini%e ar%icle in Romanian %he combina%ion of 5ro5er names 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle raises s5ecial issues$ :ore 5recisel0 an%hro5on0ms 9hose en#in!s are 5honolo!icall0 #is%inc% from %he #efini%e ar%icle can never combine 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle 9i%h a ver0 limi%e# number of e;ce5%ions$ In con%ras% %o %his in %he case of feminine nouns en#in! in Pa (an# %o a cer%ain e;%en% masculine nouns in "u/ %he en#in! can also func%ion as a #efini%e ar%icle$ The #efini%e inflec%ion can occur on an%hro5on0ms ei%her for formal reasons P in %he !eni%ive-#a%ive case for ins%ance P or for seman%ic reasons P if %he 5ro5er name is conver%e# in%o a common noun 9hen i% combines 9i%h a res%ric%ive mo#ifier$ The abili%0 %o %a-e %he #efini%e inflec%ion #oes no% #e5en# on %he meanin! (9he%her or no% %he 5ro5er name has a referen%ial use/ bu% ra%her on %he (mor5ho/5honolo!ical form of %he noun$ As sho9n in sec%ion 2 belo9 even 9hen conver%e# in%o common nouns an%hro5on0ms %ha% #o no% en# in -a or "u canno% %a-e %he #efini%e inflec%ion$ Since %he en#in!s "a for feminine an%hro5on0ms an# %o a lesser e;%en% "u for masculine nouns are homo5honous 9i%h %he nomina%ive-accusa%ive form of %he #efini%e ar%icle (for feminine an# masculine sin!ular/ %hese en#in!s can also func%ion as #efini%e ar%icles$ The fac% %ha% %hese vo9els belon! %o %he s%em an# %herefore are no% al9a0s %o be anal0Ae# as ar%icles is su55or%e# b0 %heir occurrence in cases 9hich 5reclu#e %he #efini%e ar%icle3 (i/ af%er 5re5osi%ions o%her %han cu >9i%h?% 9hen %he DP has no o%her cons%i%uen%s3
(4/ a$ A fos% la :aria has been a% :aria >Oe has been a% :aria?s (5lace/? b$ G iubeM%e 5e :aria CL$ACC loves ACC :aria >Oe loves :aria?
,C=
Pro5er Names (,/ a$ A fos% la fa%L / Xla fa%a has been a% !irl / Xa% !irl-%he$FSG b$ G iubeM%e 5e fa%L/ X5e fa%a CL$ACC loves ACC !irl/ XACC !irl-%he$FSG
(ii/ imme#ia%el0 in fron% of %he 5ossessive ar%icle al3

(./ a$ Xfa%a !irl-%he$FSG b$ :aria (a/ :aria al$FSG >m0 :aria? a mea al$FSG m0 mea m0
(iii/ af%er #e%erminers 9hich 5reclu#e %he use of %he #efini%e ar%icle 9hen %he 5ro5er name is conver%e# in%o a common noun3
(</ a$ aceas%L 7lenL / aceas%L 7lena %his 7lena (in#efini%e/ /%his 7lena b$ al%L :irelL / al%L :irela o%her :irela/ o%her :irela c$ nicio IoanL /nicio Ioana no Ioana /no Ioana #$ o An#ree / o An#reea$ a An#ree /a An#reea a$ aceas%L fa%L / Xaceas%L fa%a %his !irl/X %his !irl-%he$FSG b$ al%L fa%L / Xal%L fa%a o%her !irl / Xo%her !irl-%he$FSG c$ nicio fa%L / Xnicio fa%a no !irl / Xno !irl-%he$FSG #$ o fa%L / Xo fa%a$ a !irl /X a !irl-%he$FSG
(<?/
The com5arison 9i%h common nouns canno% se%%le %he issue 9he%her or no% %hese en#in!s func%ion as ar%icles because common nouns %a-e %he #efini%e ar%icle in a lar!er number of con%e;%s %han 5ro5er names$ The con%e;%s 9hich clearl0 sho9 %ha% 9e are #ealin! 9i%h a #efini%e ar%icle are %he ones 9hich rule ou% %he use of an an%hro5on0m 9i%h a #ifferen% en#in! (hence an an%hro5on0m 9hich can %a-e no ar%icle/$ :ore 5recisel0 an%hro5on0ms 9i%hou% ar%icles are 5reclu#e# in fron% of a !eni%ive/5ossessive form 9i%hou% al an# canno% receive %he obli@ue (!eni%ive-#a%ive/ en#in!$ Ano%her %05e of evi#ence su55or%in! %he reanal0sis as an ar%icle is %he 5resence of %he >in#efini%e? (unar%icula%e#/ inflec%ion (%he re5lacemen% of -a b0 - or -e see (</ above/ 9henever %he 5ro5er name is mo#ifie# b0 o%her #e%erminers behavin! %hus as a common noun$ (i/ The 5osi%ion 9hich imme#ia%el0 5rece#es a !eni%ive/5ossessive DP 9i%hou% al3
(B/ a$ Ion X(al/ :ariei Ion al0:SG :aria$G7N b$ Ion X(al/ meu Ion al0:SG m0 c$ :aria (a/ mea :aria al0FSG m0 #$ :aria (a/ lui Gheor!he :aria al0FSG G7N Gheor!he
,C+
Pro5er Names
As sho9n in Cha5%er . al is an obli!a%or0 cons%i%uen% of !eni%ive forms an# is eli#e# 9hen imme#ia%el0 5rece#e# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle3
(C/ a$ o/aceas%L/nicio fa%L a :ariei$ a/%his/ no !irl al0FSG :aria$G7N b$ fa%a (Xa/ :ariei$ !irl-%he al0FSG :aria$G7N
The o5%ional charac%er of al in (B/ above clearl0 in#ica%es %ha% %he en#in! "a ma0 or ma0 no% be an ar%icle$ In %he case of masculine nouns in "u %he en#in! is homo5honous 9i%h %he mos% common oral varian% of %he sin!ular #efini%e form of consonan% nouns -ul$ Oo9ever i% shoul# be men%ione# %ha% %he use of "u as a #efini%e ar%icle is much less fre@uen%3
(+=/ K Ra#u meu Ra#u m0
Given %ha% %he homo5hon0 is absen% in %he 9ri%%en lan!ua!e %he use of "u as an ar%icle is res%ric%e# %o s5o-en varian%s$
:asculine names en#in! in consonan%s can some%imes (%hou!h rarel0/ #evelo5 a form in "ul 9here %he #ia!nos%ic %es% in#ica%es %he 5resence of a #efini%e ar%icle3 (++/ a$ `n camera #e alL%uri #ormea birui%orul i%efanul :ol#ovei In %he room of close sle5% con@ueror-%he S%efan-ul :ol#ovia-%he$G7N >In %he room ne;% #oor 9as slee5in! %he con@ueror S%e5han of :ol#avia? b$ Ionul %Lu$ Ion-ul 0our >0our Ion? (Sa#oveanu/$
(ii/ Recons%ruc%e# forms3 Uhen use# as common nouns (see sec%ion 2/ feminine nouns in -a of%en occur as recons%ruc%e# forms %a-in! %he non-#efini%e inflec%ion corres5on#in! %o %he #efini%e ar%icle - a% namel0 - or in cer%ain con%e;%s (af%er 5ala%al vo9els or semivo9els/ -eW
(+1/ a$ o :arie a :arie >a :aria? b$ aceas%L An!elL %his An!el >%his An!ela?
These forms can also occur in %he voca%ive case in al%erna%ion 9i%h base forms 9i%h s5ecific inflec%ions3
(+2/ a$ :arie :ario :aria (e:aria/ b$ An Ano Ana (eAna/
The nouns en#in! in "u can never %a-e %his form3

(+4/ X un Ra#? (eRa#u/ a Ra# (eRa#u/
,C1
Pro5er Names
I% is si!nifican% %o no%ice %ha% recons%ruc%e# forms canno% occur af%er 5re5osi%ions3

(+,/ a$ XAm lua%-o 5e An!elL have$+ %a-en-her ACC An!el b$XAm fos% la :arie have$+ been a% :arie
As sho9n in Cha5%er 2 in e;am5les li-e (+,/ %he H#ef fea%ure is 5resen% a% a cer%ain level of re5resen%a%ion %he lac- of %he #efini%e ar%icle bein! %he resul% of a surface 5henomenon$ The behavior of 5ro5er names sho9s %ha% %he s%ruc%ure of bare #efini%e DPs in%ro#uce# b0 5re5osi%ions is #ifferen% from %he s%ruc%ure of DPs hea#e# b0 ano%her #e%erminer$ Recons%ruc%e# forms of 5ro5er names in#ica%e %he absence of %he H#ef fea%ure in %he un#erl0in! s%ruc%ure$ (iii/ Gbli@ue (!eni%ive/#a%ive/ forms3 Romanian mar-s %he !eni%ive/#a%ive case on %he #e%erminer no% on %he noun$ The follo9in! case-mar-in! s%ra%e!ies are use# b0 an%hro5on0ms3 %he - a en#in! of feminine an%hro5on0ms is reanal0Ae# as a #efini%e ar%icle an# hence can %a-e %he !eni%ive/#a%ive mor5holo!ical forms$ The feminines en#in! in -e can o5%ionall0 follo9 %he same 5a%%ern an# %he en#in! -e is reanal0Ae# as a %hema%ic vo9el (-e is no% homo5honous 9i%h an0 ar%icle/3
(+./ a$ :aria P :ariei :aria P :aria$G'L b$ Dana P Danei Dana P Dana$G'L c$ Oil#e P Oil#ei / lui Oil#e Oil#e P Oil#e$G'L/ G'L Oil#e
Themes %ha% en# in !u%%ural consonan%s have a s5ecial form absen% in %he case of common nouns3
(+</ a$ Anca P AncLi Anca P Anca$G'L b$ vaca P vacii co9-%he P co9-%he$G'L
Feminine forms 9i%h o%her en#in!s %o!e%her 9i%h all masculine forms inclu#in! %hose in - u ma-e use of %he 5rocli%ic form lui$ This elemen% is homo5honous 9i%h %he obli@ue form of %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle an# of %he s%ron! 5ersonal 5ronoun %he %hree forms s%emmin! from %he same 9or#3
(+B/ lui
G'L
Pe%ru lui Valen%in lui Carmen Pe%ru G'L Valen%in G'L Carmen
No9a#a0s %his elemen% can no lon!er be anal0Ae# as a form of %he #efini%e ar%icle$ In 5ar%icular i% canno% combine 9i%h 5os%nominal res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives (+C/ (9hich as sho9n in sec%ion 1 belo9 are rule# ou% 9i%h 5ro5er names 9i%hou% #e%erminers/ an# in collo@uial varian%s i% can combine 9i%h an inflec%ional #efini%e ar%icle (1=/3
(+C/ (1=/ Xlui Ion blon# Ion blon# lu? bLia%u? meu G'L bo0-%he m0
G'L
,C2
Pro5er Names
No%e also %ha% i% #oesn?% inflec% for !en#er (lui 9hich as an ar%icle or 5ronoun is a masculine form can be use# as a 5rocli%ic obli@ue mar-er 9i%h bo%h !en#ers see (+B//$
The mar-er lui mi!h% be anal0Ae# as a 5ro5rial ar%icle (a #e%erminer selec%in! for 5ro5er names see cha5%er + *+$4/I %he #e%erminer s%a%us is su!!es%e# b0 i%s res%ric%ion %o sin!ular nouns 9hich in#ica%es %ha% i% bears sin!ular number$
Names of mon%hs behave li-e an%hro5on0ms 9i%h res5ec% %o %he #efini%e ar%icle3
(1+/ a$ K ianuarie al anului 1==2 Nanuar0 al0:SG 0ear-%he$G7N 1==2 b$ Xianuariele anului 1==2 Nanuar0-%he 0ear-%he$G7N 1==2 c$ la Ence5u%ul lui mar%ie a% be!innin!-%he G7N :arch #$Xla Ence5u%ul mar%ielui a% be!innin!-%he :arch-%he$G7N
1.2. Def.n.te /o66on no1ns 1se3 as 50o5e0 na6es The suffi;al na%ure of %he #efini%e ar%icle an# %he #ouble anal0sis of cer%ain forms (as an ar%icle an# as an en#in!/ have le# %o %he use of cer%ain common nouns 9i%h #efini%e inflec%ion as 5ro5er names$ This is obvious in %heir occurrence in con%e;%s i#en%ifie# in +$+ 9hich rule ou% %he #efini%e ar%icle such as 5re5osi%ions (9hen %he DP has no o%her cons%i%uen%/3
(11/ la mama la unchiuleRu? a% mo%her-%he a% uncle-%he
This use is onl0 5ossible for in#ivi#uals 9hose referen%s are familiar uni@ue in %he s5ea-er?s 9orl# 9i%h 9hom she has a s5ecial connec%ion %05icall0 -inshi5 %erms3
(12/ a$ :er!em la bunica !o$+PL a% !ran#mo%her-%he b$ X :er!em la 5rofesoru? Xla s5i%alul Xla can%ina !o$+PL a% 5rofessor-%he a% hos5i%al-%he a% res%auran%-%he
The !eni%ive/#a%ive case of %hese nouns %en#s %o ma-e use of %he 5rocli%ic form lui (14a/$ As alrea#0 illus%ra%e# above lui is more fre@uen% in collo@uial varian%s of %he lan!ua!e (14b/3
(14/ a$ lu? mama lu? bunica G'L mo%her-%he G'L !ran#mo%her-%he b$ lu? 5rofesoru? G'L 5rofessor-%he
1.3 To5on96s :os% %o5on0ms re@uire %he #efini%e ar%icle on %heir s%an#ar# referen%ial use si%ua%ions 9here %he0 !enerall0 5a%%ern 9i%h common nouns3
(1,/ a$ `mi 5lace 'raMovX(ul/ me$DAT li-es 'raMov-(%he/ >I li-e 'raMov$?
,C4
Pro5er Names b$ `mi 5lace mareX(a/ me$DAT li-es sea-(%he/ >I li-e %he sea$? a$ To% 'ucureM%iul a ieMi% la manifes%aRie All 'uchares%-%he has come$ou% a% manifes%a%ion b$ To% oraMul a ieMi% la manifes%aRie All ci%0-%he has come$ou% a% manifes%a%ion a$ Parisul bo!a% Paris-%he rich b$ Car%ierul bo!a% nei!hborhoo#-%he rich a$ 'ucureM%iul meu 'uchares%-%he m0 b$ oraMul meu ci%0-%he m0 a$ la Calafa%(Xul/ a% Calafa%-%he b$ la oraM(Xul/ a% ci%0-%he
(1./
(1</
(1B/
(1C/
The e;am5le in (1</ sho9s %ha% res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion b0 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives is 5ossible unli-e 9ha% ha55ens in %he case of an%hro5on0ms en#in! in consonan%s (see (Ca//$ Given %ha% %he0 are of%en use# af%er 5re5osi%ions %o5on0ms %en# %o occur in %heir unar%icula%e# form an# %ha%?s ho9 %he0 a55ear on ma5s or in %o5on0m #ic%ionaries$ There is ho9ever an im5or%an% #ifference be%9een %o5on0ms an# common nouns3 %o5on0ms in - a -ee5 %his en#in! even in con%e;%s %ha% rule ou% %he #efini%e ar%icle in 5ar%icular af%er 5re5osi%ions3
(2=/ a$ la Cons%anRa la TimiMoara a% Cons%anRa a% TimiMoara b$ Xla Cons%anRL la TimiMoarL a% Cons%anR a% TimiMoar c$ Xla marea a% sea-%he #$ la mare a% sea
In %his environmen% -a is %o be anal0Ae# as an en#in! ra%her %han an ar%icle$ In o%her con%e;%s 9hich rule ou% %he #efini%e ar%icle even 9hen use# referen%iall0 -a is re5lace# 9i%h an unar%icula%e# inflec%ional form hence behavin! li-e an ar%icle3
(2+/ a$ En%rea!a TimiMoarL / KK TimiMoara 9hole-%he TimiMoar/KK TimiMoara b$ frumoasa RomL /KKRoma beau%iful-%he Rom /KKRoma c$ aceas%L VarMovie a%W% #e Encerca%L/KKaceas%L VarMovia a%W% #e Encerca%L %his Uarsa9-e so %es%e# / KK %his Uarsa9-a so %es%e#
In a##i%ion %here are cer%ain cases 9here %o5on0ms 9hich #o no% en# in -a -ee5 %heir unar%icula%e# form even in ar!umen% 5osi%ion unli-e common nouns 9hich %a-e a #e%erminer3
,C,
Pro5er Names (21/ a$ B1/10eCt. es%e ca5i%ala RomWniei 'uchares% is ca5i%al-%he Romania-%he$ G7N b$ TK04o2.Cte a fos% En%emeia% En vremea #escLlecLrilor$ TWr!oviM%e has been foun#e# in %ime-%he #ismoun%in!s-%he$ G7N >TWr!oviM%e 9as foun#e# in %he %ime of %he se%%lin! of %he lan#? c$ Cl17 e mai la es% #e Gra#ea$ Clu6 is more a% eas% from Gra#ea
Oere %o5on0ms func%ion li-e !eo!ra5hic 5oin%s ra%her %han as en%i%ies com5ose# of 5ar%s$ This mi!h% e;5lain %he #ifference be%9een (22a/ an# (22b/3
(22/ a$ Ma30.3E1lF e En cen%rul S5aniei /la ves% #e 'arcelona$ :a#ri#(%he/ is in cen%er-%he S5ain-%he$ G7N/a% 9es% from 'arcelona b$ Ma30.3LE1lF era aco5eri% #e nori Mi ceaRL$ :a#ri#(X%he/ 9as covere# 9i%h clou#s an# fo!
The absence of %he #efini%e ar%icle is even more fre@uen% 9i%h forei!n %o5on0ms even in con%e;%s li-e (1,/ an# (1./ as illus%ra%e# belo93
(24/ a$ `mi 5lace San Francisco/ :ilano me$DAT li-es San Francisco/ :ilano >I li-e San Francisco/:ilano? b$ (K/ To% 'uenos Aires ieMise la 5la6L All 'uenos Aires come-ou%$PLPF a% beach >The 9hole 'uenos Aires ha# !one %o %he beach? c$ No%%in!ham era a5roa5e inun#a% #e la a%W%a 5loaie No%%in!ham 9as almos% floo#e# from so-much rain >No%%in!ham 9as almos% floo#e# from so much rain? #$ :icene se EnLlRa 5e colinL s%rLlucin# En soarele #u5L-amieAii :icene R7FL rise$I:PF on hill shinin! in sun-%he af%ernoon-%he$G7N >:icene rose on %he hill shinin! in %he af%ernoon sun?
Cer%ain %o5on0ms are ma#e of a #efini%e noun follo9e# b0 a mo#ifier$ In some cases %he #efini%e ar%icle allo9s %he use of %he 5ro5er name in ar!umen% 5osi%ion 9i%hou% ho9ever bein! able %o %a-e %he obli@ue case (see (2,//$ In some o%her cases %he #efini%e ar%icle loses i%s func%ion an# %he 5hrase is 5erceive# as a 9hole (2./$ The !rou5 in (2</ ins%an%ia%es a reminiscence of %he use as #efini%e ar%icle once visible as a%%es%e# b0 %he 5resence of %he 5os%nominal a#6ec%ive3
(2,/ a$ To% Sat1ElF Ma0e ieMise la sLrbL%oare all Villa!e-%he 'i! came$ou% %o celebra%ion >The en%ire Sa%u(l/ :are ha# come ou% %o celebra%e? b$ KK Locuia la mar!inea Sat1l1. Ma0e live$I:PF$2SG a% mar!in-%he Villa!e-%he$G7N 'i! >Oe live# a% %he e#!e of Sa%u :are? a$ Chelaru es%e 5rimarul TK041+J.1l1. Chelaru is ma0or-%he :ar-e%-%he-Niu-%he$ G7N >Chelaru is %he ma0or of TWr!u-Niu? b$ Tot CK651l1n4LE1lF e s%rLbL%u% acum #e mo%ocicle%e$ All Fiel#-%he-lon!(-%he/ is crosse# no9 b0 mo%orc0cles CK651l1n4 Mol3o2enes/ Fiel#-%he-lon! :ol#avian
(2./
(2</
Cer%ain com5oun#s are com5le%el0 %rans5aren% an# conse@uen%l0 %he !eni%ive-#a%ive case can ,C.
Pro5er Names
be mar-e# on %he #efini%e ar%icle of %he firs% elemen% of %he com5oun# %o5on0m3
(2B/ Am 5orni% la escala#area P.et0e. C0a.1l1.$ Oave$+ se% %o ascen%-%he Roc--%he$G7N Prince-%he$G7N >Ue/I s%ar%e# %o climb Pia%ra Craiului?
A series of %o5on0ms s%em from 5lural forms (of%en %he inhabi%an%s? name/$ In such cases %he ar%icle can be ei%her sin!ular or 5lural al%hou!h i% shoul# be men%ione# %ha% curren% Romanian favors %he use of %he sin!ular3
(2C/ B1/10eCt..@ B1/10eCt.1l 'uchares%-%he$PL/'uchares%-%he$SG #e al%L#a%L of former #a0s
2. T8e .nte0nal st01/t10e of DPs 8ea3e3 b9 50o5e0 na6es

As alrea#0 men%ione# in %he in%ro#uc%ion (see e;am5le (2// 5ro5er names behave as full DPs #es5i%e %he absence of #e%erminers$ Conse@uen%l0 %he0 onl0 a#mi% cer%ain %05es of a#6unc%s namel0 %hose %ha% can occur 9i%h o%her DPs such as 5ersonal 5ronouns$ In %his sec%ion 9e e;amine %he 5ossible mo#ifiers focusin! onl0 on 5ro5er names 9i%hou% #e%erminers 9hich #iffer s0n%ac%icall0 from common nouns$ Accor#in!l0 9e 9ill se% asi#e %o5on0ms 9hich are ver0 similar %o common nouns$ No%e %ha% %he s5ecial s0n%a; of 5ro5er names is no% limi%e# %o %he referen%ial use bu% e;%en#s %o non-referen%ial uses in #efini%e DPs because as sho9n in sec%ion + %he occurrence of %he #efini%e ar%icle is in#e5en#en% from %he %05e of in%er5re%a%ion of %he 5ro5er name$ Thus 9e 9ill #escribe bo%h referen%ial an# non-referen%ial 5ro5er names 9i%hou% #e%erminers$ :oreover 9e inclu#e cases 9here %he #efini%e ar%icle is hos%e# b0 %he 5renominal mo#ifier of a 5ro5er name DP$ In con%e;%s 9here %here are o%her #e%erminers 5ro5er names behave li-e common nouns bo%h seman%icall0 an# s0n%ac%icall0 (see sec%ion 2/$ 2.1. Rest0./t.2e 5ostno6.nal 6o3.f.e0s Pro5er names 9i%hou% #e%erminers can %a-e an0 %05e of 5os%nominal res%ric%ive mo#ifiers e;ce5% for a#6ec%ives an# PPs in%ro#uce# b0 some%hin! else %han de3 !eni%ives (4=/ de PPs (4+/ res%ric%e# rela%ives (41/3
(4=/ a$ :ihai al Ro#icLi :ihai al0:SG Ro#ica$G7N b$ :aria (a/ lui Gheor!he :aria al0FSG G7N Gheor!he a$ :arius #e la 'ucureM%i :arius from 'ucureM%i b$ Oeracli% #in 7fes Oeracli% from 7fes c$ An#rei #e acum cinci ani #is5Lruse En locul lui rLmWnWn# o fiinRL An#rei of a!o five 0ears #isa55ear$PLPF in 5lace-%he his remainin! a bein! care-i era %o%al necunoscu%L 0 9hich-him$DAT 9as %o%all0 un-no9n >[The] An#rei from five 0ears a!o ha# #isa55eare# in his s%ea# %here 9as someone com5le%el0 un-no9n %o him? #$ Ou!o #in tCon%em5laRii& es%e 5refera%ul meu Ou!o from Con%em5la%ions is favori%e-%he m0 >Ou!o from "Con%em5la%ions& is m0 favori%e?
(4+/
,C<
Pro5er Names (41/ Geor!e 5e care El M%ia ea nu ar fi fLcu% aMa ceva Geor!e DG: 9hich him -ne9 she no% 9oul# PRF #one such some%hin! >[The] Geor!e %ha% she -ne9 9oul# have never #one an0%hin! li-e %his?
Uhenever %he0 %a-e 5os%nominal res%ric%ive mo#ifiers 5ro5er names behave li-e common nouns an# #eno%e a class of elemen%s (see sec%ion 2/ fur%her res%ric%e# b0 %he mo#ifier$ The e;am5les above are in%er5re%e# as #efini%e #escri5%ions as if %he #efini%e ar%icle 9ere 5resen%$ Oo9ever %he #efini%e ar%icle is missin! 5resumabl0 even in cases 9here %he -a en#in! coul# be reanal0Ae# as a #efini%e ar%icle (com5are (B/ an# (4=b//$ A#6ec%ives are rule# ou% from %his cons%ruc%ion3
(42/ a$ XL-am En%Wlni% 5e Ion blon#$ him-have$+ me% DG: Ion blon# b$ XAu 5e#e5si%-o 5e :aria in%eli!en%L$ have 5unishe#-her DG: :aria in%elli!en% c$ XL-au omorW%/alun!a% 5e Ra#u bo!a%/avar$ him-have$2PL -ille#/ chase# DG: Ra#u rich/avaricious
The e;am5le in (42/b sho9s %ha% 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives are rule# ou% even 9i%h an%hro5on0ms 9hose en#in! is homo5honous 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle ( -a for feminine nouns an# cer%ain masculine nouns en#in! in -u/$ Some s5ea-ers allo9 %he use of 5ro5er names 9i%h 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives in con%ras%ive focus con%e;%s as 9ell as 9i%h cer%ain a#6ec%ives li-e mare >bi!? an# mic >small? 9hich form com5oun# 5ro5er names a 5ossibili%0 9hich is facili%a%e# b0 %he homo5hon0 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle$
(44/ a$ :aria blon#L nu :aria brune%L es%e acea :aria #es5re care Ri-am vorbi% :aria blon# no% :aria #ar--haire# is %ha% :aria abou% 9hich 0ou$ DAT-have$+ %al-e# ieri$ 0es%er#a0 >Tha% :aria I %al-e# 0ou abou% 0es%er#a0 is %he blon# :aria no% %he #ar--haire# :aria? b$ Am En%Wlni%-o 5e :aria blon#L nu 5e :aria brune%L$ have$+ me%-CL$ACC DG: :aria blon# no% DG: :aria #ar--haire# >I me% %he blon# :aria no% %he #ar--haire# :aria? c$ :i-a scris Gabi micL$ me$DAT-has 9ri%%en Gabi small >The shor% Gabi 9ro%e me? #$ KKIon blon# nu Ion brune% es%e acel Ion #es5re care Ri-am vorbi% Ion blon# no% Ion #ar--haire# is %ha% Ion abou% 9hich 0ou$ DAT-have$+ %al-e# ieri$ 0es%er#a0 e$ KK L-am En%Wlni% 5e Ion blon# nu 5e Ion brune%$ CL$ACC-have$+ me% DG: Ion blon# no% DG: Ion #ar--haire#
In cer%ain con%e;%s a#6ec%ives can follo9 5ro5er names 9i%hou% #e%erminers3

(4,/ Ion bolnav e !reu #e su5or%a%$ Ion sic- is har# %o s%an#
I% can be sho9n %ha% %he a#6ec%ive is no% an a#6unc% of %he 5ro5er name insi#e %he DP bu% ra%her an e;%ernal cons%i%uen% 9hich func%ions as a small clause 5re#ica%e$ The e;am5le in (4,/ #oes no% i#en%if0 a cer%ain in#ivi#ual name# Ion on %he basis of his bein! sic- bu% conve0s some%hin! abou% si%ua%ions 9here Ion is sic-$ Conse@uen%l0 %he a#6ec%ive func%ions ,CB
Pro5er Names
as a small clause 5re#ica%e$ In all o%her cases %he a#6ec%ive is se5ara%e# from %he 5ro5er name b0 a comma bein! e@uivalen% %o (4./b-c (a% leas% on one of %he 5ossible rea#in!s/3
(4./ a$ Ion bolnav e !reu #e su5or%a%$ Ion sic- is har# %o s%an# >Ion bein! sic- is har# %o s%an#? b$ 'olnav Ion e !reu #e su5or%a%$ sicIon is har# %o s%an# >Uhen he is sic- Ion is har# %o s%an#? c$ Ion e !reu #e su5or%a% bolnav$ Ion is har# %o s%an# sic>Ion is har# %o s%an# 9hen he is sic-?
The a#6ec%ive in %he e;am5les above is %he (secon#ar0/ 5re#ica%e of an a#6unc% small clause 9hose sub6ec% PRG is coin#e;e# 9i%h %he sub6ec% of %he main clause$ In cer%ain s0n%ac%ic 5osi%ions %he secon#ar0 5re#ica%e can occur 9i%hou% %he comma3
(4./ a$ L-am En%Wlni% 5e Ion bea%$ CL$ACC-have$+ me% DG: Ion #run>I me% Ion #run-?
The in%er5re%a%ion of sen%ences li-e (4,/ is similar %o %he in%er5re%a%ion of 5ro5er names conver%e# %o frac%ional common nouns (see sec%ion 2/ 9here %he class #eno%e# b0 %he noun is ma#e of several >5ar%s? of %he referen% e$!$ %em5oral in%ervals or ima!es of %he referen% (in 9hich case %he a#6ec%ive is res%ric%ive 5ic-in! u5 a cer%ain ima!e or in%erval/$ Oo9ever i% can be sho9n %ha% in (4,/ %he noun #oes no% have a frac%ional rea#in! an# %he a#6ec%ive is ou%si#e %he DP3 if %he NounHA#6ec%ive se@uence is 5lace# in con%e;%s 9here a small clause rea#in! is im5ossible %he sen%ence is rule# ou% (see (4<//$
(4</ a$ XIon bolnav s-a 5rLbuMi% #in%r-o #a%L 5e 5a%$ Ion sicR7FL-has fallen-#o9n su##enl0 on be# b$ KKIon amabil s-a %ransforma% 5e #a%L En Ion 5osomorW%$ Ion -in# R7FL-has %urne# su##enl0 in Ion !rum50
In cases li-e (4</a %he verb canno% have a sub6ec% small clause an# secon#ar0 5re#ica%es are necessaril0 se5ara%e# b0 comma as illus%ra%e# belo93
(4</_ a$ Ion bolnav s-a 5rLbuMi% #in%r-o #a%L 5e 5a% Ion sicR7FL-has fallen-#o9n su##enl0 on be# >Ion sic- su##enl0 fell on %he be#?
In (4</b none of %he %9o 5re#ica%ions e;5resse# b0 %he a#6ec%ives can be simul%aneous 9i%h %he %ime of %he even% #eno%e# b0 %he verb 9hich clearl0 refers %o an ima!e chan!e an# hence %he secon#ar0 5re#ica%ion rea#in! is unavailable$ Oence %he ver0 9ea- acce5%abili%0 of (4</b re@uirin! con%ras% similar %o 9ha% has been sho9n in (44/#-e$ Ue conclu#e %ha% %hese a#6ec%ives can onl0 be anal0Ae# as small clause 5re#ica%es$ Accor#in!l0 %he0 canno% be res%ric%ive - %he0 a55l0 %o an en%i%0 an# in%ro#uce a 5re#ica%ion 9hose %em5oral reference 5oin% is %he main 5re#ica%e$ The follo9in! e;am5les fur%her illus%ra%e %his claim3
(4B/ a$ :i-a arL%a% o 5oAL cu Ion blon# me$DAT-has sho9n a 5ic%ure 9i%h Ion blon#
,CC
Pro5er Names >(S/he sho9e# me a 5ho%o 9i%h Ion blon#? b$ :i-a arL%a% o 5oAL cu blon#ul Ion me$DAT-has sho9n a 5ic%ure 9i%h blon#-%he Ion >(S/he sho9e# me a 5ho%o 9i%h %he blon# Ion?
In (4B/a %he a#6ec%ive blond is no% res%ric%ive P i% #oes no% sin!le ou% a cer%ain in#ivi#ual amon! several in#ivi#uals name# Ion (as 9e 9ill see belo9 for %he cons%ruc%ion in cel in (4C//$ The use of blond in (4B/b is also no% res%ric%ive bu% cruciall0 %heir meanin!s are #ifferen%3 in (4B/b %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! blon# a55lies %o %he in#ivi#ual Ion 9i%hou% an0 reference %o a %em5oral s%a!eI in con%ras% %o %his in (4B/a %he 5ro5er%0 of bein! blon# a55lies %o Ion in a !iven si%ua%ion %he one #e5ic%e# b0 %he 5ic%ureI accor#in!l0 9e are no% #ealin! 9i%h a one-5lace 5re#ica%e (a55lie# %o %he in#ivi#ual Ion/ bu% a rela%ion involvin! bo%h an in#ivi#ual an# a si%ua%ion$ Since %his 5hrase #eno%es a si%ua%ion (%he si%ua%ion of Ion bein! blon#/ i% can be anal0Ae# as a small clause$ The use of a#6ec%ives as res%ric%ive mo#ifiers is achieve# %hrou!h o%her means as illus%ra%e# belo93
(4C/ a$ Ion cel blon# Ion %he blon# b$ Ion blon#ul Ion blon#-%he c$ Ion cel amabil s-a %ransforma% 5e #a%L En Ion cel 5osomorW% Ion %he -in# R7FL-has %urne# su##enl0 in Ion %he !loom0 >The -in# Ion su##enl0 %urne# in%o %he !loom0 Ion?
The cons%ruc%ion celHAP can also follo9 common nouns bu% onl0 if %he DP is #efini%e (see cha5%er < *2$2/$ This cons%ruc%ion resembles a55osi%ions insofar as i% can a%%ach %o 5ersonal 5ronouns bu% #iffers from %hem b0 i%s res%ric%ive meanin!$ The s%ruc%ure in (4C/b 5robabl0 involves nominaliAa%ion of %he a#6ec%ive$ 'o%h cons%ruc%ions 9ill be #iscusse# in *1$4$ I% is in%eres%in! %o no%ice %ha% %he ban on 5os%nominal res%ric%ive mo#ifiers also a55lies (al%hou!h less severel0/ %o o%her mo#ifiers 9hich can ac@uire secon#ar0 5re#ica%e in%er5re%a%ions such as PPs in%ro#uce# b0 5re5osi%ions o%her %han de3
(,=/ a$ XL-am En%Wlni% 5e Ion cu 5Lrul lun!$ CL$ACC-have$+ me% DG: Ion 9i%h hair-%he lon! b$ KK Ion cu 5Lrul lun! nu Ion cu 5Lrul scur% es%e acel Ion #es5re care Ion 9i%h hair-%he lon! no% Ion 9i%h hair-%he shor% is %ha% Ion abou% 9ho Riam vorbi% 0ou$DAT-have$+ %al-e#
Nus% li-e in %he case of a#6ec%ives res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion can be realiAe# b0 a 5hrase hea#e# b0 cel3
(,+/ Ion cel cu 5Lrul lun! nu Ion cel cu 5Lrul scur% es%e acel Ion #es5re care Ion %he 9i%h hair-%he lon! no% Ion %he 9i%h hair-%he shor% is %ha% Ion abou% 9ho
.==
Pro5er Names Riam vorbi% 0ou$DAT-have$+ %al-e#
2.2. P0eno6.nal 6o3.f.e0s The #efini%e ar%icle is absen% onl0 9hen %he 5ro5er name is %he firs% elemen% of %he DPI 9henever %his is no% %he case %he s%ruc%ure of %he DP is i#en%ical %o %he 5ro6ec%ion of a common noun$ The #efini%e ar%icle is %hen obli!a%or0 re!ar#less of 9he%her %he 5ro5er name has a referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion 9i%h a non-res%ric%ive mo#ifier or a non-referen%ial use ((,1/(,1_//3 ei%her %he a#6ec%ive %a-es %he #efini%e ar%icle (as in (,1_// or %he mo#ifier con%ains a #efini%e mar-in! li-e %he or#inal or %he su5erla%ive in (,2/3
(,1/ a$ XIn%eli!en%L Ioana a cWM%i!a%$ in%elli!en% Ioana has 9on b$ X'rav An#rei es%e %ris% brave An#rei is sa# c$ XIubesc #ulce RomWnie$ love$+SG s9ee% Romania a$ In%eli!en%a Ioana a cWM%i!a%$ in%elli!en%-%he Ioana has 9on b$ 'ravul An#rei es%e %ris% brave-%he An#rei is sa# c$ Iubesc #ulcea RomWnie$ love$+SG s9ee%-%he Romania a$ al Aecelea Po5escu #in lis%a #e %elefoane era cel cLu%a% %he %en%h Po5escu on lis% of 5hones 9as %he 9an%e# >I% is %he %en%h Po5escu in %he 5honeboo- %ha% 9as loo-e# for? b$ cel mai celebru Lu#ovic es%e Lu#ovic al VIV-lea %he more famous Lu#ovic is Lu#ovic %he VIV%h >The mos% famous Lu#ovic is Lu#ovic %he VIV%h? c$ Cea mai 5lLcu%L 7lenL Ei 5Lrea cea #in a#olescenRL$ %he more nice 7lenL him$ DAT seeme# %he from %eena!e-0ears >I% is %he one from %eena!e 0ears %ha% seeme# %he nices% 7lena %o him?
(,1/_
(,2/
The use of %he #efini%e ar%icle 9i%h 5renominal a#6ec%ives is re!ula%e# b0 %heir 5osi%ion re!ar#less of %heir in%er5re%a%ion3 9hereas @ualif0in! a#6ec%ives are non-res%ric%ive ((,1_/ (,4/a-b/ %his s%ruc%ure also allo9s in%ensional a#6ec%ives ((,4/c/ as 9ell as #e%erminer-li-e a#6ec%ives ((,4/#-e/I moreover cer%ain @ualif0in! a#6ec%ives can have a res%ric%ive use ((,4/f!/ as is %he case for tnr >0oun!? an# btrn >ol#? 9i%h names of in#ivi#uals an# vec!i >ol#? an# nou >ne9? 9i%h names of ob6ec%s3
(,4/ a$ Fvel%a Laura sLri la masL a!ile-%he Laura 6um5e# %o %able >A!ile Laura 6um5e# %o %he %able? b$ Dar bie%ul DLmLroiu$$$K Ce cumseca#e $$$ 'u% 5oor-%he DLmLroiu ho9 -in# >'u% 5oor DLmLroiu$$K Oo9 -in# (he is/$$$? c$ falsul Nero fa-e-%he Nero #$ 7l e sin!urul Dumi%ru #in clasL he is onl0-%he Dumi%ru from class >Oe is %he onl0 Dumi%ru in %his class? (I$ GroMan/ (Camil Pe%rescu/$
.=+
Pro5er Names e$ `mi 5lace mai mul% 5rimul Slim% me$DAT li-es more much firs%-%he Slim% >I li-e more %he firs% Slim%? f$ Ia%L-l 5e %WnLrul :Lrculescu d Dn#e i-or fi 5LrinRiiK loo--CL$ACC DG: 0oun!-%he :Lrculescu 9here him$ DAT-mi!h%$2PL be 5aren%s-%he >Oere is 0oun! :Lrculescud Uhere mi!h% his 5aren%s beK? !$ Vechiul 'ucureM%i ol#-%he 'uchares%
The res%ric%ive use of 5renominal a#6ec%ives is much more res%ric%e# 9i%h common nouns3
(,,/ a$ KK Niciun %WnLr bLrba% n-ar %rebui sL aibL asemenea boli$ no 0oun! man no%-shoul# SD'N have$2 such #iseases b$ Grice %WnLr absolven% ar fi EncWn%a% #e un asemenea 5os%$ an0 0oun! !ra#ua%e 9oul# be #eli!h%e# of a such 5osi%ion c$ KK Grice vechi oraM e mai frumos #ecW% unul nou$ an0 ol# ci%0 is more beau%iful %han one ne9
The #efini%e ar%icle occurs onl0 in cases 9here D necessaril0 5ro6ec%s$ As a resul% %here is one case in 9hich %he #efini%e ar%icle on 5renominal a#6ec%ives can be omi%%e# namel0 %he voca%ive case$ Oo9ever i% shoul# be men%ione# %ha% %he use of 5renominal a#6ec%ives is fairl0 rare in %his con%e;% ((,./a is ra%her mar-e#/ 9i%h %he no%able e;ce5%ion of dra >#ear? in %he form dra (for bo%h !en#ers/ 9hich ma0 also follo9 %he noun an# no9a#a0s func%ions as a form of a##ress3
(,./ a$ Ciu#a% Ion ce %e AbaRi En%re !lasul iubirii Mi !lasul s%ran!e Ion ho9 R7FL s%ru!!le$1SG be%9een voice-%he love-%he$G7N an# voice-%he 5LmWn%uluid lan#-%he$G7N >S%ran!e Ion ho9 0ou s%ru!!le be%9een %he voice of love an# %he voice of %he lan#d& b$ #ra!L Ro#ica #ear Ro#ica c$ #ra!L :a%ei #ear :a%ei #$ 7m0 #ra!L 7m0 #ear
2.3. Tentat.2e anal9s.s The use of %he #efini%e ar%icle 9i%h 5renominal mo#ifiers in#ica%es %ha% 5ro5er name DPs are in fac% #efini%e DPs even on %heir referen%ial use$ The #efini%eness mar- mus% occu50 %he firs% 5osi%ion in %he DP an# 9hen i% is %he 5ro5er name %ha% occu5ies %his 5osi%ion !iven %ha% %he 5ro5er name can conve0 #efini%eness %he #efini%e ar%icle is absen%$ This o5%ion is no% necessaril0 connec%e# 9i%h %he referen%ial use (%he fac% %ha% 5ro5er names refer #irec%l0 %o in#ivi#uals/ as a%%es%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% res%ric%ive mo#ifiers can a55ear in %he absence of %he #efini%e ar%icle ((4=/-(41/ an# (4C/ on %he res%ric%ive rea#in! of %he mo#ifier/$ There are %9o o%her con%e;%s 9here %he 5ro5er name 9i%hou% #e%erminers can occu50 %he firs% 5osi%ion of %he DP 9hereas %he common noun re@uires %he #efini%e ar%icle3 %he 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive (,</ an# %he 5hrase hea#e# b0 %he universal @uan%ifier tot >all?3
(,</ a$ :arin Ls%a :arin %his
.=1
Pro5er Names b$ co5ilX(ul/ Ls%a chil#-%he %his a$ `mi 5lace %o% Ar!heAi me$DAT li-es all Ar!heAi >I li-e %he 9hole Ar!heAi? b$ `mi 5lace %o% romanX(ul/ me$DAT li-es all novel-%he >I li-e %he 9hole novel?
(,B/
The absence of %he #efini%e ar%icle is no% lin-e# %o referen%iali%03 al%hou!h %he noun is in 5rinci5le referen%ial in (,</ an# %he #emons%ra%ive onl0 has an affec%ive usuall0 #ero!a%or0 value %here are cases 9here %he la%%er can have an i#en%if0in! func%ion an# re@uires focus3
(,C/ De :arin aSTA vorbeam of :arin TOIS %al-$I:PF$+SG >TOIS is %he :arin I 9as %al-in! abou%?
Fur%hermore %he cons%ruc%ion in (,B/ is onl0 5ossible on a non-referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion of %he 5ro5er name P here on i%s me%on0mic use 9here %he au%hor s%an#s for his 9or-$ The @uan%ifier tot >all? can onl0 occur 9i%h referen%ial 5ro5er names as a floa%in! @uan%ifier or mar!inall0 in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion as in (.=/c$ The 5os%5osi%ion of universal @uan%ifiers in nonanal0Aable full DPs is also 5ossible 9i%h 5ronouns ((.=/#/3
(.=/ a$ XTo% Ion era u# all Ion 9as 9e% b$ Ion era u# %o%$ Ion 9as 9e% all >Ion 9as all 9e%? c$ K Ion %o% era u#$ Ion all 9as 9e% #$ 7i %oRi erau acolo %he0 all 9ere %here
Oo9ever i% shoul# be e;5laine# 9h0 i% is onl0 some res%ric%ive 5os%nominal mo#ifiers %ha% are allo9e# 9hereas o%hers (a#6ec%ives an# PPs in%ro#uce# b0 5re5osi%ions o%her %han de/ are rule# ou%$ :oreover al%hou!h 5ro5er names behave li-e full DPs %he ran!e of res%ric%ive mo#ifiers %he0 allo9 is no% i#en%ical %o o%her full DPs in 5ar%icular 5ersonal 5ronouns$ As sho9n in Cha5%er 2 (sec%ion 2$2/ %here is a relevan% #is%inc%ion be%9een 2 r# 5erson an# +s%-1n# 5erson (5lural/ 5ronouns3 because %he com5le; DH5ro-N can be s5elle#-ou% as cel >%he? (9hich allo9s %he use of an0 5os%nominal res%ric%ive mo#ifier or com5lemen%/ 2 r# 5erson 5ronouns #o no% easil0 a#mi% res%ric%ive mo#ifiers$ If 9e com5are res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion 9i%h 5ro5er names an# 9i%h +s% an# 1n# 5lural 5ronouns 9e no%ice %ha% %he0 5a%%ern ali-e3
(.+/ a$ 'as.le 3.n Ro6Kn.a m-a suna% asearL Vasile from Romania me-has calle# las% ni!h% >Vasile from Romania calle# me las% ni!h%? b$ No. E/e.F 3.n Ro6Kn.a nu sun%em la fel #e mulRumiRi 9e %he from Romania no% are$+PL e@uall0 sa%isfie# >Ds (5eo5le/ from Romania are no% e@uall0 sa%isfie#? c$ 'o. 3e la S.na.a nu aRi avu% noroc cu vremea En aceas%L vacanRL 0ou(PL/ from Sinaia no% have$1PL ha# luc- 9i%h 9ea%her-%he in %his holi#a0 >qou from Sinaia haven?% ha# luc- 9i%h %he 9ea%her %his holi#a0?
.=2
Pro5er Names (.1/ a$ 'as.le 5e /a0e l+a6 /1nos/1t Nn Ro6Kn.a mL va viAi%a Vasile DG: 9hich CL$ACC-have$+ me% in Romania me 9ill visi% 5oimWine %he-#a0-af%er-%omorro9 >The Vasile I me% in Romania 9ill visi% me %he #a0 af%er %omorro9? b$ No. /a0e lo/1.6 Nn Ro6Kn.a nu sun%em EncWn%aRi #e aces%e o5inii 9e 9ho live$+PL in Romanian no% are #eli!h%e# of %hese o5inions >Ds 9ho live in Romania are no% #eli!h%e# 9i%h %hese o5inions? a$ M.8a. al Ro3./:. :ihai al$:SG Ro#ica$G7N b$ 'o. E/e.F a. l1. D0a4o6.0 si!ur veRi a5lau#a aceas%L fa5%L 0ou(PL/ %he al0:PL G'L Dra!omir cer%ainl0 9ill$1PL a55lau# %his ac% >qou Dra!omir?s 5eo5le 9ill a55lau# %his ac%?
(.2/
Ta-in! ver0 seriousl0 %he similari%0 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns 9e can accoun% for %he res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion 5a%%ern in %he follo9in! 9a03 5ro5er names 9i%hou% #e%erminers are #omina%e# b0 a s0n%ac%ic no#e YDHNZ 9hich 5reclu#es o%her mo#ifiers a% %he N level$ Cer%ain mo#ifiers can be a#6oine# a% %he D level an# allo9 a s%ruc%ure 9here %he #e%erminer raises above %he mo#ifier a% LF %hus 0iel#in! %he res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion (%he raisin! elemen% is %he H#ef fea%ure of 5ro5er names an# 5ronouns no% a le;ical i%em/$ A#6ec%ives an# PPs 9i%hou% de are NP mo#ifiers an# hence are rule# ou% from %his s%ruc%ure unli-e rela%ives 9hich can a#6oin a% %he level of DP$ Le% us no9 consi#er %he si%ua%ion of de-PPs3 de >of from? is #ifferen% from o%her 5re5osi%ions insofar as i% mar-s %he a#nominal 5osi%ion as in (.4/ 9here i% a%%aches %o o%her PPs use# as a#nominals (see cha5%er B *1$1$+/3
(.4/ a$ Casa es%e 5e mun%e house-%he is on moun%ain b$ Casa #e 5e mun%e house-%he of on moun%ain
Ue can %a-e de %o func%ion as a rela%iviAer$ I% is im5or%an% %o no%ice %ha% de shares 9i%h rela%ives %he 5ro5er%0 of in%ro#ucin! a rela%ion 9hich is %em5orall0 au%onomous from %he clause in 9hich %he DP a55ears$ No%e %ha% %his in%er5re%a%ion is no% available for o%her PPs or a#6ec%ives a%%ache# %o 5ro5er nouns 9hich in#ica%es %ha% de in%ro#uces a re#uce# rela%ive 9hereas o%her PPs an# a#6ec%ives are small clause 5re#ica%es3
(.,/ a$ Am vLAu% o 5oAL cu Ion la 6a0e @blon3 @ /1 ba0b: have$+ seen a 5ic%ure 9i%h Ion a% seasi#e /blon#/ 9i%h bear# >I/Ue sa9 a 5ic%ure 9i%h Ion a% %he seasi#e / blon# / 9i%h a bear#? b$ Am vLAu% o 5oAL cu Ion 3e la 6a0e @ /a0e a0e ba0b: have$+ seen a 5ic%ure 9i%h Ion of a% seasi#e/ 9ho has bear# >I/Ue sa9 a 5ic%ure 9i%h %he Ion from %he seasi#e / 9ho has a bear#?
In (.,/b in %he rea#in! in 9hich [>on de la mare] >Ion from %he seasi#e? forms a cons%i%uen% 9e !e% %he res%ric%ive rea#in! >on cel de la mare >%he Ion from %he seasi#e? 9hich is unavailable in (.,/a$ Similarl0 %he rela%ive in (.,/b can be in%er5re%e# as >9ho has a bear# in %he 5ic%ure? bu% %his is no% %he onl0 5ossible rea#in! %he 5referre# one bein! %he res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion >%he Ion 9ho has a bear#?$ This fur%her illus%ra%es %he %em5oral in#e5en#ence of %he rela%ive clause 9i%h res5ec% %o %he %ense of %he main clause 6us% li-e in %he case of de-PPs$ Uhen %he 5ro5er name #oes no% occu50 %he firs% 5osi%ion D an# N are se5ara%e# an# %herefore NP a#6unc%s are rule# in as illus%ra%e# b0 %he allo9ance of a#6ec%ives3
.=4
Pro5er Names
(../
a$ Celeb01l Ion blon3 es%e cel care s-a recoman#a% ieri la %elefon ca Ion famous-%he Ion blon# is %he 9ho R7FL-has recommen#e# 0es%er#a0 on 5hone as Ion b$ D0:41A1l Ion a6ab.l s-a %ransforma% 5e #a%L En nes1fe0.t1l Ion 5oso6o0Kt s9ee%-%he Ion -in# R7FL-has %ransforme# su##enl0 in nas%0-%he Ion !rum50
2.$. P0o5e0 na6es folloDe3 b9 3ef.n.te DPs an3 6o3.f.e0s .nt0o31/e3 b9 cel As sho9n in (4C/ above res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion 9i%h 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives can be realiAe# usin! %he cons%ruc%ions Pro5erNameHcelHAP ("cons%ruc%ion A&/ an# Pro5erNameHA-Def ("cons%ruc%ion '&/$ In cons%ruc%ion (A/ cel >%he? !enerall0 in%ro#uces a#6ec%ives bu% i% can also be use# 9i%h o%her mo#ifiers P PPs rela%ives !eni%ives3
(.</ a$ :arin cel g#eM%e5% / cu barbL / care a rLs5uns bine / #e as%LAih :arin %he smar% /9i%h bear#/ 9ho has ans9ere# 9ell /from %o#a0 b$ Gheor!he cel al Ioanei Gheor!he %he al$:SG Ioana$G7N
This cons%ruc%ion is also available 9i%h common nouns 9hich mus% %hen %a-e %he #efini%e ar%icle3
(.B/ a$ 'Lia%X(ul/ cel #eM%e5% bo0-%he %he smar% b$ Prie%enul nos%ru cel cu barbL rien#-%he our %he 9i%h bear#
'esi#es %he 5resence of %he ar%icle ano%her #ifference is %ha% %he cons%ruc%ion is more res%ric%e#3 i% is mar!inal 9i%h rela%ives an# e;clu#e# 9i%h !eni%ives3
(.C/ a$ K7levul meu cel care a rLs5uns cel mai bine la e;amen s%u#en%-%he m0 %he 9ho has ans9ere# %he more 9ell a% e;am #$ XOainele noi cele ale :ariei clo%hes-%he ne9 %he al0FPL :aria$G7N
No%e moreover %ha% all %hese 5hrases are 5ossible 9i%h 5ersonal 5ronouns as illus%ra%e# b0 %he follo9in! e;am5les3
(<=/ a$ Voi cei EnvLRaRi 0ou(PL/ %he e#uca%e# b$ Noi cei g#in banca En%Wi / cu barbL / care am rLs5uns cel mai bineh 9e %he from #es--%he firs%/ 9i%h bear#/ 9ho have$+ ans9ere# %he more 9ell c$ Voi cei ai #omni%orului 0ou(PL/ %he al$:PL ruler-%he$G7N
In cons%ruc%ion ('/ %he 5ro5er name is follo9e# b0 a #efini%e noun (see (<+/b-c/$ A#6ec%ives in %his 5osi%ion (see (<+/a/ are 5robabl0 nominaliAe# as in#ica%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% 9e onl0 fin# a#6ec%ives 9hich can occur in ar!umen% 5osi%ion 9i%h an encli%ic #efini%e ar%icle ins%ea# of cel (see (<1//I since cel is re@uire# in noun elli5sis con%e;%s before a 5os%nominal a#6ec%ive (see cha5%er 2 *2/ %he use of %he #efini%e ar%icle in (<1/b in#ica%es %ha% %he a#6ec%ive is nominaliAe#$
.=,
Pro5er Names (<+/ a$ Lili blon#a Lili blon#-%he b$ Lili vWnAL%oarea Lili seller-%he c$ Ion 5rofesorul Ion %eacher-%he a$ Lili blon#a Lili blon#-%he b$ :-am En%Wlni% cu blon#a R7FL-have$+SG me% 9i%h blon#-%he c$ XLili minuna%a Lili 9on#erful-%he #$ X:-am En%Wlni% cu minuna%a R7FL-have$+SG me% 9i%h 9on#erful-%he
(<1/
This cons%ruc%ion is no% available 9i%h common nouns e;ce5% for some rela%ional nouns (see (<2/c/$ Li-e cons%ruc%ion (A/ i% is 5ossible 9i%h 5ronouns3
(<2/ a$ Xfa%a blon#a !irl-%he blon#-%he b$ noi vWnAL%orii 9e sellers-%he >us sellers? c$ 5rie%enii mei vWnAL%orii frien#s-%he m0 sellers-%he
In bo%h cons%ruc%ions %he mo#ifier can bu% nee# no% be res%ric%ive3

(<4/ a$ Convin!erea cL :i-a-L cea inviAibilL cea #e obicei cu %o%ul neEnsemna%L era convic%ion-%he %ha% :i-a-L %he invisible %he usuall0 com5le%el0 insi!nifican% 9as nucleul ocul% al %ra!e#iei (O$P$ 'en!escu/$ nucleus-%he hi##en G7N %ra!e#0-%he$G7N >The convic%ion %ha% %he invisible %he usuall0 %o%all0 insi!nifican% :i-a-Lp 9as %he hi##en core of %he %ra!e#0$$$? b$ Ion vorbLreRul a %Lcu% brusc$ Ion %al-a%ive-%he has shu%-u5 su##enl0
Al%hou!h %he0 are %ra#i%ionall0 anal0Ae# as a55osi%ions %hese cons%ruc%ions #iffer from s%an#ar# a55osi%ions in a% leas% %9o res5ec%s3 %he0 are no% se5ara%e# b0 a comma an# %he0 normall0 have a res%ric%ive in%er5re%a%ion (see Cha5%er +4 *2/$ As cel is use# %o mar- %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion 9i%h common nouns (see (.B/ an# cha5%er < *2$2/ bu% also func%ions as a #efini%e #e%erminer before em5%0 nouns cons%ruc%ion (A/ is s%ruc%urall0 ambi!uous be%9een a #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion an# a Pro5er Name H Defini%e DP cons%ruc%ion (in %he secon# case i% 9oul# be anal0Ae# as an ins%ance of cons%ruc%ion ('/ 9i%h elli5sis of %he hea# noun/$ For a %en%a%ive anal0sis of %he cons%ruc%ion Pro5er Name H Defini%e DP see cha5%er +4 *2$1$ 2.%. P0o5e0 na6es 50e/e3e3 b9 /o66on no1ns Pro5er names can a55ear 5rece#e# b0 common nouns a cons%ruc%ion 9hich 9as incorrec%l0 assimila%e# %o a55osi%ions3
.=.
Pro5er Names (<,/ a$ Profesorul Ionescu 5rofessor-%he Ionescu b$ 5reMe#in%ele Oavel 5resi#en%-%he Oavel c$ oraMul Cons%anRa ci%0-%he Cons%anRa
The common noun e;5resses %he ca%e!or0 of %he en%i%0 or in %he case of 5ersons in#ica%es %he 5rofession or social s%a%us$ This cons%ruc%ion is #iscusse# an# anal0Ae# in cha5%er +4 *2$+$
3. P0o5e0 na6es 1se3 as /o66on no1ns

3.1. De0.2e3 /o66on no1n .nte050etat.ons Uhen %he 5ro5er name #eno%es a class of elemen%s ra%her %han an in#ivi#ual i%s seman%ic an# s0n%ac%ic behavior is similar %o common nouns e;ce5% for si%ua%ions 9hich involve a #efini%e DP (a #efini%e #escri5%ion hea#e# b0 a H#ef #e%erminer/ an# a name %ha% %a-es no ar%icle as 9e have seen in %he 5revious 5ara!ra5h$ I% shoul# be men%ione# %ha% %he onl0 5ro5er names %ha% %a-e no ar%icle are an%hro5on0ms (an# non-in%e!ra%e# %o5on0ms/ in %he sin!ular$ As 9e 9ill illus%ra%e la%er in %his sec%ion 9hen %hese 5ro5er names use# 9i%h a common name in%er5re%a%ion %a-e %he 5lural form %he0 allo9 %he #efini%e ar%icle$ Pro5er names can be use# as common nouns in %he follo9in! si%ua%ions3 E.F T8e 3eno6.nat.2e .nte050etat.on The #enomina%ive in%er5re%a%ion is %he mos% s%rai!h%for9ar# #erive# in%er5re%a%ion meanin! >en%i%0 name# N?3
(<./ a$ Sun% 3o1: Ma0.. En aceas%L clasL$ are$2PL %9o :aria-%he$PL in %his class >There are %9o :arias in %his class? b$ :ariilor nu 5lecaRid :aria-%he$VGC no% leave$I:PV$1PL
Famil0 names cons%i%u%e a s5ecific case of #enomina%ive use an# are fre@uen%l0 use# in %his con%e;% 9i%h an in%er5re%a%ion 9e coul# 5ara5hrase as >member of famil0 V?$
(<</ a$ Fe%ele CoAienilor au fos% mLri%a%e #u5L ne5oRii lui Vo#L !irls-%he CoAien$PL-%he$G7N have been marrie# 9i%h !ran#chil#ren-%he G7N -in! (P$ Dumi%ru/ >The CoAianus? #au!h%ers 9ere marrie# 9i%h %he -in!?s !ran#chil#ren? b$ Geor!eM%ii au 5leca% 5rimii #e la 5e%recere$ Geor!escu-%he$PL have lef% firs% from 5ar%0 >The Geor!escus are %he firs% 9ho lef% %he 5ar%0?
E..F T8e f0a/t.onal .nte050etat.on 3 %he class #eno%e# b0 %he 5ro5er name is cons%i%u%e# b0 sub5ar%s of %he referen%$ The sub5ar%s can be of #ifferen% %05es3 %em5oral (<B/ s5a%ial es5eciall0 in %he case of %o5on0ms (<C/ or #ifferen% >s%a!es? of %he referen% charac%eriAe# b0 a !iven @uali%0 (B=/ 9hich can fur%her lea# %o more or less realis%ic ima!es of %he referen% (B=/c$ The various fra!men%a%ion cri%eria can also overla53 s5a%ial 5ar%s can be #e%ermine# b0 a cer%ain @uali%0 (B=/# an# similarl0 for %em5oral ones (<B/a$ Finall0 %he name of a !iven 5lace can #esi!na%e a subse% of %he local 5o5ula%ion (B=/e3 .=<
Pro5er Names
(<B/
(<C/
(B=/
a$ 'e/8.1l Ion Emi 5lLcea mai mul% ol#-%he Ion me$DAT li-e# more much >I li-e# %he ol# Ion be%%er? b$ Ro6a 6e3.e2al:= Ro6a ant./: Roma(%he/ me#ieval Roma(%he/ an%i@ue c$ Aces% lie# es%e o creaRie a tKn:01l1. MoBa0t %his lie# is a crea%ion G7N 0oun!-%he$G7N :oAar% >This lie# is a 9or- of %he 0oun! :oAar%? a$ B1/10eCt.1l 2e/8. 'uchares%-%he ol# b$ F0anAa 6e0.3.onal: France-%he sou%hern a$ Cu cW% ne a5ro5iem #e final En%ovLrLMim 1n A5ostol Bolo4a mis%ic reli!ios %he more R7FL !e%-close$+PL %o final accom5an0$+ PL a A5os%ol 'olo!a m0s%ic reli!ious chiar (:$ Dn!heanu/ even >As 9e a55roach %he en# 9e accom5an0 a m0s%ic even reli!ious A5os%ol 'olo!a? b$ Avea Enain%ea sa o Ma0.a Em5ovLra%L$ A/east: Ma0.a Ei era %o%al s%rLinL$ ha#$2SG in-fron% his a :aria 9orrie# This :aria him$ DAT 9as com5le%el0 alien >Oe ha# before him a 9orrie# :aria$ This :aria 9as a com5le%e s%ran!er %o him? c$ Nu aces%a es%e Pa0.s1l 3es50e /a0e a6 /.t.t no% %his is Paris-%he abou% 9hich have$+ rea# >Tha%?s no% %he Paris I/9e have rea# abou%? #$ CunoM%ea #oar Pa0.s1l 5o51la0= Pa0.s1l s:0a/.lo0 -ne9$2SG onl0 Paris-%he 5o5ular Paris-%he 5oor$PL-%he$G7N >Oe onl0 -ne9 %he 5o5ular Paris %he Paris of %he 5oor? e$ To% B1/10eCt.1l f.nan/.a0 C. 6on3en #efilase as%fel 5e #inain%ea fi!urii lui$ all 'uchares%-%he financial an# 5o5ular march$ PLPF li-e-%ha% before fi!ure-%he$G7N his >The en%ire financial an# 5o5ular 'uchares% ha# marche# li-e %ha% before him? (O$P$ 'en!escu/
E...F T8e 6eta58o0./ .nte050etat.on3 %he class #esi!na%es %he 5ro5er%0 of >bein! li-e N? of 5ossessin! a 5ro5er%0 charac%eris%ic for %he referen% of %he ori!inal N3
(B+/ a$ Un #o0ba/.o2 albaneB a Gorbaciov Albanian b$ 'Lia%ul aces%a e 1n a3e2:0at E.nste.n$ bo0-%he %his is a %rue 7ins%ein c$ 'alAac es%e el EnsuMi 1n Rast.4na/ C. 1n 'a1t0.n= 1n B.0ottea1 C. 1n 1lot $ 'alAac is he himself a Ras%i!nac an# a Vau%rin a 'iro%%eau an# a Oulo% (N$ :anolescu/ #$ Leon.B..= M.t./..= CaAa2en/.. naRiei noas%re Leoni#e-%he$PL :i%ica-%he$PL CaRavencu-%he$PL na%ion$-%he$G7N our e$ 'ucureM%iul e5ocii in%erbelice era 1n 6./ Pa0.s. 'uchares%-%he 5erio#-%he$G7N in%er9ar 9as a li%%le Paris
E.2F T8e 6eton96./ .nte050etat.on3 %he class #esi!na%es %he 9or-s of %he in#ivi#ual name# N3
(B1/ a$ L1/8.an1l e;5us Emi 5lace$ Luchian-%he e;hibi%e# me$ DAT li-es >I li-e %he e;hibi%e# (5ain%in! b0/ Luchian?
.=B
Pro5er Names b$ Valoarea Mi im5or%anRa unei colecRii se 6u#ecL #u5L numLrul value-%he an# im5or%ance-%he a$G7N collec%ion R7FL 6u#!es af%er number-%he #0.4o0eCt.lo0 (S$ O$ Fambaccian/ Gri!orescu-%he$PL$G7N >The value an# %he im5or%ance of a collec%ion is 6u#!e# accor#in! %o %he number of (9or-s b0/ Gri!orescu? c$ Am reci%a% un E6.nes/1 #in e5oca vieneAL have$+ reci%e# a 7minescu from 5erio#-%he Viennese >I reci%e# a (5oem b0/ 7minescu of %he Viennese 5erio#? #$ Ascul%au un Enes/1 ine#i%$ lis%en$I:PF$2PL a 7nescu un5ublishe# >The0 9ere lis%enin! %o a (com5osi%ion b0/ 7nescu never 5erforme# before / never in%er5re%e# li-e %ha% before? e$ Am vLAu% 1n Baba En casa bunicilor$ A/est Baba era #in ul%ima have$+ seen a 'aba in house-%he !ran#5aren%s-%he$ G7N %his 'aba 9as from las%-%he 5erioa#L 5erio# >I sa9 a (5ain%in! b0/ 'aba in m0 !ran#5aren%s? house$ This 'aba 9as of %he las% 5erio#$?
This rea#in! facili%a%es %he use of %he #efini%e ar%icle 9i%h an%hro5on0ms %he similari%0 9i%h common nouns bein! 5robabl0 #ue %o %he fac% %ha% 9e are #ealin! 9i%h ob6ec%s ra%her %han in#ivi#uals$ I% is 9ell--no9n %ha% %he H5erson fea%ure has s5ecial s0n%ac%ic 5ro5er%ies in Romanian$ 3.2. S5e/.al 1ses .n D8./8 t8e 0efe0ent.al .nte050etat.on .s 50ese02e3 There are cer%ain cases 9here %he 5ro5er name is s0n%ac%icall0 i#en%ical %o a common noun (as far as %he use of #e%erminers is concerne#/ 9i%hou% ho9ever #eno%in! a class of elemen%s$ Gne such case is %he combina%ion 9i%h %he in#efini%e ar%icle as in (B2/ 9here %he 5ro5er name is referen%ial$ This usa!e is !enerall0 res%ric%e# %o li%erar0 con%e;%s a55lies %o ma6or 5ersonali%ies %05icall0 men%ione# in an enumera%ion an# sin!les ou% an in#ivi#ual3
(B2/ Un M.8a. E6.nes/1 verificL reAis%enRa celulei romWneM%i %o% a%W% #e si!ur ca o lu5%L a :ihai 7minescu verifies resis%ence-%he cell-%he$ G7N Romanian as sure as a fi!h% is%oricL Em5o%riva unei co%ro5iri s%rLine (:$ 7lia#e/ his%orical a!ains% a$G7N #omina%ion forei!n >A :ihai 7minescu 5roves %he resis%ance of %he Romanian cell 6us% as 9ell as a his%orical ba%%le a!ains% a forei!n #omina%ion$?
Ano%her #e%erminer 9hich allo9s %he referen%ial use of 5ro5er names is %he #emons%ra%ive as 5reviousl0 illus%ra%e# for %he 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive (sec%ion + (,</a/$ This use of %he #emons%ra%ive 9hich is normall0 #ero!a%or0 occurs es5eciall0 in con%e;%s 9here %he 5ro5er name is a %o5ic3
(B4/ a$K Ieri l-am vLAu% 5e Ion :sta 0es%er#a0 CL$ACC-have$+ seen DG: Ion %his >qes%er#a0 I sa9 %his Ion? b$ NI:7NI nu-l iubeM%e 5e Ion :sta$ Nobo#0 no%-CL$ACC loves DG: Ion %his >Nobo#0 loves %his Ion? b$ Pe Ion :sta nimeni nu-l iubeM%e DG: Ion %his nobo#0 no%-CL$ACC loves >This Ion nobo#0 loves?
.=C
Pro5er Names
The referen%ial rea#in! is also available 9i%h 5renominal #emons%ra%ives3 in %he e;am5les in (B,/ %he referen%ial use of %he 5ro5er name in %he 5revious sen%ence in#ica%es %ha% %he #emons%ra%ive is no% res%ric%ive$ :ore li-el0 %he #emons%ra%ive si!nals a chan!e of focus in %he #iscourse3 one of %he #iscourse referen%s 5reviousl0 no% men%ione# becomes %he cen%ral referen% of a sen%ence3
(B,/ a$ I#eea a fos% a lui :una%ius Placus (^/$ A/est M1nat.1s Pla/1s avWn# o min%e bunL #e nLscociri era unul #in acele 5ersona6e secun#are care se mulRumesc sL ins5ire celor 5e care is%oria Ei consacrL ca frun%aMi (Vin%ilL Ooria/ >The i#ea came from :una%ius Placus$ T8.s M1nat.1s Pla/1s an inven%ive 5erson 9as one of %hose secon#-han# charac%ers 9ho limi% %hemselves %o ins5irin! %hose %ha% his%or0 remembers as lea#ers? b$ `n clasa a IV-a se Em5rie%enise cu Li;an#ru erau ca fraRii$ L.<an301 :sta era Mi el un bLia% ciu#a% (:$ 7lia#e/ >In %he for%h !ra#e he ha# become frien#s 9i%h Li;an#ru %he0 9ere li-e bro%hers$ T8.s L.<an301 9as also a s%ran!e !u0$?
$. P0o5e0 na6es .n 50e3./at.2e 5os.t.on

Pro5er names can occur in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion af%er namin! verbs as a%%es%e# b0 %he 5ronominaliAa%ions 9i%h aa% cum (in (B./#-e/$ Oere %he meanin! of %he 5ro5er name is me%alin!uis%ic3 %he e;5ression is use# as a 5ro5er name for i%self$ Namin! 9or#s e;5ress a rela%ion be%9een %9o en%i%ies3 one en%i%0 is %he ob6ec% 9hich receives or bears %he name an# %he o%her one is %he lin!uis%ic e;5ression use# %o refer %o %ha% ob6ec%3
(B./ a$ L-au boteBat @n16.t 5e co5il Ale<an301 CL$ACC-have$2PL ba5%iAe#/ name# DG: chil# Ale;an#ru >The0 ba5%iAe#/name# %he chil# Ale;an#ru? b$ :un%ele aces%a se n16eCte P.at0a Ma0e moun%ain-%he %his R7FL names Pia%ra :are >This moun%ain is calle# Pia%ra :are? c$ Am a6uns En%r-un loc n16.t IB2oa0ele$ Oave$+ arrive# in a 5lace calle# IAvoarele >Ue/I arrive# %o a 5lace calle# IAvoarele? #$ C16 se n16eCte aces% loc K ho9 R7FL names %his 5lace >Oo9 is %his 5lace calle#K? e$ Nu M%iam cL aces% loc se n16eCte astfel$ no% -no9$I:PF$+SG %ha% %his 5lace R7FL names li-e-%his >I #i#n?% -no9 %his 5lace is calle# li-e %ha%?
Pro5er names can also be use# in 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion in i#en%i%0 5re#ica%ions (ei%her co5ular or 9i%h a 5re#ica%ive hea#/3
(C+/ a$ Aces%a e Ion$ %his is Ion b$ L-au lua% #re5% Gi!i$ him-have %a-en as Gi!i >The0 mis%oo- him for Gi!i?
.+=
Classifier an# 8uali%a%ive 'inominal Cons%ruc%ions
13. Class.f.e0 an3 -1al.tat.2e B.no6.nal Const01/t.ons

:IOA7LA TaNAS7-DGGARD ) IGN GIDRG7A (**=-+/ :IOA7LA TaNAS7-DGGARD IGN GIDRG7A * RDVANDRA VIiAN (*1/ ,. Int0o31/t.on 1. T8e /lass.f.e0 /onst01/t.on
+$+$ T05es of classifier cons%ruc%ions +$1$ S0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic 5ro5er%ies +$2$ Le;ical ambi!ui%0 +$4$ No%e on %he 5re5osi%ion de +$,$ Classifier cons%ruc%ions 9i%h abs%rac% nouns
2. T8e I1al.tat.2e /onst01/t.on

1$+$ Gvervie9 1$1$ Sin!le-DP 8uali%a%ives 1$2$ Double-DP 8uali%a%ives
.++
,. Int0o31/t.on
This cha5%er #iscusses DPs of %he form N + P de (>of?/ P N1 in 9hich N1 behaves as %he >seman%ic hea#? of %he DP$ These cons%ruc%ions are also -no9n as binominal constructions$ There are %9o ma6or %05es of binominal cons%ruc%ion$ In %he firs% one N 1 is a 5lural or mass %erm an# N+ #eno%es a @uan%i%0 of N1 or a uni% cons%i%u%e# ou% of N1 (as i%s subs%ance/ma%erial 5ar%s or in#ivi#ual 5ar%s/$ Ue 9ill refer %o %his %05e as %he classifier construction an# %o N+ as classifier$ In %his cons%ruc%ion N+ is rela%ional re@uirin! combinin! 9i%h a mass or 5lural NP (N1/ (%a-in! a massive or 5lural 5ro5er%0 as i%s ar!umen%/$
(+/ a$ o s%iclL #e vin a bo%%le of 9ine b$ un soi #e insec%e a sor% of insec%s
In %he secon# %05e N+ e;5resses a @uali%0 of %he en%i%0 referre# %o b0 %he DP$ This @uali%0 corres5on#s %o a sub6ec%ive evalua%ion of %he en%i%0 b0 %he s5ea-er$ Ue 9ill refer %o %his cons%ruc%ion as %he qualitative construction an# %o N1 as a qualitative noun3
(1/ un i#io% #e #oc%or an i#io% of #oc%or >an i#io% of a #oc%or?
1. T8e /lass.f.e0 /onst01/t.on

1.1. T95es of /lass.f.e0 /onst01/t.ons There are %9o ma6or %05es of classifier cons%ruc%ions involvin! uni% Ns an# @uan%i%a%ive Ns res5ec%ivel0 each of 9hich can be fur%her sub-classifie# in%o several %05es$ I% shoul# be observe# %ha% one an# %he same le;ical i%em can belon! %o more %han one %05e of cons%ruc%ion$ 1.1.1. Un.t No1ns In %his cons%ruc%ion N+ e;5resses a na%ural uni% of %he s%uff #eno%e# b0 N1 or of %he in#ivi#ual 5ar%s in %he #eno%a%ion of N1$ Ue 9ill call %his %05e %he unit noun construction referrin! %o N+ as a unit noun$ Oere are %he sub-%05es belon!in! %o %his %05e 9i%h e;am5les3 E.F Nat10al 1n.t No1ns?
(2/ o felie de unc "a slice of ham& un runte de sare "a !rain of sal%& un cub de (a!r "a cube of su!ar& un cub de !ea "a cube of ice& un cel de usturoi "a clove of !arlic& (li%$ "a 5u550 of !arlic&/ un fir de nisip "a !rain of san#& (li%$ "a %hrea#/halm of san#&/ un fir de praf "a s5ec- of #us%& (li%$ "a %hrea#/halm of #us%&/ o arnitur de mobil "a se% of furni%ure& un col de pine "a morsel of brea#& (li%$ "a corner of brea#&/ o pictur$un strop de ploaie "a #ro5 of rain& o pal de vnt "a !us% of 9in#& o adiere de vnt "a #raf% of 9in#& o ra( de lumin "a ra0 of li!h%& un fir de ceap "an onion& (li%$ "a s%ic- of onion&/ un snop de ru "a bun#le of 9hea%& o bucat de lemn "a 5iece of 9oo#f% un bob de fasole "a !rain of beans&
E..F Conta.ne0 No1ns referrin! simul%aneousl0 %o %he subs%ance an# %he con%ainer3
(4/ a$ I-am ceru% chelnerului 1n 5a8a0 3e 2.n CL$DAT-have$+ as-e# 9ai%er$%he$DAT a !lass of 9ine
.+1
Classifier an# 8uali%a%ive 'inominal Cons%ruc%ions >I/Ue as-e# %he 9ai%er for a !lass of 9ine? b$ Am cum5Lra% o /1t.e 3e bo6boane have$+ bou!h% a bo; of can#ies >I/Ue bou!h% a bo; of can#ies?
E...F Colle/t.2e No1ns E#0o15 No1nsF3

(,/ a$ Am #LrWma% 40:6a3a 3e /:0:6.B. have$+ 5ulle#-#o9n hea5-%he of bric-s >I/Ue 5ulle# #o9n %he hea5 ob bric-s? b$ :L aM%e5%a 1n 4015 3e st13enA. me 9ai%e#$I:PF$2SG a !rou5 of s%u#en%s >A !rou5 of s%u#en%s 9as 9ai%in! for me?
This %05e inclu#es nouns 9hich in#ica%e an e;ac% number as lon! as %he0 refer %o a na%ural uni%3
(./ o perec!e de mnui$de pantaloni $ de ndr ostii "a 5air of !loves/%rousers/ lovers&
The uni% noun perec!e >5air? has a use in 9hich i% resembles @uan%i%0 nouns3 9i%h le;ical 5lurals (pluralia tantum/ referrin! %o ob6ec%s %rea%e# as havin! %9o 5ar%s i% is use# in or#er %o allo9 coun%in!3
(</ a$ %rei 5erechi #e 5an%aloni %hree 5airs of %rousers b$ #ouL 5erechi #e ochelari %9o 5airs of s5ec%acles
Since %his uni% can normall0 be #escribe# b0 N1 alone P t!e pair of spectacles ^ t!e spectacles P N+ is use# onl0 9hen s5ecif0in! %he number is necessar0$ E...F `.n3 No1ns?
(B/ dou tipuri de celenterate "%9o -in#s of coelen%era%es& un sortiment de brn( "a %05e of cheese& o cate orie de substantive "a ca%e!or0 of nouns& o clas de obiecte "a class of ob6ec%s& o specie de cactus "a s5ecies of cac%us& un tip de calculator "a %05e of com5u%er?
This las% %05e #iffers from mos% o%her classifier cons%ruc%ions in %ha% i% allo9s coun% sin!ulars as N1 (see las% %9o e;am5les in (B//$ This is no% une;5ec%e# since sin!ular coun% Ns refer %o -in#s 9hich are in%ensional 5lurali%ies$ 1.1.2. -1ant.tat.2e No1ns In %he secon# %05e N+ is use# %o charac%eriAe %he @uan%i%0 of N1 9i%hou% in%ro#ucin! a #iscre%e en%i%0 or na%ural uni%$ Ue 9ill call %hese nouns quantitative nouns (an# %he cons%ruc%ion P quantitative construction/$
(C/ (+=/ La sos %rebuie a#Lu!a% Mi 1n 5a8a0 3e 2.n @ 1n 2K0f 3e sa0e a% sauce mus% a##e# also a !lass of 9ine a s5i-e of sal% >The sauce also nee#s a !lass of 9ine / a bi% of sal%? Am ci%i% o 40:6a3: 3e /:0A. have$+ rea# a hea5 of boo-s >I rea# a lo% of boo-s?
.+2
This %05e com5rises %he follo9in! %05es of N+3 E.F Meas10e no1ns Some of %hese nouns can func%ion onl0 as measure Ns (see (++// o%hers can also func%ion as uni% Ns (see (++/-(+1//3
(++/ (+1/ un litru de vin "a li%re of 9ine& un metru de material "a me%er of fabric& un #ilo ram de unt "a -ilo of bu%%er& o ton de aluminiu "a %on of aluminum& un de et de &!is#y "a sho% of 9his-0& (li%$ "a fin!er of 9his-0&/ un vrf de sare $ piper "a s5rin-le of sal% / 5e55er& (li%$ "a %i5 of sal%&/ o palm de pmnt "a 5lo% of lan#& (li%$ "a 5alm of lan#&/ un pumn de nisip "a han#ful of san#& (li%$ "a fis% of san#&/ o mn de mlai "a han#ful of maiAe& (li%$ "a han# of maiAe&/ a$ ReRe%a cere o lin!urL #e ulei / o s%iclL #e vin / o la#L #e ouL reci5e-%he re@uires a s5oon of oil / a bo%%le of 9ine / a bo; of e!!s b$ FumeaAL un 5ache% #e Ri!Lri 5e Ai smo-es a 5ac-e% of ci!are%%es 5er #a0 c$ 'ea En fiecare sL5%LmWnL o la#L #e bere / %rei s%icle #e vin #rin-s in ever0 9eea cra%e of beer / %hree bo%%les of 9ine
(+2/
The @uan%i%0 can also be in#ivi#ua%e# base# on an even% 9hich affec%s %he s%uff3
(+4/ o ur de ap "a si5 of 9a%er& (li%$ >a mou%h of 9a%er?/ o duc de uic "a si5 of %Aui-a& dou n !iituri de sufleu "%9o %as%es of souffl&
E..F Ca03.nal.t9 no1ns (9hich onl0 combine 9i%h 5lurals as N1/3

(+,/ o du(in de animale "a #oAen of animals& cteva (eci de cri "some %ens of boo-s&
The car#inali%0 nouns sut >hun#re#? mie >%housan#? milion >million? miliard >billion? an# (ece in %he 5lural form (eci >%ens? en%er %9o #ifferen% s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ures (as #iscusse# in cha5%er 2 * ,$2/3 one in 9hich %he0 5a%%ern 9i%h car#inals in 9hich case a hi!her #e%erminer a!rees 9i%h N1 (see (+.// an# one in 9hich %he0 are N hea#s %ri!!erin! a!reemen% on a hi!her #e%erminer (see (+<//3
(+./ (+</ cei o su%L / #ouL su%e / %rei Aeci #e manifes%anRi %he$:PL one(F/ hun#re# / %9o$F hun#re# %hree %ens of #emons%ra%ors su%a / su%ele /Aecile #e manifes%anRi hun#re#-%he$FSG hun#re#s-%he$FPL / %ens-%he of #emons%ra%ors
Gnl0 %he secon# cons%ruc%ion (%he one in (+<// re5resen%s %he N-de-N %05e #iscusse# here$ For an anal0sis of %he firs% cons%ruc%ion (in (+.// see cha5%er 2 * ,$2$ E...F 'a41e I1ant.t9 no1ns3
(+B/ un numr de studeni "number of s%u#en%s& o rmad de probleme "a lo% of 5roblems& (li%$ "a 5ile of 5roblems&/ o mulime de candidai "a lo% of can#i#a%es& (li%$ "a cro9# of can#i#a%es&/ o #roaie #e co5ii >a lo% of chilren? un pic de sare "a bi% of sal%& o mn de oameni "a han#ful of 5eo5le&
I% shoul# be observe# %ha% 9hereas measure an# car#inal nouns can be 5luraliAe# e$!$ dou
.+4
#ilo rame de morcovi "%9o -ilos of carro%s& doi litri de ap "%9o li%ers of 9a%er& milioanele de ala'ii >%he millions of !alla;ies? va!ue @uan%i%0 Ns canno% be 5luraliAe#3
(+C/ a$ X #ouL !rLmeAi/mulRimi #e 5robleme %9o hea5s/ lo%s of 5roblems b$ X#ouL numere #e s%u#enRi %9o numbers of s%u#en%s
These nouns can a55ear in %he 5lural onl0 9i%h a (collec%ive/ uni% in%er5re%a%ion3
(1=/ a$ #ouL !rLmeAi #e nisi5 %9o 5iles of san# b$ #ouL mulRimi #e manifes%anRi se confrun%au %9o cro9#s of #emons%ra%ors R7FL confron%e# "T9o cro9#s of #emons%ra%ors confron%e# each o%her&
E.2F Ne4at.2e 5ola0.t9 .te6s E6.n.6.Be0sF $ Ue fin# here concre%e nouns in a me%a5horical use fi;e# b0 conven%ion3
(1+/ a$ N-am vLAu% 5icior #e om no%-have$+ seen foo% of man >I/Ue haven?% seen an0 men? b$ Nu era urmL #e AahLr En %oa%L casa no% 9as %race of su!ar in 9hole house-%he >There 9as no %race of su!ar in %he 9hole house? c$ N-are 5ic #e cura6 no%-has #ro5 of coura!e >Oe has no coura!e a% all?
No%e %ha% in %his cons%ruc%ion N + is necessaril0 a bare sin!ular noun an# usuall0 bears em5ha%ic s%ress$ some%imes N1 can be a bare coun% sin!ular (see (1+/a/$ 1.2. S9nta/t./ an3 se6ant./ 50o5e0t.es. 1.2.1. Dete06.ne0s All classifier cons%ruc%ions (e;ce5% for %he minimiAin! cons%ruc%ion illus%ra%e# in (1+/ above/ can a55ear af%er a #efini%e #e%erminer$ The #e%erminer al9a0s a!rees 9i%h N+3
(11/ a$ aces% %i5 #e maMini / Xaces%e %i5 #e maMini %his %05e of cars %hese %05e of cars b$ felia #e 5Wine slice-%he of brea# c$ !ru5ul #e com5oAi%ori !rou5-%he of com5osers #$ cele %rei -ilo!rame #e AahLr %he$FPL %hree -ilos(N7DT/ of su!ar e$ mulRimea #e boboci cro9#-%he of bu#s >%he bi! number of bu#s? f$ #uAina #e revis%e #oAen-%he of 6ournals (Sin# N/ (Na%ural Dni% N/ (Collec%ive N/ (:easure N/ (Va!ue 8uan%i%0 N/ (Car#inal N/
This can be %a-en as evi#ence %ha% N+ is %he "s0n%ac%ic& hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion$ .+,
1.2.2. S+sele/t.on. N2 as a Gse6ant./ 8ea3H. Gn %he o%her han# a% leas% in some classifier cons%ruc%ions N 1 behaves as %he "seman%ic& hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion in %he sense %ha% i% is s-selec%e# b0 %he 5re#ica%e %ha% %a-es %he DP as an ar!umen% (%he%a-mar-s i%/$ Thus if N1 is an ea%able or #rin-able s%uff %he N- de-N %erms can a55ear as ob6ec%s of %he verbs eat or drin# even if N+ i%self is no% s-selec%e# b0 %hese verbs3
(12/ a$ Am bLu% o s%iclL #e vin have$+ #run- a bo%%le of 9ine b$ :LnWncL o felie #e 5Wined ea%$I:PV$1SG a slice of brea# c$ N-am mai mWnca% aces% soi #e moluscL no%-have$+ ever ea%en %his sor% of mollus#$ CWinii au mWnca% !rLma#a #e ca#avre #o!s-%he have ea%en hea5-%he of bo#ies (:easure N/ (Na%ural uni% N/ (Sin# N/ (Collec%ive N/
Ano%her case in 9hich N1 can be consi#ere# a >seman%ic hea#? is 9hen %he 5re#ica%e a55lies #is%ribu%ivel0 %o %he members of %he 5lurali%0 charac%eriAe# b0 N 1$ This 5ro5er%0 charac%eriAes @uan%i%0 nouns in !eneral (see (14// bu% can also be foun# 9i%h some uni% nouns P es5eciall0 -in# nouns (see (1,// bu% some%imes P al%hou!h ra%her e;ce5%ionall0 P also 9i%h collec%ive nouns (see (1.//3
(14/ (1,/ (1./ G mulRime #e s%u#enRi au lua% no%e bune a lo% of s%u#en%s have !o% mar-s !oo# Aces% soi #e 5LsLri au /are coa#a lun!L %his sor% of bir#s have/has %ail-%he lon! >This -in# of bir#s have lon! %ails? KK Aces% !ru5 #e elevi sun% in%eli!enRi / EnalRi %his !rou5 of 5u5ils are in%elli!en% %all
1.2.3. A40ee6ent Ano%her hea#-li-e 5ro5er%0 of N1 is %ha% i% can con%rol DP-e;%ernal a!reemen%$ The e;am5les (14/-(1./ above alrea#0 sho9 %ha% a 5lural N 1 can con%rol number a!reemen% 9i%h @uan%i%a%ive nouns -in# nouns an# (mar!inall0/ 9i%h collec%ive nouns$ A!reemen% 9i%h N1 is normall0 foun# 9i%h @uan%i%a%ive nouns if N1 is 5lural an# 9i%h -in# nouns referrin! %o in#ivi#uals of %he -in#$ I% is %ra#i%ionall0 #escribe# as "seman%ic& as o55ose# %o a!reemen% 9i%h %he s0n%ac%ic hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion N+ 9hich is calle# "s0n%ac%ic&$ Ui%h va!ue @uan%i%0 nouns a!reemen% 9i%h N1 is s%ron!l0 5referre# if %he in%er5re%a%ion is #is%ribu%ive (see (1</c-#/$ Non-verbal #is%ribu%ive 5re#ica%es #on?% allo9 a!reemen% 9i%h N+ (see (1</e/$ Oo9ever 9i%h verbs 9e can fin# some%imes 5urel0 "!ramma%ical& a!reemen% 9i%h N+ (see (1</a-b/$ Ui%h collec%ive 5re#ica%es bo%h a!reemen% 5a%%erns are acce5%able (see (1</f/3
(1</ a$ Aici vor / va a%eriAa un numLr mare #e avioane here 9ill$2PL / 9ill$2SG lan# a number !rea% of 5lanes b$ La consecinRele 5e %ermen lun! Kse !Wn#eM%e / se !Wn#esc #oar o mWnL #e oameni a% conse@uences-%he on %erm lon! R7FL %hin-s/ R7FL %hin- onl0 a han#ful of 5eo5le >Gnl0 a han#ful of 5eo5le %hin-(s/ a% %he lon! %erm conse@uences? c$ G mulRime #e oameni se %em / KK %eme sL Aboare cu avionul a lo% of 5eo5le R7FL fear/ fears SD'N fl0$2 9i%h 5lane-%he #$ G mulRime #e co5ii ci%esc /Xci%eM%e En en!leAL
.+.
Classifier an# 8uali%a%ive 'inominal Cons%ruc%ions a lo% of chil#ren rea#/ rea#s in 7n!lish e$ X G mulRime #e s%u#enRi e in%eli!en%L a lo% of s%u#en%s is in%elli!en% f$ S-au a#una% / s-a a#una% un numLr mare #e oameni R7FL-have !a%here# / R7FL-has !a%here# a number bi! of 5eo5le
Ui%h -in# nouns referrin! %o in#ivi#uals of %he -in# bo%h a!reemen% 5a%%erns are foun#3
(1B/ a$ Aces% !en #e maMinL e foar%e ra5i# / ra5i#L %his -in#(N7DT/ of car(F/ is ver0 fas%$:SG / fas%$FSG b$ Ti5ul Ls%a #e maMini e foar%e cLu%a% / sun% foar%e cLu%a%e %05e(N7DT/-%he %his of cars(F/ is ver0 in-#eman#$:SG are ver0 in-#eman#$FPL
If N1 is a mass noun a!reemen% is con%rolle# b0 N+3

(1C/ a$ A fos% folosi% / Xfolosi%L un -ilo!ram #e fLinL has been use#$:SG / use#$FSG a -ilo of flour b$ A fos% folosi%L /Xfolosi% o lin!uriRL #e un% has been use#$FSG use#$:SG a s5oon of bu%%er(N7DT/ c$ #ouL -ilo!rame #e AahLr erau vLrsa%e 5e 5o#ea / Xera vLrsa% 5e 5o#ea %9o -ilos(N7DT/ of su!ar(N7DT/ 9ere s5ille#$FPL on floor / 9as s5ille#$:SG on floor
Ui%h va!ue @uan%i%0 nouns %he e;am5les 9i%h a!reemen% con%rolle# b0 N 1 seem %o im5rove bu% %he0 are s%ill no% acce5%able for all s5ea-ers3 (2=/ a$ Dn vWrf / 5ic #e sare e suficien% / u suficien%L a 5ea-(N7DT/ bi%(N7DT/ of sal%(F/ is sufficien%$:SG sufficien%$FSG b$ un s%ro5 #e mWn#rie e necesar / u necesarL a #ro5(:/ of 5ri#e(F/ is necessar0$ :SG necessar0$ FSG c$ A fos% irosi%L / K irosi% o !rLma#L #e un% has been 9as%e#$FSG / 9as%e#$:SG a lo% of bu%%er
Collec%ive nouns allo9 a!reemen% 9i%h N1 if %he 5re#ica%e is #is%ribu%ive (in 9hich case a!reemen% 9i%h N1 is man#a%or0/3
(2+/ Aces% !ru5 #e case au aco5eriMuri mai Enal%e %his !rou5 of houses have roofs more hi!h >This !rou5 of houses have hi!her roofs?
Re!ar#in! %his cons%ruc%ion i% shoul# be observe# %ha% #is%ribu%ive 5re#ica%es are @ui%e e;ce5%ional 9i%h collec%ive nouns$ 1.2.$. Mo3.f./at.on The #ifference in in%er5re%a%ion be%9een uni% an# @uan%i%a%ive nouns lea#s %o a #ifference in mo#ifica%ion 5a%%erns$ Thus uni% nouns allo9 various a#6ec%ives a55lie# %o N+ (see (21/a-c/ 9hereas @uan%i%a%ives onl0 allo9 a res%ric%e# number of mo#ifiers 9hich refer %o %he @uan%i%0 (see (22/ vs$ (21/#-e/3
(21/ a$ o buca%L ro%un#L #e ananas a 5iece roun# of 5inea55le b$ un !ru5 !LlL!ios #e co5ii a !rou5 nois0 of chil#ren c$ un soi rar #e insec%e a -in# rare of insec%s
.+<
Classifier an# 8uali%a%ive 'inominal Cons%ruc%ions #$ X un -ilo!ram 5roas5L% #e carne a -ilo fresh of mea% e$ X un #e!e% fierbin%e #e su5L a fin!er ho% of sou5 a$ un numLr mare / mic #e 5ersoane a number bi!/ small of 5ersons b$ un -ilo!ram En%re! #e carne a -ilo 9hole of mea%
(22/
Nouns %ha% are ambi!uous be%9een a uni% an# a @uan%i%a%ive in%er5re%a%ion favor %he uni% in%er5re%a%ion 9hen %he0 %a-e mo#ifiers$ Thus mulime >cro9#I lo%? in (24/a onl0 has %he collec%ive in%er5re%a%ion 9hereas in (24/b 9here %he a#6ec%ive can also be in%er5re%e# as referrin! %o @uan%i%0 a @uan%i%0 in%er5re%a%ion is 5ossible bu% #is5referre# (as sho9n b0 %he fac% %ha% if N1 is a noun 9hich #oes no% allo9 a concre%e !rou5 in%er5re%a%ion such as problem >5roblem? %he e;am5le becomes ra%her mar!inal/3
(24/ a$ o mulRime !LlL!ioasL #e co5ii a cro9# nois0 of chil#ren >a nois0 cro9# of chil#ren? b$ o mulRime mare #e co5ii / K 5robleme a cro9#/lo% bi! of chil#ren/ 5roblems >a bi! cro9# of chil#ren / a consi#erable number of 5roblems?
In e;am5les such as o duc nviortoare de uic >a refreshin! si5 of %Aui-a? o ur fierbinte de sup >a ho% si5 of sou5? %he classifier #oes no% in#ica%e a measure bu% ra%her a 5iece of s%uff in#ivi#ualiAe# b0 5ar%ici5a%in! in an even% (of #rin-in! or ea%in! e$!$ >%Aui-a #run- in a sin!le even% of #rin-in!?/ an# can %herefore be consi#ere# a uni% noun$
8uan%i%a%ive cons%ruc%ions allo9 mo#ifiers a!reein! 9i%h N+ an# 5lace# af%er N1 bu% %he0 are ar!uabl0 a%%ache# %o %he 9hole (Car#inal/-N-de-N 5hrase so %he0 #o no% mo#if0 6us% N + bu% ra%her %he 9hole com5le; referrin! %o a cer%ain amoun%3
(2,/ a$ cele YY%rei -ilo!rame #e la5%eZ vLrsa%e 5e 6osZ %he %hree -ilos(N7DT/ of mil- s5ille#$FPL on #o9n >%he %hree -ilos of mil- s5ille# on %he floor? b$ cele YY#ouL 5ahare #e vinZ bLu%e #e6aZ %he %9o !lasses of 9ine #run-$FPL alrea#0 >%he %9o !lasses of 9ine alrea#0 #run-?
Ui%h con%ainer nouns use# as @uan%i%a%ives N+ allo9s a mo#ifier 9hich bears on N 1 %he 9hole N+-N1 com5le;/3
(2./ Am bLu% cu el o s%iclL minuna%L #e Mam5anie have$+ #run- 9i%h him a bo%%le 9on#erful of cham5a!ne >I/Ue #ran- 9i%h him a 9on#erful bo%%le of cham5a!ne?
1.2.%. D.slo/at.on of N2 Ano%her s5ecial 5ro5er%0 of %he @uan%ifica%ional cons%ruc%ion is %ha% %he 5hrase hea#e# b0 N1 can a55ear #isloca%e# an# %his forces %he #isa55earance of %he 5re5osi%ion de3
(2</ a (XDe/ bani Ion are o !rLma#L of mone0 Ion has a lo% b$ (XDe/ s5ec%a%ori au 5leca% o mulRime
.+B
Classifier an# 8uali%a%ive 'inominal Cons%ruc%ions of s5ec%a%ors have lef% a lo% c$ (XDe/ ceai a bLu% %oa%L lumea cW%e o ceaMcL of %ea has #run- all 9orl# each a cu5 >(As for/ %ea ever0bo#0 #ran- a cu5?
Ui%h an0 o%her N a bare NP-com5lemen% or mo#ifier in%ro#uce# b0 de -ee5s %his in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% if i% is #isloca%e# (see (2B//3
(2B/ a$ De 5an%ofi nu cunosc alRi re5ara%ori of shoes no% -no9$+SG o%her re5airers >I #on?% -no9 an0 o%her shoe re5airers? b$ De co5ii nu avem al%e ar%icole En aces% ma!aAin of chil#ren no% have$+PL o%hers i%ems in %his s%ore >Ue #on?% have o%her chil#ren !oo#s in %his s%ore?
Classifiers 9hich are no% use# %o e;5ress @uan%i%0 ei%her behave as re!ular nouns re@uirin! de on %he #isloca%e# elemen% P %his is %he case of -in# nouns illus%ra%e# in (2C/a acce5%able for some s5ea-ers P or #o no% allo9 #isloca%ion of N 1 a% allI %he la%%er a55ears %o be %he case 9i%h collec%ives (see (2C/b/$
(2C/ a$ u De 5Lien6eni cunosc mai mul%e s5ecii of s5i#ers -no9$+SG more man0 s5ecies >Gf s5i#ers I -no9 several s5ecies? b$ X Fe%e / X De fe%e au a#us un !ru5 vesel !irls of !irls have brou!h% a !rou5 cheerful c$ X CLrRi / X De cLrRi era o s%ivL 5e masL boo-s of boo-s 9as a 5ile on %able
Na%ural uni% nouns allo9 #isloca%ion onl0 9hen %he0 are use# %o e;5ress %he @uan%i%0 an# in %his case de #oes no% a55ear (see (4=/a-b/$ G%her9ise %he0 #o no% allo9 #isloca%ion a% all (see (4=/c/3
(4=/ a$ (X#e/ 5Wine am mWnca% %rei felii of brea# have$+ ea%en %hree slices >As for brea# I a%e %hree slices? b$ (X#e/ mLnuMi am #ouL 5erechi of !loves have$+ %9o 5airs >As for !loves I have %9o 5airs? c$ KK (KK#e/ 5Wine am mWnca% o felie bine 5rL6i%L of brea# have$+ ea%en a slice 9ell %oas%e#
A% leas% for some s5ea-ers -in# nouns use# %o refer %o 5ar%icular in#ivi#uals of %he -in# can also a55ear in %he @uan%i%a%ive #isloca%ion s%ruc%ure coun%in! uni%s #efine# b0 %heir belon!in! %o #ifferen% (sub-/-in#s3 (i/ u car%ofi avem %rei feluri 5o%a%oes have$+PL %hree sor%s
Com5are %his e;am5le 9i%h (2C/a 9here reference %o %he -in# i%self is involve# %herefore allo9in! %he 5resence of de$
Ue can conclu#e %ha% e;ce5% for -in# nouns (for some s5ea-ers see (2C/a/ classifiers onl0 allo9 #isloca%ion 9i%h a @uan%i%a%ive in%er5re%a%ion an# %his #isloca%ion has a s5ecial form$ As %o 9h0 %he0 #isallo9 #isloca%ion in o%her cases %his ma0 be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% 9i%h .+C
classifiers N1 is no% sufficien%l0 #is%in!uishe# in %erms of reference from N+ %o be able %o form a %o5ic e;clu#in! N+ e;ce5% in %he -in# cons%ruc%ion 9here N+ an# N1 are #ifferen% -in#s s%an#in! in a h05eron0mic rela%ion$ In %he @uan%i%a%ive cons%ruc%ion #isloca%ion is 5ossible because %he @uan%i%0 s5ecifica%ion re5resen%e# b0 N+ can cons%i%u%e %he focus or 5ar% of %he focus leavin! N1 ou%si#e focus$ (The massive or 5lural 5ro5er%0 e;5resse# b0/ N 1 can %hen cons%i%u%e a %o5ic 9hich e;clu#es N+$ 1.2.&. S9nta/t./ anal9s.s. Re!ar#in! %he s0n%ac%ic anal0sis %here are %9o 5ossibili%ies$ Gne is %o consi#er %ha% N + is %he hea# an# N1 i%s com5lemen% 9i%h de in%ro#uce# as a case mar-er for bare nouns (see Cha5%er B * + an# Cha5%er . * 2/3 (4+/ 3 D 3 N+ DP NP SP 2 #e NP N1 This anal0sis is ra%her un5roblema%ic for %he uni% %05e$ For %he @uan%i%a%ive %05e if 9e a#o5% %his anal0sis 9e are com5elle# %o #erive %he s5ecial 5ro5er%ies of %he cons%ruc%ion from seman%ic or s0n%ac%ic 5ar%iculari%ies of N+$ Some researchers have in#ee# 5ro5ose# %ha% @uan%i%a%ive nouns re5resen% a semi-le'ical ca%e!or0 bein! nouns bu% a% %he same %05e havin! some 5ro5er%ies of a func%ional ca%e!or0$ The0 mi!h% even be consi#ere# functional ) rammatical* nouns$ Ue can re5resen% %his b0 usin! a label N8uan% in %he s%ruc%ure (4+/3 (4+/_ 3 D DP N8uan%P 3 N8uan% 2 S= #e N1 NP SP
The secon# 5ossibili%0 is %ha% in %he @uan%i%a%ive %05e N + occu5ies %he s5ecifier of a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion #e#ica%e# %o @uan%i%0 9hose hea# is fille# b0 de (as 5ro5ose# in cha5%er 2 * , for car#inals %a-in! de/$ In %his case %he car#inal an# in#efini%e ar%icle ma0 be %a-en %o form a cons%i%uen% %o!e%her 9i%h N+ in %he s5ecifier of de e;clu#in! %hus N1$
.1=
(41/
8uan%P 3 8uan%P/DP 8uan%= 5 2 #ouL -ilo!rame 8uan%= NP un -ilo!ram #e N1 un%
If 9e a#o5% %his anal0sis 9e can e;5lain %he #isa55earance of de in %he @uan%i%a%ive #isloca%ion b0 %he fac% %ha% de here is no% a 5re5osi%ion or case mar-er bu% ra%her a func%ional hea# in %he e;%en#e# 5ro6ec%ion of N1$ Oo9ever %his s%ruc%ure is 5roblema%ic because @uan%i%0 nouns allo9 as 9e have seen #efini%e #e%erminers 9hich onl0 a!ree 9i%h N+ an# more im5or%an%l0 #isallo9 %he 5resence of un >one a?3
(42/ a$ cele #ouL -ilo!rame #e un% %he$FPL %9o -ilos(N7DT of bu%%er b$ -ilo!ramul #e un% -ilo-%he of bu%%er c$ X cel un -ilo!ram #e un% %he one -ilo of bu%%er
If un >a one? 9ere 5lace# in %he s5ecifier of de as in (41/ i% is har# %o see 9h0 i% conflic%s 9i%h %he #e%erminer !iven %he fac% %ha% i% can a55ear af%er #efini%e #e%erminers 9hen i% is 5ar% of a car#inal3
(44/ cei o su%L #e s%u#enRi %he$:PL a$FSG hun#re#(F/ of s%u#en%s(:/
'ase# on %hese fac%s 9e a#o5%e# in cha5%er 2 * , a s%ruc%ure alon! %he lines of (4+/ for @uan%i%a%ive nouns leavin! a s%ruc%ure of %he %05e (41/ onl0 for car#inals as in (44/$ Oo9ever %he ma%%er is far from se%%le#$ 1.3. Le<./al a6b.41.t9 As 9e have alrea#0 seen in * +$+ nouns occu50in! %he N+ 5osi%ion are of%en ambi!uous be%9een a uni% an# a @uan%i%a%ive in%er5re%a%ion (see rmad >hea5/a lo%?/ or be%9een a concre%e non-classifier use an# a @uan%i%a%ive in%er5re%a%ion (see mn >han#/ han#ful?/$ Con%ainer nouns are s0s%ema%icall0 %hree-9a0 ambi!uous3 #e5en#in! on %he con%e;% %he0 can refer %o %he con%ainer %he con%ainerHsubs%ance (in 9hich case 9i%h res5ec% %o %he subs%ance %he0 behave as uni% nouns/ or %he @uan%i%03
(4,/ un 5ahar #e vin "a !lass of 9ine& [ a$ un 5ahar 5en%ru vin "a !lass for 9ine a 9ine !lass& b$ un 5ahar cu vin "a !lass con%ainin! (li%$ 9i%h/ 9ine& c$ vin En can%i%a%e #e un 5ahar "9ine in an amoun% of one !lass 9hich 9oul# fill one !lass&
In %he concre%e in%er5re%a%ion 5ara5hrase# b0 (4,/a pa!ar "!lass& refers %o %he reci5ien% an# de vin "of 9ine& is a bare-NP mo#ifier 9hich as such #oes no% in%ro#uce a #iscourse referen%$ In %he @uan%i%0 in%er5re%a%ion 5ara5hrase# b0 (4,/c %he DP 6us% refers %o a @uan%i%0 of 9ine no
.1+
ac%ual !lass bein! involve#$ Thus in or#er %o fulfill %he re@uiremen% in (4./ i% is no% necessar0 %o use a !lass in or#er %o a## %he 9ine all %ha% ma%%ers is %ha% %he a##e# @uan%i%0 is %he one 9hich 9oul# fill a !lass3
(4./ La sos mai %rebuie un 5ahar #e vin a% sauce s%ill mus% a !lass of 9ine >The sauce s%ill nee#s a !lass of 9ine?
Li-e9ise if I #rin- %he li@ui# from %9o half-fille# !lasses I can sa0 am but un pa!ar de vin "I #ran- a !lass of 9ine& al%hou!h %9o !lasses 9ere use#$ Since in %his in%er5re%a%ion no ac%ual con%ainer is in%ro#uce# ana5horic e;5ressions can onl0 refer %o %he s%uff3
(4</ Am bLu% un 5ahar cu vin$ pro 7ra acru / m pro 7ra Enal% have$+ #run- a !lass of 9ine 9as sour 9as lon! >I #ran- a !lass of 9ine$ I% 9as sour / m I% 9as lon!?
In %he in%er5re%a%ion 5ara5hrase# b0 (4,/b bo%h %he con%ainer an# %he s%uff can serve as an%ece#en%s for ana5horic e;5ressions sho9in! %ha% %9o #iscourse referen%s are in%ro#uce#3
(4B/ au rLs%urna% o %avL #e 5rL6i%uri have$2PL over%urne# a %ra0 of 5as%ries a$ pro 7ra #e ar!in% 9as of silver b$ pro 7rau bune 9ere !oo# >The0 over%urne# a %ra0 of 5as%ries$ a$ I% 9as ma#e of silver / b$ The0 9ere !oo#?
The ambi!ui%0 is normall0 resolve# b0 %he selec%ional res%ric%ion im5ose# b0 %he main 5re#ica%e$ Thus %he verb mnca >ea%? forces %he @uan%i%0 rea#in!$ As sho9n b0 (4C/b even %he s%uff H con%ainer rea#in! is rule# ou% here (a fortiori %he concre%e rea#in! is im5ossible/3
(4C/ Au mWnca% o %avL #e 5rL6i%uri / m cu 5rL6i%uri have ea%en a %ra0 of 5as%ries 9i%h 5as%ries >The0 have ea%en a %ra0 of 5as%ries / m 9i%h 5as%ries?
G%her verbs such as ine >hol#? re@uire reference %o %he con%ainer so %ha% %he0 allo9 onl0 %9o rea#in!s %he con%ainer an# con%ainer H s%uff rea#in!I %he secon# rea#in! e;5lains %he 5ossibili%0 of ana5horic reference %o %he s%uff3
(,=/ Ion Rinea En mWnL o s%iclL #e la5%e #ar era acru Ion hol#$I:PF in han# a bo%%le of mil- bu% 9as sour >Ion 9as hol#in! a bo%%le of mil- in his han# bu% i% 9as sour?
The in%er5re%ive 5ossibili%ies of con%ainer nouns are also foun# 9i%h concre%e nouns 9hose #imensions are use# as measures of %he s5ace occu5ie# b0 %he s%uff P e$!$ de et )de vin* "fin!er (of 9ine/& palm )de pmnt/ "5alm (of lan#/&$ Va!ue @uan%i%0 nouns are #erive# from collec%ives (e$!$ mulime "cro9#& f "lo% of& rmad "hea5 5ile& f "lo% of&/ from na%ural uni% nouns (e$!$ o frm "a bi% (small fra!men% f small @uan%i%0/&/ or from o%her me%on0mic associa%ions P %hus mn "han# f han#ful small number& (%he number of fin!ers of one han# is small/$
.11
1.$. Note on t8e 50e5os.t.on de A fe9 remar-s are in or#er re!ar#in! %he in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% of N 1 %he func%ional 5re5osi%ion de$ As men%ione# in * +$1$. above de ac%s as a func%ional 5re5osi%ion s5ecialiAe# for bare nouns in an a#nominal environmen% (see Cha5%er B * + an# Cha5%er . * 2I recall %ha% N1 in %he N-de-N cons%ruc%ion #oes no% allo9 #e%erminers/$ Given i%s al%erna%ion 9i%h %he inflec%ional !eni%ive (see Cha5%er B * + an# Cha5%er . * 2/ de can be consi#ere# a case mar-er for %he !eni%ive$ No%e %ha% in In#o-7uro5ean lan!ua!es 9i%h case inflec%ion (e$!$ La%in Slavic lan!ua!es/ N1 a55ears in %he !eni%ive case 9hich su55or%s %he i#ea %ha% de is a !eni%ival case mar-er in %he Romanian classifier cons%ruc%ion$ In 7n!lish an# Romance lan!ua!es o%her %han Romanian %he classifier cons%ruc%ion is calle# "5seu#o-5ar%i%ive& #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he 5re5osi%ion use# in %he classifier cons%ruc%ion (7n!l$ of Fr$ S5$ Por%$ de% I%$ di/ is %he same as %ha% use# in %he 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion e$!$ many of t!e students$ The 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion #iffers from classifier cons%ruc%ions in %ha% i% involves %9o referen%s %he 5ar% (#eno%e# b0 %he ma%ri; DP/ an# %he 9hole (#eno%e# b0 %he nominal in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5ar%i%ive/ 9hereas in %he classifier cons%ruc%ion %here is 6us% one referen% involve#$ Correla%ivel0 %he 5ar%i%ive 5re5osi%ion in%ro#uces a DP 9hereas %he secon# nominal in %he classifier cons%ruc%ion is a bare NP $ In mo#ern Romanian %his formal similari%0 #oes no% e;is%3 5ar%i%ive PPs are in%ro#uce# b0 %he 5re5osi%ions din >from? an# dintre >fromamon!? (see cha5%er 2 * 4$4/$ This is %he reason 9h0 9e #i# no% a#o5% %he label >5seu#o5ar%i%ive? in %his cha5%er$
The formal similari%0 e;is%e# in Gl# Romanian (VVI-VVII %h cen%uries/ 9here de coul# also be use# %o in%ro#uce 5ar%i%ive PPs (see also cha5%er . * 4$+/ (alon!si#e din an# dintre/3 (,+/ a$ mulRi #e corin%eani (Coresi Lucrul Apostolesc (c$ +,../ B2/ man0 of Corin%hians >man0 of %he Corin%hians b$ mulRi #e aceia (Dreche Letopiseul gri 5oldovei (c$ +.4,/ 2Cr/ man0 of %hose
There is ano%her a#nominal 5re5osi%ional cons%ruc%ion 9hich is formall0 i#en%ical %o %he classifier cons%ruc%ion (an# seman%icall0 more similar %o i% %han %he 5ar%i%ive cons%ruc%ion/3 %his is %he cons%ruc%ion e;5ressin! %he ma%%er an en%i%0 is ma#e of 9hich is e;5resse# b0 de H bare NP3
(,1/ a$ s%a%uie #e bronA s%a%ue of bronAe b$ 5ere%e #e lemn 9all of 9oo#
This cons%ruc%ion is seman%icall0 similar %o %he uni% classifier cons%ruc%ions in 9hich N 1 #eno%es %he subs%ance or 5lurali%0 of 9hich %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he overall N +-de-N11 cons%ruc%ion is com5ose#$ The %9o cons%ruc%ions can be #is%in!uishe# b0 %he referen%ial in#e5en#ence of N+3 if N+ is rela%ional re@uirin! %he s5ecifica%ion of %he ma%%er or 5ar%s i% can be calle# a classifier$
.12
1.%. Class.f.e0 /onst01/t.ons D.t8 abst0a/t no1ns :an0 abs%rac% nouns have a behavior similar %o mass nouns #ue %o %he im5ossibili%0 of in#ivi#ua%ion$ :oreover %here is a !eneral %en#enc0 across lan!ua!es %o use @uan%i%0 e;5ressions in or#er %o measure %he in%ensi%0 of a @uali%0$ Thus 9e fin# va!ue @uan%i%0 classifiers 9i%h abs%rac% nouns3
(,2/ un strop de mndrie "a bi% (li%$ #ro5/ of 5ri#e& un dram de speran "a !rain of ho5e& o frm de noroc "a s5ec- of luc-& o urm de mil "a %race of merc0&
As can be seen from %he e;am5les above mos% classifiers use# in %his cons%ruc%ion also have a concre%e use in 9hich %he0 e;5ress a uni% (%he e;ce5%ion is dram >bi%? ori!inall0 a measure noun for 9ei!h% P aroun# 2$1= !rams P borro9e# from :o#ern Gree-/$ There are also nouns 9hich seem %o a55ear as classifiers (as one of %heir uses/ onl0 9i%h abs%rac% nouns3
(,4/ a$ o no%L #e o5%imism a no%e of o5%imism b$ o s5oialL #e cul%urL a 5a%ina of cul%ure >a li%%le cul%ure?
Dni% nouns (referrin! %o concre%e 5ar%s/ can also a55ear if N 1 is an abs%rac% noun 9i%h a %em5oral e;%ension3
(,,/ a$ o frWn%urL #e conversaRie a 5iece of conversa%ion b$ o buca%L #e #rum a 5iece of roa# >5ar% of (a/ vo0a!e?
For @uali%ies manifes%in! %hemselves in cer%ain even%s 9e ma0 consi#er %ha% %he noun #escribin! %his manifes%a%ion is a na%ural uni% classifier3
(,./ a$ un ac% #e onoare/ cura6 / 6us%iRie / cruAime an ac% of honor / coura!e / 6us%ice / cruel%0 b$ un !es% #e recunoM%inRL a !es%ure of !ra%i%u#e c$ #ouL caAuri #e reuMi%L %9o cases of success #$ un 5useu #e febrL an access of fever e$ un acces #e !eloAie an ou%brea- of 6ealous0
Some nouns simul%aneousl0 e;5ress %he occurrence of %he @uali%0 (%he even%/ an# a cer%ain #e!ree (>@uan%i%0?/3
(,</ a$ un val #e en%uAiasm a 9ave of en%husiasm b$ un 5useu #e febrL an access of fever
.14
2. T8e I1al.tat.2e /onst01/t.on

2.1. O2e02.eD There are %9o %05es of N- de-N cons%ruc%ions in Romanian %ha% e;5ress @uali%0$ The firs% one illus%ra%e# in (,B/ is su5erficiall0 similar %o %he classifier cons%ruc%ion in %ha% N 1 hea#s an NPcons%i%uen%3
(,B/ a$ o mLmLli!L #e om a 5olen%a of man >a 5olen%a of a man? b$ o i#ioRenie #e curs a s%u5i#i%0 of lec%ure >a s%u5i#i%0 of a lec%ure? c$ un cal #e femeie a horse of 9oman >a horse of a 9oman? #$ o #rLcie #e calcula%or a #evil-#oin! of com5u%er >a #evil-#oin! of a com5u%er? e$ o A!W%ie #e fa%L a sli5 of !irl >a sli5 of a !irl? f$ i#io%ul #e #irec%or i#io%-%he of mana!er
The fac% %ha% %he secon# elemen% of %he cons%ruc%ion is an NP ra%her %han a #efini%e DP 9i%h %he fall of %he ar%icle af%er 5re5osi%ions is #emons%ra%e# b0 e;am5les 9here N 1 has com5lemen%s or mo#ifiers$ In such cases no ar%icle is use# 9hich sho9s %ha% N 1 is a bare N (%he fall of %he ar%icle onl0 %a-es 5lace if %he D?s com5lemen% con%ains onl0 %he hea# N see cha5%er B * +$2/3
(,C/ i#io%ul #e vecin al :ariei i#io%-%he of nei!hbour G7N :aria$G7N
This cons%ruc%ion 9ill be calle# Sin!le-DP 8uali%a%ive$ I% 9ill be #iscusse# in * 1$1$ In %he secon# %05e de is follo9e# b0 a DP-cons%i%uen% hence %he label Double-D/ @ualitative use# belo93
(.=/ a$ 5ros%ul #e el s%u5i#-%he of him b$ %Wm5i%ul #e Gheor!he i#io%-%he of Gheor!he
This cons%ruc%ion 9ill be #iscusse# in * 1$2$ A number of s%u#ies have anal0Ae# @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions as 5re#ica%ive s%ruc%ures (embe##e# insi#e a DP/ in 9hich N+ is %he 5re#ica%e an# N1 (or DP1 res5ec%ivel0/ is %he sub6ec%$ In#ee# mos% @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions in Romanian allo9 inferences in 9hich N + is 5re#ica%e# abou% (DefH/N1 (see (.+// an# can be 5ara5hrase# b0 )Det*-3<% &!ic! is an 3; (see (.1//3 .1,
(.+/
(.1/
a$ i#io%ul #e #oc%or [f #oc%orul e un i#io% i#io%-%he of #oc%or #oc%or-%he is an i#io% >%ha% i#io% of a #oc%or? [f >%he #oc%or is an i#io%? b$ %icLlosul #e 5rofesor [f 5rofesorul e un %icLlos scoun#rel-%he of %eacher %eacher-%he is a scoun#rel >%ha% scoun#rel of a %eacher? [f >%he %eacher is a scoun#rel? c$ un 5a5a!al #e minis%ru [f minis%rul e un 5a5a!al a 5arro% of minis%er minis%er-%he is a 5arro% >a 5arro% of a minis%er? [f >%he minis%er is a 5arro%? #$ i#io%ul #e Gheor!he [f Gheor!he e un i#io% i#io%-%he of Gheor!he Gheor!he is an i#io% a$ i#io%ul #e #oc%or [ #oc%orul care e un i#io% $$$ i#io%-%he of #oc%or #oc%or-%he 9hich is an i#io% b$ un 5a5a!al #e minis%ru [ un minis%ru care e un 5a5a!al a 5arro% of minis%er [ a minis%er 9hich is a 5arro%
Since %he normal or#er in 5re#ica%ive cons%ruc%ion is Sub6ec%-Pre#ica%e %he s%u#ies %ha% assume a 5re#ica%ive source for %he binominal @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ion e;5lain %he 9or# or#er as a resul% of a movemen% o5era%ion b0 9hich %he 5re#ica%e raises above %he sub6ec% (5re#ica%e inversion/3
(.2/ un Y Y5a5a!alZ Y#e Y YSub6ec%-NP minis%ruZ YPre#ica%e-NP 5a5a!alZZZZ
Some anal0ses assume a fur%her 5re#ica%ive hea# (a rela%or/ be%9een %he Sub6ec%-NP an# %he 5re#ica%e in (.2/$ A 5roblem for %he anal0sis in (.2/ is %ha% %he sub6ec%-NP is a bare noun an# %he overall in%er5re%a%ion is no% %ha% of a small clause (i$e$ >%he minis%er bein! a 5arro%?/$ These 5roblems can be solve# if %he Pre#ica%e-NP is anal0Ae# as a mo#ifier or as a re#uce# rela%ive (as re5resen%e# belo9 no%a%in! %he em5%0 hea# 9hich hea#s %he re#uce# rela%ive as Rel/3 (i/ YD YFP YRelP Rel N+Z YF #e YNP N1 %RelPZZZZ
8uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions al9a0s e;5ress ne!a%ive or 5osi%ive evalua%ion b0 %he s5ea-er$ This sub6ec%ive illocu%ionar0 meanin! can be consi#ere# %o be %he %ri!!er for 5re#ica%e inversion$ In#ee# 9e fin# %he same %05e of fron%in! in e;clama%ives 9hich also involve an emo%ive fea%ure3
(.4/ FrumoasL rochie Ri-ai lua%d beau%iful #ress 0ou$ DAT-have$1SG %a-en >qou bou!h% such a beau%iful #ressd / Uha% a beau%iful #ress 0ou bou!h%d?
2.2. S.n4le+DP -1al.tat.2es 2.2.1. T95es of N1 Accor#in! %o %he %05e of N+ 9e can #is%in!uish be%9een fi!ura%ive cons%ruc%ions 9here %he 5re#ica%ive rela%ion be%9een N+ an# %he referen% of %he DP is base# on a simile or a me%a5hor (see (.,// an# li%eral cons%ruc%ions 9here N+?s basic le;ical meanin! is an evalua%ive @uali%0 9hich is a55lie# %o %he referen% of %he DP (see (..//$
(.,/ un bu6or #e fa%L a 5eon0 of !irl >a ver0 5re%%0 !irl?
.1.
Classifier an# 8uali%a%ive 'inominal Cons%ruc%ions (../ un i#io% #e #oc%or an i#io% of #oc%or
(i/ :!e fi urative type$ Uhen N+ is a concre%e noun %he basis for %he N- de-N cons%ruc%ion is a com5arison (see (.</a-a_/$ The me%a5hors are of%en conven%ionaliAe#I see es5eciall0 (.</f 9here %he li%eral meanin! of N+ is no lon!er -no9n b0 all s5ea-ers/3
(.</ a$ G 5rL6inL #e om se aMeAase 5e scaun$ a 5erch of man R7FL sa%$PLPF$2SG on chair >A ver0 %all 5ersona ha# sa% in %he chair$? a_$ un om Enal% ca o 5rL6inL a man %all as a 5erch >a ver0 %all man? b$ un 5u%re!ai #e moMnea! a ro% of ol#-man c$ o bomboanL #e om a can#0 of man >a %reasure of a man] #$ un bu6or #e fa%L a 5eon0 of !irl >a ver0 5re%%0 !irl? e$ un !iuvaier #e bLia% a 6e9el of bo0 >a %reasure of a bo0? f$ o loaAL #e elev a vine of 5u5il >%ha% !oo#- for-no%hin! of a 5u5il?
N+ can be an abs%rac% noun #erive# from a @uali%0 a#6ec%ive (see (.B//$ In %his case 9e canno% s5ea- abou% a com5arison$ Oo9ever #ue %o %he fac% %ha% N + canno% be a55lie# %o %he referen% of %he DP in i%s li%eral meanin! 9e inclu#e %his cons%ruc%ion in %he fi!ura%ive %05e$ N + con%ribu%es %he @uali%0 i%self (see (.B/b-c/ or %he affec%ive conno%a%ion of %he @uali%0 (see (.B/a/3
(.B/ a$ boala #e armLsar #isease-%he of s%allion >%ha% mean ol# horse? b$ o s5len#oare #e hor%ensie a s5len#or of hor%ensia c$ o frumuseRe #e co5il a beau%0 of chil# >a ver0 beau%iful chil#? #$ o nebunie #e 5rL6i%urL a ma#ness of ca-e >a #elicious ca-e?
As in o%her affec%ive cons%ruc%ions ne!a%ive @uali%ies can be shif%e# %o a 5osi%ive meanin! (see (.B/# above/$ (ii/ :!e literal type3 N+ is re5resen%e# b0 nouns such as mitocan >boor? mocofan >oaf? dobitoc >imbecile? nemernic >scoun#rel? idiot >i#io%? namil >!ian%?/ or nominaliAe# a#6ec%ives (e$!$ dr u >#ear nice? mi(erabil >#es5icable? detept >smar%? simpatic >nice? (pcit >sca%%er-braine#? prost >s%u5i#?/ 9hich refer %o en%i%ies %ha% have ne!a%ive or 5osi%ive .1<
@uali%ies3
(.C/ a$ Dobi%ocul/ I#io%ul /Nemernicul /TicLlosul #e minis%ru imbecile-%he/ i#io%-%he scoun#rel-%he bas%ar#-%he of minis%er >%ha% imbecile/i#io%/scoun#rel/bas%ar# of a minis%er? b$ Dn #obi%oc / i#io% / nemernic / %icLlos #e #e5u%a% an imbecile i#io% scoun#rel bas%ar# of #e5u%0 >an imbecile/i#io%/scoun#rel/bas%ar# of a #e5u%0? a$ :iAerabila /#rL!uRa / #eM%ea5%a #e servi%oare #es5icable-%he/#ear-%he / smar%-%he of mai# b$ G miAerabilL / #rL!uRL / #eM%ea5%L #e consilierL a #es5icable / #ear smar% of council-member( F/
(<=/
This cons%ruc%ion is 5re#ominan%l0 use# %o conve0 a ne!a%ive evalua%ion$ Thus some 5osi%ive a#6ec%ives such as detept receive a conven%ionaliAe# #e5recia%ive ironic meanin! in %his cons%ruc%ion$ As %he0 e;5ress an evalua%ive @uali%0 i% has been claime# %ha% %he nouns a55earin! in %he N+ 5osi%ion (in bo%h %he li%eral an# %he fi!ura%ive %05e/ mus% be scalar$ In#ee# %hese i%ems can a55ear 9hen use# 5re#ica%ivel0 in #e!ree cons%ruc%ions (9hich in %he case of nouns can be anal0Ae# as le;ical un#ers5ecifica%ion be%9een nouns an# a#6ec%ives/3
(<+/ 7 mai / %o% a%W% #e #obi%oc/ nemernic/ %icLlos / i#io% / #eM%e5% / miAerabil / #rL!uR is more/ as imbecile scoun#rel bas%ar# i#io% smar% miserable nice
Some nouns 9i%h a non-scalar basic meanin! can have a secon#ar0 emo%ive e5i%he%-li-e in%er5re%a%ion referrin! %o %he 5ro5er%ies s%ereo%05icall0 associa%e# 9i%h %he class #eno%e# b0 %ha% noun in i%s 5rimar0 meanin!3
(<1/ a$ Ion e un RLran Ion is a 5easan%$ [ >Ion has some 5ro5er%ies associa%e# 9i%h 5easan%s (e$!$ ba# manners/$ b$ Ion e un co5il$ Ion is a chil#$ [ Ion has some 5ro5er%ies associa%e# 9i%h chil#ren (e$!$ naive%0 5oor reason/$
Ui%h %his #erive# meanin! %hese nouns become scalar3

(<2/ a$ Ion es%e mai co5il #ecW% :aria$ Ion is more chil# %han :aria$ >Ion is more of a chil# %han :aria? b$ Ion es%e 5rea co5il ca sL facL aMa cevad Ion is %oo chil# %ha% SD'N #oes so some%hin! >Ion is %oo much of a chil# %o #o some%hin! li-e %hisd? c$ Ce RLran mai e Mi Ls%ad 9ha% 5easan% more is an# %his-oned >Uha% a 5easan% %his one isd?
Such nouns can also a55ear as N+ in %he @uali%a%ive binominal cons%ruc%ion3

(<4/ RLranul / co5ilul / clovnul / savan%ul #e Geor!e 5easan%-%he chil#-%he / clo9n-%he savan%-%he of Geor!e
.1B
2.2.2. A40ee6ent 50o5e0t.es. Normall0 N+ an# N1 have %he same number3

(<,/ a$ o comoarL #e 5isicL a %reasure of a ca% b$ niM%e comori #e 5isici some %reasures of ca%s c$ XniM%e comori #e 5isicL some %reasures of ca% #$ X o comoarL #e 5isici a %reasure of ca%s
7;am5les in 9hich N+ is sin!ular an# N1 is 5lural can never%heless be foun# in %he fi!ura%ive %05e3 (<./ aces% 5u%re!ai #e %eorii care abun#L (ro$scrib#$com/$$$/ %his ro% of %heories 9hich are-abun#an%
As for !en#er es5eciall0 in %he fi!ura%ive %05e N + an# N1 can have #ifferen% !en#ers (see (<</ belo9 an# (.</a c # e f (.B/a above/$
(<</ 5acos%ea #e om nuisance-%he of man >%ha% nuisance of a man?
In %he li%eral %05e N+ an# N1 usuall0 have %he same !en#er$ This follo9s from %he fac% %ha% %his cons%ruc%ion is mos%l0 use# for anima%es 9here !en#er is mo%iva%e# an# N+ has a li%eral in%er5re%a%ion$ N+ is %05icall0 re5resen%e# b0 le;ical en%ries 9i%h masculine/feminine 5airs e;5ressin! na%ural !en#er (e$!$ idiot$idioat >i#io%?% dobitoc$dobitoac >imbecile? e%c$/$ An e;ce5%ion is %he noun namil >!ian%? al9a0s feminine$ As far as DP-in%ernal a!reemen% is concerne# as in o%her Romance lan!ua!es in Romanian %he #e%erminer al9a0s a!rees 9i%h N+3
(<B/ a$ aces% En!er #e fa%L %his$:SG an!el(:/ of !irl b$ aceas%L 5acos%e #e om %ha%$FSG nuisance(F/ of man(:/
Concernin! DP-e;%ernal a!reemen% in case of !en#er misma%ches as in (44/ a!reemen% is !enerall0 es%ablishe# 9i%h N1 if N1 is anima%e (al%hou!h %he #e%erminer a!rees in fea%ures 9i%h N+/3
(<C/ a$ iar5ele Ls%a #e femeie s-ar 5u%ea face vinova%L/ Xvinova% #e aMa ser5en%(:/-%he %his$:SG of 9oman R7FL-9oul# can ma-e !uil%0$ FSG/ !uil%0$:SG of such ceva$ some%hin! >This ser5en% of a 9oman coul# be !uil%0 of such a %hin!? b$ Comoara as%a #e bLia% nu 5oa%e sL se fi fLcu% vinova% /X vinova%L #e %reasure(F/-%he %his$FSG of bo0 no% can SD'N R7FL PRF ma#e !uil%0$:SG/ X!uil%0$FSG of aMa ceva$ such some%hin! >This %reasure of a bo0 coul# no% be !uil%0 of such a %hin!?$
If N1 is inanima%e a!reemen% 6u#!men%s are less clear$ I% seems %ha% bo%h a!reemen% 5a%%erns .1C
are e@uall0 5ossible3

(B=/ a$ OWrbul Ls%a #e maMinL ar %rebui arunca%/ arunca%L 9rec-(N7DT/-%he %his$:SG of car shoul# %hro9n$:SG/ %hro9n$FSG >This 9rec- of a car shoul# be %hro9n a9a0? b$ TWm5enia as%a #e ar%icol %rebuie ci%i% / ci%i%L 5WnL mWine i#ioc0(F/ %his of ar%icle(N7DT/ mus% rea#$:SG rea#$FSG un%il %omorro9
The choice here seems %o be #ic%a%e# b0 %he seman%ic 5rominence of %he nouns involve# for %he s5ea-ers %ha% ma-e %he choice$ 2.2.3. T8e .nte0a/t.on D.t8 3ete06.ne0s There are no clear res%ric%ions on %he #e%erminer %ha% a55ears before N + (recall %ha% here 9e #iscuss %he sin!le-DP %05e/$ In#efini%e #e%erminers (see (B+/a-b/ #efini%e ar%icles (see (B+/c/ #emons%ra%ives (see (B+/#/ ne!a%ive free-choice or 9h- #e%erminers (see (B+/e/ are all 5ossible3
(B+/ a$ o namilL #e om a !ian% of man b$ %rei / niM%e #obi%oci #e #en%iM%i %hree / some imbeciles of #en%is%s c$ namila #e om !ian%-%he of man #$ aceas%L namilL #e om %his !ian% of man e$ orice / ce / niciun / vreun %Wm5i% #e #e5u%a%
an0
9ha% no
some i#io% of #e5u%0
The #e%erminer can be 5rece#e# b0 @uan%ifiers3

(B1/ %oRi #obi%ocii #e #en%iM%i all imbeciles-%he of #en%is%s
Re!ar#in! %he seman%ics of %he combina%ion 9i%h #e%erminers i% mus% be observe# %ha% N + al%hou!h i% a55ears af%er %he #e%erminer is al9a0s in%er5re%e# a55osi%ivel0 no% res%ric%ivel03 i% is an in#e5en#en% commen% of %he s5ea-er abou% %he referen% of %he DP$ In %he case of #is%ribu%ional @uan%ifiers li-e orice >an0? niciun >no? in (B+/e %his commen% is ma#e abou% all %he members of %he se% @uan%ifie# over$ Thus (B2/ is no% s0non0mous 9i%h (B4/ bu% ra%her claims %ha% in !eneral %he #e5u%ies 9e are %al-in! abou% are i#io%s as in (B,/
(B2/ (B4/ (B,/ Grice %Wm5i% #e #e5u%a% M%ie as%a an0 i#io% of #e5u%0 -no9s %his >An0 i#io% of a #e5u%0 -no9s %ha%? Grice #e5u%a% %Wm5i% M%ie as%a an0 #e5u%0 i#io% -no9s %his >An0 s%u5i# #e5u%0 -no9s %his? Grice #e5u%a% M%ie as%a P or M%ii bine #e5u%aRii sun% %Wm5iRi an0 #e5u%0 -no9s %ha% an# -no9$1SG 9ell #e5u%ies-%he are i#io%s >An0 #e5u%0 -no9s %ha% P an# as 0ou -no9 #e5u%ies are i#io%?
This lac- of cons%rain% on %he #e%erminer hea#in! %he @uali%a%ive N-de-N cons%ruc%ion #is%in!uishes Romanian from 7n!lish 9here #efini%e ar%icles are no% allo9e#I %he
.2=
corres5on#in! Romanian e;am5les can be %ransla%e# b0 usin! a #emons%ra%ive3

(B./ a$ i#io%ul #e #irec%or i#io%-%he of #irec%or b$ X %he i#io% of a #irec%or b_$ %his i#io% of a #irec%or
(7n!lish/
2.2.$. T8e 8ea3 of t8e /onst01/t.on Due %o %he >binominal? na%ure of %he cons%ruc%ion %here has been some #eba%e in %he li%era%ure as %o 9ha% cons%i%u%es %he hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion$ The vie9 %ha% 9e a#o5% is %ha% N 1 is %he seman%ic hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion mo%iva%e# b0 %he follo9in! fac%s3 (i/ Selec%ional behavior3 I% is N1 %ha% sa%isfies %he selec%ional res%ric%ions of %he overall cons%ruc%ion3
(B</ a$ Dnchiul meu es%e un mun%e #e om uncle-%he m0 is a moun%ain of man >:0 uncle is a moun%ain of a man? b$ mDnchiul meu es%e un mun%e$ uncle-%he m0 is a moun%ain >:0 uncle is a moun%ain? a$ Am vLAu% o #ulceaRL #e om$ have$+ seen a s9ee%ness of man >I have seen a ver0 s9ee% man? b$mAm mWnca% o #ulceaRL #e om have$+ ea%en a s9ee%ness of man >I have ea%en a s9ee%ness of man?
(BB/
Ue have seen %ha% %he same ha55ens 9i%h @uan%i%a%ive cons%ruc%ions (see +$1$1 above/ 9here %he verb s-selec%s N1$ (ii/ N1 #e%ermines %he reference of %he overall NP$ Thus %he e;am5le in (BC/ refers %o a %05e of film ra%her %han %o a %05e of s0ru5$
(BC/ De%es% siro5ul Ls%a #e film$ #e%es%-Is! s0ru5-%he of film >I ha%e %his soa5 of a film?$
(iii/ I%era%ion3 i% is %he N+ s%rin! %ha% can be i%era%e# no% %he N1

(C=/ nemernica #e 5oci%anie #e om scoun#rel-%he of u!liness of man >%ha% bas%ar# of a run% of a man?
These fac%s in con6unc%ion 9i%h %he a!reemen% 5eculiari%ies #iscusse# in * 1$1 above 5oin% %o %he fac% %ha% N1 is %he seman%ic hea# of @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions$ Gn %he o%her han# as 9e have seen in * 1$1 %he #e%erminer a!rees 9i%h N + 9hich 9oul# in#ica%e N+ as %he s0n%ac%ic hea#$ Ue mi!h% %hus assume %he same s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure as for classifiers (see * +$1$./$ Oo9ever unli-e classifiers N + in @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ion is no% rela%ional$ Therefore i% is har# %o %rea% %he Y deHN1Z cons%i%uen% as a com5lemen% of N+$ Dnli-e for classifiers %he s5ecial meanin! resul%s from %he cons%ruc%ion no% from a 5ro5er%0 of N +$ Ue consi#er %herefore %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% N+ occu5ies %he s5ecifier 5osi%ion of a func%ional 5ro6ec%ion hea#e# b0 de3 .2+
(,4/
YDP un YFP YNP bouZ YF_ #e YNP #oc%orZZZZ
2.3. Do1ble+DP -1al.tat.2es As men%ione# before Romanian 5ossesses a secon# ma6or %05e of @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions 9hich 9e 9ill #ub Double-DP @uali%a%ives an# 9hich are illus%ra%e# in (C+/3
(C+/ a$ Am vorbi% cu 5ros%ul Lla #e fra%e-%Lu have$+ %al-e# 9i%h s%u5i#-%he %ha% of bro%her-0our >I have %al-e# %o %ha% s%u5i# of bro%her of 0ours? b$ bie%ul #e %ine 5oor-%he of 0ou >5oor 0ou? c$ u sLrmanul #e co5ilul Lla #e la RarL 5i%iable-%he of chil#-%he %ha% from a% coun%r0si#e >%ha% 5oor chil# from %he coun%r0si#e? #$ AL5Lci%ul #e Gheor!he sca%%er-braine#-%he of Gheor!he
Al%hou!h %9o #e%erminers are 5resen% %here is a sin!le referen% involve#$ The secon# member of %he cons%ruc%ion is al9a0s #efini%e$ I% is normall0 a 5ronoun 5ro5er name or -inshi5 %erms 9i%h a 5ossessive cli%ic (see (C+/a/$ G%her %05es of #efini%e DPs are no% acce5%able for all s5ea-ers an# belon! %o sub-s%an#ar# varie%ies (see (C+/c/$ In#efini%e an# @uan%ifica%ional DPs are %o%all0 rule# ou%3
(C1/ a$ X i#io%ul #e orice 5rofesor i#io%-%he of an0 5rofessor b$X un i#io% #e un 5rofesor an i#io% of a 5rofessor c$ X i#ioRii / niM%e i#ioRi #e 5uRini/cWRiva/niM%e 5rofesori i#io%s-%he/ some i#io%s of fe9 /a fe9 / some 5rofessors
Since %here is a sin!le referen% involve# %he 9hole ma%ri; DP 9ill also be #efini%e$ Therefore %he #e%erminer of %he firs% member 9hich hea#s %he ma%ri; DP mus% be #efini%e$ Ue fin# in#ee# %he #efini%e ar%icle some%imes %o!e%her 9i%h a 5os%nominal #emons%ra%ive (see (C+/a/$ The #emons%ra%ive is no% full0 acce5%able 9hen %he secon# member is a 5ronoun 5robabl0 because for 5ersonal 5ronouns %he referen%s mus% be hi!hl0 accessible 9hereas #emons%ra%ives are use# for less accessible referen%s3
(C2/ 5ros%ul Lla #e fra%e-%Lu / Gheor!he / KK el s%u5i#-%he %ha% of bro%her-0our / Gheor!he / him
A fac% 9hich se%s Double-DP @uali%a%ives a5ar% from Sin!le-DP @uali%a%ives is %ha% e;clusivel0 5renominal a#6ec%ives such as biet% srman >5oor (5i%iful/? ma0 fea%ure in %he former (see (,Ca/ (.=a// bu% are im5ossible in %he la%%er (see (,C/b (.=/b/3
(C4/ a$ bie%ul #e %ine 5oor-%he of 0ou >5oor 0ou? b$ Xun bie% #e #oc%or a 5oor of #oc%or
.21
Classifier an# 8uali%a%ive 'inominal Cons%ruc%ions >a/%he 5oor #oc%or? a$ u sLrmanul #e co5ilul Lla #e la RarL 5i%iable-%he of chil#-%he %ha% from a% coun%r0si#e >%ha% 5oor chil# from %he cou%r0si#e? b$ Xun sLrman #e co5il a 5i%iable of chil# >a 5oor chil#?
(C,/
Dnli-e %he a#6ec%ives %ha% can a55ear in %he sin!le-DP cons%ruc%ion 9hich are nominaliAe# (see 1$1$+ above/ %he a#6ec%ive biet canno% be use# as a noun3
(C./ XDn bie% /X'ie%ul a veni% a 5oor 5oor-%he has come
I% 9oul# %hus seem %ha% %he N+ 5osi%ion can be occu5ie# here no% onl0 b0 a noun (as in (C+/a/ bu% also b0 an a#6ec%ive$ If 9e 9an% %o -ee5 %he s%ruc%ure similar 9e can assume %ha% an em5%0 N is 5resen% in %he N+ 5osi%ion af%er %he over% a#6ec%ive$ (As biet is an e;clusivel0 5renominal a#6ec%ive %he 5osi%ion of %he 5u%a%ive em5%0 N mus% be assume# %o be af%er %he a#6ec%ive$/
Some recen% s%u#ies assume %he e;is%ence of silen% nouns 9hich al%hou!h lac-in! a 5hone%ic ma%ri; are ac%ive in s0n%a; an# %he 5resence of 9hich can %herefore e;5lain s0n%ac%ic o##i%ies in various lan!ua!es$ The mos% 5rominen% re5resen%a%ives of %his ca%e!or0 are ND:'7R A:GDNT SIND an# TGS7N(S/$ See also cha5%er 2 * 2 9here an em5%0 noun or NP is assume# for cer%ain %05es of DPs 9hich can bu% nee# no% re5resen% an ins%ance of elli5sis$
The fac% %ha% %he N+ 5osi%ion can also be occu5ie# b0 an over% noun is sho9n b0 %he 5ossible co-occurrence of #emons%ra%ives 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle (see (C+/a/ 9hich can onl0 a55ear af%er nouns (NHD/ (%he0 canno% a55ear af%er AHD/3
(C</ a$ X5ros%ul Lla om s%u5i#-%he %ha% man b$ omul Lla 5ros% man-%he %ha% s%u5i#
Summin! u5 #ouble DP-@uali%a%ives #iffer from sin!le DP-@uali%a%ives b0 allo9in! a#6ec%ives as >N+-elemen%s? an# b0 bein! res%ric%e# %o #efini%es$ The correla%ion be%9een %hese 5ro5er%ies is sho9n b0 %he follo9in! e;am5les 9hich #is5la0 %he a#6ec%ive biet% 9hich canno% be nominaliAe# (see (C.// an# %he a#6ec%ive frumos 9hich is rarel0 use# as a noun referrin! %o humans3
(CB/ a$ frumosul / bie%ul #e el / #e Geor!e beau%iful-%he 5oor-%he of him of Geor!e b$ X un frumos / bie% #e co5il a beau%iful/ 5oor of chil#
A %hir# #ifference is %ha% %he #ouble-DP cons%ruc%ion is rarel0 use# 9i%h common nouns as N 1 e;ce5% for nouns 9i%h 5ossessive suffi;es (see (C+/a/$ As such nouns are assimila%e# %o 5ro5er nouns i% a55ears %ha% N1 are 5ossible %o %he e;%en% %he0 are assimila%e# %o 5ro5er nouns$ This ma0 e;5lain 9h0 (CC/a is mar!inall0 5ossible acce5%e# b0 some s5ea-ers 9hereas (CC/b 9here N1 has a com5lemen% so %ha% i% canno% be assimila%e# %o a 5ro5er noun is %o%all0 e;clu#e#3
.22
(CC/
a$ u bie%ul #e #irec%or 5oor-%he of #irec%or b$ Xbie%ul #e #irec%orul En%re5rin#erii 5oor-%he of #irec%or-%he fac%or0-%he$G7N
Re!ar#in! %he #ouble-DP @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ion in o%her lan!ua!es i% is in%eres%in! %o no%ice %ha% some Romance lan!ua!es (see French/ #o no% have %his cons%ruc%ion never allo9in! 5ronouns or #efini%e DPs in %he N1 5osi%ion (5ro5er names are al9a0s allo9e#/$ Amon! Romance lan!ua!es S5anish an# I%alian resemble Romanian b0 allo9in! #efini%e #e%erminers before N1$
S5anish ma-e more e;%ensive use of #efini%e #e%erminers in %he secon# member %han Romanian3 %hus if %he ma%ri; is hea#e# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle in S5anish %he secon# member is also in%ro#uce# b0 %he #efini%e ar%icle 9hereas in Romanian common nouns normall0 a55ear 9i%hou% #e%erminers in %his case (%he sin!le-DP cons%ruc%ion/3 (i/ el imbecil #el #oc%or (S5anish/ %he i#io% of-%he #oc%or (ii/ i#io%ul #e 5rie%en al :ariei (Romanian/ i#io%-%he of frien# G7N :aria$G7N Germanic lan!ua!es li-e 7n!lish an# Du%ch resemble French an# I%alian b0 #isallo9in! #efini%e #e%erminers before N1 bu% unli-e Romance lan!ua!es re@uire %he use of %he in#efini%e ar%icle (7n!l$ a an Du%ch een/ before N1 if N1 is a bare sin!ular$
.24
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns
1$. A55os.t.ons an3 J1<ta5ose3 No1ns

RALDCA 'Ra7SCD ) IGN GIDRG7A
1. Int0o31/t.on 2. A55os.t.ons
1$+$ Dis%in!uishin! a55osi%ions from o%her 5aren%he%ical cons%ruc%ions 1$1$ The e@ua%ive a55osi%ion 1$2$ The a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion 1$4$ A%%ribu%ive A55osi%ions versus Circums%an%ial Small Clauses 1$,$ I%era%e# a55osi%ions 1$.$ A common s0n%ac%ic charac%eriAa%ion of a%%ribu%ive an# e@ua%ive a55osi%ions
3. J1<ta5ose3 No1ns
2$+$ Common Noun H Pro5er Name 2$1$ Pro5er Name H Defini%e DP 2$2$ Common Noun H Common Noun
.2,
1. Int0o31/t.on
In %his cha5%er 9e #iscuss %he follo9in! cons%ruc%ions3
(+/ Equative appositions3 :aria sora mea va veni mWine :aria sis%er-%he m0 9ill come %omorro9 >:aria m0 sis%er 9ill come %omorro9? Attributive appositions3 :aria #e5u%a%L #e Ilfov va #a o #eclaraRie :aria #e5u%0 of Ilfov 9ill !ive a s%a%emen% >:aria #e5u%0 of Ilfov 9ill ma-e a s%a%emen%? ?u'taposed nouns or inte rated$close appositions3 (i/ Common Noun H Pro5er Noun3 a$ Doc%orul Pe%rescu #oc%or-%he Pe%rescu b$ 7#i%ura Oumani%as 5ublishin!rhouse Oumani%as (ii/ Pro5er Noun H Defini%e DP3 Dumas fiul Dumas son-%he (iii/ Common Noun H Common Noun un minis%ru femeie a minis%er 9oman >a 9oman minis%er?
(1/
(2/
Cons%ruc%ions + an# 1 form a na%ural class3 %he0 a%%ach %o a DP an# in%ro#uce an in#e5en#en% 5iece of informa%ion abou% %he in#ivi#ual #eno%e# b0 %ha% DP$ A55osi%ions are no% seman%icall0 in%e!ra%e# in%o %he sen%ence %o 9hich %he0 belon! 9hich is reflec%e# in in%ona%ion3 %he a55osi%ion is se5ara%e# b0 5roso#ic brea-s from %he DP %o 9hich i% a%%aches an# from %he res% of %he sen%ence$ Correla%ivel0 a55osi%ions are no% seman%icall0 in%e!ra%e# ei%herI %he0 canno% be in%er5re%e# in %he sco5e of an0 5ro5osi%ional o5era%or of %he sen%ence$ Cons%ruc%ions (2/ resemble %hose in (+/ b0 %he fac% %ha% %he secon# member is a 5ro5er noun or a #efini%e DP$ 'ase# on %his su5erficial similari%0 %he cons%ruc%ions in (2/ have been consi#ere# a %05e of a55osi%ion P %he so-calle# "close& or "in%e!ra%e# a55osi%ion& P in %ra#i%ional !rammar$ Oo9ever cons%ruc%ions of %he %05e in (2/ #o no% in%ro#uce an in#e5en#en% 5iece of informa%ion$ The secon# member is no% 5roso#icall0 se5ara%e# from %he nominal 5hrase i% is a%%ache# %o an# correla%ivel0 i% ac%s as a res%ric%ive mo#ifier an# is in#is5ensable in es%ablishin! %he reference of %he DP$ Given %he s0n%ac%ic an# seman%ic #ifferences be%9een %05e 2 an# %05es +-1 9e 9ill use %he %erm "6u;%a5ose# nouns& for %05e 2 reservin! "a55osi%ion& as a cover %erm for +-1$
2. A55os.t.ons
2.1. D.st.n41.s8.n4 a55os.t.ons f0o6 ot8e0 5a0ent8et./al /onst01/t.ons The e;am5les in (4/ illus%ra%e various 5aren%he%ical cons%ruc%ions se5ara%e# from %he main 5re#ica%ion b0 a 5roso#ic brea- P e;5lica%ives (see (4/a/ reformula%ions (see (4/b c/ e;em5lifica%ions (see (4/#/ 5ar%iculariAa%ions (see (4/e/ e%c$ These cons%ruc%ions #iffer from a55osi%ions b0 %he fac% %ha% %he0 have an in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% (un#erline# in %he follo9in! e;am5les/3
.2.
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns (4/ a$ Co5iii= a3./: 2e/.n.. C. /ole4.. s:. se !rLbeau s5re ieMire$ chil#ren-%he %ha%ris nei!hbors-%he an# collea!ues-%he 2 SG$PGSS R7FL hurr0$I:PF %o e;i% >The chil#ren %ha% is his nei!hbors an# collea!ues 9ere hurr0in! %o %he e;i%$? b$ Ne5ar%ici5area %a 6a. b.ne B.s absenAa ne6ot.2at: l-a su5Lra%$ non-5ar%ici5a%ion 0our more 9ell sai# absence-%he unmo%iva%e# him-has u5se% >qour non-5ar%ici5a%ion or ra%her unmo%iva%e# absence u5se% him$? c$ Fu!a #e la faRa locului s+a0 f. /12en.t s: B./ fli!h%-%he from face-%he 5lace-%he$G7N R7FL-9oul# PRF berri!h% SD'N sa0$+SG laC.tatea nu es%e #e ier%a%$ co9ar#ice-%he no% is SDP for!ive$SDP >The runnin! a9a0 from %he s5o% I shoul# have sai# %he co9ar# ness is unfor!ivable$? #$ SL vinL cWRiva elevi 3e e<e65l1 Elena C. Ra31= Ma43a C. /.ne 6a. 20ea SD'N come some 5u5ils for e;am5le 7lena an# Ra#u :a!#a an# 9ho more 9an%s >I 9an% some 5u5ils %o come over for e;am5le 7lena an# Ra#u :a!#a an# 9hoever 9ishesd? e$ Vrem sL invi%Lm mai mulRi 5rie%eni = Nn 6o3 s5e/.al 5e Ra31 C. 5e Elena. 9an%$+PL SD'N invi%e$+PL more man0 frien#s in 5ar%icular DG: Ra#u an# DG: 7lena >Ue 9an% %o invi%e several frien#s in 5ar%icular Ra#u an# 7lena$?
No%e %ha% some of %hese %05es of 5aren%he%icals can occur 9i%h cons%i%uen%s o%her %han DPs3
(,/ a$ A Ence5u% #iscuRia #e-a #re5%ul a3./: f:0: 6ena7a6ente$ has s%ar%e# #iscussion-%he #irec%l0 %ha%ris 9i%hou% consi#era%ions >(S/he s%ar%e# %he #iscussion #irec%l0 I mean blun%l0? b$ Trebuia sL lucreAe 1Co0= 6a. e<a/t f:0: tea6a /: a0 mus%$I:PF$2SG SD'N 9or-$2SG li!h%l0 more e;ac%l0 9i%hou% fear-%he %ha% 9oul#$2SG 51tea 40eC.. can ma-erarmis%a-e >Oe ha# %o 9or- !en%l0 more 5recisel0 9i%hou% %he fear %ha% he coul# ma-e a mis%a-e? c$ MKn:+s5a0t:= a3./: 0.s.5.to0 aMa El M%iau %oRi o5enhan#e# %ha%ris s5en#%hrif% so him -ne9$2PL all >G5enhan#e# I mean s5en#%hrif% %ha%?s ho9 ever0bo#0 -ne9 him? #$ Sen%imen%ul #e #is5onibili%a%e Mi chinui%oare ho%LrWre = s+a0 51tea s51ne 3e feelin!-%he of availabili%0 an# %or%urous #ecision R7FL-9oul# can sa0 of ne3ete06.na0e rLmase acelaMi$ in#e%ermina%ion remain$PLPF %hersame >The feelin! of availabili%0 an# %or%urous #ecision one coul# sa0 of in#e%ermina%ion ha# remaine# %he same?
Ue also e;clu#e from a55osi%ions %he 5aren%he%icals 9i%hou% an in%ro#uc%or0 elemen% 9hich a%%ach %o bare NPs (such as %he e;5lica%ive in (.//3
(./ 7l a a6uns o6 6a0e= 6.n.st01 he has become man !rea% minis%er >Oe has become an im5or%an% 5erson3 a minis%er?
The %erm >su55lemen%? has been 5ro5ose# in %he li%era%ure as a cover %erm for a55osi%ions an# o%her 5aren%he%icals$
2.2. T8e eI1at.2e a55os.t.on 7@ua%ive a55osi%ion cons%ruc%ions consis% of %9o DPs se5ara%e# b0 a comma 9hich refer %o %he same en%i%0$ The secon# DP (bol#-face# in (<// is calle# >a55osi%ion?$ Ue 9ill refer %o %he firs% DP as %he >anchor? (o%her %erms use# in %he li%era%ure are >hos%? an# >associa%e?/$ .2<
(</
:aria= 50.etena 6ea= locuieM%e En%r-un car%ier liniM%i%$ :aria frien#-%he m0 lives in a nei!hborhoo# @uie% >:aria m0 frien# lives in a @uie% nei!hborhoo#?
2.2.1 D.st0.b1t.on Since e@ua%ive a55osi%ions e;5ress i#en%i%0 be%9een %9o referen%s %he %9o DPs en%erin! %he cons%ruc%ion mus% be referen%ial (on %he seman%ics of DPs see cha5%er + *. an# cha5%er 4/$ Various %05es of #efini%e DPs can %hus be foun# in bo%h %he anchor an# a55osi%ion 5osi%ions such as DPs 9i%h #efini%e #e%erminers (see (B/a (B/c for %he anchorI (B/b (B/# for %he a55osi%ionI (B/# is a #efini%e DP 9i%h an em5%0 N/ an# 5ro5er nouns (see (B/b (B/# for %he anchorI (B/a (B/c for %he a55osi%ion/3
(B/ a$ Cancelarul Germaniei An4ela Me0>el va vorbi la ora ,$ chancellor-%he German0-%he$G7N An!ela :er-el 9ill s5ea- a% hour-%he , >The chancellor of German0 An!ela :ar-er 9ill s5ea- a% ,? b$ An#rei= /ole41l l1.= 5leacL as%LAi An#rei collea!ue-%he his leaves %o#a0 >An#rei his collea!ue is leavin! %o#a0? c$ Aces% om D16.t01 mL enerveaAL mereu %his man Dumi%ru me irri%a%es al9a0s >This man Dumi%ru al9a0s irri%a%es me? #$ Din%re %oRi s5or%ivii cWM%i!L%ori An#rei al t0e.lea 5rimeM%e Mi 5remiul amon! all s5or%smen-%he 9innin! An#rei %he %hir# receives also 5riAe-%he 5ublicului 5ublic-%he$G7N >Gf all %he 9innin! s5or%smen An#rei %he %hir# also receives %he 5riAe of %he 5ublic?
Personal 5ronouns can be foun# as ei%her a55osi%ions or anchors onl0 if %he0 have a #eic%ic in%er5re%a%ion (in %he follo9in! e;am5le >? in#ica%es a !es%ure ma#e b0 %he s5ea-er/3
(C/ a$ :aria Ionescu ea es%e 5rofesoarL #e muAicL :aria Ionescu she is %eacher of music >:aria Ionescu she is a music %eacher? b$ Ea 5rofesoara noas%rL #e muAicL va EnmWna 5remiile she %eacher-%he our of music 9ill han# 5riAes-%he >She our music %eacher 9ill han# %he 5riAes?
This cons%rain% is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% a55osi%ions are use# in or#er %o 5rovi#e more informa%ion abou% a referen% no% sufficien%l0 familiar %o %he hearer 9hereas 5ersonal 5ronouns are normall0 use# for referen%s alrea#0 es%ablishe# in %he con%e;% for 9hich %his fur%her informa%ion is no% nee#e#$ In %he #eic%ic use ho9ever 5ersonal 5ronouns can in%ro#uce ne9 referen%s 9hose i#en%i%0 ma0 no% be -no9n %o %he hearer (%he hearer al%hou!h (s/he can i#en%if0 %he referen% in %he con%e;% of u%%erance ma0 lac- o%her informa%ion abou% i%/I %herefore %he e@ua%ive a55osi%ion cons%ruc%ion becomes available$ G%her e;am5les in 9hich 5ersonal 5ronouns a55ear before a 5aren%he%ical DP ar!uabl0 re5resen% a #ifferen% cons%ruc%ion an ins%ance of reformula%ion (see *1$1$2/$ In#efini%e DPs can also a55ear in %his cons%ruc%ion ei%her as anchors or as a55osi%ions 5rovi#e# %he0 are s5ecific3
(+=/ a$ Paul= 1n 50.eten al Ma0.e.= a 5leca% la mun%e Paul a frien# G7N :aria$G7N has lef% %o moun%ain
.2B
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns >Paul a frien# of :aria?s lef% %o %he moun%ains? b$ Dn al% roman Le2ant1l a avu% mare succes an o%her novel Levan%-%he has ha# !rea% success >Ano%her novel Levantul 9as a bi! success? c$ Geor!escu 1n1l 3.nt0e e. a vorbi% Geor!escu one of %hem has s5o-en >Geor!escu one of %hem has s5o-en?
In a con%e;% in 9hich an in#efini%e can be ambi!uous be%9een a (sco5all0/ s5ecific an# a nons5ecific in%er5re%a%ion %he use of an e@ua%ive a55osi%ion #isambi!ua%es allo9in! onl0 %he referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion3
(++/ a$ Cau% un al% roman #e aces% au%or search$+SG an o%her novel b0 %his au%hor >I?m loo-in! for ano%her novel b0 %his au%hor? - referen%ial3 I?m loo-in! for a s5ecific novel b0 %his au%hor - non-referen%ial3 I?m loo-in! for an0 o%her novel b0 %his au%hor b$ Cau% un al% roman #e aces% au%or Levan%ul search$+SG an o%her novel b0 %his au%hor Levan%-%he - onl0 referen%ial3 I?m loo-in! for a s5ecific novel b0 %his au%hor
Due %o %he 5ossible 5re#ica%ive in%er5re%a%ion of some in#efini%e DPs (on 9hich see also cha5%er 1 *<$2/ e;am5les such as (+=/ in 9hich an in#efini%e DP a55ears as %he secon# member (%he a55osi%ion/ are 5o%en%iall0 ambi!uous be%9een e@ua%ive a55osi%ions an# a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions (as 9ill be sho9n in *1$2 belo9/$ Non-referen%ial DPs (i$e$ @uan%ifica%ional an# non-s5ecific in#efini%e DPs/ canno% occur in %his cons%ruc%ion (ei%her as anchors or as a55osi%ions/3
(+1/ a$ XNu M%iu sL fi 5leca% vreo 5rie%enL Livia la mun%e no% -no9$+SG SD'N PRF lef% an0 frien# Livia a% moun%ain b$ X L-ai a#us 5e Dumi%ru vreun 5rie%enK CL-have$1SG brou!h% DG: Dumi%ru an0 frien#
No%e %ha% e;am5les such as (i/ in 9hich a non-referen%ial DP is follo9e# b0 ano%her non-referen%ial DP #o no% re5resen% a55osi%ions bu% ra%her reformula%ions (a s5ecial %05e of 5aren%he%icals/3 (i/ Ai vreun 5rie%en a#evLra% vreun om 5e care sL %e 5oRi baAaK have$1SG an0 frien# %rue an0 man on 9hich SD'N R7FL can$1SG coun% >Do 0ou have an0 %rue frien# an0 man 0ou can coun% onK?
Dniversal @uan%ifiers can be follo9e# b0 e;5lica%ive 5aren%he%icals 9hich enumera%e %he members of %he se% %he0 @uan%if0 onI %he members are rela%e# b0 con6unc%ion in %he case of #is%ribu%ive universal @uan%ifiers (see (ii/ an# b0 #is6unc%ion in %he case of free choice universal @uan%ifiers (see (iii/3 (ii/ (iii/ Fiecare Mi Ion Mi Geor!e Mi :a%ei veniserL cu mul%e ba!a6e each-one an# Ion an# Geor!e an# :a%ei come$PLPF$2PL 9i%h man0 lu!!a!e$PL >7ver0bo#0 P (all of/ Ion Geor!e an# :a%ei P ha# brou!h% man0 5ieces of lu!!a!e? Gricare P Ion :aria sau :ircea P mL 5oa%e a6u%a an0-one Ion :aria or :ircea me can$2SG hel5 >An0bo#0 P Ion :aria or :ircea P can hel5 me?
Since e@ua%ive a55osi%ions e;5ress i#en%i%0 %he or#er of %he %9o members can be reverse# 9i%hou% chan!in! %he %ru%h-value an# %he 5resu55osi%ions of %he sen%ence3
(+2/ a$ Paul Meful #e !ru5L a 5leca%$
.2C
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns Paul chief-%he of uni% has lef% >Paul %he hea# of %he uni% lef%? b$ ieful #e !ru5L Paul a 5leca%$ chief-%he of uni% Paul has lef% >The hea# of %he uni% Paul lef%? a$ Prie%enul :ariei un %WnLr s%u#en% la me#icinL vorbeM%e cu !aA#a frien#-%he :aria$G7N a 0oun! s%u#en% a% me#icine s5ea-s 9i%h hos%-%he >:aria?s (bo0/frien# a 0oun! me#icine s%u#en% is %al-in! %o %he hos%? b$ Dn %WnLr s%u#en% la me#icinL 5rie%enul :ariei vorbeM%e cu !aA#a a 0oun! s%u#en% a% me#icine frien#-%he :aria$ G7N s5ea-s 9i%h hos%-%he >A 0oun! me#icine s%u#en% :aria?s (bo0/frien# is %al-in! %o %he hos%?
(+4/
There is ho9ever a si%ua%ion in 9hich %he or#er a55ears %o be fi;e#3 a ne9 non-5ar%i%ive in#efini%e can receive an a55osi%ion re5resen%e# b0 a DP 9i%h #e%ermine# reference (5ro5er noun or DP 9i%h a #efini%e #e%erminer/3
(+,/
a$ Au veni% #oi Ana Mi :ihai$ have$2PL come %9o Ana an# :ihai >There came %9o 5eo5le Ana an# :ihai? b$ Acolo mL aM%e5%a cineva 5rofesorul meu #e muAicL %here me e;5ec%e#$I:PF$2SG somebo#0 %eacher-%he m0 of music >There 9as somebo#0 e;5ec%in! me %here3 m0 music %eacher?
Oere %he or#er canno% be reverse#3
(+./
a$ X Au veni% Ana Mi :ihai #oi$ have$2PL come Ana an# :ihai %9o b$ X Acolo mL aM%e5%a 5rofesorul meu #e muAicL cineva$ %here me e;5ec%e#$I:PF$2SG %eacher-%he m0 of music somebo#0
No%e moreover %ha% %he cons%ruc%ion mus% a55ear a% %he en# of %he sen%ence an# %he 5roso#0 can be re5resen%e# b0 >3?$ Ue su!!es% %herefore %ha% %his re5resen%s a #ifferen% cons%ruc%ion an e;5lica%ive 5aren%he%ical$
2.2.2. Se6ant./ 50o5e0t.es The i#en%i%0 rela%ion e;5resse# b0 %he e@ua%ive a55osi%ion is an in#e5en#en% 5iece of informa%ionI i% is no% inclu#e# in %he sco5e of an0 5ro5osi%ional o5era%ors of %he sen%ence in 9hich i% a55ears (inclu#in! %he overall asser%ive o5era%or for #eclara%ive sen%ences/$ Thus b0 ne!a%in! (+</a (usin! sen%en%ial ne!a%ion/ one canno% ne!a%e %he i#en%i%0 rela%ion be%9een %he referen% of %he a55osi%ion an# %ha% of %he anchor$ (+</b s%ill conve0s %he informa%ion %ha% :aria is his (!irl/frien#$ Li-e9ise (+</c #oes no% as- for %he hearer?s o5inion on %he i#en%i%0 be%9een Geor!e?s frien# an# :ariana$
(+</ a$ A veni% :aria 5rie%ena lui has come :aria frien#(F/-%he his >Ois !irlfrien# :aria has come? b$ Nu n-a veni% :aria 5rie%ena lui no no%-has come :aria frien#(F/-%he his >No his !irlfrien# :aria #i#n?% come / I% is no% %he case %ha% :aria his !irlfrien# has come? c$ CreAi cL 5rie%ena lui Geor!e :ariana va mai veniK believe$1SG %ha% frien#-%he his Geor!e :ariana 9ill s%ill come >Do 0ou %hin- :ariana Geor!e?s frien# 9ill s%ill comeK?
Since %he a55osi%ion cons%ruc%ion e;5resses an in#e5en#en% 5iece of informa%ion %he %ru%h
.4=
value of %he sen%ence #oes no% chan!e if %he a55osi%ion is omi%%e#$ Thus if (+</a is %rue (+B/ is necessaril0 %rue3
(+B/ A veni% :aria has come :aria
'u% omi%%in! an a55osi%ion can ren#er %he sen%ence infelici%ous in a !iven con%e;% if %he hearer canno% i#en%if0 %he referen% 9i%hou% %he a##i%ional informa%ion 5rovi#e# b0 %he a55osi%ion$ Ue can %hus %alabou% a pra matic func%ion of a55osi%ions %ha% of hel5in! %he hearer %o i#en%if0 a referen%$ 2.2.3. Case 50o5e0t.es an3 t8e 3.st.n/t.on betDeen a55os.t.ons an3 0efo061lat.ons As Romanian is a lan!ua!e 9i%h ver0 limi%e# case concor# (see Cha5%er + *+$4/ a55osi%ions a55ear in %he unmar-e# form (nomina%ive-accusa%ive/ even if %he anchor bears inflec%ional case mar-in!3
(+C/ a#resa% Ma0.e. /ole4a sa$ R7FL-has a##resse# :aria$DAT collea!ue(F/-%he 2PGSS$FSG >(S/he s5o-e %o :aria his/her collea!ue? b$ PLrerea Ma0.e. /ealalt: a1toa0e es%e #e avu% En ve#ere o5inion-%he :aria$G7N %he-o%her au%hor(F/ is %o have in vie9 >The o5inion of :aria %he o%her au%hor shoul# be consi#ere#$? a$ S-a
I% is ho9ever 5ossible %o have a #a%ive-mar-e# DP se5ara%e# b0 commas follo9in! ano%her DP in 9ha% seems %o be an a55osi%ion cons%ruc%ion3
(1=/ a#resa% :ariei cole!ei sale a##resse# :aria$DAT collea!ue(F/-%he$DAT 2PGSS$FSG$DAT >(S/he s5o-e %o :aria his/her collea!ue?
R7FL-has
S-a
There is ho9ever a sub%le meanin! #ifference be%9een (1=/ an# (+C/a$ In (1=/ %he fac% %ha% :aria is his (somebo#0?s/ collea!ue is assume# %o be -no9n b0 %he hearer 9hich is no% %he case in (+C/$ I% is %hus 5ossible %ha% (1=/ re5resen%s a #ifferen% %05e of 5aren%he%ical a sor% of reformula%ion$ The #ifference be%9een %he %9o cons%ruc%ions is also sho9n b0 %he fac% %ha% case mar-in! on %he secon# DP is im5ossible 9i%h in#efini%es 5resumabl0 because %he reformula%ion cons%ruc%ion #oes no% allo9 a less s5ecific DP3
(1+/ a#resa% :ariei una #in%re 5ro%es%a%are a##resse# :aria$DAT one$FSG of 5ro%es%ors-%he >(S/he s5o-e %o :aria one of %he 5ro%es%ors? b$ X S-a a#resa% :ariei uneia #in%re 5ro%es%a%are R7FL-has a##resse# :aria$DAT one$FSG$DAT of 5ro%es%ors-%he
R7FL-has
a$ S-a
In %he reformula%ion cons%ruc%ion no% onl0 %he case mar-in! can be re5ea%e# bu% also a 5re5osi%ion3
(11/ Nu 5oa%e vorbi cu :aria cu sora luiK no% can$2SG s5ea- 9i%h :aria 9i%h sis%er-%he his >Can?% he %al- 9i%h :aria 9i%h his sis%erK?
Ui%h !eni%ives %he !eni%ival ar%icle al mus% a55ear before %he secon# DP in %he reformula%ion cons%ruc%ion (on %he #is%ribu%ion of al see cha5%er ./3 .4+
(12/
PLrerea :ariei X(a/ celeilal%e au%oare es%e #e avu% En ve#ere o5inion-%he :aria$G7N (G7N/ %he-o%her$DAT au%hor(F/ is %o have in vie9 >The o5inion of :aria %he o%her au%hor shoul# be consi#ere#$?
Uhen %he firs% DP is a 5ersonal 5ronoun i% is usuall0 obli!a%or0 %o re5ea% case mar-in! an# 5re5osi%ions (see also (B/c/3
(14/ l-am #a% ei :ariei / X:aria CL $DAT CL$2:SG$ACC-have$+ !iven her$DAT :aria$DAT :aria >I !ave i% %o her %o :aria? b$ 7i mamei /Xmama Ei ofereau flori$ her$DAT mo%her-%he$DAT/mo%her-%he CL$DAT offer$I:PF$2PL flo9ers >The0 9ere offerin! / use# %o offer flo9ers %o her (%o/ %he mo%her? Ne-am obiMnui% cu ele KK (cu/ a5ara%ele cele noi R7FL-have$+PL !o%-use# 9i%h %hem 9i%h #evices-%he %he ne9 >Ue !o% use# %o %hem %o %he ne9 #evices? a$ I
(1,/
As e;5laine# in *1$1$+ above %his can be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% 5ersonal 5ronouns en%er a %rue a55osi%ion cons%ruc%ion onl0 un#er s5ecial circums%ances namel0 9hen %he0 are use# #eic%icall0$ In o%her cases 9e are #ealin! 9i%h a reformula%ion3 %he s5ea-er firs% %hin-s %ha% a 5ersonal 5ronoun 9as enou!h %o conve0 %he in%en#e# referenceI %hen realiAin! %ha% %he hearer ma0 no% be able %o correc%l0 i#en%if0 %he referen% (s/he re5laces %he 5ronoun b0 a more informa%ive e;5ression$ The reformula%ion cons%ruc%ion is some%imes e@uivalen% %o a 5aren%he%ical in%ro#uce# b0 adic >%ha% is? or vreau s spun >I mean? (li%$ >I 9an% %o sa0?/3
(1./ 7l a#icL / vreau sL s5un Geor!e nu M%ie nimic he %ha%ris 9an%$+SG SD'N sa0$+SG Geor!e no% -no9s no%hin! >Oe P I mean Geor!e P -no9s no%hin!?
2.3. T8e att0.b1t.2e a55os.t.on In %his %05e a referen%ial DP is follo9e# b0 a cons%i%uen% 9i%h a 5re#ica%ive in%er5re%a%ion (5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ression %05e ee %f/ se5ara%e# b0 comma3
(1</ a$ Ion Po5escu 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= avea o 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%L$ Ion Po5escu 5resi#en% of honor G7N club-%he$G7N ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >Ion Po5escu honorific 5resi#en% of %he club ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion? b$ Aces% mo#el /0eat Nn an1l 1*)3 a fos% foar%e a5recia% %his mo#el crea%e# in 0ear-%he +CB2 has been ver0 a55recia%e# >This mo#el crea%e# in %he 0ear +CB2 9as ver0 a55recia%e#? c$ SoRia sa foa0te f016oas: s%L%ea 5e un scaun Enal% Mi se conversa 9ife-%he 2SG$PGSS ver0 beau%iful si%$I:PF on a chair hi!h an# R7FL converse$I:PF cu oas5eRii 9i%h !ues%s-%he >Ois 9ife ver0 beau%iful 9as si%%in! on a hi!h chair an# ma-in! conversa%ion %o %he !ues%s?
The a55osi%ion can be an NP as in (1</a a 5ar%ici5ial or a#6ec%ival 5hrase (see (1</b-c/ or a rela%ive clause (see (1</#/$ A55osi%ive rela%ive clauses (see (1B// also belon! %o %his cons%ruc%ion insofar as %he0 are 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ression al%hou!h %he0 #iffer from %he o%her cons%i%uen%s lis%e# above in %ha% %he0 canno% occu50 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions$ A55osi%ive rela%ives are #iscusse# in #e%ail in cha5%er +=$
.41
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns (1B/ :ihai 5e care El cunosc #e mul% nu m-a #eAamL!i% nicio#a%L :ihai DG: 9hich CL$ACC -no9$+SG for much no% me-has #isa55oin%e# never >:ihai 9hom I -no9 for a lon! %ime has never #isa55oin%e# me?
The a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion e;5resses a 5ro5er%0 5re#ica%e# on %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he anchor-DP$ Li-e for %he e@ua%ive a55osi%ions %his 5re#ica%ion is an in#e5en#en% 5iece of informa%ion 9hich canno% be inclu#e# in %he sco5e of an0 5ro5osi%ional o5era%or of %he sen%ence in 9hich %he a55osi%ion occurs$ Thus b0 @ues%ionin! or ne!a%in! (1</a one s%ill e;5resses %he informa%ion %ha% Ion Po5escu is a honorific 5resi#en% of %he club3
(1C/ a$ Avea Ion Po5escu 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= o 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%LK ha# Ion Po5escu 5resi#en% of honor G7N club-%he$G7N a 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >Di# Ion Po5escu honorific 5resi#en% of %he club have a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ionK? b$ Nu cre# cL Ion Po5escu 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= avea o no% believe$+SG %ha% Ion Po5escu 5resi#en% of honor G7N club-%he$G7N ha# a 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%L$ 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >I #on?% believe %ha% Ion Po5escu honorific 5resi#en% of %he club ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion?
Therefore li-e for e@ua%ive a55osi%ions %he a55osi%ion can be lef% ou% 9i%hou% affec%in! %he %ru%h value of %he sen%enceI %hus (1</a im5lies (2=/3
(2=/ Ion Po5escu avea o 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%L$ Ion Po5escu ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >Ion Po5escu ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion?
Since %he cons%ruc%ion e;5resses a 5re#ica%ion abou% an en%i%0 %he anchor-DP is e;5ec%e# %o be referen%ial li-e in %he e@ua%ive cons%ruc%ion$ In (1</ 9e ha# e;am5les of DPs 9i%h #efini%e #e%erminers an# 5ro5er nouns$ Oere is an e;am5le of a referen%ial in#efini%e3
(2+/ Un 3e51tat= 0e50eBentant al Cole4.1l1. Me3./.lo0 #L o #eclaraRie$ a #e5u%0 re5resen%a%ive G7N Colle!e-%he$G7N 5h0sicians-%he$G7N !ives a s%a%emen% >A #e5u%0 a re5resen%a%ive of %he Ph0sicians? Colle!e is ma-in! a s%a%emen%?
There is ho9ever an e;ce5%ion3 #is%ribu%ive @uan%ifiers ran!in! over a se% 9hose e;is%ence is es%ablishe# can %a-e a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions e;5ressin! 5ro5er%ies assi!ne# %o each en%i%0 of %his se%3
(21/ Fiecare film 5reAen%a% ca5o#o5erL cu mul%e 5remii / onora% cu mul%e 5remii era a5oi each film 5resen%e# mas%er5iece 9i%h man0 5riAes honore# 9i%h man0 5riAes 9as %hen comen%a% commen%e# >7ach movie 5resen%e# a mas%er5iece 9i%h man0 a9ar#s / honore# 9i%h man0 a9ar#s 9as %hen commen%e#?
This is 5ossible for a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions bu% no% for e@ua%ive a55osi%ions because a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions in%ro#uce 5ro5er%ies 9hich can be 5re#ica%e# of each en%i%0 in a se% 9hereas e@ua%ive a55osi%ions in%ro#uce an i#en%i%0 rela%ion$ As e;5laine# in cha5%er 1 *<$2 %here is evi#ence %ha% some in#efini%e DPs can have a 5ro5er%0 (ee %f/ #eno%a%ion 9hen occurrin! in 5os%co5ular 5osi%ion as 9ell as o%her 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ions (such as 5re#ica%e of small clauses/$ 7;5ec%e#l0 %hese DPs can also occur as a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions$ This is %he case in %he follo9in! e;am5le3
.42
(22/
A5ar%amen%ul cel vechi= o 01.n: a fos% vWn#u%$ a5ar%men%-%he %he ol# a ruin has been sol# "The ol# a5ar%men% a ruin has been sol#?
This e;am5le canno% be cons%rue# as an e@ua%ive a55osi%ion i#en%if0in! %he a5ar%men% 9i%h a ruin$ This is sho9n b0 %he fac% %ha% if %he or#er of %he anchor an# %he a55osi%ion is reverse# 9e #o no% ob%ain a s0non0mous sen%ence as 9e #o 9i%h e@ua%ives (see (+2/-(+4/ in *1$+ above/$ The sen%ence in (24/ is clearl0 9eir# in mos% circums%ances in 9hich (22/ can na%urall0 be use#3
(24/ m G ruinL a5ar%amen%ul cel vechi a fos% vWn#u%L$ a ruin a5ar%men%-%he %he ol# has been sol# >mA ruin %he ol# a5ar%men% has been sol#?
From %his #iscussion 9e can re%ain as a hallmar- of a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions %he fac% %ha% %he0 #o no% allo9 %he reversal of %he or#er$ This follo9s from %he fac% %ha% an a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion is a 5re#ica%ive e;5ression 9hereas %he anchor is a referen%ial e;5ression$ A reversal of %he or#er 9oul# lea# %o a 5re#ica%ive e;5ression in %he 5osi%ion of %he anchor$ 2.$. Att0.b1t.2e A55os.t.ons 2e0s1s C.0/16stant.al S6all Cla1ses Le% us no9 observe %ha% e;am5les such as (1</a re5ea%e# belo9 un#er (2,/ are s%ruc%urall0 ambi!uous be%9een an a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion an# a circums%an%ial small clause3
(2,/ a$ Ion Po5escu 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= avea o 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%L$ Ion Po5escu 5resi#en% of honor G7N club-%he$G7N ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >Ion Po5escu honorific 5resi#en% of %he club ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion?
If %his e;am5le is anal0Ae# as a circums%an%ial small clause %he 5re#ica%ive cons%i%uen% can be 5re5ose#3
(2./ 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= Ion Po5es/1 avea o 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%L 5resi#en% of honor of club-%he$G7N Ion Po5escu ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >As a honorific 5resi#en% of %he club Ion Po5escu ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion?
Such clauses in%ro#uce simul%aneous even%s or e;5ress causes or reasons$ Thus (2./ conve0s %he i#ea %ha% bein! 5resi#en% of %he club is %he reason for #escribin! him as occu50in! a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion3
(2</ 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= Ion Po5es/1 avea o 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%L 5resi#en% of honor of club-%he$G7N Ion Po5escu ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >As a honorific 5resi#en% of %he club Ion Po5escu ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion?
Circums%an%ial small clauses are usuall0 anal0Ae# as con%ainin! a sub6ec% PRG con%rolle# b0 a DP in %he ma%ri; sen%ence (here %he 5ro5er noun >on /opescu/$ A hallmar- of circums%an%ial small clauses is %he 5ossibili%0 %o be 5ara5hrase# b0 small clauses in%ro#uce# b0 %he !erun# of %he co5ula (fiind/3
(2B/ Fiin# 5reMe#in%e #e onoare al clubului Ion Po5escu avea o 5oAiRie 5rivile!ia%L bein! 5resi#en% of honor of club-%he$G7N Ion Po5escu ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!e# >'ein! a honorific 5resi#en% of %he club Ion Po5escu ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion?
.44
Circums%an%ial small clauses in sen%ence-ini%ial 5osi%ion or follo9in! a 5reverbal sub6ec% as in our e;am5les can be in %he sco5e of a hi!her 5ro5osi%ional o5era%or unli-e a55osi%ions$ Thus in (2C/-(4=/ Ion Po5escu?s bein! a honorific 5resi#en% of %he club is 5ar% of %he @ues%ione# or ne!a%e# ma%erial$
(2C/
(4=/
7 a#evLra% cL 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= Ion Po5es/1 avea o 5oAiRie is %rue %ha% 5resi#en% of honor of club-%he$G7N Ion Po5escu ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!ia%LK 5rivile!e# >Is i% %rue %ha% honorific 5resi#en% of %he club Ion Po5escu ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ionK? Nu e a#evLra% cL 50eCe3.nte 3e onoa0e al /l1b1l1.= Ion Po5es/1 avea o 5oAiRie no% is %rue %ha% 5resi#en% of honor of club-%he$G7N Ion Po5escu ha# a 5osi%ion 5rivile!ia%L$ 5rivile!e# >I% is no% %rue %ha% honorific 5resi#en% of %he club Ion Po5escu ha# a 5rivile!e# 5osi%ion$?
Dsin! %he 5ara5hrase 9i%h fiind as a %es% i% can be conclu#e# %ha% 5re#ica%ive cons%i%uen%s follo9in! a DP can some%imes re5resen% circums%an%ial small clauses3
(4+/ a$ Sora lui foar%e frumoasL avea mulRi a#mira%ori sis%er-%he his ver0 beau%iful ha# man0 a#mirers >Ois sis%er ver0 beau%iful ha# man0 a#mirers? b$ Sora lui fiin# foar%e frumoasL avea mulRi a#mira%ori sis%er-%he his bein! ver0 beau%iful ha# man0 a#mirers >Ois sis%er bein! ver0 beau%iful ha# man0 a#mirers?
I% %hus a55ears %ha% a 5re#ica%ive cons%i%uen% follo9in! a DP se5ara%e# b0 comma is 5o%en%iall0 ambi!uous be%9een an a55osi%ion an# a circums%an%ial small clause in%er5re%a%ion$ The circums%an%ial clause in%er5re%a%ion is e;clu#e# if %he 5re#ica%ion is I-level or occu5ies a much lon!er %em5oral in%erval %han %he main even% 9i%hou% bein! rela%e# %o %he main even% as a cause or a reason$ Such is %he case in (1</c re5ea%e# belo93 %he 5re#ica%e >beau%iful? is Ilevel an# %he 5re#ica%ion e;5resse# b0 %he AP canno% be in%er5re%e# as %he cause or reason of %he main even%$ This la%%er 5oin% e;5lains %he im5ossibili%0 of a 5ara5hrase 9i%h fiind (see (41/b/$
(41/ a$ SoRia sa foar%e frumoasL s%L%ea 5e un scaun Enal% Mi se conversa 9ife-%he 2SG$PGSS ver0 beau%iful si%$I:PF on a chair hi!h an# R7FL converse$I:PF cu oas5eRii 9i%h !ues%s-%he >Ois 9ife ver0 beau%iful 9as si%%in! on a hi!h chair an# ma-in! conversa%ion %o %he !ues%s? b$ m SoRia sa fiin# foar%e frumoasL s%L%ea 5e un scaun Enal% Mi se 9ife-%he 2SG$PGSS bein! ver0 beau%iful si%$I:PF on a chair hi!h an# R7FL conversa cu oas5eRii converse$I:PF 9i%h !ues%s-%he >m Ois 9ife bein! ver0 beau%iful 9as si%%in! on a hi!h chair an# ma-in! conversa%ion %o %he !ues%s?
Gbserve also %he follo9in! con%ras%$ In (42/ %he NP profesor universitar >universi%0 5rofessor? can be in%er5re%e# as a fur%her charac%eriAa%ion of an in#ivi#ual 9i%h 9hich %he hearer is no% familiar #eno%e# b0 %he 5ro5er noun >on /opescu$ Ui%h %his rea#in! %he NP is an a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion$ This rea#in! #oes no% allo9 %he reversal of %he or#er as e;5laine# above$ 'u% %here is a secon# rea#in! in 9hich (42/ is e@uivalen% %o (44/$ Gn %his rea#in! %he NP profesor universitar is %he 5re#ica%e of a circums%an%ial small clause (9i%h a null 5ronoun (PRG/ coin#e;e# 9i%h >on /opescu as a sub6ec%/ 9hich can have a %em5oral or a .4,
causal/reason in%er5re%a%ion as illus%ra%e# b0 %he 5ara5hrases in (4,/3

(42/ (44/ (4,/ Ion Po5escu 50ofeso0 1n.2e0s.ta0 era un oas5e%e obiMnui% al mL%uMii mele Ion Po5escu 5rofessor universi%0$ ADN 9as a !ues% cus%omar0 G7N aun%-%he$G7N m0 >Ion Po5escu a universi%0 5rofessor 9as a cus%omar0 !ues% of m0 aun%? P0ofeso0 1n.2e0s.ta0 Ion Po5escu era un oas5e%e obiMnui% al mL%uMii mele 5rofessor universi%0$ ADN Ion Po5escu 9as a !ues% cus%omar0 G7N aun%-%he$G7N m0 >As a universi%0 5rofessor Ion Po5escu 9as a cus%omar0 !ues% of m0 aun%? a$ CWn# a6unsese 5rofesor universi%ar / Pe cWn# era 5rofesor 9hen become$PLPF$2SG 5rofessor universi%0$ ADN 9hile 9as$2SG 5rofessor universi%ar Ion Po5escu era un oas5e%e obiMnui% al mL%uMii mele universi%0$ ADN Ion Po5sescu 9as a !ues% cus%omar0 G7N aun%-%he$G7N m0 >Uhen he ha# become a universi%0 5rofessor / Uhen he 9as a universi%0 5rofessor Ion Po5escu 9as a cus%omar0 !ues% of m0 aun%? b$ `n%rucW% era 5rofesor universi%ar Ion Po5escu era un oas5e%e obiMnui% al as 9as$2SG 5rofessor universi%0$ ADN Ion Po5escu 9as a !ues% cus%omar0 G7N mL%uMii mele aun%-%he$G7N m0 >'ein! a universi%0 5rofessor Ion Po5escu 9as a cus%omar0 !ues% of m0 aun%?
Concernin! %he 5ossibili%0 of a 5ro5er%0 #eno%a%ion of 5re#ica%ive DPs hea#e# b0 %he in#efini%e ar%icle #iscusse# in cha5%er 1 *<$2 i% is in%eres%in! %o no%ice %ha% %his #eno%a%ional %05e can be reco!niAe# b0 %he 5ossibili%0 %o en%er %he ambi!ui%0 in (42/$ This is because onl0 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! cons%i%uen%s can func%ion as 5re#ica%es of a#6unc% small clauses (secon#ar0 5re#ica%es/$ Thus (4./a has a rea#in! in 9hich i% is e@uivalen% %o (4./b in 9hich %he in#efini%e DP o bun matematician is %he 5re#ica%e of a circums%an%ial small clause 9i%h a causal/reason in%er5re%a%ion (%he reason 9h0 his sis%er 9as !la#l0 receive# b0 %he Geor!escu famil0 9as %he fac% %ha% she 9as a !oo# ma%hema%ician/3
(4./ a$ Sora lui o b1n: 6ate6at./.an: era 5rimi%L cu 5lLcere #e familia Geor!escu sis%er-%he his a !oo# ma%hema%ician 9as receive# 9i%h 5leasure b0 famil0-%he Geor!escu >Ois sis%er a !oo# ma%hema%ician 9as !la#l0 receive# b0 %he Geor!escus? b$ O b1n: 6ate6at./.an: sora lui era 5rimi%L cu 5lLcere #e familia Geor!escu a !oo# ma%hema%ician sis%er-%he his 9as receive# 9i%h 5leasure b0 famil0-%he Geor!escu >A !oo# ma%hema%ician his sis%er 9as !la#l0 receive# b0 %he Geor!escus?
Since %he in#efini%e DP o bun matematician can have a 5ro5er%0-#eno%a%ion i% can be conclu#e# %ha% i% can also func%ion as an a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion (in an e;am5le such as (4./a/$ I% has been no%ice# %ha% no% all in#efini%e DPs allo9 %his in%er5re%a%ion (see cha5%er 1 *<$2/3 if %he noun #oes no% e;5ress a scalar 5ro5er%0 an# is no% mo#ifie# %he 5ro5er%0 in%er5re%a%ion is im5ossible$ This !eneraliAa%ion is confirme# b0 %he 5henomenon inves%i!a%e# here$ Thus if 9e omi% %he a#6ec%ive bun in (4./a %he circums%an%ial clause cons%ruc%ion becomes im5ossible (see (4</b/$
(4</ a$ Sora lui o 6ate6at./.an: era 5rimi%L cu 5lLcere #e familia Geor!escu sis%er-%he his a ma%hema%ician 9as receive# 9i%h 5leasure b0 famil0-%he Geor!escu >Ois sis%er a ma%hema%ician 9as !la#l0 receive# b0 %he Geor!escus? b$ L O 6ate6at./.an: sora lui era 5rimi%L cu 5lLcere #e familia Geor!escu a ma%hema%ician sis%er-%he his 9as receive# 9i%h 5leasure b0 famil0-%he Geor!escu
Ue can %herefore conclu#e %ha% %he in#efini%e DP in (4</a re5resen%s an e@ua%ive a55osi%ion$
.4.
2.%. Ite0ate3 a55os.t.ons A%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions can be i%era%e# (see (4B// an# can combine 9i%h e@ua%ive a55osi%ions (see (4C//3
(4B/ (4C/ 'L%rWnul fost /a65.on 3e ten.s= 2e3et: 3e tele2.B.1ne era vecinul meu$ ol#rman-%he former cham5ion of %ennis s%ar of %elevision 9as nei!hbor-%he m0 >The ol# man a former %ennis cham5ion a TV s%ar 9as m0 nei!hbor? 7lena so0a l1. st13ent: la e/ono6.e se 5re!L%ea 5en%ru un e;amen 7lena sis%er-%he his s%u#en% a% economics R7FL 5re5are$I:PF for an e;am >7lena his sis%er s%u#en% in economics 9as 5re5arin! for an e;am?
In e;am5les such as (4B/ in 9hich %he firs% a55osi%ion is e@ua%ive an# %he secon# one is a%%ribu%ive one ma0 anal0Ae %he a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion as %a-in! %he e@ua%ive a55osi%ion as an anchor$ 'u% %his anal0sis canno% be a#o5%e# for e;am5les li-e (4</ in 9hich %he %9o a55osi%ions are a%%ribu%ive because an a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ion mus% a%%ach %o a referen%ial e;5ression no% %o a 5re#ica%ive one$ I% mus% be conclu#e# %ha% %he %9o a55osi%ions in (4B/ a%%ach %o %he same anchor (btrnul >%he ol# man?/ 5robabl0 b0 s%ac-in! (lac- of con6unc%ion su!!es%s %ha% %he a55osi%ions are no% coor#ina%e#/3
(,=/ Y YYDP bL%rWnulZ Y fos% cam5ion #e %enisZZ Y ve#e%L #e %eleviAiuneZZ
T9o cons%i%uen%s A an# ' #e5en#en% on C are stac#ed if (one of %hem sa0/ ' a%%aches %o %he cons%i%uen% forme# b0 A an# C 0iel#in! %he brac-e%in! YYC AZ 'Z
As a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions can be s%ac-e# i% is reasonable %o assume %ha% i%era%ion of e@ua%ive a55osi%ions (see (,+// or %he mi;e# %05e in (4C/ also involve s%ac-in!$
(,+/ G al%L invi%a%L #oamna Po5escu Mefa #e5ar%amen%ului #e vWnALri vorbeM%e an o%her !ues% :rs$ Po5escu hea#-%he #e5ar%men%-%he$ G7N of sellin!s %al-s cu soRul :ariei 9i%h husban#-%he :aria$G7N >Ano%her !ues% :rs$ Po5escu %he hea# of %he sellin! #e5ar%men% is %al-in! %o :aria?s husban#?
2.&. A /o66on s9nta/t./ /8a0a/te0.Bat.on of att0.b1t.2e an3 eI1at.2e a55os.t.ons Ue have seen %ha% a%%ribu%ive an# e@ua%ive a55osi%ions are ali-e in several im5or%an% res5ec%s P in%er5re%a%ion as a conven%ional im5lica%ure 5roso#ic se5ara%ion a%%achmen% %o a referen%ial DP$ 'ase# on %hese similari%ies i% is reasonable %o assume %ha% %he0 have %he same un#erl0in! s0n%ac%ic s%ruc%ure3 namel0 a re#uce# a55osi%ive rela%ive$ This i#ea is su55or%e# b0 %he fac% %ha% bo%h non-clausal a%%ribu%ive a55osi%ions an# e@ua%ive a55osi%ions can be 5ara5hrase# b0 a55osi%ive rela%ives 9i%h %he co5ula P %he cons%ruc%ion YDP VPZ is 5ara5hrasable b0 "DP &!ic! is VP&3
(,1/ (,2/ :aria s%u#en%L la me#icinL :aria s%u#en% a% me#icine Dl%ima concuren%L :aria las%-%he com5e%i%or :aria [ [ :aria care es%e/era s%u#en%L la me#icinL :aria 9hich is / 9as s%u#en% a% me#icine Dl%ima concuren%L care es%e/era :aria las%-%he com5e%i%or 9hich is /9as :aria
Rela%ives in !eneral are 5ro5er%0-#eno%in! e;5ressions (%05e ee %fI see cha5%er +=/$ Uhen func%ionin! as a55osi%ions %his 5ro5er%0 is a%%ribu%e# %o %he en%i%0 #eno%e# b0 %he anchor-DP$ .4<
In %he case of e@ua%ive a55osi%ions (see (,2// %his 5ro5er%0 is %ha% of bein! i#en%ical %o %he referen% of %he a55osi%ive DP$ Ui%h full rela%ives %he i#en%i%0 rea#in! is ob%aine# via an e@ua%ive 5re#ica%ion P "9hich is :aria& means "9hich is i#en%ical %o :aria&$ Ue can %hus consi#er %ha% e@ua%ive a55osi%ions re5resen% re#uce# coun%er5ar%s of rela%ives 9i%h e@ua%ive be$ No%e %ha% in o%her environmen%s %he over% e;5ression of %he co5ula is necessar0 in or#er %o ob%ain an e@ua%ive rea#in! (e$!$ %here are no e@ua%ive small clauses/$
Uhereas be in 5re#ica%ional sen%ences is meanin!less e@ua%ive be in%ro#uces %he i#en%i%0 rela%ion3 (i/ In %he confi!ura%ion be DP if DP #eno%es %he in#ivi#ual i Ybe DPZ #eno%es ;$ ;[i
Therefore if 9e anal0Ae e@ua%ive a55osi%ions as re#uce# rela%ives 9e mus% assume %ha% a55osi%ive re#uce# rela%ives con%ain a null coun%er5ar% of %he e@ua%ive co5ula be$
3. J1<ta5ose3 no1ns
In %his sec%ion 9e #iscuss DPs ma#e u5 of %9o nominal cons%i%uen%s no% se5ara%e# b0 a comma 9here %he secon# one is a DP or an NP 9hich lac-s an in%ro#uc%or0 elemen%$ These cons%ruc%ions #iffer from a55osi%ions insofar as %he secon# nominal is seman%icall0 in%e!ra%e# in%o %he DP bein! %a-en in%o accoun% in %he calculus of %he #eno%a%ion of %he DP$ There are %hree %05es of 6u;%a5ose# nominals3 (i/
(,4/
Common Noun H Pro5er Noun3

Profesorul Po5escu 5rofessor-%he Po5escu >Professor Po5escu?
(ii/
(,,/
Pro5er Noun H Defini%e DP3

Po5escu 5rofesorul Po5escu 5rofessor-%he >Po5escu %he 5rofessor?
(iii/
(,./
Common Noun H Common Noun (Common nouns as res%ric%ive mo#ifiers/

un minis%ru femeie a minis%er 9oman >a 9oman minis%er?
3.1. Co66on No1n V P0o5e0 No1n In %his cons%ruc%ion %he firs% %erm a common noun (or NP base# on a common noun/ ca%e!oriAes or charac%eriAes %he referen% of %he DP an# %he 5ro5er noun s5ecifies i%s name$ Uhen %he 5ro5er noun is a name of 5erson %he common N can be a noun of 5rofession (see (,<// of in%er5ersonal rela%ion (see (,B// or a %i%le or s%a%us name e;5ressin! 5oli%eness or familiari%0 (see (,C//3
(,</ (,B/ doctorul /opescu >#oc%or-%he Po5escu? inspectorul 3eamu >ins5ec%or-%he NeamRu?% poetul ,obuc >5oe%-%he CoMbuc? bunicul 5anole >!ran#-fa%her-%he :anole?% unc!iul Easile >uncle-%he Vasile? mtua 5aria
.4B
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns >aun%-%he :aria? prietenul nostru 5ircea >frien#-%he our :ircea? domnul /opescu >sir-%he Po5escu? ":r$ Po5escu& domnioara 5aria >miss-%he :aria? "miss :aria& nenea >on "uncle/fa%her Ion&
(,C/
Some %erms in#ica%in! 5oli%eness or familiari%0 can also a55ear 9i%hou% %he ar%icle (%his is al9a0s %he case of tanti >aun%ie?/3
(.=/ dom. /opescu ":r$ Po5escu& tanti 5aria >aun%ie :aria?
Ui%h names of ob6ec%s (inanima%es/ %he common noun in%ro#uces %he ca%e!or0 of %he en%i%0 P see %he follo9in! e;am5les of names of 5h0sical ob6ec%s (.+/ names of ins%i%u%ions (.1/ names of ar%is%ic ob6ec%s (.2/ of %ime in%ervals (.4/ of ma%hema%ical en%i%ies (.,/3
(.+/ (.1/ (.2/ (.4/ (.,/ continentul Europa >con%inen%-%he 7uro5e? +udeul Elcea >coun%0-%he VWlcea?% lacul Amara >la-e-%he Amara? staia Lucur-Hbor >s%o5-%he 'ucur-Gbor? planeta ?upiter >5lane%-%he Nu5i%er? vrful Hmu >summi%-%he Gmu? Editura Univers >5ublishin!rhouse-%he Dnivers? Universitatea ,raiova >Dniversi%0-%he Craiova?% compania /etrom >com5an0-%he Pe%rom? poemul Luceafrul >5oem-%he LuceafLrul? romanul hOscoalaf >novel-%he RLscoala? secolul dou(eci >cen%ur0-%he VV? "%he VV%h cen%ur0& anul ;c<; >0ear-%he +B1+? punctul / >5oin%-%he P? numrul nou >number-%he nine?
The secon# nominal can also be a common noun use# as a 5ro5er name of -in#3
(../ elementul !eliu >elemen%-%he helium? specia ti ru >s5ecies-%he %i!er? substana acetofenon >subs%ance-%he ace%o5henone?
In %he 5osi%ion of %he 5ro5er noun 9e can also fin# an e;5ression use# me%alin!uis%icall0 9hich seman%icall0 @ualifies as a 5ro5er noun (a name for %ha% e;5ression/3
(.</ vocala a >vo9el-%he a? cuvntul hvictorief >9or#-%he vic%or0? prepo(iia hpef >5re5osi%ion%he 5e?
Dnli-e a55osi%ions %he secon# nominal in %his cons%ruc%ion canno% be su55resse# 9i%hou% chan!in! %he reference3
(.B/ a$ Poemul "LuceafLrul& es%e re5reAen%a%iv 5en%ru 5oeAia romWneascL 5oem-%he LuceafLrul is re5resen%a%ive for 5oe%r0-%he Romanian >The 5oem Luceafrul is re5resen%a%ive for Romanian 5oe%r0? w b$ Poemul es%e re5reAen%a%iv 5en%ru 5oeAia romWneascL 5oem-%he is re5resen%a%ive for 5oe%r0-%he Romanian >The 5oem is re5resen%a%ive for Romanian 5oe%r0?
The 5ro5er noun is in%er5re%e# as a res%ric%ive mo#ifier res%ric%in! %he class of 5oems %o %he class of 5oems calle# "LuceafLrul&$ Since ce%eris 5aribus %he sim5les% s0n%a;-seman%ics ma55in! is 5referre# 9e ma0 su!!es% %ha% %he 5ro5er noun is insi#e %he com5lemen% of %he #efini%e D 5ossibl0 as a sis%er of %he common NP$ Concernin! %he common noun i% seems %ha% some%imes i% can be omi%%e# 9i%hou% losin! %he informa%ion nee#e# %o es%ablish %he reference$ This ha55ens es5eciall0 9i%h names of 5ersons 9here %he common noun is of%en use# as a %i%le$ A #is%inc%ion be%9een nouns use# as %i%les an# nouns use# %o conve0 relevan% informa%ion abou% %he referen% can be #ra9n in 7n!lish 9here %he former #o no% %a-e %he #efini%e ar%icle (see (.C// an# %he la%%er #o (see
.4C
(<=/-(<+//$ Thus mos% of %he e;am5les in (,</-(,C/ have 7n!lish %ransla%ions 9i%hou% %he ar%icle bu% %here are cases in 9hich %he ar%icle mus% a55ear3
(.C/ (<=/ (<+/ #oc%or Po5escu ins5ec%or NeamRu% uncle Vasile aun% :aria :r$ Po5escu %he 5oe% CoMbuc The con%inen% (of/ 7uro5e %he 5oin% P %he number nine %he 0ear +B1+ %he elemen% helium
In Romanian as sho9n in cha5%er +1 *1$1-1$2 %he D 5osi%ion mus% be over%l0 realiAe# if %he 5ro5er noun is no% DP-ini%ial %herefore %he #efini%e ar%icle canno% be omi%%e# as in 7n!lish$ As in Romanian %here is no clear evi#ence for %9o s%ruc%ures 9e 9ill base our anal0sis on %he si%ua%ions in 9hich %he common noun con%ribu%es %o es%ablishin! %he reference 9hich can be consi#ere# %he li%eral meanin! of %he cons%ruc%ion$ Seman%icall0 %he con%ribu%ion of %he 5ro5er noun can be re5resen%e# as %ha% of a 5re#ica%e combinin! b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion 9i%h %ha% of %he common NP$ There are %9o choices for %his 5re#ica%e3 "en%i%0 calle# "PN&& (e$!$ ;$; is calle# "LuceafLrul&/ in 9hich case %he 5ro5er noun is %a-en in i%s me%alin!uis%ic use as a men%ion or "en%i%0 i#en%ical %o %he referen% of PN& (e$!$ ;$; [ l 9here l is %he in#ivi#ual cons%an% #eno%e# b0 %he name "LuceafLrul&/ in 9hich case %he 5ro5er noun is %a-en in i%s s%an#ar# referen%ial in%er5re%a%ion$ Accor#in! %o a recen%l0 5ro5ose# anal0sis of %his cons%ruc%ion %he common noun belon!s %o a func%ional level 9hich is al9a0s 5resen% on %o5 of NPs consis%in! of a 5ro5er noun$ The i#ea is %ha% en%i%ies #eno%e# b0 5ro5er nouns mus% be ca%e!oriAe# in or#er %o be able %o be referre# %o$ This ca%e!oriAa%ion is 5erforme# b0 li!h% nouns or classifiers of ca%e!or0 n 9hich %a-e NP as a com5lemen% an# are null con%ainin! fea%ures such as P7RSGN PLAC7 e%c$ 9hich are chec-e# b0 %he 5ro5er noun$ In %he cons%ruc%ion common noun H 5ro5er noun %he ca%e!orial informa%ion is ma#e over% b0 %he use of %he common NPI %his NP is si%ua%e# in %he s5ecifier of %he ca%e!oriAin! nP chec-in! %he fea%ures of n b0 mer!e3
(<1/ Y YD-ulZ YnP YNP 5rofesorZ Y Yn HP7RSGNZ YNP Po5escuZZZZ
Ue shall no9 inves%i!a%e o%her 5ro5er%ies of %his cons%ruc%ion %r0in! %o see if %he0 are com5a%ible 9i%h %he anal0sis 5resen%e# above$ Firs% i% is clear %ha% %he common noun is a 5hrasal cons%i%uen%3 i% allo9s 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives an# PPs$
(<2/ a$ #oc%orul in%ernis% Po5escu #oc%or-%he in%ernis% Po5escu >%he #oc%or s5ecialiAe# in in%ernal me#icine Po5escu? b$ 5rofesorul universi%ar Geor!escu 5rofessor-%he univesi%0$ ADN Geor!escu >%he universi%0 5rofessor Geor!escu? c$ s5ecialis%ul En inscri5Rii vechi !receM%i :a%ei Ionescu s5ecialis%-%he in inscri5%ions ol# Gree- :a%ei Ionescu >%he s5ecialis% in ol# Gree- inscri5%ions :a%ei Ionescu? #$ !eneralul franceA Ne0 !eneral-%he French Ne0 >%he French !eneral Ne0? e$ oraMul !erman Darms%a#% ci%0-%he German Darms%a#% >%he German ci%0 of Darms%a#%?
The mo#ifiers allo9e# seem %o be res%ric%e# %o rela%ional (or classif0in!/ mo#ifiers (on %his no%ion see Cha5%er < *1/I 5urel0 in%ersec%ive mo#ifiers 9hich #irec%l0 a55l0 %o %he en%i%0 .,=
#eno%e# b0 %he DP seem %o be e;clu#e#3

(<4/ a$ KK #oc%orul %WnLr Po5escu #oc%or-%he 0oun! Po5escu b$ KK elec%ricianul blon# Gri!ore elec%rician-%he blon# Gri!ore
This cons%rain% a55ears %o be #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he NP mus% assi!n %he referen% %o a 9ell-es%ablishe# ca%e!or0$ Uhereas universi%0 5rofessors or German %o9ns are 9ell-es%ablishe# ca%e!ories 0oun! #oc%ors or blon# elec%ricians are no%$ This re@uiremen% on %he common NP can be seen as a s5ecial 5ro5er%0 of %he s%ruc%ure in (<1/ in 9hich %he nPlevel is use# %o in%ro#uce %he ca%e!or0 of %he 5ro5er noun$ Non-ca%e!oriAin! mo#ifiers can be use# in %hese DPs bu% %he0 mus% be 5lace# af%er %he CNHPN s%rin! an# %he0 behave li-e mo#ifiers of 5ro5er nouns$ Thus a#6ec%ives mus% be 5rece#e# b0 %he ar%icle cel (see (<,/I on %his >#ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion? see cha5%er < *2$2/ e;ac%l0 li-e af%er 5ro5er nouns (see (<.//3
(<,/ a$ #oc%orul Po5escu cel %WnLr #oc%or-%he Po5escu %he 0oun! >%he 0oun! #oc%or Po5escu? a_$ X #oc%orul Po5escu %WnLr b$ elec%ricianul Gri!ore cel blon# elec%rician-%he Gri!ore %he blon# >%he blon# elec%rician Gri!ore? b_$ X elec%ricianul Gri!ore Enal% elec%rician-%he Gri!ore %all a$ :arin cel %WnLr :arin %he 0oun! >%he 0oun! Po5escu? a_$ X Po5escu %WnLr (unless in%er5re%e# as a small clause/ Po5escu 0oun! b$ Gri!ore cel blon# Gri!ore %he blon# b_$ X Gri!ore blon# (unless in%er5re%e# as a small clause/ Gri!ore blon#
(<./
As sho9n in cha5%er +1 *1 5ro5er nouns allo9 a number of >heav0? 5os%nominal res%ric%ive mo#ifiers bu% no% a#6ec%ives 9i%hou% cel$ The same res%ric%ive mo#ifiers are allo9e# af%er %he CNHPN com5le;3
(<</ a$ #oc%orul Po5escu #e la ur!enRL #oc%or-%he Po5escu from emer!enc0 >%he #oc%or Po5escu from %he emer!enc0 sec%ion? b$ Po5escu #e la ur!enRL Po5escu from emer!enc0 >(%he/ Po5escu from %he emer!enc0 sec%ion? a$ 5rofesorul Ionescu cel blon# 5rofessor-%he Ionescu %he blon# >%he blon# 5rofessor Ionescu? b$ Ionescu cel blon# Ionescu %he blon# >%he blon# Ionescu?
(<B/
.,+
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns (<C/ a$ #oc%orul Po5escu 5e care l-a a#us :aria #oc%or-%he Po5escu DG: 9hich CL$ACC-has brou!h% :aria >%he #oc%or Po5escu %ha% 9as brou!h% b0 :aria? b$ Po5escu 5e care l-a a#us :aria Po5escu DG: 9hich CL$ACC-has brou!h% :aria >%he Po5escu %ha% 9as brou!h% b0 :aria? a$ #oc%orul Po5escu al :ariei #oc%or-%he Po5escu G7N :aria$G7N b$ Po5escu al :ariei Po5escu G7N :aria$G7N
(B=/
This behavior is e;5ec%e# un#er %he anal0sis in (<1/3 as %he le;ical hea# of %he cons%ruc%ion is a 5ro5er N %he 9hole CNHPN com5le; has %he 5ro5er%ies of 5ro5er nouns$ The CN-PN cons%ruc%ion can also combine 9i%h in#efini%e #e%erminers an# @uan%ifiers an# %a-e 5lural$ This a!ain is no% s5ecific %o %he CN-PN cons%ruc%ion bu% can also be foun# 9i%h 5ro5er nouns no% 5rece#e# b0 common nouns (see cha5%er +1 *2/$ I% is in%eres%in! %o no%ice %ha% in %his cons%ruc%ion res%ric%ive a#6ec%ives follo9in! %he PN can a55ear unli-e in (<,/a_-b_ 9here %he common noun carries %he #efini%e ar%icle3
(B+/ a$ al% #oc%or Po5escu Enal% o%her #oc%or Po5escu %all >ano%her %all #oc%or Po5escu? a_$ al% Po5escu Enal% ano%her Po5escu %all >ano%her %all Po5escu? b$ %oRi #oc%orii Po5escu %ineri all #oc%ors-%he Po5escu 0oun! >all %he 0oun! #oc%ors Po5escu? b_$ %oRi Po5eM%ii %ineri all Po5escu$PL-%he 0oun! >all %he 0oun! Po5escus?
Dn#er %he anal0sis su!!es%e# in (<1/ above %his con%ras% follo9s from %he fac% %ha% 9i%h #e%erminers o%her %han %he #efini%e ar%icle %he 5ro5er noun is reclassifie# as a common noun (9i%h %he in%er5re%a%ion "en%i%0 name# "PN&& %he so-calle# "#enomina%ive& rea#in!/$ The common noun can also be follo9e# b0 a 5ronominal 5ossessor (es5eciall0 if %he noun is rela%ional/$ Ui%h a nominal !eni%ive %he acce5%abili%0 of %he e;am5les seems %o be re#uce#3
(B1/ a$ 5rie%enul nos%ru Gri!ore frien#-%he our Gri!ore >our frien# Gri!ore? b$ K 5rie%enul 5LrinRilor mei Vic%or Donicescu frien#-%he 5aren%s-%he$G7N m0 Vic%or Donicescu >our 5aren%s? frien# Vic%or Donicescu? c$ K 5rofesorul surorii mele Ra#u Dumi%rescu 5rofessor-%he sis%er-%he$G7N m0 Ra#u Dumi%rescu >m0 sis%er?s 5rofessor Ra#u Dumi%rescu?
There are no s5ecial res%ric%ions on %he mo#ifiers 9hich 5rece#e %he common noun3
(B2/ a$ bunul nos%ru 5rie%en Geor!e !oo#-%he our frien# Geor!e
.,1
A55osi%ions an# Nu;%a5ose# Nouns b$ s5len#i#ul oraM Paris s5len#i#-%he ci%0 Paris c$ fos%ul minis%ru 'lLnculescu former-%he minis%er 'lLnculescu
The PN canno% sho9 an0 case mar-in!3

(B4/ a$ I-am s5us Mi 5rie%enei noas%re :aria CL-DAT-have$+ %ol# also frien#-%he$DAT our$DAT :aria b$ X I-am s5us Mi 5rie%enei noas%re :ariei CL-DAT-have$+ %ol# also frien#-%he$DAT our$DAT :aria$DAT
I% is in%eres%in! %o recall %ha% %he behavior observe# here 9i%h res5ec% %o Case mar-in! is %he same as %he one observe# for a55osi%ions (see *1$1$2 above/$
Ui%h !eo!ra5hical nouns %here is an e@uivalen% cons%ruc%ion in 9hich %he 5ro5er noun is mar-e# as !eni%ive$ This cons%ruc%ion is %o#a0 mos%l0 confine# %o %he li%erar0 re!is%er as an archaism3 (i/ (ii/ TWr!ul IaMilor %o9n-%he IaMi-%he$PL$G7N >%he %o9n of IaMi? A5a :ureMului 9a%er-%he :ureM-%he$G7N >%he river :ureM?
The 5ossibili%0 of !eni%ive mar-in! is foun# in various o%her lan!ua!es P La%in 7n!lish (e$!$ t!e city of Oome/ French (e$!$ la ville de /aris/$
3.2. P0o5e0 No1n V Def.n.te DP This cons%ruc%ion is use# %o selec% amon! several en%i%ies 9hich bear %he same name$ I% has a con%ras%ive flavor 9hich resul%s from %he fac% %ha% %he hearer is su55ose# %o be a9are of %he fac% %ha% %here are several bearers of %ha% name #is%in!uishe# b0 %he secon# member of %he cons%ruc%ion3
(B,/ a$ Po5es/1 50ofeso01l era im5lica% En acci#en% (nu Po5es/1 a/to01l/ Po5escu %eacher-%he 9as involve# in acci#en% no% Po5escu ac%or-%he >Po5escu %he %eacher 9as involve# in %he acci#en% (no% Po5escu %he ac%or/? b$ D16as f.1l es%e au%orul aces%ei o5ere (nu D16as tat:l/ Dumas son-%he is au%hor-%he %his$G7N 9or- no% Dumas fa%her-%he >Dumas %he son is %he au%hor of %his 9or- no% Dumas %he fa%her? c$ S-a ho%LrW% sL mear!L la A%ena$ (Atena fata nu Atena o0aC1l/$ R7FL-has #eci#e# SD'N !oes %o A%ena A%ena !irl-%he no% A%ena ci%0-%he #$ S%aRiunea a fos% numi%L #u5L 'en1s 5laneta (nu #u5L AeiRa Venus/ summerrresor%-%he has been name# af%er Venus 5lane%-%he no% af%er !o##ess-%he Venus >The (summer/ resor% has been name# af%er Venus %he 5lane% no% af%er %he !o##ess Venus?
This cons%ruc%ion sho9s an inver%e# or#er 9i%h res5ec% %o %he cons%ruc%ion Common Noun H Pro5er Noun (#escribe# in %he 5revious sec%ion/$ Therefore 9e ma0 assume a #eriva%ional rela%ion be%9een %he %9o3 %he Pro5er Noun H Common Noun cons%ruc%ion can be #erive# from %he Common Noun H Pro5er Noun cons%ruc%ion b0 fron%in! of %he Pro5er Nooun %o a s5ecifier 5osi%ion in or#er %o mar- i% as 5ar% of %he bac-!roun# leavin! %he Common Noun un#er focus$ a #is5lacemen% o5era%ion 9hich is 5erforme# in or#er %o mar- %he common noun as a focus an# %he 5ro5er noun as (5ar% of %he/ bac-!roun#$ .,2
No%e %ha% %he e;is%ence of %he Pro5er Noun H Defini%e DP cons%ruc%ion #oes no% #e5en# on %he e;is%ence of #ouble #efini%eness in Romanian because %he Pro5er Noun H Defini%e DP cons%ruc%ion is also foun# in lan!ua!es 9hich #o no% have %he #ouble #efini%eness cons%ruc%ion such as 7n!lish an# French3 (i/ (ii/ a$ Colri#!e %he son / %he 0oun! b$ Venus %he 5lane% c$ X The 5rofessor %he 0oun! a$ Dumas le fils / le 6eune (French/ b$ X Le 5rofesseur le fils / le 6eune
No%ice %he lac- of %he ar%icle on %he 5ro5er noun in 7n!lish (see (i// al%hou!h in %his lan!ua!e 5ro5er nouns in res%ric%ive mo#ifica%ion con%e;%s #o combine 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle3 (iii/ a$ The 0oun! Colri#!e b$ The So5hie I me% 0es%er#a0
This can be %a-en as an ar!umen% for %he movemen% anal0sis 5ro5ose# above$
3.3. Co66on No1n V Co66on No1n Al%hou!h %his cons%ruc%ion has no% been %rea%e# as an a55osi%ion 9e #iscuss i% here because i% resembles %he cons%ruc%ion Common Noun H Pro5er Noun in %ha% i% con%ains a nominal a%%ache# %o ano%her nominal an# in%er5re%e# res%ric%ivel03
(B./ a$ femeile avoca% 9omen-%he la90er >%he 9oman la90ers? b$ un minis%ru femeie a minis%er 9oman >a 9oman minis%er? c$ 5ronumele subiec% 5ronoun-%he sub6ec% >%he sub6ec% 5ronoun? #$ %eoria s%an#ar# mo#elul s%an#ar# %heor0-%he s%an#ar# mo#el-%he s%an#ar# >%he s%an#ar# %heor0/mo#el?
In %his cons%ruc%ion %he secon# NP is in%er5re%e# as in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives3 as a 5ro5er%0 of in#ivi#uals combine# b0 5re#ica%e in%ersec%ion 9i%h %he 5ro5er%0 #eno%e# b0 %he NP i% a%%aches %o$ Ue can %hus assume %ha% i% func%ions as an NP-a#6unc% 6us% li-e a#6ec%ives$ The fac% %ha% #is%in!uishes i% from a#6ec%ives sho9in! %ha% 9e are #ealin! 9i%h a noun is %he absence of a!reemen%$ A% leas% !en#er a!reemen% is im5ossible nouns havin! inheren% (le;ical/ !en#er$ As for number if %he hea# noun is 5lural some%imes %he secon# noun can a55ear in an0 number some%imes %he 5lural is 5referable (see (B</c/3
(B</ a$ oraMele reMe#inRL #e 6u#eR /reMe#inRe #e 6u#eR ci%ies-%he ca5i%al of coun%0 ca5i%als of coun%0 >ci%ies ca5i%al(s/ of coun%ies? b$ femeile avoca% / avocaRi 9omen la90er la90ers c$ avocaRii femei/KKfemeie la90ers 9omen / 9oman
No%ice %ha% %he 7n!lish corres5on#en% of %his cons%ruc%ion has %his noun in a 5osi%ion %05ical .,4
for li!h% mo#ifiers i$e$ 5rece#in! %he hea# noun$ Nouns can mo#if0 o%her nouns onl0 if %heir #escri5%ive con%en% is no% a ca%e!oriAin! 5ro5er%0$ The e;am5les 9i%h inanima%es (see (B./c-# (B</a/ in#ica%e %ha% i% is %he firs% noun %ha% in%ro#uces %he ca%e!oriAin! 5ro5er%0 (for ins%ance 9e can 5ara5hrase (B./c b0 "%he 5ronoun 9hich func%ions as a sub6ec%& (B./# b0 "%he %heor0/mo#el 9hich serves as a s%an#ar#&/$ Ui%h 5ersons as in (B./a-b %he referen% is alrea#0 ca%e!oriAe# as a 5erson an# %he 5rofession or func%ion (see (B./a/ or %he se; (see (B./b/ is a non-ca%e!oriAin! 5ro5er%0$ Ano%her %05e of non-ca%e!oriAin! nouns are %hose 9i%h a me%a5horical @uali%0 meanin!3
(BB/ (BC/ (C=/ (C+/ caA limi%L si%uaRie limi%L case limi% si%ua%ion limi% >bor#erline case e;%reme si%ua%ion? 5ersona6 cheie 5ar%ener cheie charac%er -e0 5ar%ner -e0 >-e0 charac%er/5ar%ner? invaAie ful!er Me#inRL ful!er invasion li!h%nin! mee%in! li!h%nin! >ver0 @uic- an# su##en invasionI ver0 brief mee%in!? elev mo#el cons%rucRie mo#el 5u5il mo#el buil#in! mo#el >e;em5lar0 5u5il/buil#in!?
.,,
Voca%ives
1%. 'o/at.2es
'LANCA CRGITGR ) VIRGINIA OILL 1. Def.n.t.on 2. P0a46at./ 50o5e0t.es 3. P8onolo49 $. Le<./on %. Mo058olo49
,$+$ Case en#in!s ,$1$ The al%erna%ion -e versus -ule for masculine sin!ular ,$2$ The al%erna%ion of Case mar-e# an# unmar-e# voca%ives
&. S9nta<? 580ase st01/t10e

.$+$ :o#ifiers of voca%ive nouns .$1$ NominaliAe# a#6ec%ives .$2$ Le;icall0 null nouns .$4$ Coor#ina%e# voca%ives
(. S9nta<? t8e 2o/at.2e .n t8e senten/e

<$+$ Voca%ives P sub6ec%s of im5era%ivesK <$1$ Ana5horic rela%ions
). Re2e0se 0ole 2o/at.2es *. 'o/at.2es .n e</la6at.ons 1,. T8eo0et./al I1est.ons
.,.
Voca%ives
1. Def.n.t.on
Voca%ives are e;5ressions of #irec% a##ress %ha% i#en%if0 %he 5erson bein! a##resse# an#/or es%ablish a bon#in! be%9een s5ea-er an# a##ressee$ A noun 5hrase is in%er5re%e# as a voca%ive 5hrase 9hen i% is sub6ec%e# %o cer%ain lin!uis%ic o5era%ions involvin! 5roso#0 mor5holo!0 or le;ical mar-in!$ Lan!ua!es #iffer in %heir o5%ions for %he %05e of o5era%ions some rel0in! on onl0 one of %he %hree 5ossibili%ies 9hile o%hers resor%in! %o a combina%ion of %9o or all of %he above$ All %hree %05es of o5era%ions can be foun# in Romanian as sho9n in (+/$
(+/ 're unchiaMule un#e %e #uciK uncle$DI:-%he$VGC 9here R7FL !o$1SG >Gl# man 9here are 0ou !oin!K?
PTCL
In (+/ %he voca%ive cons%i%uen% bre unc!iaule >PTCL uncle? comes as an in#e5en#en% 5roso#ic uni% 9i%h ini%ial hi!h 5i%ch$ The 5ar%icle bre has a #ouble func%ion3 i% #ra9s %he a%%en%ion of %he a##ressee 9hile also in#ica%in! a hi!h #e!ree of familiari%0 be%9een %he s5ea-er an# %he a##ressee$ The noun unc!ia names %he a##ressee so i% @ualifies as a voca%ive an# #is5la0s mor5holo!0 for %he Voca%ive CaseI i$e$ %he en#in! -ule$ As an in#e5en#en% 5roso#ic uni% %he voca%ive 5hrase ma0 have a flui# in%ona%ion or ma0 involve 5auses an# brea-s #e5en#in! on i%s 5osi%ion in %he sen%ence$ The voca%ive can form a sen%ence b0 i%self or i% can surface as a 5aren%he%ical 9i%hin sen%ences$ The 5roso#ic in#e5en#ence of %he voca%ive is !ra5hicall0 re5resen%e# %hrou!h commas %ha% se5ara%e i% from %he res% of %he sen%ence or u%%erance$
2. P0a46at./ 50o5e0t.es
There are %9o main 5ra!ma%ic %05es of voca%ives %ha% #iffer in %heir 5osi%ion in %he sen%ence3 (i/ attent.on 30aD.n4 voca%ives are sen%ence ini%ial an# are sub-#ivi#e# in%o calls, as in (1a/ an# addresses, as in (1b/I (ii/ bon3.n4 voca%ives are sen%ence me#ial or final as in (1c #/I %he %erm bondin is an umbrella for a varie%0 of nuances (e$!$ iron0 con#escension 5lea#in! 5ha%ic s%abiliAa%ion an# o%her -in#s of mani5ula%ions a%%em5%e# b0 %he s5ea-er/$
(1/ a$ Ioaneeed Dn#e eM%iK Ion$VGC 9here be$1SG >Iond Uhere are 0ouK? b$ Ioane bine ai veni% 5e la noid Ion$VGC 9ell have$1SG come on %o us >Ion 9elcome %o our 5laced? c$ Du5L cum veAi Ioane %oa%e sau reAolva%$ as ho9 see$1SG Ion$VGC all R7FL -have$PL solve# >As 0ou see Ion ever0%hin! !o% solve#$? #$ Du5L cum veAi %oa%e sau reAolva% Ioane #ra!L$ as ho9 see$ 1SG all R7FL -have$PL solve# Ion$VGC #ear >As 0ou see ever0%hin! !o% solve# m0 #ear Iond?
Calls a%%em5% %o brin! a hearer in %he #iscourse se%-u5 %ha% is %o %urn %he hearer in%o an a##ressee$ A##resses es%ablish %he in%erlocu%or s%a%us of a hearer$ Ui%h bon#in! voca%ives %he s5ea-er %ries %o mani5ula%e %he in%erlocu%or no% %o i#en%if0 him/her - %he i#en%ifica%ion has %a-en 5lace a% a 5revious 5oin% in %he #iscourse$ For e;am5le %he bon#in! voca%ive in (2/ aims a% -ee5in! someone?s a%%en%ion on %he sub6ec% ma%%er 9hereas in (4/ %he voca%ive is a
.,<
Voca%ives
ne!o%ia%in! s%ra%e!0$ (2/

Yconte't3 %he referen% i#en%ifie# b0 >oane 9as no% 5a0in! a%%en%ionZ $$$conform formulei Ioane reAul%a%ul es%e$$$ accor#in! formula-%he$DAT Ion$VGC resul%-%he is >Accor#in! %o %he formula Ion %he resul% is$$$? Te ro! eu frumos nu %e mai enerva iubi%a mea$ 0ou$ACC beseech$+SG I nicel0 no% R7FL$1SG more u5se% love-%he m0 >I beseech 0ou #on?% !e% u5se% a!ain m0 love$?
(4/
Voca%ive 5hrases be %he0 a%%en%ion #ra9in! or bon#in! serve %o @ualif0 %he in%er-5ersonal rela%ion be%9een s5ea-er an# in%erlocu%or$ For e;am5le in (+/ %he inser%ion of %he 5ar%icle bre si!nals familiari%0 an# so #oes %he o5%ion for %he Voca%ive Case mar-e# noun in (,/ versus %he non-mar-e# version 9hich has a more official rea#in!$
(,/ :ario ^ :aria$VGC V7RSDS :aria ^ :aria
Pol.teness 5la0s an im5or%an% role in %he in%er-5ersonal rela%ion in bo%h familiar an# official se%-u5s$ In Romanian %his fea%ure is conve0e# in %he same 9a0 (non/familiari%0 is$ Tha% is3 voca%ive en#in!s3 The e;am5le in (,/ sho9s a con%ras% be%9een familiar an# less familiar se% u5s %ha% can arise from %he use of %he Voca%ive Case en#in!$ In o%her con%e;%s %he Case en#in! si!nals no% onl0 familiari%0 bu% lac- of 5oli%eness as 9ellI e$!$ doamno >la#0$%he$VGC? in con%ras% %o doamn >la#0? onl0 %he firs% bein! con#escen#in! or insul%in!$ a##ress %erms3 Nouns li-e domnule (>mis%er$VGC?/ doamn (>mis%ress/:rs?/ domnioar (>miss?/ 5rece#in! a 5erson?s name are obli!a%or0 %o e;5ress 5oli%eness$ voca%ive 5ar%icles3 bre m)i*% b)i*% f$ These 5ar%icles are lis%e# in %he le;icon as voca%ive mar-ers an# si!nal familiari%0 as seen in (+/$ The #e!ree of familiari%0 an# 5oli%eness var03 mi can be 5oli%e 9hereas b)i*% f canno%$ in%ona%ion$ This su5rase!men%al fea%ure is ver0 im5or%an% in conve0in! %he %05e of in%er-5ersonal rela%ion inclu#in! %he #e!ree of 5oli%eness$ For e;am5le %he same voca%ive name ma0 in#ica%e #ifferen% se%-u5s for %he #ialo!ue #e5en#in! on 9he%her %he s5ea-er 0ells i% or u%%ers i% in mello9 %ones$ The remain#er of %his cha5%er 9ill 5rovi#e a more #e%aile# #iscussion of %he 9a0s %he 5ra!ma%ic fea%ures of #irec% a##ress are enco#e# in voca%ive 5hrases$
3. P8onolo49
Phonolo!0 offers s%ra%e!ies for enco#in! %he #irec% a##ress in voca%ive 5hrases %hrou!h .ntonat.on= 5.t/8 con%our (./ an# 580asal st0ess$ The in%ona%ion #efines %he voca%ive 5hrase as an in#e5en#en% uni% so i%s loca%ion insi#e an# ou%si#e %he sen%ence is 5aren%he%ical$ The in%ona%ion also 5rovi#es clues for %he e;ac% 5ra!ma%ic fea%ures fac%ore# in b0 %he s5ea-er (see above i%s func%ion for #efinin! %he in%er5ersonal rela%ion/$ The 5i%ch is hi!her on voca%ive nouns %han on nouns in o%her con%e;%s$ This 5eculiari%0 es5eciall0 evi#en% in calls has an a%%en%ion #ra9in! effec% on %he in#ivi#ual concerne# an# %hus i% en#o9s %he res5ec%ive in#ivi#ual 9i%h an in%erlocu%or s%a%us$ For inanima%e nouns (e$!$ pdure >fores%? ar >coun%r0?/ hi!h 5i%ch has %he ca5aci%0 %o chan!e %heir s%a%us %o anima%e so %ha% %he0 become le!i%ima%e (an%hro5omor5hic/ in%erlocu%ors in %he form of a##ress$
.,B
Voca%ives
The loca%ion of s%ress 9i%hin a nominal 5hrase a##e# %o hi!h 5i%ch #is%in!uishes be%9een %he voca%ive an# %he asser%ive s%a%us of a cons%i%uen% as in (./$
(./ 3ominative a$ om .bun vs$ man !oo# >Goo# man$? b$ bLieRi Mi .fe%e bo0s an# !irls >'o0s an# !irls$? Eocative .om bun man !oo# >Goo# man ^? vs$ bL.ieRi Mi fe%e bo0s an# !irls >'o0s an# !irls $$$?
These 5honolo!ical o5era%ions ma0 a55l0 in isola%ion from or in a##i%ion %o o%her !ramma%ical means of enco#in! 5ra!ma%ics in %he s0n%a; of voca%ives$
$. Le<./on
The Romanian le;icon lis%s voca%ive 5ar%icles such as m)i*% b)i*% bre% f0 Given %he 5ro5er%0 of %hese 5ar%icles %o i#en%if0 %he in%erlocu%or an# %he in%er-5ersonal rela%ion be%9een %he s5ea-er an# %he in%erlocu%or %he0 have been classifie# as le;ical (5ra!ma%ic/ mar-ers of addressee$ As men%ione# in Sec%ion 1 %he 5resence of one of %hese 5ar%icles in %he voca%ive 5hrase si!nals a familiar s%a%us for %he #iscourse se% u5$ 5)i* is 9i#es5rea# in all %he lan!ua!e re!is%ers an# i%s #e!ree of familiari%0 can var0 (from collo@uial bu% 5oli%e %o bein! ver0 5ersonal/$ The varian% m is less 5oli%e %han mi an# no% use# in %he s%an#ar# collo@uial re!is%er$ Lre is a 5an-'al-an voca%ive 5ar%icle %ha% in Romanian is mos%l0 use# in rural an# sub-s%an#ar# re!is%ers$ L)i* an# f)i* occur in subs%an#ar# re!is%ers an# mar- #ifferen% !en#ers3 %he former is masculine %he la%%er feminine$ These voca%ive 5ar%icles ma0 occur b0 %hemselves as in (<a/ or a#6acen% %o a voca%ive noun$ In %he la%%er si%ua%ion %9o 5a%%erns are 5ossible3 5ar%icle f Voc (<b/ 9hich is %he #efaul% se@uenceI or 5ar%icle f Voc f 5ar%icle (<c/ 9hich has a res%ric%e# occurrence$ The 5ar%icle an# %he a#6acen% voca%ive form a 5roso#ic uni%$ The voca%ive noun ma0 be Case mar-e# or no% (<#/$
(</ a$ 're 5e mine #e ce nu mL ieiK bre DG: me of 9ha% no% me %a-e$1SG >Uh0 #on?% 0ou %a-e me 9i%h 0ou as 9ellK? P a##ressin! an ol#er 5erson b$ FL Ioano cWn# ne mai ve#emK f Ioana$VGC 9hen R7FL more see$+PL >Ioana 9hen 9ill 9e see each o%her a!ainK? c$ :Li fa%L mLi fii a%en%Ld mi !irl mi be$I:P$1SG careful >'e careful !irld? #$ mLi fa%o // mLi fa%: mi !irl$ VGC mi !irl >!irl ^?
In%eres%in!l0 %he se@uence 9i%h %9o voca%ive 5ar%icles in (<c/ 5rovi#es a bon#in! rea#in! #es5i%e i%s loca%ion in clause ini%ial 5osi%ion$ These se@uences occur onl0 in emo%ionall0 loa#e# circums%ances an# in#ica%e %ha% %he re5e%i%ion of %he voca%ive mar-er involves a #ifferen% !ramma%ical rule for formin! %he voca%ive com5are# %o cons%ruc%ions 9i%h a sin!le 5ar%icle occurrence$ There are cer%ain res%ric%ions on %he #is%ribu%ion of voca%ive 5ar%icles 9i%hin %he noun 5hrase as sho9n in Sec%ion .$ .,C
Voca%ives
%. Mo058olo49
:or5holo!0 5rovi#es %he voca%ive 5hrases 9i%h %9o 9a0s of enco#in! %he 5ra!ma%ic fea%ures of #irec% a##ress3 %hrou!h Case en#in!s on nounsI an# %hrou!h %he al%erna%ion of cer%ain Case en#in!s$ In a##i%ion %he con%ras% be%9een voca%ives mar-e# for Case an# voca%ives unmar-e# for Case (i$e$ %he #efaul% nomina%ive-accusa%ive form/ offers fur%her means for enco#in! varia%ions in %he values of %he in%er-5ersonal rela%ion$ %.1. Case en3.n4s Romanian voca%ives allo9 for %9o mor5holo!ical choices in nouns3 (i/ %he unmar-e# nomina%ive-accusa%ive formI or (ii/ %he voca%ive en#in!s 5resen%e# in Table +$ The en#in!s enco#e Case !en#er an# number 6us% li-e %he o%her en#in!s in nominal mor5holo!0$ Table +3 Voca%ive Case mor5holo!0
Noun !en#er :asculine Inflec%ional %05e unmar-e# form bLia% >bo0? 5rie%en >frien#? om >man? unchi >uncle? Dan fra%e >bro%her? Gheor!he Ra#u 5a5L >5o5e? 5aML >5asha? %a%L >fa%her? 5o5L ?5ries%? :ircea Toma fa%L >!irl? 7lena - Sin!ular +e3 bLie%e 5rie%ene Dane +1le3 bLia%ule omule unchiule Plural +lo03 bLieRilor 5rie%enilor oamenilor
a fra%e Gheor!he +1le3 Ra#ule a3 5a5L %a%L +o3 5o5o :irceo Tomo -o3 fa%o -o3 7leno
+lo03 fraRilor +lo03 5o5ilor %aRilor
Feminine
-lo03 fe%elor - 7lenelo0 (7lene >!irls name# 7lena?/
The en#in!s on sin!ular nouns are s5ecialiAe# for Voca%ive Case$ The 5lural P lor ho9ever is s0ncre%ic 9i%h Geni%ive-Da%ive Case of %he #efini%e #eclension$ The Voca%ive Case en#in!s 5resen%e# above are also foun# on a#6ec%ives bu% no% on 5ronouns an# numerals$ Several observa%ions shoul# be ma#e re!ar#in! %he en#in!s in Table +3 Neu%er nouns Sin!ular neu%er nouns have %he same en#in! as %he masculine nouns (9hile 5lural neu%er nouns have %he !eneral en#in! -lor/I ho9ever since anima%e nouns are !enerall0 masculine or feminine neu%ers are no% %he firs% choice nouns for voca%ive 5hrases$ :asculine sin!ular - The Romanian voca%ive in -e inheri%e# from La%in (e$!$ domine/ 9as reinforce# b0 %he Slavic masculine voca%ive in -e (e$!$ 'ul!$ 9tefan P Voca%ive3 9tefane/$ - The en#in! +ule is forme# in Romanian from %he #efini%e ar%icle +ul an# %he en#in! -e$
..=
Voca%ives
I% can a%%ach %o common nouns bu% also %o 5ro5er nouns (9hich #on?% have %he #efini%e ar%icle +ul in %he Nomina%ive/3 Ra#uNom P Ra#uleVoc bu% XRa#ulNom$ The en#in! -ule e;%en#e# %o common nouns from 5ro5er nouns 9hich once en#e# in -ul (no9 -u/ an# forme# %he voca%ive 9i%h %he re!ular en#in! -e (Oadul-e/$ - Some common nouns can %a-e bo%h en#in!s (biete% biatule >0oun!-mand?/ some%imes 9i%h 5ra!ma%ic #ifferences be%9een %he %9o (see *,$1/$ - Some common nouns an# a fe9 5ro5er nouns en# in -e in %he Nomina%ive 9hich coinci#es 9i%h %he Voca%ive en#in! -e (frate% cine% Arsenie% /etre e%c$/ so i% is no% clear 9he%her %hese nouns #o or #o no% %a-e a Voca%ive Case en#in!$ - The en#in! -o is uncommon for masculine nouns$ I% can a%%ach %o a fe9 5ro5er nouns 9hich en# in -a (similarl0 %o feminine names/ W :oma ):omoi*% 5ircea )5irceoi* an# %o %he common noun bade >ol# manI #ear man? (badeoi or badei*$ - Common nouns li-e tat >fa%her? or pap >Po5e? #o no% acce5% %he en#in! -o %he unmar-e# form bein! use# #es5i%e %he fac% %ha% %he0 en# in - li-e %he feminine common nouns$ Feminine sin!ular I% is assume# %ha% %he en#in! -o 9as borro9e# from Slavic$ Given %he fac% %ha% voca%ive en#in!s some%imes a55ear %o belon! %o %he #efini%e #eclension (see masc$ s!$ -ule 5lural -lor/ %he en#in! -o mi!h% also be in%er5re%e# as such (i% resembles %he #efini%e mar-in! in %ha% i% is a##e# %o %he feminine en#in! -e3 floare "flo9er& floarea "%he flo9er& Ploareo "Floare$VGC&I see Cha5%er +. *./$ The 5ossibili%0 of mar-in! voca%ives b0 #efini%e en#in!s comes from %he fac% %ha% voca%ives have a s5ecific in%er5re%a%ion a% all %imes irres5ec%ive of 9he%her %he0 5air i% or no% 9i%h a #efini%e ar%icle$
(B/ Fa%o ce faciK !irl$VGC 9ha% #o$1SG >Girl 9ha% are 0ou #oin!K?
Plural The en#in! -lor is i#en%ical 9i%h %he Geni%ive-Da%ive case of %he 5lural #efini%e ar%icle (e$!$ casa fetelor >house-%he !irls-%he$G'L?I spun frailor >%ell$+SG bro%hers-%he$G'L?/$ Some his%orical lin!uis%ics s%u#ies consi#er %ha% %his voca%ive en#in! is #erive# from %he #a%ive #efini%e ar%icle b0 re-anal0sis of %he #a%ive forms in a55osi%ive con%e;%s in Gl# Romanian3
(C/ a$ Ro!umL voao #ere5Rilor Mi curaRilor 5lea#$+SG R7FL 0ou$DAT 6us%-%he$DAT an# hones%-%he$DAT >I 5lea# 9i%h 0ou %he 6us% an# %he hones%$? (Coresi Y+,B+Z apud Vasiliu +C,.3 C/ b$ VL s5un vouL fraRilor ^ 0ou$DAT sa0$+SG 0ou$DAT bro%hers-%he$DAT >I?m %ellin! 0ou 0ou bro%hers of mine ^? (Coresi Y+,B+Z apud Vasiliu +C,.3 C/
The %erm Hld Oomanian refers %o %e;%s from mi# +.%h %o %he en# of %he +B%h cen%ur0$ This %imeline corres5on#s %o 7arl0 :o#ern 5erio#s in o%her Romance lan!ua!es$
%.2. T8e alte0nat.on +e 2e0s1s +ule fo0 6as/1l.ne s.n41la0 Table + in#ica%es %ha% masculine sin!ular nouns ma0 #is5la0 ei%her P e or Pule en#in!s 9hich some%imes occur 9i%h %he same noun (e$!$ biete or biatule >bo0?/$ The inci#ence of one or ano%her en#in! #e5en#s rou!hl0 on %he 5airin! be%9een an en#in! an# a cer%ain 5ra!ma%ic/seman%ic fea%ure bu% i% ma0 also be 5hone%icall0 cons%raine#$
..+
Voca%ives
Generall0 %he en#in! +ule conve0s a 5e6ora%ive a##ress 9hen a55lie# %o e%hnic or 5rofessional labels as in (+=/$
(+=/ a$ mLcelaruled bur!heAuled bu%cher-%he$VGC bour!eois-%he$VGC >qou are (li-e/ a bu%cher / a bour!eois? b$ 5oe%uled filoAofuled 5oe%-%he$VGC 5hiloso5her-%he$VGC >qou are (li-e/ a 5oe% / a bour!eois? /e+orative ,ondescendin
Uhen a55lie# %o %he same noun %he al%erna%ion ma0 conve0 a meanin! s5ecialiAa%ion$ For e;am5le domn >lor#? becomes an a##ress %o Go# as doamnei >Lor#$VGC? bu% a##resses a normal male as domnulei >sir$VGC?$ The en#in! -e is !enerall0 associa%e# 9i%h -inshi5 %erms as in (++a/ nouns #eno%in! bein!s %ha% are ver0 familiar or close# %o %he s5ea-er (++b/ ran-s or %i%les (++c/$
(++/ (a/ bLrba%e >man? cumna%e >bro%her-in-la9? cuscre >in-la9-male? ne5oa%e >ne5he9? (b/ 5rie%ene >frien#? vecine >nei!hbour? s%L5Wne >mas%er? cucoane >Sir? (c/ cL5i%ane >ca5%ain? Em5Lra%e >-in!?
The 5airin! of en#in! an# 5ra!ma%ics/seman%ics is cancelle# in cases 9here %he 5hone%ic environmen% allo9s for onl0 one o5%ion$ For e;am5le masculine an# neu%er noun s%ems en#in! in -u #o no% acce5% -e$ The voca%ive en#in! is necessaril0 -uleW
(+1/ fiule vs$ Xfie >son? (unmar-e# form3 fiu/ leule vs$ Xlee >lion? (unmar-e# form3 leu/ boule vs$ Xboe >o;? (unmar-e# form3 bou/
No%abl0 %hese nouns #o no% acce5% %he unmar-e# voca%ive form (e$!$ %he nomina%ive fiu >bo0? is !ramma%ical as an ar!umen% of %he verb bu% no% as a voca%ive/$ Fur%hermore monos0llabic 9or#s normall0 #o no% %a-e -e as sho9n in (+2a/ al%hou!h e;ce5%ions e;is% as in (+2b/$
(+2/ a$ b$ Xo(a/me (vs$ omule/ >man?I Xho(a/Re (vs$ hoRule/ >%hief?I XnaMe >!o#fa%her? fine / finule >!o#son?
In ol# Romanian %he monos0llabic 9or# om >man? coul# acce5% %he en#in! -e3 oame ticloase >man$VGC 9ic-e#$VGC? "9ic-e# man&$
Finall0 %he s%ress 5a%%ern 5la0s a role for %he choice of en#in!s3 %he s%ress on %he secon# bu% las% s0llable favors %he en#in! -e% as in (+4a/I %he un#erline# le%%er mar-s %he s%ress$ The s%ress on %he las% s0llable %ri!!ers %he -ule en#in! as in (+4b/$ No%e %ha% %he nouns in (+4a/ ma0 also a55ear 9i%h %he -ule en#in! bu% %he rea#in! is 5e6ora%ive or voca%ional as in (+4c/I on %he o%her han# %he nouns in (+4b/ are un!ramma%ical 9i%h %he en#in! -e (+4#/$
(+4/ a$ b$ c$ #$ #oc%ore >#oc%or? ins5ec%ore >ins5ec%or? meM%ere >mas%er? ci%i%or1le >rea#er? %Wlhar1le >%hief? #rumeR1le >9al-er? cLlL%or1le >5assen!er? #oc%or1le Y[ "0ou are behavin! li-e a #oc%or&Z meM%er1le Y[ "0ou are a %rue mas%er&Z Xci%i%o(a/re X%Wlhare X#rumeRe XcLlL%o(a/re
..1
Voca%ives
%.3. T8e alte0nat.on of Case 6a0>e3 an3 1n6a0>e3 2o/at.2es Pro5er nouns In s%an#ar# Romanian 5ro5er nouns #o no% usuall0 #is5la0 Voca%ive Case en#in!s bu% %he0 %en# %o #o so in rural re!is%ers$ :oreover in rural re!is%ers feminine 5ro5er nouns %ha% en# in -a (e$!$ 5aria >oana/ ma0 occur 9i%h a "bare& form in voca%ive (e$!$ 5rie >oan/ 9hich corres5on#s %o %he #eclensional %05e (in - or -e/$ This form can also a55ear 9hen %he noun is 5rece#e# b0 #e%erminers (e$!$ o 5arie >a :aria? alt >oan >ano%her Ioana?/3
(+,/ (a/ re!ular (#efini%e/ unmar-e# form :ariad Floaread Ioanad (b/ "bare& unmar-e# forms :aried Floared IoanLd
Com5are (+,/ 9i%h %he common nouns in (+./$

(+./ (a/ #efini%e forms 5LlLria floarea coroana (b/ bare forms 5LlLrie floare coroanL
Common nouns Ui%h feminine sin!ular nouns voca%ive forms are use# for familiar en#earin! @ualifica%ions (e$!$ porumbiod >#ove$VGC?I mireasod >bri#e$VGC?/ or for o%her familiar fea%ures (e$!$ con#escension or iron0/$ An0 feminine noun ma0 occasionall0 occur 9i%h %he Voca%ive Case en#in! -o in familiar an#/or 5e6ora%ive con%e;%s (+<a/$ The voca%ive en#in! also a%%aches %o nominaliAe# a#6ec%ives 9i%h %he same conno%a%ions (+<b/$
(+</ a$ Mefod >boss-fem$ VGC? [ "0ou are behavin! as if 0ou are %he boss& b$ #eM%ea5%od >smar%-fem$ VGC? [ "0ou are no% ver0 smar%&
G%her9ise feminine common nouns in %he sin!ular %en# %o occur 9i%h %he unmar-e# form$ The bare form is %he #efaul% (+Ba/I %he #efini%e form (+Bb/ is res%ric%e# %o con%e;%s 9here %he voca%ive enco#es o%her 5ra!ma%ic fea%ures be0on# %he call/a%%en%ion #ra9in!$
(+B/ a$ fa%Ld >!irl? mamLd >mo%her? vecinLd >nei!hbor? 5rie%enLd >frien#? #oamnLd >la#0? naMLd >!o#mo%her? b$ fa%ad >!irl-%he? mamad >mo%her-%he? vecinad >nei!hbor-%he? 5rie%enad >frien#-%he? #oamnad >la#0-%he? naMad >!o#mo%her-%he?
Gnl0 a limi%e# number of masculine sin!ular nouns can be use# 9i%h %he nomina%ive bare form$ All of %hem are 5rofessional names an# func%ion as calls3
(+C/ a$ chelnerd >9ai%er? vs$ b$ X#oc%ord >#oc%or? sol#a%d >sol#ier? Xin!inerd >en!ineer? Moferd >#river? X5rofesord >%eacher?
Some masculine sin!ular nouns can occur 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle in %he unmar-e# form$ The0 are in%er5re%e# as familiar$ The0 almos% al9a0s a55ear 9i%h %he collo@uial form of %his en#in! 9hich is -u (i$e$ #ele%ion of %he final consonan% l/3
..2
Voca%ives
(1=/
a$ Alo #omnu?d hello mis%er-%he >Oe0 mis%er? b$ Ce faci bLia%u?K 9ha% #o$1SG bo0-%he >Oo9 are 0ou 0oun! manK?
Plural Case mar-e# voca%ives are 5ro#uc%ive in %he s%an#ar# lan!ua!e mos%l0 for feminine nouns (1+a/ bu% also for masculines (1+b/$
(1+/ a$ Fe%elor un#e ne En%WlnimK !irls-%he$VGC 9here R7FL mee%$+PLK >Girls 9here shall 9e mee%K? b$ FraRilor %o% Enain%ed bro%hers-%he$VGC al9a0s ahea# >'ro%hers -ee5 on ahea#d?
Plural nouns ma0 also occur 9i%h %he unmar-e# form$ Dnmo#ifie# feminine nouns re@uire %he #efini%e ar%icle (11/$ Dnmo#ifie# masculine nouns can be ei%her #efini%e or bare as in (12/a 9here %he #efini%e noun is associa%e# 9i%h a >close# se%? in%er5re%a%ion$ For some noun classes onl0 one or %he o%her form is allo9e# (see (12/b/$
(11/ (12/ Fe%ele / XFe%e mer!em la un filmK !irls-%he !irls !o$+PL %o a film >Girls shoul# 9e !o see a filmK? a$ 'ravo ru!biM%id / ru!biM%iid bravo ru!b0 5la0ers / ru!b0 5la0ers-%he >Ru!b0 5la0ers bravo %o 0oud? b$ FaceRi loc la scarL #omniid / X#omnid ma-e$1PL room a% s%airs sirs-%he sirs >Gen%lemen ma-e room a% %he s%airsd?
:o#ifie# nouns can a55ear in %he unmar-e# form irres5ec%ive of !en#er3

(14/ a$ S%imaRi ce%LRenid es%eeme# ci%iAens >7s%eeme# ci%iAens? b$ Scum5e #oamned #ear la#ies >Dear la#ies?
To sum u5 %his sec%ion mos% Romanian nouns have %he o5%ion of occurrin! 9i%h or 9i%hou% a Voca%ive Case en#in!$ Al%hou!h some !eneraliAa%ions can be ma#e i% is har# %o 5re#ic% 9he%her a noun (5ro5er or common/ is com5a%ible 9i%h mor5holo!ical Voca%ive Case mar-in! or i% can also (or onl0/ a55ear in %he unmar-e# form$ Several fac%ors in%erac% %o 0iel# such a resul%3 lan!ua!e re!is%ers %he 9a0 5ra!ma%ic fea%ures are enco#e# in %he mor5hos0n%a; 5honolo!ical res%ric%ions an# his%orical chan!es %ha% affec% %hese !ramma%ical mo#ules$
&. S9nta<? 580ase st01/t10e

Ano%her !ramma%ical means for enco#in! 5ra!ma%ic fea%ures consis%s of varia%ion in 9or# ..4
Voca%ives
or#er res%ric%ions on selec%ion of cons%i%uen%s #is%ribu%ion of ana5horic elemen%s all of 9hich a55l0 %o voca%ives$ In %his sec%ion 9e consi#er %he e;%en% %o 9hich s0n%a; is involve# in conve0in! %he #irec% a##ress an# %he in%er-5ersonal rela%ion i% en%ails$ In 5ar%icular 9e loo- a% %he com5osi%ion of %he voca%ive 5hrase 5oin%in! ou% %he s0n%ac%ic con%ras%s be%9een voca%ive versus non-voca%ive uses of %he same noun$ In 5ar%icular 9e focus on %he 9a0 voca%ive nouns are mo#ifie# 9ha% -in# of nominal i%ems can be a voca%ive an# ho9 %he0 fare un#er coor#ina%ion$ Fur%hermore 9e loo- a% %he rela%ion be%9een %he voca%ive an# %he sen%ence es5eciall0 a% %he 9a0s in 9hich %his rela%ion cons%rains %he in%er5re%a%ion$ So far 9e have use# %he %erm voca%ive p!rase im5l0in! %ha% %he voca%ive noun is a% %he cen%er of a nominal cons%i%uen% ra%her %han o5era%in! in isola%ion$ /!rase ho9ever is a s0n%ac%ic conce5% %ha% nee#s fur%her #iscussion$ :ore 5recisel0 9e have %o sho9 %ha% voca%ives #o come as com5le; cons%i%uen%s$ This can be #one %hrou!h %es%s of subs%i%u%ion an# #is5lacemen%$ For e;am5le in (1,a/ %he voca%ive is a sin!le name %ha% can be subs%i%u%e# b0 an en%ire nominal cons%i%uen% in (1,b/$ The la%%er allo9s for chan!e in 9or# or#er in%ernall0 bu% moves as a sin!le uni% un#er #is5lacemen% as in (1,c/$ In (1,#/ 9e %r0 %o brea- %his uni% b0 si%ua%in! one le;ical i%em in clause ini%ial 5osi%ion %he o%her in clause final 5osi%ion$ This a%%em5% 0iel#s an un!ramma%ical sen%ence in#ica%in! %ha% %his uni% @ualifies as a 5hrasal cons%i%uen%$
(1,/ a$ YDanaP voi sosi luni$ Dana 9ill$+SG arrive :on#a0 >Dana I shall arrive on :on#a0$? b$ YD0a4: 50.eten:P= voi sosi luni$ #ear frien# 9ill$+SG arrive :on#a0 >Dear frien# I shall arrive on :on#a0$? c$ Voi sosi luni 30a4: 50.eten:@ 50.eten: 30a4:. 9ill$+SG arrive :on#a0 #ear frien#/ frien# #ear >I shall arrive on :on#a0 #ear frien#$? #$ XP0.eten: voi sosi luni 30a4:. frien# 9ill$+SG arrive :on#a0 #ear in%en#e# meanin!3 >I shall arrive on :on#a0 #ear frien#$?
Ue conclu#e %ha% %he voca%ive 5hrase behaves li-e a NP/DP a% %he cons%i%uenc0 %es%s an# %herefore shoul# be %rea%e# as such$ &.1. Mo3.f.e0s of 2o/at.2e no1ns As a cons%i%uen%/nominal 5hrase %he voca%ive 5hrase is hea#e# b0 a nominal ca%e!or0 (i$e$ noun or 5ronoun/$ The noun ma0 be mo#ifie# b0 a#6ec%ives o%her nouns 5re5osi%ional 5hrases or rela%ive clauses$ In 9ha% follo9s 9e lis% an# commen% on %hese %05es of mo#ifica%ion$ &.1.1 A37e/t.2es Various @ualif0in! a#6ec%ives ma0 mo#if0 %he voca%ive noun$ The0 can be 5re- or 5os%nominal an# %he noun ma0 be bare or #efini%e$ These 9or# or#er an# mor5holo!ical varia%ions 0iel# varia%ion in rea#in! as sho9n in (1./$ In (1.a/ %he or#er noun f a#6ec%ive is a 5oli%e formula for #ra9in! a 0oun! female?s a%%en%ionI on %he o%her han# %he or#er a#6ec%ive f noun em5hasiAes %he com5limen% 5a0in!$ The #efini%e ar%icle on %he noun in (1.b/ ma-es %he a%%en%ion #ra9in! con#escen#in!I %he a#6ec%ive here has a res%ric%ive rea#in! (bein! use# %o i#en%if0 %he a#ressee/$
..,
Voca%ives
(1./
a$ FrumoasL fa%L / Fa%L frumoasL cum %e cheamLK beau%iful !irl / !irl beau%iful ho9 0ou$ ACC call$2SG >'eau%iful !irl/5re%%0 !irl 9ha%?s 0our nameK? b$ Fa%a blon#L fii a%en%L la ce s5und !irl-%he blon#e be careful %o 9ha% sa0$+ SG >The blon# !irl %here 5a0 a%%en%ion %o 9ha% I?m sa0in!d?
Several observa%ions shoul# be ma#e 9i%h res5ec% %o a#6ec%ival mo#ifiers3 In con%em5orar0 Romanian 9hen a feminine a#6ec%ive mo#ifies %he (feminine/ voca%ive noun %he Voca%ive Case en#in! is rule# ou% as in (1</$ :asculine mo#ifica%ion allo9s for %he Case en#in! bu% onl0 on %he firs% i%em as in (1B/$
(1</ (1B/ Xfrumoaso fa%L $$$/ XfrumoasL fa%o=$$$/ Xfa%o frumoasL ^ beau%iful$VGC !irl beau%iful !irl$VGC !irl$VGC beau%iful in%en#e# meanin!3 >'eau%iful !irld? vi%eaAule sol#a% ^/sol#a%ule vi%eaA ^/ Xsol#a%ule vi%eaAule ^ brave-%he$VGC sol#ier sol#ier-%he$VGC brave sol#ier-%he$VGC brave-%he$VGC >'rave sol#ierd?
7;ce5%ion %o %he e;clusion in (1B/ arises for a res%ric%e# class of a#6ec%ives %ha% a!ree in Case mar-in! 9i%h %he voca%ive noun as in (1C/$ The common 5ro5er%0 of %hese a#6ec%ives is seman%ic a%%ri%ion an# re-anal0sis as mar-ers of 5oli%eness in #irec% a##ress$
(1C/ s%ima%e ci%i%or1le// iubi%e 5rie%ene // iubi%e ci%i%or1le es%eeme#$VGC rea#er$VGC belove#$VGC frien#$VGC belove#$VGC rea#er$VGC >7s%eeme# rea#er?// >'elove# frien#?// >'elove# rea#er?
A!reemen% in Case mar-in! be%9een %he voca%ive nouns an# %he a#6ec%ive (5re- or 5os%nominal/ occurs rou%inel0 in Gl# Romanian (2=a-b/$ Traces of %his survive in archaic li%erar0 lan!ua!e u5 %o %he 1=%h cen%ur0 (2=c-#/$
(2=/ a$ milos%ive Doamne (Cos%in Y+.<,Z apud Vasiliu +C,.3 +</ merciful$VGC Go#$VGC >:erciful Go#? b$ #uhule mu%e Mi sur#e (Varlaam Y+.42Z apud Vasiliu +C,.3 +</ s5iri%$VGC #umb$VGC an# #eaf$VGC >(qou / #umb an# #eaf s5iri%? c$ Soare lumina%e sun$VGC enli!h%ene#$VGC (Tocilescu Y+C==Z apud Vasiliu +C,.3 +</ >7nli!h%ene# sun? #$ S%L5Wne buned mas%er$VGC !oo#$VGC (Sa#oveanu Y+C4=Z apud Vasiliu +C,.3 +</ >Goo# mas%er?
In %he 5lural voca%ive cons%i%uen%s con%ainin! an a#6ec%ive an# a noun lac- Case en#in!s b0 #efaul% as in (2+a/$ Case mar-in! ma0 occur on %he firs% i%em in %he se@uence as in (2+b-#/ bu% onl0 in li%erar0 lan!ua!e for s%0lis%ic (#rama%ic/ effec%$
(2+/ a$ Dra!i 5rie%enid #ear$PL frien#s >Dear frien#sd? b$ bL%rWnilo0 cerbi
...
Voca%ives ol#$VGC s%a!s >Gl# s%a!sd? ('la!a Y+C14Z3 4B/ c$ IubiRilo0 5rie%enid belove#$VGC frien#s >'elove# frien#sd? (Sa#oveanu Y+C1BZ3 4B/ #$ Dra!ilo0 mei cole!i 6urnaliM%i #ear$VGC m0 collea!ues 6ournalis%s >:0 #ear fello9 6ournalis%sd? (999$moni%orul#e!ala%i$ro/
In Romanian %he #efaul% 9or# or#er in DPs is noun f a#6ec%ive$ This is main%aine# in voca%ive 5hrases bu% %he reverse# or#er is also ver0 5ro#uc%ive (for 5renominal a#6ec%ives see cha5%er < sec%ion 2/$ The a#6ec%ive f noun or#er em5hasiAes %he s5ea-er?s emo%ions (see Cha5%er < *2$+ on A-N or#ers in Romanian/ an# occurs mainl0 9i%h %he class of seman%icall0 im5overishe# a#6ec%ives P see e;am5les (1C/$ In %he class of seman%icall0 im5overishe# a#6ec%ives dra (>#ear?/ sho9s %he hi!hes% #e!ree of !ramma%icaliAa%ion3 in voca%ive 5hrases i% cease# %o #is5la0 !en#er mor5holo!0 havin! a uni@ue en#in! - (21a/$ In fac% %he masculine sin!ular form of %he a#6ec%ive is e;clu#e# as a form of a##ress (21b/$ Oence %he 5ra!ma%ic mar-er dra con%ras%s 9i%h %he behavior of %he full-fle#!e# a#6ec%ive 9hich is s%ill 5ro#uc%iveI %he la%%er #is5la0s inflec%ion for a!reemen% as in (21c/ bu% canno% be use# for #irec% a##ress in i%s masculine sin!ular form (see 21b/ unless i% is 5os%-nominal (21#/$ This full-fle#!e# a#6ec%ive 5reclu#es %he Voca%ive Case mar-in! on %he noun 9hereas %he uni-!en#er 5ra!ma%ic mar-er #oes no% (21#/$ Fur%hermore %he !ramma%icaliAe# form of %he a#6ec%ive can mo#if0 names 9hereas %he full-fle#!e# a#6ec%ive canno% (21e/3
(21/ a$ #ra!: IonI #ra!: 5rie%eneI #ra!: 5rie%en: #ear Ion #ear frien#(:/$VGC #ear frien#(F/ b$ un %ovarLM #ra!/un #ra! %ovarLM 'DT X#ra! %ovarLM ^ a comra#e #ear/a #ear comra#e #ear comra#e ^ c$ un unchi #ra!// o mL%uML #ra!: an uncle #ear// an aun% #ear #$ %ovarLM #ra! ^// X%ovarLMe #ra! ^ // %ovarLMe #ra! : ^ comra#e #ear comra#e$VGC #ear comra#e$VGC #ear e$ XIon #ra!(ul/ // GS3 Ion #ra!: ^ Ion #ear(%he/ // Ion #ear ^
Ui%h 5lural an# feminine sin!ular nouns bo%h %he a#6ec%ive an# %he noun are unmar-e#$ Some voca%ive common nouns in masculine sin!ular %a-e a bare form 9hen mo#ifie# b0 an a#6ec%ive as in (22a versus b/ (com5are 9i%h (1B//3
(22/ a$ Stat 0o6Kn= salvaRi 5resa$ Y$$$Z Stat 0o6Kn= salvaRi cul%urad s%a%e Romanian save$1PL 5ress-%he s%a%e Romanian save$1PL cul%ure-%he >Romanian s%a%e save %he 5ress$ Romanian s%a%e save %he cul%ure? b$ XStat salvaRi 5resadI XS%a%ule salvaRi 5resad s%a%e save$1PL 5ress-%he s%a%e-%he$VGC save1PL 5ress-%he in%en#e# meanin!3 >S%a%e save %he 5ressd?
&.1.2. P0ono6.nal 5ossesso0s an3 4en.t.2es Pronominal 5ossessors an# !eni%ives can also be in%e!ra%e# in %he voca%ive 5hrase as in (24/$
..<
Voca%ives (24/ a$ scum5a mea (fe%iRL/I #ra!ul meu g5rie%en / Danh s9ee%-%he$FSG m0$ FSG !irl$DI: #ear-%he$:SG m0$ :SG frien# / Dan >m0 s9ee% !irl?I >m0 #ear frien# / Dan? b$ fe%iRa mea (cea/ scum5Ld !irl$DI:-%he m0$ FSG (%he$FSG/ s9ee%$FSG >m0 s9ee% !irl? c$ #ra!i 5rie%eni ai muAicii #ear frien#s(:/ G7N$:PL music-%he$G7N >#ear frien#s of music? #$ #ra! %ovarLM al nos%ru #e lu5%L $$ #ear com5anion G7N$:SG our$:SG of fi!h% >#ear com5anion of our fi!h% ^?
Pronominal 5ossessors an# !eni%ives mus% be in%ro#uce# b0 %he !eni%ival mar-er al (see (24/c#/ unless %he0 imme#ia%el0 follo9 %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle (see (24/a-bI see Cha5%er ./$ In %hese cons%ruc%ions %he noun or 5renominal a#6ec%ive canno% bear %he Voca%ive case mar-ers no% even %hose %ha% a55ear %o belon! %o %he #efini%e #eclension (see es5eciall0 (2,/a an# c/ irres5ec%ivel0 of 9he%her %he 5ossessor has al or no%3
(2,/ a$ Xfiule (al/ meud a_$ X#ra!ule (al/ meu (5rie%en/Dan/ son$VGC (G7N$:SG/ m0$ :SG #ear$VGC (G7N$:SG/ m0$ :SG (frien#/Dan/ b$ Xscum5o (a/ mea (fe%iRL/d b_$ X:ario (a/ mead s9ee%$VGC (G7N$FSG/ m0$ FSG (!irl$DI:/ :aria$VGC (G7N$FSG/ m0$ FSG c$ X fraRilor (ai/ meid bro%hers$VGC (G7N$:PL/ m0$ :PL
&.1.3. -1ant.f.e0s Seman%icall0 voca%ives en%ail reference since %he a##ressee mus% be clearl0 i#en%ifie#$ Oence bare @uan%ifiers an# o%her @uan%ifie# nouns are e;5ec%e# %o be incom5a%ible 9i%h %he voca%ive use 9hich is verifie# in (2./$
(2./ XCineva vino aicid somebo#0 come$I:PV here
Oo9ever if clues on %he i#en%i%0 of %he a##ressee are available %hen @uan%ifiers ma0 occur in voca%ive 5hrases as sho9n in (2</$ No%e %ha% a!reemen% be%9een %he voca%ive @uan%ifier an# %he verb is s0s%ema%ic$
(2</ a$ Toa%L lumea a%enRie la mined all$FSG 9orl#(FSG/ a%%en%ion %o me >7ver0bo#0 5a0 a%%en%ion %o med? b$ CWRiva bLieRi #aRimi o mWnL #e a6u%ord fe9 bo0s !ive$I:P$PL me$DAT a han# of hel5 >A fe9 !u0s shoul# !ive me a han# hered? c$ Al%e fe%e nu vL mai EnscrieRiK o%her$FPL !irls no% R7FL more enrol$1PL >Girls 0ou o%hers 0ou #on?% 9an% %o enrolK?
In all %hese e;am5les %he #e%erminers have a 5ar%i%ive in%er5re%a%ion since %he0 selec% from a !rou5 9i%h #e%ermine# reference$ The s5ea-er a##resses in fac% a 9hole !rou5 P %he 5eo5le !a%here# some9here in (2<a/I a !rou5 of bo0s in (2<b/I a !rou5 of !irls in (2<c/$ Oo9ever in (2<b-c/ %he s5ea-er also in#ica%es %ha% her messa!e (re@uiremen% @ues%ion invi%a%ion e%c$/ is mean% for some members of %he !rou5s onl0 9hich shoul# %a-e u5on %hemselves %he ..B
Voca%ives
re@uiremen% (%he ac%ion re@ues%e# or 5ro5ose#/ conve0e# b0 %he messa!e$ (2<a/ forbi#s %he si%ua%ion in 9hich onl0 some members %a-e u5on %hemselves %his re@uiremen%$ Ue see %ha% for 5ar%i%ives %he s5ea-er 5resu55oses %ha% all %he members of %he !rou5 can hear %he messa!e so %he en%ire !rou5 is %he !earer$ Oo9ever onl0 some members of %he hearin! !rou5 are %he addressees P %heir names are no% relevan% %o %he s5ea-er onl0 %heir a##ressee func%ion is so %he0 can ac% u5on %he re@ues%$ In (2<a/ %he !rou5 @ualifies as %he a##ressee in i%s en%ire%0$ Such e;am5les brin! evi#ence %ha% %he conce5%s of !earer an# addressee mus% be -e5% se5ara%e %he former referrin! %o %he 5ra!ma%ic role 9hereas %he la%%er @ualifies %he noun 9i%h a hearer 5ra!ma%ic role for %he 5ar%ici5a%ion in %he #ialo!ue se% u5 as in%erlocu%or$ &.1.$. B.no6.nal DPs Voca%ive 5hrases can be buil% of cer%ain nouns conve0in! 5oli%eness ( domn >mis%er?% doamn >mis%ress (:rs$/?/ hierarchical (soldat >sol#ier?% locotenent >lieu%enan%?/ or occu5a%ional %i%les (elev >5u5il?% student >s%u#en%?% doctor >#oc%or?/ follo9e# b0 a 5ro5er nouns or ano%her noun %ha% brin!s more referen%ial informa%ion abou% %he a##ressee (such as func%ion nouns P profesor >5rofessor? director >mana!er? e%c$/$
Durin! communism %he official re!ime %rie# %o elimina%e %he use of domn >mis%er?% doamn >mis%ress (:rs$/?% im5osin! %he use of %he %erms tovar% tovar (>comra#e?/ on %he mo#el of Russian tovarici0 In official con%e;%s tovar% tovar 9ere use# almos% e;clusivel0 un%il +CBC bu% in non-official con%e;%s %he %erms domn% doamn 9ere use#$
The e;am5les sho9 varia%ion in %he carrier of %he Voca%ive Case en#in!$ In %he masculine sin!ular %he a##ress %erm domn carries %he mor5holo!ical mar-er -ule$ The s%ruc%ure 9i%h domn in %he unmar-e# form is 5ossible bu% i% is less 5oli%e %han %he Case mar-e# form$ In %he unmar-e# form domn is ei%her #efini%e (9i%h %he #ele%ion of %he final consonan% YlZ as in domnu./ or bare in 9hich case %he noun domn is 5honolo!icall0 re#uce# %o Y#omZ3
(2B/ a$ Domnule Po5escud mis%er$VGC Po5escu b$ Domnu? Po5escud mis%er-%he Po5escu c$ Dom? Po5escud mis%er Po5escu Domnule 5rofesord mis%er$VGC %eacher Domnu? 5rofesord mis%er-%he %eacher Dom? 5rofesord mis%er %eacher
The feminine a##ress %erm doamn is no% Case mar-e#$ I% is !enerall0 use# 9i%hou% %he #efini%e ar%icle 9i%h 9omen?s names al%hou!h %he bare form is no% e;clu#e# (2Ca/$ Ui%h occu5a%ional nouns %he #efini%e form doamna is use# in calls 9hile %he bare form doamn is use# bo%h in calls an# in a##resses (2Cb/$
(2C/ a$ Doamna Po5escud :rs Po5escu b$ DoamnL 5rofesoarL ^ :rs %eacher DoamnL Po5escu ^$ :rs Po5escu Doamna 5rofesoarLd :rs %eacher
In %he 5lural %he Case mar-e# forms are use#3

(4=/ Domnilor #e5u%aRidI !en%lemen$VGC #e5u%ies Doamnelor 5rofesoared la#ies$VGC %eachers(F/
..C
Voca%ives
Gccu5a%ional nouns have %he bare form$ This %05e of voca%ive is associa%e# 9i%h rancon#escen#ence3
(4+/ S%u#en% IonescudI s%u#en% Ionescu 7levL Ionescud 5u5il(F/ Ionescu
Irres5ec%ive of %he firs% noun or %he 5ra!ma%ic con%e;% %he secon# noun #oes no% bear Voca%ive Case$ Oo9ever u5 %o %he +C%h cen%ur0 %he secon# noun a55ears Case mar-e# as 9ell in %e;%s (see also %he a#6ec%ive/noun a!reemen% in (2=//$
(41/ a$ cocoanL P:1n./o (DVT/ ma#am PLunica$VGC b$ 7u sun% 'ibicul nene Ian/1le I am 'ibicul uncle$VGC Iancu$VGC >I am 'ibicul uncle Iancu? (Cara!iale Y+BB,Z3 1.1/
&.1.%. P0e5os.t.onal 580ases Pre5osi%ional 5hrases serve as mo#ifiers %o voca%ive nouns as lon! as %he0 con%ribu%e referen%ial informa%ion for %he i#en%ifica%ion of %he in%erlocu%or$ The e;am5les in (42a b/ belon! %o %he collo@uial re!is%er an# sho9 %ha% Voca%ive Case mar-in! is un!ramma%ical on %he voca%ive noun$ Gn %he o%her han# %he same %05e of mar-in! is o5%ional in s%0lis%icall0 enhance# con%e;%s as in (42c/ %a-en from a fol- son! an# in (42#/ %a-en from one of Lucian 'la!a?s 5oems$
(42/ a$ Fa%a/ (Xfa%o/ #in 5rima bancL vino %e ro!d !irl-%he/ !irl$VGC from firs% #es- come I:PV$1SG 0ou$ACC as-$+SG >The !irl from %he firs% #es- come here 5leased? b$ 7levi/ (Xelevilo0/ #in clasa I bine aRi veni% En Mcoala noas%rLd s%u#en%s/ s%u#en%s$VGC from class I 9ell have$1PL come in school ours >S%u#en%s from !ra#e I 9elcome %o our schoold? c$ :Wn#ruRL/ mWn#ruRo #e 5es%e #eald 0oun!-!irl/0oun!-!irl$VGC of across hill >qoun!-!irl from across %he hill$$$? (:arius :Lcelaru son! %i%le/ #$ Gorun1le #in mar!ine #e co#ru / Gorun #in mar!ine$$$ oa--%ree$VGC from e#!e of fores% / oa--%ree from e#!e$$$ >Ga--%ree b0 %he e#!e of %he fores% ^? ('la!a Y+C+CZ3 ,/
&.1.&. N1 de N2 Ui%h N+Pde"N1 s%ruc%ures (see cha5%er +2/ N+ carries %he Case en#in! in voca%ives as 9ell as sho9n in (44/$ N+ is a nominaliAe# a#6ec%ive$
(44/ P0ost1le 3e #01es/1 %u creAi cL 5e RuMeR El in%ereseaAL #e %ineK s%u5i#$VGC of Gruescu 0ou believe$1SG %ha% DG: RuMeR 2$CL$:SG$ACC in%eres%s of 0ou >S%u5i# Gruescu #o 0ou %hin- RuMeR cares abou% 0ouK? (999$5an#urul$ro/
&.1.(. Relat.2e /la1ses T9o %05es of rela%ive clauses ma0 occur 9i%h voca%ive nouns3 a res%ric%ive rela%ive clause %ha% mo#ifies a re!ular noun as in (4,a/ an# a rela%ive base# on %he rela%iviAa%ion of a 5re#ica%e 9hich is a 5e6ora%ive @uali%0 noun or nominaliAe# a#6ec%ive as in (4,b/$ The #ifferen% !ramma%ical s%a%us is in#ica%e# b0 %he con%ras% in %he rela%ive 5ronouns3 care >9hich? in (4,a/ is use# for %he rela%iviAa%ion of an ar!umen% 9hereas ce >9ha%? in (4,b/ is use# for %he rela%iviAa%ion of a 5re#ica%e (t!e fool t!at you are r/ (see Cha5%er += on rela%ives/$
.<=
Voca%ives (4,/ a$ G Yvreme-n care nu ci%eamZ un#e %e- ai #usK oh %ime in 9hich no% rea#$I:PF$+SG 9here R7FL have$1SG !one >Gh %imes 9hen I #i#n?% rea# 9here have 0ou !oneK? b$ Pros%1le Yce eM%iZ ce vrei sL faciK s%u5i#$VGC 9ha% are$1SG 9ha% 9an%$1SG SD'N #o$1SG >qou fool 9ha% #o 0ou 9an% %o #oK?
&.2. No6.nal.Be3 a37e/t.2es NominaliAe# a#6ec%ives can cons%i%u%e voca%ive 5hrases in @ualif0in! sen%ences (9i%h %he rea#in! >0ou are a$$$?/$ The0 mus% be mar-e# 9i%h %he en#in!s -ule (for masculine sin!ular/ -o (feminine sin!ular/ or -lor (5lural/ as in (4</$
(4./ :incinos1le / liar-%he(:SG/$VGC / >Liar(s/d? mincinoaso liar-%he(FSG/$VGC / mincinoMilo0d liar-%he(PL/$VGC
For %he masculine sin!ular %he en#in! -e is un!ramma%ical %he a#6ec%ive re@uirin! %he obli!a%or0 5resence of %he #efini%e ar%icle -ul$ Ui%hou% %he #efini%e ar%icle %he a#6ec%ive fails %o be in%er5re%e# as a DP$ The o%her en#in!s inclu#e %he #efini%e ar%icle as an inse5arable clus%er$ NominaliAe# a#6ec%ives are ver0 5ro#uc%ive as voca%ives$ &.3. Le<./all9 n1ll no1ns Cer%ain voca%ive 5hrases #is5la0 #e%erminers an# mo#ifiers bu% no noun as in (4</$ In such con%e;%s %he noun is "un#ers%oo#& 9i%hou% bein! s5elle# ou% (see Cha5%er 2 *2 on "em5%0& P i$e$ un5ronounce# P nouns in Romanian/$ The e;ac% reference for %he a##ressee is ensure# b0 %he si%ua%ional con%e;%$
(4</ a$ Cel #e la fereas%rL vino mai a5roa5ed %he(:SG/ from 9in#o9 come$I:PV$1SG more close >The one from %he 9in#o9 come closer? b$ Al #oilea vino mai a5roa5ed %he secon# come$I:PV$1SG more close >The secon# one come closerd?
&.$. Coo03.nate3 2o/at.2es Coor#ina%ion is 5ossible 9i%hin %he voca%ive 5hrase (e$!$ be%9een a#6ec%ives as in 4Ba/ an# be%9een %9o voca%ive 5hrases as in (4Bb/$ The rule is %ha% %he coor#ina%e# 5hrases canno% be Case mar-e# P com5are (4Bb/ 9i%h (4Bc/$
(4B/ a$ Fe%iRL micL Mi #ra!L ^ !irl li%%le an# #ear >Dear li%%le !irl ^? b$ Co5iii Mi fe%ele #aRi vWr%osd chil#ren-%he an# !irls-%he !ive$I:PV$1PL s%ron! >Chil#ren an# !irls 5ush s%ron!l0d? c$ XCo5iiilo0 Mi fe%elo0 #aRi vWr%osd chil#ren-%he$VGC an# !irls-%he$VGC !ive I:PV$1PL s%ron! #$ Fa%a Mi bLia%u? veniRi aicid
.<+
Voca%ives !irl-%he an# bo0-%he come$I:PV$1PL here >(qou/ !irl an# (0ou/ bo0 come hered? e$ X Fa%o Mi bLie%e veniRi aicid !irl$VGC an# bo0$VGC come$I:PV$1PL here
7;ce5%ions %o %he rule e;is% in %he case of i#ioma%ic e;5ressions as in (4C/$

(4C/ a$ Doamnelo0 Mi #omnilo0d la#ies$VGC an# !en%lemen$VGC b$ DoamnL Mi #omn1le Ionescud :rs$ an# :r$VGC Ionescu
Gl# Romanian a%%es%s %o more fle;ibili%0 in %he coor#ina%ion as sho9n in (i/ belo93 Case mar-in! is allo9e# on bo%h a#6ec%ives an# nouns even 9hen %he0 en%er in coor#ina%ion s%ruc%ures$ No%e ho9ever %ha% %hese voca%ives belon! %o 5re%en%ious 9ri%%en official lan!ua!e 5rolific in fla%%erin! formulae$ This mi!h% be ver0 #ifferen% from %he ac%ual s5o-en lan!ua!e of %he %ime$ (i/ a$ Cins%i%1le Mi cre#incios boer1le al Domniei mele ^ %rus%9or%h0$VGC an# lo0al bo0ar$VGC G7N Lor#shi5-%he$G7N m0 >:0 lor#shi5?s %rus%9or%h0 an# lo0al bo0ar ^$? b$ P0ea+/.nst.A.lo0 C. 3e b1n nea6 M:0..lo0 'oast0e 3o6n.lo0= %oo-%rus%9or%h0$VGC an# of !oo# -in Grea%ness$PL$VGC qours lor#s$VGC 3o6n.lo0 a. /.nst.t1l1. Ma48.st0at cu mul%L 5lecLciune mL Enchin lor#s$VGC G7N %rus%9or%h0-%he$G7N ma!is%ra%e 9i%h much bo9in! R7FL ben#-over$+SG :Lriilor Voas%re$ Grea%nesses-%he$G'L qours >Trus%9or%h0 an# noble lor#s %o 0our Grea%nesses I #ee5l0 bo9$?
(. S9nta<? t8e 2o/at.2e .n t8e senten/e

Ue have men%ione# in %he 5revious sec%ions %ha% %he 5osi%ion of %he voca%ive has a s0s%ema%ic effec% on i%s in%er5re%a%ion as #irec% a##ress$ Tha% is clause ini%ial voca%ives are !enerall0 a%%en%ion #ra9ers 9hereas clause me#ial an# final voca%ives are bon#in!$ This is fur%her illus%ra%e# in (,=/$
(,=/ a$ 7leno eM%i acasLK 7lena$VGC are$1SG home >7lena are 0ou homeK? b$ :Li 7lena #e ce nu cum5eri casaK mi 7lena 9h0 no% bu0$1SG house-%he >7lena 9h0 #on?% 0ou b0 %he houseK? c$ De ce nu cum5eri casa mLi 7lenoK 9h0 no% bu0$1SG house-%he mi 7lena$VGC >Uh0 #on?% 0ou bu0 %he house 7lenaK?
The voca%ive in (,=a/ can be in%er5re%e# as a call onl0 in clause ini%ial 5osi%ion$ In (,=b/ %he clause ini%ial voca%ive o5ens %he #ialo!ue se%%in! 7lena u5 as %he in%erlocu%or$ In%ona%ion can a## ne!o%ia%in! or in!ra%ia%in! over%ones bu% %he main func%ion of %he voca%ive in %his con%e;% is %o #ra9 %he hearer in%o %he #ialo!ue$ (,=c/ 9oul# no% be u%%ere# ou% of %he blueI %he final 5osi%ion of %he voca%ive sho9s %ha% %he #ialo!ue 9as on!oin! so %he voca%ive arises for o%her 5ur5oses %han a%%en%ion #ra9in!$ These observa%ions in#ica%e %ha% %he voca%ive is ma55in! %he in%er5re%a%ion in%o s0n%a; (i$e$ %hrou!h i%s 5osi%ion/ an# %ha% a% leas% u5 %o a cer%ain e;%en% 9e mus% consi#er %he voca%ives as s0n%ac%ic i%ems$ This sec%ion 5oin%s ou% o%her o5era%ions %ha% su!!es% a s%ruc%ural .<1
Voca%ives
rela%ion be%9een voca%ives an# %he sen%ence3 %he effec% %he voca%ives have on %he sub6ec% of %he im5era%ive clauseI an# %he 9a0 %he voca%ive cons%rains %he reference of 5ronouns in %he clause (ana5horic rela%ions/$ (.1. 'o/at.2es R s1b7e/ts of t8e .65e0at.2es^ Voca%ives favor %he use of im5era%ive verbs as in (,+a/ since bo%h ca%e!ories enco#e %he fea%ures of #irec% a##ress$ Fur%hermore %he voca%ive noun of%en a!rees in number 9i%h %he im5era%ive verb !iven %ha% %he #irec% a##ress involves a secon# 5erson as in%erlocu%or$ Oo9ever %here is no in%rinsic cause-an#-effec% rela%ion be%9een voca%ives an# im5era%ives since %he former ma0 occur in %he absence of %he la%%er as in (,+b/$
(,+/ a$ :aria :aria >:aria b$ :aria :aria >:aria #u -%e la McoalLd !o$I:PV$1SG-R7FL %o school !o %o schoold? nu 5o% sL vin$ no% can$+SG SD'N come$+SG I canno% come$?
The a!reemen% rela%ion in (,+a/ as 9ell as %he #irec% a##ress 5ra!ma%ics voca%ives an# im5era%ives share !ave rise %o a #eba%e in %he lin!uis%ic li%era%ure as %o 9he%her %he voca%ive mi!h% be %he sub6ec% of %he im5era%ive$ Ar!umen%s a!ains% %his h05o%hesis echo %he s%an# %ha% %he voca%ive is a se5ara%e 5honolo!ical uni% %ha% #oes no% belon! %o %he sen%ence s0n%a;$ Romanian ma0 5rovi#e su55or% in %his res5ec% because3 (i/ %he im5era%ive ma0 sho9 a sub6ec% in a##i%ion %o %he voca%ive (see (,1/a/ an# (ii/ %he sub6ec% ma0 #iffer in 5erson mor5holo!0 from %he voca%ive as in (,1/b$ (,1/
a$ :aria t1 #u-%e la McoalLd :aria 0ou(SG/ !o$I:PV$1SG-R7FL %o school >:aria !o %o schoold? b$ Ioane veniRi Mi voi mai #evremed Ion$VGC come$1PL an# 0ou(PL/ more earl0 >Ion 0ou !u0s shoul# come earlier$?
Ano%her ar!umen% is %ha% bare @uan%ifiers 9hich are e;clu#e# as voca%ives (,1a/ can be sub6ec%s of im5era%ives (,1b/$ Romanian #a%a sho9 %ha% %his is %rue as lon! as %he im5era%ive is realiAe# %hrou!h a sub6unc%ive (,2b/$ True im5era%ives #o no% allo9 for bare @uan%ifier sub6ec%s (,2c/$
(,2/ a$ XCinevad someone b$ (Cineva/ sL vinL (cineva/ re5e#ed someone SD'N come$2SG someone fas% >Someone come fas%d? c$ X Cineva vino re5e#ed / X Vino cineva re5e#ed somebo#0 come$I:PV$1SG fas% come$I:PV$1SG somebo#0 fas%
There is a coun%er-ar!umen% su!!es%in! %ha% voca%ives cons%rain if no% occu50 %he sub6ec% 5osi%ion of im5era%ives3 The voca%ive is al9a0s co-referen% %o %he sub6ec% of %he im5era%ive (,1a/ or is inclu#e# in i% (see (,1/b/ P no%e %ha% misma%ches in number an# 5erson a!reemen% (,1b/ are irrelevan% since %he seman%ics of %he sub6ec% is inclusive of %he voca%ive an# such misma%ches arise in #eclara%ive clauses as 9ell as in (,4/$ .<2
Voca%ives
(,4/
a$ Fe%ele am veni% mai #evreme bLieRii au En%WrAia%$ !irls-%he have$+PL come$5ar% more earl0 bo0s-%he have$2PL la%e >Ue %he !irls came earl0 %he bo0s 9ere la%e$? b$ ToRi am / aRi En%WrAia%$ all have$+PL / have$1PL la%e >All of us / all of 0ou 9ere la%e$? c$ CWRiva am / aRi En%WrAia%$ some have$+PL / have$1PL la%e >Some of us / some of 0ou 9ere la%e?
:oreover accor#in! %o some researchers some im5era%ive forms sho9 %he influence of voca%ive en#in!s3 vino >come? (ins%ea# of %he e;5ec%e# viiela%$ uenj/ cf$ %he feminine voca%ive en#in! - o% ado "brin!& (#ialec%al/ besi#es adu (ela%$ adduc/ an# ad$
(.2. Ana58o0./ 0elat.ons A salien% 5ro5er%0 of voca%ive 5hrases is %he fac% %ha% %he0 func%ion as an%ece#en% %o 5ronouns$ The 5ronouns ma0 occur in sub6ec% 5osi%ion (,,a/ or in o%her ar!umen%al or a#6oine# 5osi%ions (,,b c/ an# %he clause %he0 belon! %o ma0 be of an0 %05e (i$e$ no% necessaril0 im5era%ive/$
(,,/ a$ Ma0.ai tui un#e 5leci K :aria 0ou 9here !o$1SG >:aria 9here are 0ou !oin!K? b$ Ma0.a. te.am 5us 5e lis%L$ :aria 0ou(SG/ACC have$+ 5u% on lis% >:aria I/9e 5u% 0ou on %he lis%$? c$ Ma0.a.= vin cu tinei. :aria come$+SG 9i%h 0ou(SG/ACC >:aria I?m comin! 9i%h 0ou$?
Ana5horic rela%ions are no% uni@ue %o %he voca%iveI %he0 also occur 9i%h cons%i%uen%s fron%e# %o 5osi%ions consi#ere# %o be ou%si#e %he clause boun#ar0 such as %o5ics in (,.a/ an# e;clama%ions in (,.b/$
(,./ a$ CKt 3es50e Ma0.a. am 5us-o. 5e lis%L$ as for :aria have$+ 5u% her on lis% >As for :aria I/9e 5u% her on %he lis%$? b$ E<a6ene.d Nu-mi vorbi #es5re asta.d e;ams no% me s5ea-$1SG abou% %his(SG/ >7;amsd Don?% s5ea- %o me abou% %hisd?
A com5arison be%9een (,,/ an# (,./ sho9s %ha% voca%ives behave li-e e;clama%ions ra%her %han %o5ics insofar as %he ana5horic 5ronoun is o5%ional 9i%h %he former bu% obli!a%or0 9i%h %he la%%er$
). Re2e0se 0ole 2o/at.2es

Reverse role voca%ives are -inshi5 %erms %ha% s9i%ch %he #irec%ion of i#en%ifica%ion from %he a##ressee bac- %o %he s5ea-er$ In Romanian %9o 9or#s occur 9i%h %his func%ion3 mam >mo%her? an# tat >fa%her? usuall0 em5lo0e# 9hen %he a##ressee is %he s5ea-er?s son or #au!h%er$ Oo9ever in familiar con%e;%s %his %05e of voca%ive is use# even 9hen %he s5ea-er .<4
Voca%ives
an# %he a##ressee #on?% have a 5aren% P son / #au!h%er rela%ionshi5 if %he s5ea-er 9an%s %o es%ablish an au%hori%0 on 9hich a re@ues% is ma#e or a#vice is !iven$ This cons%ruc%ion is 9i#el0 s5rea# in %he 'al-an area$ Voca%ive 5hrases 9i%h reverse role voca%ives con%ain %9o voca%ive nouns3 a noun i#en%if0in! %he a##ressee (mar-e# b0 i%alics in (,<// 5lus %he >mo%her?/?fa%her? noun (bol#face# in (,<//$ The a##ressee voca%ive ma0 be 5honolo!icall0 null %he i#en%ifica%ion arisin! from %he con%e;% P es5eciall0 from %he ac-no9le#!e# in%er5ersonal rela%ion 9i%h >mo%her? or >fa%her? (,<b/$ In %he 9or# or#er %he a##ressee voca%ive 5rece#es %he reverse role voca%ive even 9hen %he voca%ive 5hrase is s5li% (,<c/$
(,</ a$ Dane 6a6: @ tat: vino -ncoaced Dan$VGC mo%her$VGC / fa%her$VGC come$I:PV$1SG here >Dan come here (m0 bo0/d? b$ De ce n-asculRi 6a6:K 9h0 no%-lis%en$1SG mo%her$VGC >Uh0 aren?% 0ou lis%enin! #earK? b$ Dane vino-ncoace tat: / 6a6: 30a4:d Dan come-here fa%her$VGC / mo%her$VGC #ear >Dan come here (m0 bo0/d?
The noun mam ma0 be mo#ifie# b0 %he a#6ec%ive dra >#ear? in 5os%nominal 5osi%ion (mam dra /$ The en#earin! @uali%0 of %he a#6ec%ive a55lies %o %he a##ressee (%he son / #au!h%er/ no% %o %he s5ea-er (%he mo%her/$ This a!reemen% in#ica%es %ha% %he %9o voca%ive nouns s%ill belon! %o %he same cons%i%uen% in (,<c/ #es5i%e %he fron%in! of one of %hem$
*. 'o/at.2es .n e</la6at.ons
Voca%ives are e;5ressions of #irec% a##ress$ Oo9ever some voca%ive forms also occur in e;clama%ions %ha% conve0 %he s5ea-er?s 5oin% of vie9 or emo%ional s%a%e (in#i!na%ion sur5rise #isbelief e%c$/ in#e5en#en%l0 of a #ialo!ue se%-u5$ These are reli!ious nouns (,Ba/ -inshi5 %erms (,Bb-c/ an# a55ella%ive nouns (,B#/$
(,B/ a$ D16neBe1le= @ Doa6ne= @ D0a/e ce %WrAiu ed Go#$VGC Go#$VGC #evil$VGC 9ha% la%e is >:0 Go# i%?s so la%ed? b$ Ma6:= @ M:./1l.A: ce vi%eAL avead mo%her mo%her$DI: 9ha% s5ee# have$I:PF$2SG >Gosh 9ha% a s5ee# he ha#? c$ S%ai f0ate= @ so0o= @ tat: Mi aM%ea5%L ca %oRi ceilalRid si% bro%her sis%er$VGC fa%her an# 9ai% li-e all o%hers >Si% an# 9ai% li-e ever0bo#0 else? #$ Ce vi%eAL avea 3o6n1le @ 3o6Hle @ nened 9ha% s5ee# ha#$2SG mis%er$VGC mis%er-%he$VGC uncle$VGC >Gosh 9ha% a s5ee# he ha#?
These nouns are re-anal0Ae# as i#ioma%ic e;5ressions %ha% los% %heir #irec% a##ress func%ion P %he0 are u%%ere# 9hen %he s5ea-er nee#s %o ven% his/her feelin!s 9i%h no a##ressin! effec%s$ For e;am5le domnule $ dom.le >sir? is use# 9hen %he hearer is a 9omanI an# -inshi5 %erms are use# even if %he s5ea-er an# %he hearer are no% rela%e#$ Doamne >Go#? is also use# b0 a%heis%s$ These seman%ic misma%ches are 5ossible because %he hearer is no% consi#ere# an a##ressee in %he con%e;% of %ha% 5ar%icular u%%erance an# in fac% %here coul# be no hearer 5resen% a% all$
.<,
Voca%ives
1,. T8eo0et./al I1est.ons

Formal !rammar has onl0 recen%l0 s%ar%e# %o 5a0 a%%en%ion %o %he elemen%s of conversa%ional 5ra!ma%ics 9hich is also %he umbrella for voca%ives$ There are %9o emer!in! %en#encies3 one a%%em5%s %o -ee5 conversa%ional 5ra!ma%ics ou% of s0n%a; 9hile ac-no9le#!in! %ha% 5henomena such as voca%ives are 5ar% of a lar!er #efini%ion of !rammarI %he o%her %en#enc0 is %o #emons%ra%e %ha% a% leas% some of %he conversa%ional 5ra!ma%ics relies on s0n%ac%ic confi!ura%ions$ In %his con%e;% %he #a%a #iscusse# in %his cha5%er lea# us %o as- some %heore%ical @ues%ions$ In 5ar%icular since voca%ive 5hrases ma0 #is5la0 Voca%ive Case i% means %ha% %he0 are com5a%ible 9i%h Case assi!nmen% (i$e$ %he0 mus% have Case even 9hen Voca%ive Case en#in!s are missin!/$ If %his conclusion is correc% an# %a-in! in%o consi#era%ion %ha% nouns !e% Case from verbs or 5re5osi%ions %hen ho9 is Case ensure# for %he voca%ive nounK Fur%hermore %he voca%ive is no% %he onl0 form of #irec% a##ress %ha% occurs a% %he hi!h lef% 5eri5her0 of clauses P %here are various 5ar%icles %ha% fulfill %he same func%ion (e$!$ !ai >c?mon?I ei >he0d?I uite >loo--here?/$ A s0n%ac%ic a55roach %o voca%ives en%ails a s0s%ema%ic 5a%%ern of in%erac%ion 9i%h such o%her 5ar%icles (e$!$ res%ric%ions on co-occurrence #is%ribu%ion selec%ion an# movemen%/$ In %his sec%ion 9e #o no% %a-e si#es in %his #eba%e al%hou!h 9e shoul# men%ion %ha% %here are s%u#ies 9hich ma-e %he case for a s0n%a; of conversa%ional 5ra!ma%ics in Romanian$ Ue shall limi% ourselves %o #ra9in! %he rea#er?s a%%en%ion %o some 5a%%erns of co-occurrence be%9een %he voca%ive an# o%her 5ar%icles of a##ress$ Nai in (,C/ is a 9i#el0 s5rea# 5ar%icle of #irec% a##ress seman%icall0 un#er-s5ecifie#3 i% coul# be use# as a >!o? im5era%ive (,Ca/ as an evalua%ive (,Cb/ as an im5era%ive enhancer (,Cc/ a he#!in! 5ar%icle (,C#/ an# so on$ Im5or%an%l0 %his 5ar%icle can ac@uire secon# 5erson 5lural mor5holo!0 an# %his en#in! (i$e$ P i/ a%%es%s %o a local rela%ion be%9een !ai an# %he voca%ive 5hrase$ Tha% is %he a!reemen% in %he 5lural is obli!a%or0 9i%h %he in6unc%ive use of %he 5ar%icle (,Ce/$ Im5or%an%l0 %here is no evi#ence %ha% !ai has ever been a verb in Romanian so %he a!reemen% canno% be consi#ere# a resi#ue of verb re-anal0sis as 5ra!ma%ic mar-er$
(,C/ a$ Oai mai re5e#e cL ne ve#e$ !ai more fas% %ha% us sees >C?mon fas%er because she sees us$? b$ Oai cL eM%i ri#icol$ !ai %ha% are$1SG ri#iculous >Reall0 0ou are ri#iculous$? c$ Oai #u%ed !ai !o$I:PV$1SG-R7FL >God? #$ 7 #e6a mai bine haid is alrea#0 more 9ell !ai >This is alrea#0 be%%er$? e$ Fe%elor hai#eRi la mare$ // XFe%elor hai la mare$ !irls$VGC !ai$1PL %o sea // !irls-VGC !ai %o sea >Girls le%?s !o %o %he sea shore$?
Ano%her e;am5le of s0s%ema%ic in%erac%ion be%9een voca%ives an# o%her 5ar%icles of #irec% a##ress comes from res%ric%ions on con%rac%ions 9i%h %he a%%en%ion #ra9er 5ar%icle !u >he0? use# in %he sou%h-9es% varie%ies$ This 5ar%icle is s5elle# ou% as such 9hen use# b0 i%self or in se5ara%ion from voca%ives$ Oo9ever a#6acenc0 be%9een %he 5ar%icle an# %he voca%ive resul%s in con%rac%ion3
.<.
Voca%ives
(.=/
bunicL1d (ebunicu H hLu/I !ran?5ad
moMulL1d (e moMule H hLu/ ol#-mand
The res%ric%ions on con%rac%ion in (.=/ resemble %he res%ric%ions on 7n!lish con%rac%ions such as >!onna? an# >9anna? 9hich #e5en# on local s%ruc%ural rela%ions be%9een %he i%ems concerne# (i$e$ i% is s0n%ac%icall0 no% onl0 5honolo!icall0 cons%raine#/$ These are onl0 sam5les of challen!in! @ues%ions %ha% %he Romanian #a%a raise for %he formal a55roaches %o !rammar$ Loo-in! bac- a% %he #escri5%ion of %he voca%ive 5hrase 9e can see %ha% %he clus%erin! of %he #efini%e ar%icle an# %he Voca%ive Case en#in! raises ano%her issue since influen%ial s%u#ies on nominal cons%i%uen%s consi#er %ha% %he voca%ive 5hrase is no% a DP$ The s0ncre%ism of %he Voca%ive Case en#in! 9i%h Geni%ive/Da%ive in 5lural nouns is ano%her issue (i$e$ 9h0 %his 5ar%icular Case mor5holo!0K/ an# so are %he 5reclusion of Voca%ive Case en#in! in a#6ec%ive-noun se@uences 9i%h feminine nouns %he s%ruc%ure of reverse role voca%ives or %he ran!e of o5%ions for #erivin! %he voca%ive 5hrase 9hich are no% available 9i%h %he use of %he noun insi#e %he clause (e$!$ o5%ional 5resence or absence of %he #efini%e ar%icleI #ouble Case mor5holo!0 on noun an# a!reein! a#6ec%ivesI %he in%ernal varia%ions of 9or# or#er/$ Fu%ure research in %his fiel# ma0 5lace our #a%a in a com5ara%ive 5ers5ec%ive %ha% 9ill fur%her a#vance our un#ers%an#in! of human lan!ua!e$
.<<
Nominal Inflec%ion
1&. No6.nal Infle/t.on

IGN GIDRG7A 1. T8e .nfle/t.on of 3ete06.ne0s= a37e/t.2es an3 ot8e0 f1n/t.onal .te6s
+$+$ Gen#erHNumberHGbli@ue mor5hemes +$1$ Gen#erHNumber mor5hemes
2. T8e .nfle/t.on of no1ns 3. Ste6 alte0nat.ons $. I00e41la0 5a0a3.46s %. T8e 3ef.n.te 3e/lens.on &. 'o/at.2e en3.n4s (. T8e 5ossess.2e .nfle/t.on ). T8e a146ente3 fo06s of 3ete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es *. Pa0a3.46 sa65les
.<B
Nominal Inflec%ion The 5resen% cha5%er is #e#ica%e# %o %he 5honolo!ical e;5ression of %he inflec%ional fea%ures of Romanian nouns a#6ec%ives an# nominal func%ional ca%e!ories$ For a 5resen%a%ion of %hese fea%ures see %he in%ro#uc%or0 cha5%er (Nominal fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions/$ The inflec%ional fea%ures of nouns are number an# case %hose of a#6ec%ives 5ronouns #e%erminers an# o%her func%ional ca%e!ories are !en#er number an# case$ All %hese fea%ures are e;5resse# b0 a sin!le mor5heme$ Romanian belon!s %o %he lan!ua!es in 9hich %he form of inflec%ional mor5hemes of%en #e5en#s on %ha% of %he le;ical base %he0 a%%ach %o$ Accor#in! %o %he se% of forms of inflec%ional mor5hemes %he0 receive le;ical i%ems are #ivi#e# in%o inflectional classes (for %he nominal #omain %he %ra#i%ional %erm for >inflec%ional class? is declension/$
A se% of forms charac%eriAin! a !iven inflec%ional class form an inflectional paradi m$ The 5ar% of %he 9or# 9hich remains cons%an% in a 5ara#i!m is calle# here stem$ The s%em can be fur%her #ecom5ose# in%o mor5hemes 5u% %o!e%her b0 le'ical combinations P ei%her derivation or compoundin P so %he0 are forme# b0 recursivel0 combinin! roo%s or o%her s%ems 9i%h #eriva%ional mor5hemes (suffi;es or 5refi;es/ or o%her roo%s/s%ems$ Oere 9e are onl0 concerne# 9i%h inflec%ional mor5holo!0 so 9e 9ill s%o5 our #ecom5osi%ion %o s%ems$ Ue ma0 s5ea- of roots onl0 for func%ional i%ems 9i%h a ver0 re#uce# bo#0 9hich canno% be fur%her #ecom5ose# af%er removin! %he inflec%ional mor5heme P see %he #efini%e ar%icle or 5ersonal 5ronouns$ The s0n%ac%ic coun%er5ar% of >s%em? 9ha% is common %o %he various inflec%ional forms of a 9or# is calle# here le'ical unit or le'ical base$
In Romanian inflec%ional mor5hemes of%en %ri!!er stem alternations$ Some of %hese al%erna%ions are re!ular o%hers are res%ric%e# %o some le;ical en%ries$ Some%imes %he chan!es of %he s%ems are %o%all0 un5re#ic%able bein! s5ecific %o !iven le;ical en%ries$ In %his case 9e s5ea- of irre ular items$ Since %he inflec%ional mor5hemes an# s%em al%erna%ions charac%eriAin! nouns a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminers are of%en %he same 9e %rea% %hem %o!e%her in %his cha5%er$ Ue 9ill no% #iscuss here %he inflec%ion of 5ersonal refle;ive an# 5oli%eness 5ronouns 9hich are 5resen%e# in cha5%er ,$ Nouns an# a#6ec%ives %ha% carr0 %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle can be #ecom5ose# in%o %hree inflec%ional mor5hemes %ha% a%%ach %o %he s%em3 %he -mor5heme of %he noun or a#6ec%ive (e;5ressin! number or number an# case or !en#er H number (H case/ res5ec%ivel0/ a mor5heme re5resen%in! %he roo% of %he ar%icle an# %he -mor5heme of %he ar%icle (e;5ressin! !en#er number an# case/3
(+/ a$ fe%-e-l-e !irl-PL-%he-FPL$DIR b$ fe%-e-l-or !irl-PL-%he-FPL$G'L
Ue be!in %he 5resen%a%ion of %he Romanian nominal inflec%ion 9i%h a#6ec%ives an# func%ional i%ems (sec%ion +/ because %he0 have a re#uce# number of 5ara#i!ms an# correla%ivel0 %heir inflec%ional mor5hemes %en# %o be more in#e5en#en% from %he le;ical uni% %he0 a%%ach %o$ The onl0 func%ional i%ems 9hich 9ill be %rea%e# se5ara%el0 are %he affi;al ones3 %he #efini%e ar%icle 9hich 9ill be %rea%e# as a s5ecial inflec%ion (%he #efini%e #eclension/ (see sec%ion ,/ an# %he suffi;al 5ossessive (see sec%ion </$ The func%ional i%ems 9hich have #efec%ive mor5holo!0 (#o no% e;5ress some o55osi%ions or #on?% allo9 %he obli@ue mor5heme/ 9ill also be #iscusse# se5ara%el0 (see sec%ion 4/$ Voca%ive mar-in!s 9ill be #iscusse# af%er 5resen%in! %he #efini%e #eclensions because %he0 can also a%%ach %o %he #efini%e ar%icle (see sec%ion ./$
.<C
Nominal Inflec%ion
1. T8e .nfle/t.on of 3ete06.ne0s= a37e/t.2es an3 ot8e0 f1n/t.onal .te6s

1.1. #en3e0VN16be0VObl.I1e 6o058e6es As is e;5laine# in %he In%ro#uc%ion (see cha5%er + * +$4/ mor5holo!ical case mar-in! can a55ear in Romanian onl0 if %he nominal 5ro6ec%ion is !overne# b0 a #e%erminer$ S5ecial obli@ue mor5hemes onl0 a55ear on #e%erminers P inclu#in! %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle P an# some o%her func%ional ca%e!ories (such as 5re-D universals/3
(1/ a$ unui om a$:SG$G'L man b$ unor co5ii some$PL$G'L chil#ren
For nouns an# a#6ec%ives %he onl0 #ifference be%9een %he #irec% an# %he obli@ue case a55ears in %he feminine sin!ular 9here a form i#en%ical %o %he 5lural a55ears if %he DP is in%ro#uce# b0 a #e%erminer bearin! %he obli@ue mor5heme (onl0 for a ver0 fe9 nouns is %his form #ifferen% from %he 5lural see sec%ion 1/ P a 5henomenon 9hich 9e calle# case spreadin 3
(2/ a$ o al%L casL a$FSG o%her$FSG house$FSG b$ al%e case o%her$FPL houses$FPL c$ unei al%e case a$FSG$G'L o%her-e house-e
A5ar% from %his %he inflec%ions use# are i#en%ical %o %he #irec% inflec%ions of #e%erminers (in %he e;am5les belo9 %his i#en%i%0 is mar-e# b0 bol#faceI %he s5ecial case s5rea#in! en#in! is mar-e# b0 i%alics/3
(4/ #irec%3 obli@ue3 #irec%3 obli@ue3
:$SG$ (>ano%her %ree?/ al%-a co5ac-a al%-1. co5ac-a F$SG$ :$PL$ alR-. co5ac-. al%-o0 co5ac-.
(>ano%her house?/ F$PL$ al%-: cas-: al%-e cas-e al%-e. cas-e al%-o0 cas-e
Therefore 9e 9ill %rea% %he #irec% form as unmar-e# for case (so 9e 9ill no% men%ion %he case value e;ce5% for %he feminine sin!ular$/ There are some cases in 9hich case s5rea#in! is o5%ional (for ins%ance 5ar%ici5les >heav0? 5os%nominal a#6ec%ives/I 9hen i% #oes no% a55l0 %he #irec% form is use# su!!es%in! %ha% even %he feminine sin!ular #irec% form can be consi#ere# as unmar-e# for case$ Gbli@ue mor5hemes are %he mos% in#e5en#en% mor5hemes havin! %he same forms irres5ec%ive of %he le;ical uni% %he0 a%%ach %o3
(,/ Gbli@ue mor5hemes3
:ASC$ SG$ F7:$ SG$ PLDRAL
+1. 7;am5les3 unui
+e. unei
+o0 unor >a one some?
.B=
Nominal Inflec%ion
acestui altui acestei altei acestor altor >%his? >o%her?
7ncli%ic elemen%s (%he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle an# %he suffi;al 5ossessives use# 9i%h -inshi5 %erms/ have -i ins%ea# of -ei in %he feminine sin!ular (e$!$ surori-i >sis%er-%he$G'L? fete-i >!irl%he$G'L? maic-mii >mo%her-m0$G'L?/$ Suffi;al 5ossessives have an obli@ue en#in! onl0 in %he feminine sin!ular$ Some #e%erminers an# @uan%i%a%ive e;5ressions #o no% have an obli@ue form (see cha5%er 2/3 nite >some? ce >9ha%? an# i%s com5oun#s (ceva >some (@uan%i%0 of/ some%hin!? orice >an0I an0%hin!?/ car#inals$ 3ite can be sai# %o have a su55le%ive obli@ue form unor 9hich is also use# as %he obli@ue form of %he #e%erminer unii >some (5ar%i%ive/?$
The sin!ular forms of %he obli@ue mor5hemes mi!h% be fur%her #ecom5ose# in%o a !en#erHnumber mor5heme 9i%h case s5rea#in! in %he feminine an# a case mor5heme - } I in#ee# as 9e 9ill see belo9 %he masculine sin!ular of %he mos% 9i#es5rea# 5ara#i!ms has %9o allomor5hs -Q an# - uI %he -u allomor5h a55ears af%er vo9els an# if %he mor5heme is no% final$ Therefore %he - u- form is e;5ec%e# before %he -} mor5heme$ As for %he feminine as alrea#0 sho9n in (4/ -e is %he 5lural en#in! also use# as sin!ular obli@ue in con%e;%s of case s5rea#in!3 :$SG$ -u-} F$SG$ -e-} In%eres%in!l0 %he mor5heme } also a55ears as a sin!ular #a%ive cli%ic (9hose un#erl0in! form is } a55earin! as }, } or i #e5en#in! on %he 5honolo!ical environmen% as sho9n in cha5%er , *+$</
Some a#6ec%ives can a55ear in %he DP-ini%ial 5osi%ion 9i%h a #e%erminer-li-e func%ion onl0 in %he 5lural$ In %his case %he0 can ei%her %a-e %he obli@ue en#in! -or (e$!$ anumitor c!estiuni >cer%ain$PL$G'L issues? destulor persoane >enou!h$PL$G'L 5ersons? feluritor idei >various$PL$G'L i#eas?/ or %he0 use %he 5re5osi%ional !eni%ive an# #a%ive mar-ers (a felurite idei >G7N various i#eas?% la destule persoane >%o enou!h 5ersons?% e%c$/ 1.2. #en3e0VN16be0 6o058e6es Forms unmar-e# for case #is%in!uish several 5ara#i!ms$ As 9e have sho9n in %he 5revious sec%ion feminine 5lural forms are also use# for sin!ular nouns an# a#6ec%ives in DPs 9i%h #e%erminers mar-e# 9i%h obli@ue case (>case s5rea#in!?/$ :os% a#6ec%ives an# func%ional i%ems belon! %o %he four-en#in!s 5ara#i!mI some a#6ec%ives belon! %o %he %9o-en#in!s 5ara#i!m an# some func%ional i%ems an# a#6ec%ives %o %he one-en#in! 5ara#i!m$ 1.2.1 T95e I? Fo10+en3.n4 5a0a3.463
(a/ consonan%al s%ems3
:ASC$ SG$ F7:$ SG$ :ASC$ PL$ F7:$ PL$
a @ +1 7;am5les3 bun alt aspru
+: bun alt aspr
+. buni ali aspri
+e bune alte aspre >!oo# >o%her? >rou!h?
A#6ec%ives 9i%h %he s%em en#in! in uns%resse# -u also follo9 %his 5ara#i!m3
ambi uu ambi u ambi ui ambi ue >ambi!uous?
.B+
Nominal Inflec%ion
(b/ vocalic s%ems en#in! in s%resse# vo9el3
+1 7;am5les3 reu meu
(#irec%/ +a rea mea
+. rei mei
H F7:$ SG$ obli@ue in case s5rea#in! +le rele mele >heav0? >m0?
The feminine sin!ular en#in! in %his %05e has also been anal0Ae# as a Aero mor5heme (no%a%e# >Q?/ in %he lin!uis%ic li%era%ure !iven %ha% i% re5laces an - a- vo9el of %he s%emI for %he 5a%%ern meu $ mea $ mei $ mele in 9hich ea is a #i5h%hon! a vocalic al%erna%ion e $ ea in %he s%em has been 5ro5ose# 9hich is in#e5en#en%l0 a%%es%e# (e$!$ des $ deas >#ense fre@uen%?/$ Oo9ever 9e believe %ha% i% is si!nifican% %ha% all 9or#s 9i%h %he 5lural feminine - le have %he sin!ular feminine in - a e;ce5% (i $ (ile >#a0?$ If %he feminine sin!ular en#in! of vocalic s%ems 9ere sim5l0 Aero 9e 9oul# e;5ec% i% %o a55ear 9i%h an0 vo9el$ In fac% e;ce5% for (i% %he vo9el of %he s%em is al9a0s -a- or -e- an# -e al9a0s a55ears as -ea in %he feminine sin!ular$ :o#ern borro9in!s in o%her s%resse# vo9els %han - a never en%er %his %05e (e$!$ nouns such as de rade% menu% bistro/$ :oreover 9e fin# a feminine sin!ular mor5heme - a in %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle (-a/ an# in suffi;al 5ossessives 9here %he feminine forms -ta% -sa al%erna%e 9i%h masculine -tu% -su$ Therefore 9e have chosen %o %rea% - a as a feminine sin!ular mor5heme 9hich becomes confla%e# 9i%h %he vo9el of %he s%em (b0 %he rules - a J -a 2 -a-% -e J -a 2 - a/ ra%her %han as onl0 belon!in! %o %he s%em$ A#mi%%e#l0 %his h05o%hesis has one #ra9bac-3 %he noun (i mus% be %rea%e# as an irre!ular noun$ 'u% %here is evi#ence %ha% %his noun is no% fel% %o be re!ular in %he s0s%em of Romanian3 %he sin!ular (i is in free varia%ion 9i%h ano%her form (iu% 9here %he feminine sin!ular en#in! is e;5resse# (-/$
>Q? no%es %he Aero en#in!$ 1.2.2 #ene0al 01les /on/e0n.n4 t8e a@+u an3 +i en3.n4s The masculine sin!ular en#in! -u in %he sub-%05e (a/ a55ears (i/ 9i%h consonan%al s%ems a55ears af%er consonan%Hli@ui# (e$!$ acru >sour?/ (ii/ 9i%h s%ems in an uns%resse# vo9el (e$!$ continuu >con%inuous?/ an# (iii/ 9hen %he mor5heme is no% 9or#-final (%his ha55ens 9hen i% is follo9e# b0 %he -l mor5heme of %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle an# of %he au!men%e# form of some #e%erminers/3 frumos >beau%iful?% frumosul >beau%iful-%he? alt >o%her? altul >o%her$ADG:?$ In %his las% case 9e ma0 also sa0 %ha% - u- belon!s %o %he ar%icle or au!men% bein! an allomor5h use# af%er a Aero mor5heme (see %he #iscussion in sec%ion , belo9/$ The -u a%%ache# %o vocalic s%ems re5resen%s a semivo9el (a !li#e/$ The -i in %his %able an# %he %ables 9hich 9ill follo9 re5resen%s as0llabic (#evocaliAe#/ i0 In %he se@uences -ci% - i% -c!i% - !i %he consonan% is 5ala%al an# i can be absorbe# in%o %he ar%icula%ion of %he consonan%$ In combina%ion 9i%h ano%her i -i- 0iel#s a vo9el$ I% also 0iel#s a vo9el 9hen i% is follo9e# b0 ano%her mor5heme s%ar%in! in a consonan% P %his ha55ens 9i%h %he #efini%e ar%icle3 frumoi >beau%iful$:PL? / frumoilor >beau%iful$:PL-%he$PL$G'L$ -i is 5ronounce# as a full vo9el if i% follo9s %he !rou5 consonan%Hli@ui#3 albatri >blue$:PL?$ 1.2.3 T95e II? T80ee+en3.n4 5a0a3.46= D.t8 one en3.n4 fo0 t8e fe6.n.ne3
:ASC$ SG$ :ASC$ PL$ F7:ININ7
a @ +1 7;am5les3 mbietor ateu
+. mbietori atei
+e mbietoare% mbietoare atee% atee >%em5%in!? >a%heis%?
.B1
Nominal Inflec%ion
This %05e com5rises a#6ec%ives 9i%h %he suffi; -tor (e$!$ urmtor >follo9in!?/ a#6ec%ives in as0llabic i 5rece#e# b0 a consonan% (e$!$ stn aci >lef%-han#e# clums0?/ an# a#6ec%ives 9i%h %he s%em en#in! in s%resse# -e in 9hich case -u is a##e# follo9in! %he rules formula%e# above3 instantaneu% instantanee >ins%an%aneous?$ As0llabic -i- falls before -i an# -e so %ha% %hese a#6ec%ives seem %o have %9o en#in!s$ Oo9ever -u- a55ears before ano%her mor5heme in %he sin!ular (#efini%e obli@ue sin!ular stn aciului versus 5lural stn acilor/ 9hich sho9s %ha% %he sin!ular mor5heme is in fac% Q/u #is%inc% from %he 5lural one (9hich is i/$ 1.2.$ T95e III? t80ee+en3.n4 5a0a3.46s= D.t8 one en3.n4 fo0 t8e 5l10al
(a/ T05e IIIa3 9i%h %he feminine sin!ular -3
:ASC$ SG$ F7:$ SG$
(#irec%/
PLDRAL
H F7:$ SG$ obli@ue in case s5rea#in! >lon!?
a @ +1 7;am5les3 lun
+: lun
+. lun i% lun i
This %05e mainl0 com5rises s%ems en#in! in velar consonan%s (e$!$ adnc% adnc% adnci >#ee5? lun % lun % lun i >lon!?/$ Oo9ever %here are s%ems in velars 9hich follo9 %05e I (e$!$ srac% srac% sraci% srace >5oor?/ so %his %05e canno% be consi#ere# a 5hone%icall0 con#i%ione# varian% of %05e I$
(b/ T05e IIIb3 9i%h %he feminine sin!ular -e3
:ASC$ SG$ F7:$ SG$
(#irec%/
PLDRAL
H F7:$ SG$ obli@ue in case s5rea#in! >!ol#en-0ello9? >ol#?
a @ +1 7;am5les3 auriu vec!i
+e aurie vec!e
+. aurii% aurii vec!i% vec!i
This %05e is res%ric%e# %o a#6ec%ives en#in! in vocalic or as0llabic i$ Li-e in %he firs% %05e %he masculine sin!ular -u is a##e# if %he s%em en#s in a vo9el ( cafeniu $ cafenie $ cafenii >coffeecoloure# bro9n?/I if %he s%em en#s in as0llabic i %he masculine sin!ular en#in! is Aero ( lbui% lbuie% lbui >0ello9ish? vec!i% vec!e% vec!i >ol#?/ bu% %he -u form a55ears before %he suffi;al ar%icle ( lbuiul >0ello9ish-%he? vec!iul >ol#-%he?/ su55or%in! %he i#ea %ha% - u an# Aero are 5honolo!icall0 con#i%ione# allomor5hs$ As0llabic -i- 5rece#e# b0 a consonan% #isa55ears before %he en#in!s -i% -e (e$!$ vec!i% vec!e% vec!i >ol#?/$ If %he s%em en#s in uns%resse# i% 9hen u is a##e# u is 5ronounce# as a full vo9el an# i normall0 becomes a semivo9el3 e$!$ straniu >s%ran!e?$ 1.2.% T95e I'? TDo+en3.n4 5a0a3.463
(a/ Ui%h no !en#er #is%inc%ions3
SINGDLAR PLDRAL
H F7:$ SG$ obli@ue in case s5rea#in! >bi!?
+e 7;am5les3 mare% mare
+. mari% mari
This %05e a55ears 9i%h some a#6ec%ives (e$!$ rece >col#? mare >bi!? dulce >s9ee%? verde >!reen?/$ .B2
Nominal Inflec%ion
(b/ Ui%h no !en#er #is%inc%ion in %he sin!ular an# no number #is%inc%ion in %he feminine3 H F7:ININ7 PLDRAL :ASCDLIN7 PLDRAL +e +. 7;am5les tenace% tenace% tenace tenaci >%enacious?
SINGDLAR
This %05e a55ears 9i%h ver0 fe9 a#6ec%ives$ (c/ The onl0 car#inal inflec%e# for !en#er is doi >%9o? 9hich has %he irre!ular feminine form dou$ The same inflec%ion charac%eriAes i%s com5oun#s inclu#in! %he 5re-D amndoi >bo%h?$ In a##i%ion %he 5re-D universal has an obli@ue form ( amnduror/ 9hile doi li-e %he o%her car#inals canno% combine 9i%h %he obli@ue mor5heme$
In %he com5oun# car#inal doispre(ece >%9elve? %he s5ecial feminine form (douspre(ece/ is no% use# b0 some s5ea-ers es5eciall0 in %he case of shor% forms (masc$ doipe $ fem$ doupe/ al%hou!h i%s use is recommen#e# b0 %he norm$ This is e;5licable since com5oun#s from ++ %o +C sho9 a hi!h #e!ree of fusion (as 9i%nesse# b0 %he con%rac%e# 5ronuncia%ions doipe% treipe% paipe e%c$ an# b0 %he absence of inflec%ion in unspre(ece >eleven? in s5i%e of %he fac% %ha% %his 9or# is buil% on %he in#efini%e ar%icle un 9hich is inflec%e#/
1.2.& T95e '? One+en3.n4 5a0a3.46s3 (a/ -e or (b/ no en#in! T05e Va com5rises some #e%erminers (care >9hich? an# i%s com5oun#s fiecare >each?% oricare >an0?/$ -e can be consi#ere# an en#in! because in %he obli@ue is re5lace# b0 %he obli@ue en#in!3 crui% crei% cror% fiecrui% fiecrei% fiecror$ T05e Vb charac%eriAes uninflec%e# a#6ec%ives (e$!$ ro( >5in-?/ some #e%erminers P ce >9ha%? an# i%s com5oun#s (ceva >some (for @uan%i%ies/? orice >an0?/ P an# mos% car#inals$ Some mo#ern borro9in!s in %he suffi; -ce (e$!$ atroce >a%rocious?/ are some%imes consi#ere# uninflec%e#$ Oo9ever %he0 #iffer from o%her uninflec%e# a#6ec%ives (e$!$ lila >lilaccoloure#? ro(/ in %ha% %he0 allo9 %he suffi;a%ion of %he #efini%e ar%icle (e$!$ atrocele lupte >%he a%rocious fi!h%s? vs$ Xro(a roc!ie >%he 5in- #ress?/$ No%ice moreover %ha% in %he masculine 5lural %he #efini%e ar%icle canno% a%%ach bu% %o %he mor5heme - i (since -e is no% a 5lural mor5heme in %he masculine/3 atrocii conductori >%he a%rocious lea#ers?$ Therefore 9e consi#er %ha% %hese a#6ec%ives ei%her belon! %o %05e IVb in 9hich case -e is an en#in! an# %he ar%icle ma0 be suffi;e# or are uninflec%e# an# - e is no% an en#in! in case %he0 sho9 %he - e form in a masculine 5lural con%e;%$ The !eneraliAa%ion %o re%ain is %ha% %he #efini%e ar%icle mus% be suffi;e# %o an inflec%ional mor5heme (see cha5%er 2 sec%ion B$+ for #iscussion/$
2. T8e .nfle/t.on of no1ns

The lar!es% number of inflec%ional 5ara#i!ms is foun# on nouns$ As 9e have sho9n in Cha5%er + (In%ro#uc%ion/ since %he !en#er of nouns is fi;e# in %he le;ical en%r0 %he onl0 inflec%ional o55osi%ion %ha% nouns sho9 is %he number o55osi%ion (leavin! asi#e %he 5henomenon of case s5rea#in! 9hich has been #iscusse# in +$+ above an# more e;%ensivel0 in cha5%er + *+$4/$ Oo9ever 9e have seen %ha% Romanian has bun#le# !en#er-number mor5hemes$ Ue e;5ec% %hen %he 5ossibili%0 %ha% %he inflec%ional mor5hemes of nouns 9hich e;5ress %he number o55osi%ion shoul# re#un#an%l0 mar- %he !en#er enco#e# in %he le;ical roo%$
.B4
Nominal Inflec%ion If 9e anal0Ae %he number mor5heme on nouns as %he s5ell-ou% of Number a hea# %o 9hich %he le;ical N
raises b0 hea#-%o-hea# movemen% (as %he verb raises %o Tense/ 9e e;5ec% i% %o be mar-e# for !en#er ac@uire# b0 a!reemen% 9i%h N li-e %he o%her func%ional ca%e!ories in %he DP$
Ue fin# in#ee# b0 an# lar!e a corres5on#ence be%9een %he inflec%ions of nouns an# %he inflec%ions mar-e# for !en#er of a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminers3 (i/ all %he inflec%ional mor5hemes of nouns e;ce5% %he 5lural -uri can also be foun# on a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminersI (ii/ %he !en#er of %he noun corres5on#s %o %he !en#er 9hich %he mor5heme can mar- 9hen use# on a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminers 9i%h a ver0 fe9 e;ce5%ions P a fe9 masculine nouns 9i%h a sin!ular mor5heme %05ical of feminines3 tat >fa%her? pap >Po5e? pa >5asha?$ Therefore 9e ma0 conclu#e %ha% %he number mor5heme of nouns is in !eneral s5ecifie# for !en#er$ As 9e e;5laine# in #e%ail in %he sec%ion #evo%e# %o !en#er of %he cha5%er >ntroduction0 3ominal features and nominal pro+ections (see * +$1 of %ha% cha5%er/ Romanian has %hree nominal a!reemen% classes (%ra#i%ionall0 calle# masculine feminine an# neu%er/ bu% onl0 %9o values for !en#er P masculine an# feminine P %he so-calle# >neu%er? nouns %ri!!erin! masculine a!reemen% in %he sin!ular an# feminine a!reemen% in %he 5lural$ No%e fur%hermore %ha% for mor5hemes 9hich can also a55ear on a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminers 9here 9e have inflec%ional !en#er %he mor5hemes use# for neu%er sin!ular nouns are masculine an# %hose use# for neu%er 5lural nouns are feminine$ There is ho9ever one mor5heme res%ric%e# %o nouns %he 5lural -uri 9hich a55lies over9helmin!l0 %o neu%ers (%here are a fe9 e;ce5%ions 9hich are feminine see %05es VIII-IV belo9/$ The fac% %ha% - uri is over9helmin!l0 a55lie# %o neu%ers #oes no% obli!e us %o assume a Hneu%er value of %he !en#er fea%ure$ No%e %ha% %he feminine suffi; -e is e@uall0 5ro#uc%ive for neu%er 5lurals$ Number mor5hemes are no% a55lie# %o nouns onl0 in vir%ue of %heir !en#er bu% %he choice of a mor5heme is #ic%a%e# b0 a le;ical 5ro5er%0 of %he noun %ha% cons%i%u%es 9ha% is calle# a declension or inflectional class (as 9e e;5laine# above/$ Since !en#er or a!reemen% class is also a le;ical 5ro5er%0 9e can formula%e a rule correla%in! %he #eclensional %05e 9hich has %he 5lural - uri 9i%h %he a!reemen% class calle# >neu%er?$ Ue 5resen% no9 %he inflec%ional mor5hemes of nouns$ The rea#er can verif0 %ha% all of %hem e;ce5% -uri can also be foun# on a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminers (sec%ion +$1 above/3
(./ Inflec%ional mor5hemes on nouns3 sin!ular mor5hemes (9i%h feminines onl0 for %he #irec% case/3 -/-u (masculine/ -e (bo%h !en#ers/ - (feminine 9i%h a ver0 fe9 e;ce5%ions/ 9i%h %he varian% - a af%er vo9els (an# 9hen confla%e# 9i%h a vo9el/ e$!$ stea $ stele >s%ar? 5lural mor5hemes3 -i (bo%h !en#ers/ -e 9i%h %he varian%s -le an# -ie af%er vo9els #e5en#in! on %he s%em (e$!$ stea $ stele >s%ar? sarma $ sarmale bu% fru$frie >rein? fierstru $ fierstraie >sa9?/ (feminine/ -uri (feminine/
In con%e;%s of case s5rea#in! sin!ular feminines have a form i#en%ical %o %he 5lural 9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of %he feminines 9i%h %he 5lural in -uri 9hich #o no% use %his mor5heme for %he obli@ue sin!ular bu% use -e or -i ins%ea#3 treab >business 9or-? 5l$ treburi s!$ obli@ue )acestei$unei* trebi >%his$G'L business-FSG$G'L/ lips >lac- shor%comin!?% 5l$ lipsuri s!$ obli@ue )acestei$unei* lipse$ -u a55ears as a 5hone%icall0 con#i%ione# varian% of - (Aero/ li-e for a#6ec%ives (see sec%ion +$1/ i$e$ af%er %he se@uence consonan%Hli@ui# (e$!$ teatru >%hea%re? maestru >mas%er?/
.B,
Nominal Inflec%ion af%er vo9els (metrou >sub9a0? flcu >la#? ru >river? mu(eu >museum? consiliu >council?/ an# before ano%her mor5heme (i$e$ in %he #efini%e #eclension3 biat >bo0? $ biatul >bo0-%he? biatului >bo0-%he$G'L?/ (unless in %his case -u- re5resen%s an allomor5h of %he ar%icle use# af%er %he Aero mor5hemeI see #iscussion belo9 un#er %he hea#in! >#efini%e #eclension?/$ Af%er vo9els -u re5resen%s a semivo9el e;ce5% in s%ems in uns%resse# - i in 9hich -i- is %urne# in%o a semivo9el an# -u- is a full vo9el (e$!$ uliu Yl}uZ >ha9-? domeniu Y#omn}uZ >#omain?/$ Some s%ems en#in! in s%resse# vo9el also allo9 Aero en#in! or bo%h ( caro >#iamon# (a% car#s/?% alibi >alibi?% de rade)u* >!ra#a%ion?/$ Ui%h s%ems en#in! in as0llabic -i-% %he 5lural mor5heme -i re5laces %he as0llabic -i of %he s%em (e$!$ baie Yb|}eZ $bi Yb{}Z >ba%h?/$ Thus for nouns 9i%h a Aero en#in! in %he sin!ular %he same form a55ears in bo%h !en#ers3 arici $ arici >he#!eho!?$ Oo9ever in %he sin!ular 9e can see %he fac% %ha% -i is 5ar% of %he s%em ra%her %han a number mor5heme if 9e consi#er 9ha% ha55ens 9hen %he #efini%e ar%icle is a##e#3 in %his case %he vo9el - u- a55ears before -l li-e in nouns en#in! in consonan% ( ariciul >%he he#!eho!?/$ Nouns en#in! in consonan% H -i-e (9here -e is %he sin!ular mor5heme/ al%hou!h some%imes allo9 a as0llabic 5ronuncia%ion of %he -i- al9a0s %rea% %his -i- as vocalic 9i%h res5ec% %o %he rule of %he 5lural en#in! -i so %ha% %he 5lural form is al9a0s -ii (9here -ii no%es %he vo9el -i/3 perie $ perii >brush?$ The 5lural mor5heme -e also re5laces an as0llabic -i 5rece#e# b0 a consonan%3 bici $ bice >9hi5?$ The onl0 feminine sin!ulars en#in! in consonan% are 5ro5er nouns 9hich #o no% %a-e %he suffi;al ar%icle (e$!$ ,armen/$ Ue consi#er %ha% in %his case no number mor5heme is realiAe# on %he noun (cf$ dou 5arii >%9o :aria-s? bu% Xdou ,armene$-i >%9o Carmen-s?/$ Therefore 9e have no% inclu#e# in %he %able a Aero feminine number mor5heme$ Ue 5os%5one %he #iscussion of %he s5ecial voca%ive en#in!s because %he0 some%imes involve %he #efini%e #eclension so %ha% i% is more convenien% %o 5resen% %hem af%er 5resen%in! %he #efini%e #eclension (see sec%ion . belo9/$
Infle/t.onal t95es of no1ns3 SINGDLAR
DIR7CT G'LI8D7
PLDRAL
AGR77:7NT CLASS masculine neu%er neu%er neu%er feminine feminine feminine masculine feminine neu%er masculine feminine neu%er feminine feminine feminine masculine
7VA:PL7S biat >bo0? maestru >mas%er? vas >vase? teatru >%hea%re? consiliu >council? ard >fence?% lucru >%hin!? fat >!irl? stea >s%ar? vac >co9? iepure >rabbi%? carte >boo-? fru >rein? tat >fa%her? directoare >mana!er? (feminines in -tor/ nume >name? lips >lac- shor%comin!? treab >9or- business? vreme >%ime 9ea%her? bade% nene >uncle?
Ma7o0 t95es I +@+1 +. IIa +@+1 +e IIb +1 +. III +@+1 +10. IVa +: +e +e IVb +a +le +le Va +: +. +. VIa +e +. VIb +e +. +. M.no0 t95es Eonl9 a feD Do03s o0 s1ff.<esF IIc +1 +.e Vb +: +. VIIa +e +e VIIb VIIIa VIIIb IV V +e +: +: +e +e +e +. +. +e +10. +10. +10. EnoneF
.B.
Nominal Inflec%ion
T05e IIc is a varian% of %05e IIa use# 9hen %he s%em en#s in a s%ress (cen%ralK/ vo9el (e$!$ fru $ frie >rein?/ -ie bein! an allomor5h of -e$ In mo#ern borro9in!s -e is a##e# #irec%l0 %o %he s%resse# vo9el 9i%hou% %he !li#e -i- (%05e IIa/3 mu(eu $ mu(ee >museum?$ T05e IIb is a varian% of IIa use# 9hen %he s%em en#s in uns%resse# i3 e$!$ consiliu $ consilii >council? caliciu $ calicii >cal0;?$ T05e IVb is a varian% of IVa use# 9hen %he s%em en#s in a s%resse# vo9el$ If %he vo9el is -a i% is confla%e# 9i%h %he en#in! -a in%o a sin!le vo9elI if i% is - e i% becomes a semivo9el before -a (e$!$ stea $ stele >s%ar? sarma $ sarmale >forcemea% roll of cabba!e or vine leaves?/$ The confla%ion #oes no% %a-e 5lace in %he #efini%e #eclension 9here %he !li#e - u- is inser%e# be%9een %he s%em an# %he en#in!s (see sec%ion , belo9/$ Plural -e has %he allomor5h -ie af%er vo9els in %05e II (i$e$ 9i%h neu%ers/ (e$!$ fru $ frie >rein? pru $ praie >broo-?/ an# -le in %05e IV (see IVb/$ The %05e VIIa is 5ro#uc%ive bu% is onl0 foun# 9i%h feminines buil% 9i%h %he suffi; - tor$ Since %he unusual i#en%i%0 be%9een %he sin!ular an# %he 5lural is an i#ios0ncra%ic 5ro5er%0 of %his suffi; 9e inclu#e# %his %05e amon! %he minor %05es$ 7;aminin! %he ma6or %05es lis%e# in %he %able above one can see %ha% in man0 cases %he #eclensional %05e an# %he !en#er canno% be inferre# from %he sin!ular #irec%/unmar-e# form$ As e;5ec%e# in such a s0s%em %here are nouns 9hich oscilla%e be%9een %9o #eclensional %05es or !en#ers an# man0 nouns have chan!e# %heir #eclensional %05e or !en#er in %he his%or0 of %he lan!ua!e$ Oere are some e;am5les of oscilla%ion in %he 5resen%-#a0 lan!ua!e3
(</ a$ IVa al%erna%in! 9i%h Va3 cirea >cherr0? (fem$/ 5l$ ciree $ cireiI coal >shee% (of 5a5er/? 5l$ coale $ coli% coard >chor#? 5l$ coarde $ cor(iI b$ IIa al%erna%in! 9i%h III3 c!ibrit >ma%ch? 5l$ c!ibrite $ c!ibrituri nivel >level? 5l$ nivele $ niveluri tunel >%unnel? 5l$ tunele $ tuneluriI c$ I al%erna%in! 9i%h IIa (masculine/neu%er/3 acumulator >accumula%or? 5l$ acumulatori $ acumulatoare nucleu >nucleus? 5l$ nuclei $ nuclee% robinet >%a5? 5l$ robinei $ robinete$ #$ I al%erna%in! 9i%h III (masculine/neu%er/3 virus >virus? 5l$ virui $ virusuri$
3. Ste6 alte0nat.ons
Since all of %hese al%erna%ions have been 5hone%icall0 con#i%ione# in %he be!innin! %he0 are usuall0 #riven b0 %he form of %he mor5heme$ Gnl0 some of %hem have become charac%eris%ic of cer%ain inflec%ional %05es$ Therefore 9e %rea% %hem %o!e%her for all 5ara#i!ms (inclu#in! a#6ec%ives an# #e%erminers/ an# 9e men%ion %he ca%e!ories 9hich are affec%e# onl0 9hen %his is relevan%$ The al%erna%ion be%9een velars an# %he affrica%es an# are no% reflec%e# in 9ri%in! ( an# are s5elle# c an# before 5ala%al vo9els/ EIF Obl.4ato09 (i$e$ a55l0in! ever09here %he con#i%ions are me%/3 (i/ The final as0llabic -i %ri!!ers some obli!a%or0 consonan%al mu%a%ions (9hich are re%aine# 9hen %he -i of %he ar%icle is a##e# !ivin! %he vo9el no%a%e# -ii/3 - %/R (munte " muni >moun%ain?% punte " puni >bri#!e? lat " lai >broa#? (masc$// - #/A (brad " bra(i >fir (%ree/? crmid " crmi(i >bric-? palid " pali(i >5ale?(masc$// - s/M (pas " pai >s%e5? des " dei >#ense %hic-? (masc$// - c/ (rac " raci >cra0fish? curc " curci >%ur-e0 hen? srac " sraci >5oor? (masc$//
.B<
Nominal Inflec%ion - !/ (fa " fa i >beech? dra " dra i >#ear? (masc$// - s%/M% (foc!ist " foc!iti >s%o-er? prost " proti >s%u5i#?(masc$/ acest " aceti >%his? (masc$// -s%r/ M%r (astru " atri >heavenl0 bo#0?/ - Mc/M% (cuc " cuti >ca!e?/ (ii/ The mor5heme -e also causes some mu%a%ions3 - c/ (ac " ace >nee#le? srac " srace >5oor? (fem$// - !/ (crli " crli e >hoo-? dra " dra e >5oor? (fem$// For %he al%erna%ions concernin! %05e IVb see above3 -aH-a f -a -eH-a f -a EIIF P0o31/t.2e b1t no lon4e0 obl.4ato09 (i$e$ a55earin! on some s%ems onl0/3 These al%era%ions 9ere obli!a%or0 (5hone%icall0 con#i%ione#/ a% a 5revious s%a!e of %he lan!ua!e$ A% some momen% %he rule cease# %o ac% as an obli!a%or0 5honolo!ical rule so %ha% 9or#s borro9e# af%er %his momen% #o no% obe0 %he rule3 e$!$ cal $ cai >horse? bu% naional $ naionali >na%ional$:SG / na%ional$:PL? tre( $ tre+i >a9a-en$:SG / a9a-en$:PL? bu% france( $ france(i >French (masculine/ Frenchman? (sub-s%an#ar# also france+i/$ (i/ :u%a%ions %ri!!ere# b0 %he final as0llabic -i3 - l/Q (cal " cai >horse? vale P vi >valle0? ol " oi >na-e# em5%0? (masc$// - A/6 (obra( " obra+i >chee-? vitea( " vite+i >brave? (masc$// - sc/M% ( sc " te >!oose? romnesc% romneasc " romneti >Romanian?/I in mo#ern borro9in!s i% has been los% an# %he obli!a%or0 al%erna%ion c$k a55ears ins%ea#3 etrusc% etrusci% etrusc% etrusce >7%ruscan?$ (ii/ :u%a%ions cause# b0 -e3 - sc/M% (musc " mute >fl0?/3 i% also affec%s mo#ern borro9in!s (e$!$ brusc% brusc% bruti% brute >su##en?/ bu% no% all of %hem bein! re5lace# b0 %he obli!a%or0 al%erna%ion c$k in etrusc (see above/ basc e%c$ (iii/ Vo9el lo9erin!3 s%resse# mi# vo9els ( e% o/ become %he #i5h%hon!s a an# a res5ec%ivel0 if %he0 are in %he s0llable 9hich 5rece#es %he en#in!s - % -oI s%resse# o becomes a also if i% is in %he s0llable 9hich 5rece#es %he en#in! -e$ The al%erna%ion e$ea is !eneral in ol# a#6ec%ives P e$!$ des $ deas $ dei $ dese >#ense %hic-? bu% is of%en absen% from borro9in!s P france(% france(% france(i% france(e >French?$ I% is also foun# in man0 nouns 9i%h %he sin!ular en#in! - P preoteas $ preotese voca%ive preoteaso (%05e IVa/ sear $ seri >evenin!? (%05e V/ treab $ treburi obli@ue sin!ular trebi (%05e VIIIb/ bu% no% in recen% borro9in!s (e$!$ disc!et $ disc!ete >flo550 #is-?/$ Af%er a semivocalic i %he #i5h%hon! -ea- loses i%s -e- so %ha% an al%erna%ion e$a resul%s3 biet% biat% biei% biete >5oor (unfor%una%e/?$ The al%erna%ion o$a is !eneral in ol# 9or#s P for a#6ec%ives e$!$ frumos $ frumoi $ frumoas $ frumoase voca%ive feminine frumoaso >beau%iful? as 9ell as for nouns e$!$ ploaie $ ploi >rain? (a %05e VI feminine/ soare $ sori >sun? (a %05e VI masculine/ or picior $ picioare >foo%? (a %05e II neu%er/$ I% also affec%s mo#ern borro9in!s es5eciall0 nouns e$!$ casetofon $ casetofoane >%a5e-5la0er/recor#er? (onl0 a fe9 s5ecialiAe# mo#ern borro9in!s #o
.BB
Nominal Inflec%ion no% obe0 i% e$!$ macropod $ macropode >macro5o#? tumor $ tumori >%umour? besi#es tumoare $ tumori 9hich obe0s %he rule/ P bu% is no% foun# in some a#6ec%ives3 baroc% baroc% baroci% baroce >baro@ue? ma+or% ma+or >ma6or? 9hile in o%hers bo%h forms a55ear P e$!$ analo an# analoa or onl0 %he ones 9i%h %he al%erna%ion ( snob% snoab% snobi% snoabe >snob?/$ 7;ce5%ionall0 %he al%erna%ion o$oa a55ears on an uns%resse# s0llable in mi+loc $ mi+loace >means?$ EIIIF Alte0nat.ons 0est0./te3 to so6e 5a0a3.46s o0 Do03s? (i/ Vo9el fron%in!3 before an%erior vo9els (in %he follo9in! s0llable/ (-e% -i/ (i$a/ s%resse# -- becomes -i-3 sfnt% sfnt% sfini% sfinte >hol0? (a#6$ an# noun/ mormnt $ morminte >!rave? (%05e II neu%er noun/ vn $ vine >vein? (%05e IVa feminine/I (i$b/ -- becomes -e-3 s%resse# in pr $ peri >5ear %reeI hair? uns%resse# in tabr $ tabere >cam5? umr $ umeri >shoul#er? eamn% eamn $ emeni% emene >%9in?I (i$c/ s%resse# -a- becomes -e-3 mas $ mese >%ableI meal? (%05e IVa feminine/ cioma $ ciome e >cu#!el? (%05e II neu%er/ nuia $ nuiele >ro#? (%05e IVb feminine/ biat $ biei >bo0 / bo0s? voca%ive biete (%05e I/$ 7;ce5%ionall0 %his al%erna%ion affec%s no% onl0 %he s%resse# vo9el bu% also %he uns%resse# vo9els of %he s%em 9he%her %he0 are before %he s%resse# s0llable P e$!$ sm]n $ sem]ine >see#? P or af%er i% P e$!$ t]nr% t]nr% t]ineri% t]inere >0oun!? v]nt% v]nt% v]inei% v]inete >viole%-blue?$ This al%erna%ion also a55ears in %he ne!a%ive 5ronoun nimeni obli@ue nimnui (accom5anie# b0 a s%ress shif% see belo93 n[meni $ nimnli/$ 7;ce5%ionall0 fron%in! a55ears onl0 before -i in arpe $ erpi >sna-e? a masculine %05e VI noun$ (ii/ Vo9el raisin!/lo9erin!3 (ii$a/ S%resse# ea (#i5h%hon!/ becomes e before -i an# -e3 dovleac $ dovleci >5um5-in? (%05e I masculine/ beat% beat% bei% bete >#run-?I %his al%erna%ion ma0 also affec% s%resse# vo9els 9hich are no% in %he s0llable imme#ia%el0 5rece#in! %he en#in! if %he follo9in! s0llable also sho9s an al%erna%ion (in %his case a fron%in! al%erna%ion/3 eamn% eamn% emeni% emene >%9in? eapn% eapn% epeni% epene >s%iff?$ (ii$b/ S%resse# a becomes before -i$ This al%erna%ion mainl0 concerns feminine nouns3 carte $ cri >boo-? masc $ mti >mas-? (%05e VI/ crac $ crci >branch? ac $ ti >!an! cli@ue? (%05e Va/$ I% can be foun# even if %he s%resse# s0llable #oes no% imme#ia%el0 5rece#e %he en#in!3 aur (%ris0llabic/ / uri >hole?$ I% also a55ears in one a#6ec%ive P clare $ clri >ri#in!? (a %9o-en#in! a#6ec%ive %05e IVa/$ (ii$c/ S%resse# becomes -a- before -e3 fierstru $ fierstraie >sa9? (%05e II neu%er/$ This al%erna%ion also a55ears in %he shor% #emons%ra%ive l an# 5ossessives$ In %his case -- a55ears before %he Aero an# semivocalic en#in!s (-u% -i/ -a- before %he en#in!s -a (9i%h 9hich i% is confla%e#/ an# -e$-le3 tu% ta% ti% tale >0our? su% sa% si% sale >his/her? l)a*% a)ia*% i)a*% ale)a* >%ha% (collo@uialI %he non-au!men%e# forms P re!ional/?$ The shif%in! of -a- %o -- also a55ears before %he obli@ue en#in!s in #e%erminers3 care >9hich? obli@ue crui% crei% cror (an# i%s com5oun#s fiecare% oricare/$ In one case even s%resse# -- becomes -a- before -e-3 pru $ praie >broo-? (%05e II neu%er/
.BC
Nominal Inflec%ion (iii/ -l- s0nco5e3 in some 9or#s -l- #isa55ears no% onl0 before %he en#in! - i% bu% also before %he en#in! -% 9hich comin! in con%ac% 9i%h a vo9el of %he s%em becomes - a (an# %he vo9el is s9i%che# in%o a semivo9el or if i% is -a- #isa55ears/3 %he #emons%ra%ive acel% acea% acei% acele >%ha%? %he s%ron! #efini%e ar%icle cel% cea% cei% cele >%he? %he !eni%ive an# or#inal ar%icle al% a% ai% ale% %he 2r# 5erson 5ronoun el% ea% ei% ele$ In %he 5ersonal 5ronoun l also #isa55ears before %he obli@ue en#in! ei (%he s%ron! forms of %he obli@ue are lui% ei% lorI %he cli%ic forms are no% #iscusse# here because %he0 #o no% sho9 #is%inc% inflec%ional mor5hemes/$ In all %hese forms %he se@uence -ea- is 5ronounce# as a #i5h%hon! (e becomes a semivo9el/$ This al%erna%ion can also be foun# in %he suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle 9hose inflec%ion 9ill be #iscusse# in sec%ion , belo9$ All %hese forms are his%oricall0 base# on %he La%in #emons%ra%ive ille$ Gu%si#e %he #e%erminer s0s%em %his al%erna%ion became obscure# in 5resen%-#a0 RomanianI 9i%h feminine nouns 9hich lac- a Aero en#in! -l-e has been reanal0Ae# as -le an en#in! a%%ache# %o s%ems in vo9el so %ha% af%er stea $ stele a 5lural in -le has been crea%e# for borro9in!s en#in! in s%resse# -a (cimea $ cimele >foun%ain?% sarma $ sarmale >forcemea% roll of cabba!e or vine leaves?/$ The al%erna%ion has been -e5% %o a cer%ain e;%ern in #iminu%ives in -el P bunicel% bunicei% fem$5l$ bunicele >5re%%0 !oo#? (#iminu%ive of bun >!oo#?/$ 'u% %he feminine sin!ular form in -ea has been re5lace# for %he mos% 5ar% b0 a form %a-en from a #ifferen% #iminu%ive suffi;3 -ic$ Therefore %he 5ara#i!m of %his %05e of #iminu%ives con%ains an ins%ance of suffi;al su55le%ion (e$!$ mricel% mricei% mricic% mricele >5re%%0 bi!? from mare >bi!?/ As can be seen from %he e;am5les consonan%al an# vo9el al%erna%ions a55l0 in#e5en#en%l0 so %ha% a !iven s%em ma0 #is5la0 bo%h3 parte " pri >5ar%? (vo9el raisin! an# consonan%al mu%a%ion/ sfnt " sfini (vo9el fron%in! an# consonan%al mu%a%ion/$ EI'F St0ess s8.fts? Normall0 %he s%ress occu5ies %he same 5osi%ion in %he 9hole 5ara#i!m$ There are bu% a ver0 fe9 e;ce5%ions3 (i/ Some mo#ern borro9in!s en#in! in an uns%resse# final vo9el move %he s%ress on%o %his vo9el 9hen %he 5lural en#in! -uri is a##e#3 rmdio $ radiZuri >ra#io (se%/ broa#cas%in!? (Vro $ (erZuri$ (ii/ The universal tot >all? moves %he s%ress on%o %he obli@ue mor5heme - or- 9hen %he au!men% -a (abou% 9hich see belo9/ is a##e#3 tlturor $ tuturZra$ (iii/ The ne!a%ive 5ronoun nimeni >nobo#0? s%resse# on %he firs% s0llable moves %he s%ress on %he obli@ue suffi;3 nimnli
$. I00e41la0 5a0a3.46s
A#6ec%ives3 - rou% fs!$ roie% 5l$(mHf/ roii >re#? - ru% fs!$ rea% m5l$ ri% f5l$ rele >ba#? - nou% fs!$ nou% m5l$ noi% f5l$ noi >ne9? - dra >#ear? has a voca%ive form in - for bo%h !en#ers3 dra Nouns3 - (i or (iu $ (ile >#a0? (feminine/ - mn $ mini >han#? (%05e V feminine/ - om $ oameni >human bein! man? (%05e I/ - sor $ surori >sis%er? nor $ nurori >#au!h%er-in-la9? .C=
Nominal Inflec%ion - a $ ei >sa##le? (feminine/ - ou $ ou >e!!? (neu%er/$ The feminine 5lural en#in! - (ori!inall0 an allomor5h of -e af%er -n- / also a55ears in doi% dou >%9o? an# i%s com5oun# amndoi >bo%h?$ - cap $ capete >hea#? (%05e II neu%er/ - A fe9 9or#s have a sin!ular s%em in consonan% o5%ionall0 associa%e# %o a 5lural s%em in uns%resse# -i- (%hese are onl0 neu%er/3 seminar $ seminarii% besi#e seminare >seminar? universal $ universalii >universal universals (in 5hiloso5h0/?$ - Feminines en#in! in as0llabic -i 9i%h no 5lural form 9here -i- follo9in! a consonan% is %urne# in%o %he semivo9el -e- before %he #efini%e ar%icle -a3 %he #a0s of %he 9ee- luni (:on#a0/ mari (Tues#a0/ miercuri (Ue#nes#a0/ +oi (Thurs#a0/ an# vineri (Fri#a0/ (#efini%e forms lunea% marea% miercurea% +oia% vinerea/ - bade% nene #o no% have a 5lural inflec%ion an# a%%ach %he feminine form of %he #efini%e ar%icle (al%hou!h %he0 onl0 %ri!!er masculine a!reemen%/3 badea% nenea$ De%erminers3 - The in#efini%e ar%icle un has %he feminine #irec% form o$ I% lac-s 5lural in %he #irec% case (%he 5lural #e%erminer base# on %he s%em un- is a #ifferen% #e%erminer P unii% unele3 i% sho9s %he au!men%e# inflec%ion an# has an obli!a%or0 5ar%i%ive rea#in!/I onl0 in %he con%e;% of N elli5sis can %his form be consi#ere# a 5lural coun%er5ar% of un (%here %he forms unii% unele are au!men%e# #ue %o %he 5resence of an em5%0 N an# #o no% have an obli!a%or0 5ar%i%ive rea#in!/ (on %he au!men%e# 5ara#i!m see sec%ion B belo9/3
:$SG$
Direc% Gbli@ue
un unui
A#nominal F$SG$ PLDRAL o P unei unor
Au!men%e# form (before YNeZ/ F$SG$ :$PL$ F$PL$ unul una unii unele unuia uneia unora
:$SG$
The same inflec%ional 5ro5er%ies are foun# 9i%h %he com5oun#s of un3 vreun% niciun$ - The in%erro!a%ive 5ronoun cine has %he obli@ue form cui (here %he s%em chan!es com5le%el03 c- is onl0 !ra5hicall0 i#en%ical %o %he c- of cine %he la%%er bein! 5ronounce# k/ - Defini%e al%erna%ives are com5oun#s forme# b0 #efini%e #e%erminers (cel an# in collo@uial lan!ua!e also shor% #emons%ra%ive s%ems l% st/ an# %he al%erna%ive (alt/ be%9een 9hich an elemen% -l -l af%er consonan%s is inser%e# (%his 9as a 5re5ose# #efini%e ar%icle a% a 5revious s%a!e of %he lan!ua!e con%inue# %o#a0 b0 %he !eni%ive an# or#inal ar%icle al/$ 'o%h 5ar%s of %he com5oun# are inflec%e# an# onl0 %he firs% one receives %he obli@ue en#in!s$ Ue onl0 illus%ra%e %he forms of cellalt %he onl0 forms acce5%e# in %he li%erar0 re!is%er3
Direc% Gbli@ue
celLlal% celuilal%
cealal%L celeilal%e
ceilalRi celorlalRi
celelal%e celorlal%e
Pre-#e%erminers3 - tot >all 9hole? #oes no% a## %he obli@ue mor5heme in %he sin!ular - amndoi >bo%h? has %he feminine form amndou an# %he obli@ue amnduror mainl0 use# in %he au!men%e# form amndurora$
.C+
Nominal Inflec%ion
%. T8e 3ef.n.te 3e/lens.on

Romanian has a suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle 9hich is a%%ache# %o nouns an# a#6ec%ives af%er %heir inflec%ional mor5heme$ In %his suffi; 9e can reco!niAe a roo% - l- an# %he inflec%ional mor5hemes of %he four en#in! 5ara#i!m in %he #irec% case as 9ell as %hose of %he obli@ue$ Oo9ever i% also has some allomor5hs #e%ermine# b0 %he inflec%ional suffi; %o 9hich i% is a%%ache#$ :oreover i% !ives rise %o some mo#ifica%ions in %he inflec%ional suffi; %o 9hich i% is a%%ache# an# some%imes one canno% se5ara%e i% from %he inflec%ional mor5heme of %he noun or a#6ec%ive$ These 5henomena have as a resul% some%hin! 9hich ma0 be calle# a definite declension su55or%in! %he i#ea %ha% %he encli%ic ar%icle is a suffi; ra%her %han a cli%ic in Romanian$ Similar 5henomena arise in o%her lan!ua!es 9hich have a suffi;al #efini%e ar%icle ('ul!arian Albanian Scan#inavian/$ In %he feminine sin!ular obli@ue %he ar%icle is a%%ache# %o %he feminine sin!ular obli@ue en#in! of %he s%em 9hich as 9e have sai# is i#en%ical %o %ha% of %he 5lural e;ce5% in %he nouns in vocalic - i- H -e 9here i% is a%%ache# %o %he sin!ular #irec% en#in!3 e$!$ cofetrie >s9ee%sho5 5as%r0-coo-?s sho5?% 5l$ cofetrii #efini%e s!$ obli@ue cofetrie-i$
(B/
Direc%
-)l* af%er -uI -le af%er -eI -l or -a af%er P Gbli@ue -luiI -i af%er - 9i%h Pf-e-%-iVoca%ive -le
-aI -ua af%er -a% -i -i -
-i -lor -lor
-le
In %he masculine sin!ular %he -/-u mor5heme of %he s%em is al9a0s realiAe# as -u- before %he ar%icle$ In %his case final -l (9hich charac%eriAes %he #irec%/ is usuall0 no% 5ronounce# P bu% is obli!a%oril0 9ri%%en P so 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% in s5o-en Romanian a ne9 form of %he ar%icle - u 9as crea%e#$ Ue ma0 sa0 %ha% %he allomor5h of %he masculine sin!ular #efini%e ar%icle af%er %he mor5heme Aero/u is u 9i%h u re5lacin! %he vocalic or semivocalic u3 biat $ biatu% teatru $ teatru% metro (9i%h -u a semivo9el/ / metrou (9i%h u a full vo9el/$ :oreover %he -ua55earin! before %he -l- in %he #efini%e obli@ue an# voca%ive P biatului% biatule P ma0 be anal0Ae# as an allomor5h of %he ar%icle use# af%er %he Aero mor5heme$ Dn#er %his anal0sis 9e 9oul# no lon!er have an al%erna%ion be%9een Aero an# u insi#e %he same nominal 5ara#i!m3 nouns of %05es I - III 9oul# ei%her have Aero or -u- #e5en#in! on %he s%em3
(C/ Sin!ular #efini%e #irec% #efini%e obli@ue #efini%e voca%ive bLia% bLia%-1ElF bLia%-1l1. bLia%-1le uliu uli-1ElF uliu-l1. uliu-le %ea%ru %ea%r-1ElF %ea%ru-l1. -
As can be seen from %he %able (B/ in %he masculine sin!ular %he form of %he ar%icle is 5ar%icularl0 influence# b0 %he en#in! of %he s%em3 nouns in - e re5ro#uce %his -e af%er -l-$ The fe9 masculines in - follo9 %9o 5a%%erns3 one re5resen%e# b0 tat >fa%her? a##s %he normal masculine forms3 tatl% tatlui (no%e %ha% in %his case final -l is 5ronounce#/$ The o%her %a-en o5%ionall0 b0 tat an# obli!a%oril0 b0 %he o%her nouns of %his %05e ( pap >5o5e?% pa >5asha?% pop >5ries%?/ a##s %he forms of %he feminine inflec%ion3 tata% paa% papa% popa% obli@ue tatei $ tatii% paei% papei% popii $ No%e %ha% - is here chan!e# in%o -e- or -i- on %he mo#el of feminines in - (%05es IV an# V/$ This #oes no% mean %ha% - e- re5resen%s an obli@ue mor5heme .C1
Nominal Inflec%ion of %he noun3 %hese nouns never %a-e i% 9hen %he0 #o no% bear %he suffi;al ar%icle ( unui tat% unui pa unui pop no% Xunui tate% -unui pae% -unui popi/$ No%ice also %ha% %his mor5heme is no% i#en%ical %o %ha% of %he 5lural as is %he case for feminines3 tatei bu% 5lural tai e%c$ (masculines onl0 have -i as a 5lural mor5heme/$ Ue conclu#e %ha% %he ar%icle i%self has %he forms -ei$-ii here 9hich re5laces %he en#in! of %he noun$ The feminine sin!ular -a re5laces %he mor5heme - an# conver%s %he mor5heme -e in%o a semivo9el3 cas >house? / casa >house-%he? carte >boo-? / cartea >boo--%he? (5ronounce# carta/$ If -e is 5rece#e# b0 -i- i% #isa55ears com5le%el03 femeie $ femeia >9oman?$ If i% is 5rece#e# b0 o%her vo9els P %he en#in! -a or %he vo9el of %he s%em in %he irre!ular noun (i P a consonan%al -u- is a##e# before -a3 stea $ steaua >s%ar? sarma $ sarmaua (a #ish/% (i $ (iua >#a0?$ As 9e have sai# 9hen 9e 5resen%e# %he mor5hemes of nouns an# a#6ec%ives a##in! %he ar%icle brin!s abou% some 5hone%ic chan!es in %he mor5heme 9hich are no% e;5resse# in 9ri%in!3 - %he com5le; -ii is 5ronounce# as a sin!le vo9el iI %he mor5heme -i %o 9hich %he ar%icle -i a%%aches is 5ronounce# as a consonan% or semivo9el e;ce5% af%er consonan% H li@ui#$ In %his case %he forms -i an# -ii are 5ronounce# i#en%icall0 (e$!$ parametri $ parametrii >5arame%ers / %he 5arame%ers? onl0 !ra5hicall0 #is%in!uishe#/$ - %he mor5heme -i becomes a full vo9el before forms of %he ar%icle s%ar%in! in -l-3 pini >brea#s? / pinile >brea#s-%he? pinilor >brea#s-%he$G'L? nori >clou#s? / norilor >clou#s-%he$G'L? pui >chic-en 9hel5? / puilor >chic-en-%he$G'L?$ As 9e have sai# here one can see %ha% 9i%h masculines en#in! in as0llabic -i %his -i re5resen%s 5ar% of %he base in %he sin!ular bu% %he 5lural mor5heme in %he 5lural3 9hile in %he sin!ular -uis a##e# before -l forms in %he 5lural no -u- a55ears an# -i- is chan!e# in%o a full vo9el3 sin!ular pui% #efini%e puiul% puiului 5lural pui% #efini%e puii% puilor$
&. 'o/at.2e en3.n4s

Ue have seen %ha% case mor5holo!0 is %05icall0 realiAe# on %he #e%erminer an# a limi%e# 5henomenon of case concor# or >case s5rea#in!? ma0 affec% %he noun an# i%s a!reein! mo#ifiers 9hen %he #e%erminer bears %he obli@ue mor5holo!0$ In a##i%ion %here is a si%ua%ion in 9hich a s5ecial case mor5heme a55ears on %he noun i%self3 in %he Voca%ive since %he DP #oes no% nee# a #e%erminer 9e fin# %he voca%ive en#in! a%%ache# %o %he noun or %o a 5renominal a#6ec%ive$ In%eres%in!l0 %his en#in! ma0 also be a##e# %o %he #efini%e ar%icle$ The masculine sin!ular has -e a##e# ei%her #irec%l0 %o %he s%em or %o %he unmar-e# form of %he #efini%e #eclension for nouns of %05es I-III (in Q/-u/$ For nouns in -e (%05e VI/ a form in -e i#en%ical %o %he unmar-e# sin!ular form is use#$ Oere - e ma0 be anal0Ae# ei%her as re5resen%in! %he unmar-e# en#in! or as re5resen%in! %he voca%ive en#in! re5lacin! %he final vo9el of %he s%em$ The voca%ive a%%ache# %o %he #efini%e ar%icle is no% use# in %his %05e$ The fe9 masculines in - use %he unmar-e# form for %he voca%ive$
(+=/ a$ biat >bo0?3 bLie%e / bLia%ule bo0$VGC / bo0-%he$VGC b$ maestru >mas%er?3 maes%re / maes%rule mas%er$VGC / mas%er-%he$VGC c$ frate >bro%her?3 fra%e / Xfra%ele bro%her($VGCK/ bro%her-%he$VGC #$ tat >fa%her?3 %a%L
The unmar-e# form of%en has a voca%ive use 9i%h 5ro5er names$ Ui%h common nouns %his
.C2
Nominal Inflec%ion use is rare res%ric%e# %o some nouns3

(++/ a$ Ion / :arin / Gc%avian vino Encoaced Ion :arin Gc%avian come hered b$ Sol#a% vino Encoaced sol#ier come here c$ X 'Lia% / co5il / bunic / en!leA bo0 chil# !ran#fa%her 7n!lishman
vino Encoaced come here
For %he feminine sin!ular ei%her %he same form as %ha% of %he #irec% case is use# or %he en#in! -o is a##e# 9hich re5laces %he - en#in! in %05e IV bu% combines 9i%h %he -e en#in! of %05e V in%o %he #i5h%hon! -o$
(+1/ a$ fat >!irl?3 fa%L / fa%o !irl !irl$VGC b$ vulpe >fo;?3 vul5e / vul5eo fo; fo;$VGC
In %he 5lural ei%her %he unmar-e# form is use# or a form i#en%ical %o %he obli@ue 5lural of %he #efini%e #eclension3
(+2/ a$ bLieRi / bLieRilo0 bo0s bo0s-%he$VGC b$ fe%e / fe%elo0 !irls !irls-%he$VGC
I% can be sho9n %ha% here %oo case mar-in! charac%eriAes %he ini%ial 5osi%ion of %he DP3 %he voca%ive en#in! a55ears on %he lef%mos% elemen% (noun or a#6ec%ive/ bearin! an inflec%ional mor5heme3
(+4/ a$ 5rinRule / 5rinRe frumos 5rince-%he$VGC 5rince$VGC beau%iful/han#some b$ frumosule / frumoase 5rinR beau%iful-%he$VGC beau%iful$VGC 5rince c$ X frumosule / frumoase 5rinR(ul/e beau%iful-%he$VGC beau%iful$VGC 5rince(-%he/$VGC #$ Xfrumos 5rinR(ul/e beau%iful 5rince(-%he/$VGC e$ X5rinR frumosule /frumoase 5rince beau%iful-%he$VGC beau%iful$VGC
This 5ro5er%0 as 9ell as %he fac% %ha% voca%ive en#in!s ma0 be a##e# %o %he #efini%e inflec%ion su!!es% %ha% in %his case %oo case mor5holo!0 is correla%e# %o %he D 5osi%ion an# %he N or A bearin! %his mor5holo!0 occu5ies %he D 5osi%ion$ Since %he voca%ive im5lies referen%iali%0 %he e;is%ence of a D is seman%icall0 6us%ifie#$
An a55aren% e;ce5%ion is %he a#6ec%ive dra >#ear? in %he sin!ular 9hich has a s5ecial voca%ive form dra (for bo%h !en#ers/ an# allo9s a noun follo9in! i% %o bear %he voca%ive en#in!3 (i/ #ra!L 5rinR(ul/e #ear$VGC 5rince(-%he/$VGC No%e ho9ever %ha% %he 5eculiar - en#in! an# %he fac% %ha% %his 5henomenon #oes no% occur in %he 5lural
.C4
Nominal Inflec%ion
(see (ii// so %ha% i% is 5ossible %ha% %he form dra has been reanal0Ae# as an affec%ive 5ar%icle 9hich #oes no% carr0 a voca%ive mor5heme allo9in! %his mor5heme %o a55ear on %he noun$ (ii/ X #ra!i(lor/ 5rinRilor #ear$PL$VGC 5rinces-%he$VGC
Probabl0 on %his mo#el %he s0non0mous scump an# iubit ma0 also be follo9e# b0 a secon# voca%ive mar-in! (9i%hou% %he #efini%e ar%icle/3 (iii/ a$ scum5e gIon / Ioaneh #ear$VGC Ion Ion$VGC b$ iubi%e gci%i%or / ci%i%oruleh belove#$VGC rea#er rea#er$VGC
No%e %ha% %he feminine voca%ive en#in! -o ma0 be a##e# af%er %he (!en#er-/number mor5heme as can be seen in feminines 9i%h %he sin!ular in -e (see (+=/c/$ In feminines in - 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% - falls before %he vo9el -o li-e in %he #efini%e #eclension (fat $ fata/$ Given %ha% (i/ %he onl0 case 9here %9o fea%ure mor5hemes can be foun# in a sin!le 9or# is %he #efini%e #eclension (a5ar% from %he 5ossessive inflec%ion 9hich 9ill be #iscusse# belo9/ an# (ii/ for all %he o%her !en#er-number forms %he voca%ive en#in! ma0 a%%ach ei%her %o %he s%em or %o %he #efini%e ar%icle (9i%h %he e;ce5%ion of masculines in - e/ %he feminine form in -o mi!h% be anal0Ae# as %he sin!ular voca%ive of %he #efini%e #eclension$
Al%hou!h %he masculine sin!ular has a s5ecial en#in! a##e# %o %he s%em (- e/ in %he masculine #efini%e #eclension %he voca%ive #oes no% a55ear on %he noun bu% onl0 on %he ar%icle ( biatule% no% -bietele/$ This is #ue %o %he fac% %ha% %he voca%ive mar-in! as %he o%her (unambi!uous/ case mor5hemes in Romanian is normall0 onl0 realiAe# once in %he DP in %he hi!hes% 5osi%ion of %he DP (i$e$ on DI see %he sec%ion on Case of %he cha5%er + >ntroduction0 3ominal features and nominal pro+ections P * +$4/$ Summin! u5 %he follo9in! voca%ive mor5hemes can be reco!niAe#3
(+,/ - masculine sin!ular -e - feminine sin!ular -o - 5lural -or (res%ric%e# %o %he #efini%e #eclension/
I% can be seen %ha% for mos% #eclensional %05es %here are several 9a0s of formin! %he voca%ive (s5ecial en#in! or unmar-e# form use of %he #efini%e #eclension or no%/$ In %his case some nouns are com5a%ible 9i%h all %he forms 9hile o%hers onl0 selec% one or some of %hem$ The various fac%ors 9hich #e%ermine %he choice of %he voca%ive form are 5resen%e# in %he cha5%er on Voca%ives (Cha5%er +,/$
(. T8e 5ossess.2e .nfle/t.on

Ano%her func%ional elemen% 9hich is a55en#e# as a suffi; is %he 5ossessive (or a!reein! 5ossessor see cha5%er . *,$4/ use# 9i%h -inshi5 %erms$ Gnl0 %he sin!ular 5ersons of %he 5ossessive are use# (%he roo%s mi$me- >m0?% t- >0our?% s- >his/her?/ an# onl0 in %he sin!ular$ Gnl0 %he feminine obli@ue is inflec%ionall0 mar-e#$ For %he masculine %he 5refi;al obli@ue mar-er lui is use# (9hich o5%ionall0 is e;%en#e# %o %he feminine/ su!!es%in! %ha% %hese cons%ruc%ions are assimila%e# %o 5ro5er nouns of sor%s$ 'ecause %hese forms are no% use# in %he li%erar0 re!is%er bu% are collo@uial an# 5o5ular %he0 sho9 a !rea% #eal of varia%ion$
.C,
Nominal Inflec%ion (.1. En3.n4s of s1ff.<al a40ee.n4 5ossesso0s

:ASC$ SG$ F7:$ SG$
Direc% Gbli@ue Voca%ive
-u (absen%/ -
-a -i$ -ei -o
(.2. Ste6 alte0nat.ons .n s1ff.<al a40ee.n4 5ossesso0s +s%3 -i- becomes -e- before full vo9els (-a% -o/ an# is confla%e# 9i%h obli@ue -ei3 frate-miu >m0 bro%her? maic-mea >m0 mo%her? obli@ue maic-mii% maic-meiI %his is %he onl0 case 9here a voca%ive can be foun# P sor-meo >m0 sis%er?$ 1n# an# 2r#3 %he roo%s a55ear in %9o forms3 one in consonan% (- t-% -s-/ 9hich is %he mos% common an# one in consonan% H $a$ 7$!$ for %he secon# 5erson frate-tu% maic-ta% maictii$-tei (obli@ue/ an# frate-tuI for %he %hir# 5erson frate-su% maic-sa% maic-sii$-sei (obli@ue/ an# frate-su$ The secon# roo% onl0 has %he #irec% formI %he forms - ta% -sa can be %race# bac- %o ei%her of %he roo%s$ If 9e 9an% %o -ee5 %he !eneraliAa%ion %ha% %he feminine sin!ular mor5heme -a onl0 a%%aches %o vocalic roo%s 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% -a forms onl0 re5resen%s %he --$-a- roo%$ 'u% 9e ma0 e@uall0 9ell e;5lain - a- in -ta% -sa as a varian% of - in monos0llables$ The fac% %ha% s5ecial varian%s are use# in monos0llables is sho9n b0 %he masculine form 9hich has -u 9i%h %he consonan%al roo%s (frate-tu% taic-su/ al%hou!h %he s%em en#s in a consonan% o%her %han %he !rou5 consonan%Hli@ui# (remember %ha% in all o%her 5ara#i!ms %he sin!ular masculine mor5heme -u onl0 a55ears af%er vo9els an# consonan%Hli@ui# !rou5s or 9hen i% is follo9e# b0 ano%her mor5heme/$ (.3. Mo3.f./at.ons of t8e ste6 Dnli-e in %he #efini%e #eclension nouns 5rece#in! 5ossessive suffi;es #o no% sho9 inflec%ional variabili%0 P so for %he obli@ue sin!ular 9e have maic-sii% sor-mii% maic-mii 9i%h no case s5rea#in! form on %he noun (com5are fete-i >!irl$G'L-%he$G'L?% surori-i >sis%er$G'L-%he$G'L?/$ Amon! %he forms of %he -inshi5 %erms onl0 some of %hem can combine 9i%h 5ossessive suffi;es an# some%imes %he0 a55ear in a re#uce# form a form 9hich canno% be use# in#e5en#en%l0$ Tha% is %he main reason 9h0 9e 5refer %o %rea% %hese 5ossessive mor5hemes as suffi;es ra%her %han cli%ics$ >fa%her? (tat% taic/3 %he forms taic- an# tac- are use# (taic-miu% tac-tu$taic-tu% tacsu$taic-su/ >bro%her? (frate/3 %he forms are frate-% frat- an# frac- (frate-miu% frate-tu$frat-tu% frate-su$fratsu$frac-su/ >mo%her? (mam% maic/3 %he forms use# are maic- an# (9i%h a #e5recia%ive value/ m- (e$!$ maic-ta% m-ta/ >sis%er? (sor/3 %he form use# are sor- an# sor- (e$!$ sor)*-ta% sor)*-sii/ >#au!h%er? (fiic/3 %he forms fiic- an# fi- are use# (fi-mea$fiic-mea% fi-ta$fiic-ta% fi-sa$fiicsa/ >uncle? (unc!i/3 %he form is unc!i- in 9hich -i- re5resen%s a vo9el (9hile in %he in#e5en#en% form unc!i i% is as0llabic/3 unc!i-miu% unc!i-tu e%c$ Some masculine nouns en#in! in a consonan% a## - - before %he suffi;es3 bunic >!ran#fa%her? f bunic-miu% bunic-tu% bunic-suI brbat >husban#? ma0 a## besi#e -- also -u-3 brbatu-miu$ brbat-miu$ For o%her nouns (fiu >son? bunic >!ran#mo%her? nor >#au!h%er-in-la9? vr >cousin
.C.
Nominal Inflec%ion (masculine/? verioar >cousin (feminine/? / %he normal s%em forms are use#$ The noun nevast >9ife? has %he form nevesti- in %he obli@ue (al%hou!h as an in#e5en#en% form %he sin!ular obli@ue form is neveste/3 nevesti-sii% nevesti-mii$
). T8e a146ente3 fo06s of 3ete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es

As sho9n in cha5%er 2 an# cha5%er + (see Cha5%er 2 * 2 an# Cha5%er + * 2/ a number of #e%erminers an# o%her func%ional elemen%s %a-e au!men%e# forms 9hen %he0 5rece#e an em5%0 N 5lus a fe9 o%her environmen%s (5os%nominal #emons%ra%ives #emons%ra%ives in 5hrases 9i%hou% an over% noun even if %he Y NeZ #oes no% follo9 imme#ia%el0 %he al%erna%ive in 5os%nominal an# 5re#ica%ive 5osi%ion/$ There are %9o varie%ies in 9hich au!men%e# forms a55ear3 (i/ in %he #irec% case of un >a one? (an# i%s com5oun#s/ an# alt >o%her? i% has %he form of a #efini%e #eclension3 unul% una% unii% unele% altul% alta% alii% altele$ (ii/ In o%her cases 9hich are #iscusse# in #e%ail in cha5%er 2 (sec%ion 2/ an - a is a##e# a% %he en# of %he 9or# (i$e$ af%er %he inflec%ional mor5heme/$ This -a is obli!a%oril0 use# 9i%h %he obli@ue en#in!s (0iel#in! -uia% -eia% -ora/3 e$!$ unuia >one$:SG$G'L-ADG:? uneia >one$FSG$G'L-ADG:? unora >some-PL$G'L-ADG:? tuturora >all-PL$G'L-ADG:? attora >soman0-PL$G'$-ADG:? cruia >9hich-:SG$G'L-ADG:? creia >9hich-FSG$G'L-ADG:? crora >9hich-PL$G'L-ADG:?$ In %he #irec% case %he -a au!men% a55ears on %he #emons%ra%ive %ri!!erin! %he follo9in! mo#ifica%ions of %he 5rece#in! mor5heme3 - - is re5lace# (aceast >%his$FSG? s aceasta/ - -e becomes a semivo9el (aceste >%hese$FPL? s acestea Yaces%aZ acele >%hose$FPL? s acelea YacelaZ/ - %he se@uence -ea (a #i5h%hon! forme# b0 %he s%resse# -e of %he s%em an# %he en#in! -a in acea >%ha%$FSG?/ becomes -eea (in 9hich 9e ma0 sa0 %ha% - a has been re5lace# an# -e- has recovere# i%s vo9el s%a%usI %he s5ellin! -ee- reflec%s %he fac% %ha% %he vo9els are in hia%us/3 aceleia In s%an#ar# Romanian %he shor% forms of #emons%ra%ives al9a0s a55ear au!men%e# (la% aia% ia% alea% sta% asta% tia% astea /$ The forms l% a% i% ale an# st% ast% ti% aste are re!ional or res%ric%e# %o fi;e# e;5ressions (e$!$ ast sear >%his evenin!?/$ No%e %ha% in %he feminine sin!ular #is%al (unau!men%e#3 a/ %he au!men% %a-es %he form -ia 0iel#in! aia$
*. Pa0a3.46 sa65les
No1ns
T05e I (masculine/ - in consonan% %he normal %05e3 sin!ular #irec% bLrba% >man? obli@ue voca%ive bLrba%e - in consonan% H li@ui# an# in vo9els3 sin!ular #irec% maes%ru >mas%er? obli@ue voca%ive maes%re 5lural bLrbaRi sin!ularH#efini%e bLrba%ul bLrba%ului bLrba%ule sin!ularH#efini%e maes%rul maes%rului maes%rule 5luralH#efini%e bLrbaRii bLrbaRilor bLrbaRilor 5luralH#efini%e maeM%rii maeM%rilor maeM%rilor
5lural maeM%ri
.C<
Nominal Inflec%ion
- in uns%resse# i3 sin!ular #irec% uliu >ha9-? obli@ue voca%ive - in as0llabic i3 #irec% obli@ue voca%ive sin!ular arici >he#!eho!? 5lural arici sin!ularH#efini%e ariciul ariciului ariciule 5luralH#efini%e aricii aricilor aricilor
5lural ulii
sin!ularH#efini%e uliul uliului uliule
5luralH#efini%e ulii uliilor uliilor
T05e II (neu%er/ - in consonan% %he normal %05e3 sin!ular #irec% e%a6 >floor? obli@ue - in consonan%Hli@ui#3 sin!ular #irec% %ea%ru >%hea%re? obli@ue - in s%resse# vo9el ol# %05e3 sin!ular #irec% frWu >rein? obli@ue
5lural e%a6e
sin!ularH#efini%e e%a6ul e%a6ului sin!ularH#efini%e %ea%rul %ea%rului sin!ularH#efini%e frWul frWului sin!ularH#efini%e muAeul muAeului sin!ularH#efini%e consiliul consiliului sin!ularH#efini%e biciul biciului
5luralH#efini%e e%a6ele e%a6elor 5luralH#efini%e %ea%rele %ea%relor 5luralH#efini%e frWiele frWielor 5luralH#efini%e muAeele muAeelor 5luralH#efini%e consiliile consiliilor 5luralH#efini%e bicele bicelor
5lural %ea%re
5lural frWie
- in s%resse# vo9el mo#ern borro9in!s3 sin!ular 5lural #irec% muAeu >museum? muAee obli@ue - in uns%resse# i3 sin!ular #irec% consiliu >council? obli@ue - in as0llabic i3 #irec% obli@ue sin!ular bici >9hi5? 5lural bice 5lural consilii
T05e III (neu%er/3 - normal3 sin!ular #irec% %ren >%rain? obli@ue - in consonan% H li@ui# or in vo9el3 sin!ular #irec% lucru >%hin!? obli@ue T05e IV (feminine/
5lural %renuri
sin!ularH#efini%e %renul %renului sin!ularH#efini%e lucrul lucrului
5luralH#efini%e %renurile %renurilor 5luralH#efini%e lucrurile lucrurilor
5lural lucruri
.CB
Nominal Inflec%ion
- normal3 #irec% obli@ue voca%ive - in vo9el3 #irec% obli@ue voca%ive sin!ular cLRea >bi%ch? cLRele cLReaI cLReao 5lural cLRele sin!ularH#efini%e cLReaua cLRelei sin!ularH#efini%e bunica bunicii sin!ularH#efini%e %a%aI %a%Ll %a%eiI %a%Llui 5luralH#efini%e cLRelele cLRelelor cLRelelor 5luralH#efini%e bunicile bunicilor bunicilor 5luralH#efini%e %aRii %aRilor %aRilor sin!ular fa%L >!irl? fe%ei fa%LI fa%o 5lural fe%e sin!ularH#efini%e fa%a fe%ei 5luralH#efini%e fe%ele fe%elor fe%elor
T05e V feminine3 sin!ular #irec% bunicL >!ran#mo%her? obli@ue bunici voca%ive bunicLI bunico T05e V masculine3 sin!ular #irec% %a%L >fa%her? obli@ue voca%ive T05e VI feminine - normal sin!ular #irec% vul5e >fo;? obli@ue vul5i voca%ive vul5eI vul5eo - in as0llabic i3 #irec% obli@ue voca%ive - in vocalic i3 #irec% obli@ue voca%ive sin!ular 5rama%ie >6er-? 5rama%ii 5rama%ie sin!ular femeie >9oman? femei femeie
5lural bunici
5lural %aRi
5lural vul5i
sin!ularH#efini%e vul5ea vul5ii sin!ularH#efini%e femeia femeii sin!ularH#efini%e 5rama%ia 5rama%iei sin!ularH#efini%e fra%ele fra%elui sin!ularH#efini%e munci%oarea munci%oarei -
5luralH#efini%e vul5ile vul5ilor vul5ilor 5luralH#efini%e femeile femeilor femeilor 5luralH#efini%e 5rama%iile 5rama%iilor 5rama%iilor 5luralH#efini%e fraRii fraRilor fraRilor 5luralH#efini%e munci%oarele munci%oarelor munci%oarelor
5lural femei
5lural 5rama%ii
T05e VI masculine sin!ular #irec% fra%e >bro%her? obli@ue voca%ive T05e VII feminine3 sin!ular #irec% munci%oare >9oman obli@ue 9or-er? voca%ive munci%oare / -eo
5lural fraRi
5lural munci%oare
.CC
Nominal Inflec%ion
T05e VII neu%er3 sin!ular #irec% nume >name? obli@ue T05e VIIIa (feminine/ sin!ular #irec% li5sL >lac- shor%comin!? obli@ue li5se T05e VIIIb (feminine/ sin!ular #irec% %reabL >9or- business? obli@ue %rebi T05e IV (feminine/3 sin!ular #irec% vreme >%ime 9ea%her? obli@ue vremi
5lural nume
sin!ularH#efini%e numele numelui sin!ularH#efini%e li5sa li5sei sin!ularH#efini%e %reaba %rebii sin!ularH#efini%e vremea vremii
5luralH#efini%e numele numelor 5luralH#efini%e li5surile li5surilor 5luralH#efini%e %reburile %reburilor 5luralH#efini%e vremurile vremurilor
5lural li5suri
5lural %reburi
5lural vremuri
A37e/t.2es
T05e I3 four en#in!s3 - in consonan% normal %05e3 masc$ s!$ Direc% bun >!oo#? Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e bunul Gbli@ueH#efini%e bunului - in consonan%Hli@ui#3 masc$ s!$ Direc% acru >sour? Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e acrul Gbli@ueH#efini%e acrului - in uns%resse# vo9el3 masc$ s!$ Direc% con%inuu Gbli@ue >con%inuous? Direc%H#efini%e con%inuul Gbli@ueH#efini%e con%inuului - in s%resse# vo9el3 Direc% Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e Gbli@ueH#efini%e masc$ s!$ !reu >heav0? !reul !reului fem$ s!$ !rea !rele !reaua !relei masc$ 5l$ !rei !reii !reilor fem$ 5l$ !rele !relele !relelor fem$ s!$ bunL bune buna bunei fem$ s!$ acrL acre acra acrei fem$ s!$ con%inuL con%inue con%inua con%inuei masc$ 5l$ buni bunii bunilor masc$ 5l$ acri acrii acrilor masc$ 5l$ con%inui con%inuii con%inuilor fem$ 5l$ bune bunele bunelor fem$ 5l$ acre acrele acrelor fem$ 5l$ con%inue con%inuele con%inuelor
T05e II3 %hree en#in!s 9i%h one en#in! for %he feminine3 - in -tor3 masc$ s!$ fem$ s!$ Direc% urmL%or urmL%oare
masc$ 5l$ urmL%ori
fem$ 5l$ urmL%oare
<==
Nominal Inflec%ion
Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e Gbli@ueH#efini%e - in s%resse# -e3 Direc% Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e Gbli@ueH#efini%e masc$ s!$ ins%an%aneu >ins%an%aneous? ins%an%aneul ins%an%aneului fem$ s!$ ins%an%anee ins%an%aneea ins%an%aneei fem$ s!$ s%Wn!ace s%Wn!acea s%Wn!acei masc$ 5l$ ins%an%anei ins%an%aneii ins%an%aneilor masc$ 5l$ s%Wn!aci s%Wn!acii s%Wn!acilor fem$ 5l$ ins%an%anee ins%an%aneele ins%an%aneelor fem$ 5l$ s%Wn!ace s%Wn!acele s%Wn!acelor >follo9in!? urmL%orul urmL%orului
urmL%oarea urmL%oarei
urmL%orii urmL%orilor
urmL%oarele urmL%oarelor
- in as0llabic i 5rece#e# b0 a consonan%3 masc$ s!$ Direc% s%Wn!aci >lef%Gbli@ue han#e#? Direc%H#efini%e s%Wn!aciul Gbli@ueH#efini%e s%Wn!aciului
T05e III3 %hree en#in!s 9i%h one en#in! for %he 5lural IIIa3 9i%h %he feminine sin!ular -3 - %he normal %05e (in consonan%s/3 masc$ s!$ fem$ s!$ Direc% lun! >lon!? lun!L Gbli@ue lun!i Direc%H#efini%e lun!ul lun!a Gbli@ueH#efini%e lun!ului lun!ii - in vo9el3 masc$ s!$ fem$ s!$ Direc% nou >ne9? nouL Gbli@ue noi Direc%H#efini%e noul noua Gbli@ueH#efini%e noului noii IIIb3 9i%h %he feminine sin!ular -e3 - in vo9el (s%resse# or uns%resse# i/3 masc$ s!$ Direc% auriu >!ol#en-0ello9? Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e auriul Gbli@ueH#efini%e auriului - in as0llabic -i 5rece#e# b0 a vo9el3 masc$ s!$ Direc% !Llbui >0ello9ish? Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e !Llbuiul Gbli@ueH#efini%e !Llbuiului - in as0llabic -i 5rece#e# b0 a consonan%3 masc$ s!$ Direc% vechi >ol#? Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e vechiul Gbli@ueH#efini%e vechiului
masc$ 5l$ lun!i lun!ii lun!ilor masc$ 5l$ noi noii noilor
fem$ 5l$ lun!ile fem$ 5l$ noile
fem$ s!$ aurie aurii auria auriei fem$ s!$ !Llbuie !Llbui !Llbuia !Llbuii
masc$ 5l$ aurii auriii auriilor masc$ 5l$ !Llbui !Llbuii !Llbuilor masc$ 5l$ vechi vechii vechilor
fem$ 5l$ auriile
fem$ 5l$ !Llbuile
fem$ s!$ veche vechi vechea vechii
fem$ 5l$ vechile
<=+
Nominal Inflec%ion
T05e IV3 %9o en#in!s3 IVa3 9i%h no !en#er #is%inc%ions3 masc$ s!$ Direc% mare >bi!? Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e marele Gbli@ueH#efini%e marelui
fem$ s!$ mare mari marea marii
masc$ 5l$ mari marii marilor
fem$ 5l$ marile
IVb3 9i%h no !en#er #is%inc%ion in %he sin!ular an# no number #is%inc%ion in %he feminine3 masc$ s!$ fem$ s!$ masc$ 5l$ fem$ 5l$ Direc% %enace >%enacious? %enaci %enace Gbli@ue Direc%H#efini%e %enacele %enacea %enacii %enacele Gbli@ueH#efini%e %enacelui %enacei %enacilor %enacelor
Dete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es

T05e I3 four en#in!s in %he #irec% case3 - Demons%ra%ives3 - Pro;imal lon! forms3 Prenominal m$s!$ f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ #irec% aces% aceas%L aceM%i aces%e obli@ue aces%ui aces%ei aces%or - Pro;imal shor% forms3 Prenominal (onl0 re!ional an# in fi;e# e;5ressions/ m$s!$ f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ #irec% Ls% as%L LM%i as%e obli@ue Ls%ui Ls%ei Ls%or - Dis%al lon! forms3 #irec% obli@ue m$s!$ acel acelui Prenominal f$s!$ m$5l$ acea acei acelei acelor f$5l$ acele m$s!$ acela aceluia Au!men%e# form f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ aceea aceia acelea aceleia acelora Au!men%e# form m$s!$ Lla Lluia f$s!$ aia Lleia m$5l$ Lia f$5l$ alea Llora
Au!men%e# form m$s!$ f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ aces%a aceas%a aceM%ia aces%ea aces%uia aces%eia aces%ora Au!men%e# form m$s!$ Ls%a Ls%uia f$s!$ as%a Ls%eia m$5l$ LM%ia f$5l$ as%ea Ls%ora
- Dis%al shor% forms3 Prenominal (onl0 re!ional an# in fi;e# e;5ressions/ m$s!$ f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ #irec% Ll a Li ale obli@ue Llui Llei Llor - The s%ron! (5re5ose#/ #efini%e ar%icle3 m$s!$ f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ #irec% cel cea cei cele obli@ue celui celei celor - The !eni%ive an# or#inal ar%icle3 m$s!$ f$s!$ m$5l$ #irec% al a ai obli@ue alor f$5l$ ale
<=1
Nominal Inflec%ion
- The al%erna%ive3 #irec% obli@ue m$s!$ al% al%ui Prenominal f$s!$ m$5l$ al%L alRi al%ei al%or f$5l$ al%e m$s!$ al%ul al%uia Au!men%e# form f$s!$ m$5l$ f$5l$ al%a alRii al%ele al%eia al%ora
Li-e in %he #efini%e #eclension %he -l in %he au!men%e# masculine sin!ular #irec% is of%en no% 5ronounce#
- Pre-D universal3 #irec% obli@ue obli@ue au!men%e# m$s!$ %o% f$s!$ %oa%L m$5l$ f$5l$ %oRi %oa%e %u%uror Y%%urorZ %u%urora Y%u%urraZ
T05e V3 one en#in! in %he #irec% case3 - %he rela%ive/in%erro!a%ive care >9hich? an# i%s com5oun#s3 Prenominal Au!men%e# form m$s!$ f$s!$ 5lural m$s!$ f$s!$ 5lural #irec% care obli@ue cLrui cLrei cLror cLruia cLreia cLrora - %he ne!a%ive anima%e 5ronoun3 onl0 s!$ #irec% nimeni YnmeniZ obli@ue nimLnui YnimLniZ
<=2
'iblio!ra5h0
B.bl.o40a589
C8a5te0 1? Int0o31/t.on. No6.nal Feat10es an3 No6.nal P0o7e/t.ons
On t8e Se6ant./s of DPs Eb &F 'ar9ise Non an# Robin Coo5er$ +CB+$ GeneraliAe# 8uan%ifiers an# Na%ural Lan!ua!e$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y 4(1/ +,C-1+C$ Oeim Irene$ +CB1$ :!e 9emantics of Definite and >ndefinite 3oun /!rases $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ Sam5 Oans$ +CB+$ A Theor0 of Tru%h an# Discourse Re5resen%a%ion$ In N$ Groenen#i6- T$ Nanssen ) :$ S%o-hof (e#s$/ Pormal met!ods in t!e study of lan ua e $ Ams%er#am3 :a%h Cen%er% 1<<-211$ Sar%%unen Lauri$ +C<.$ Discourse referen%s$ In N$ :$ :cCa9le0 (e#$/ 3otes from t!e Lin uistic Under round )9ynta' and 9emantics vol$ </ Ne9 qor-3 Aca#emic Press 2.22B,$ La#usa9 Uilliam$ +C<C$ /olarity 9ensitivity as >n!erent 9cope Oelations0 Ne9 qor-3 Garlan# Press$ :on%a!ue Richar#$ +C<2$ The 5ro5er %rea%men% of @uan%ifica%ion in or#inar0 7n!lish $ In N$ Oin%i--a N$ :oravcsi- an# P$ Su55es (e#s$/ Approac!es to 3atural Lan ua e$ Dor#rech%3 Rei#el 11+-14+$ Par%ee 'arbara Oall$ +CB<$ Noun Phrase in%er5re%a%ion an# %05e shif%in! 5rinci5les$ In N$ Groenen#i6- D$ #e Non!h an# :$ S%o-hof (e#s$/ 9tudies in Discourse Oepresentation :!eory and t!e :!eory of Kenerali(ed @uantifiers$ Dor#rech%3 Foris ++,-+42$ Russell 'er%ran#$ +C=,$ Gn #eno%in!$ 5ind +4 4<C-4C2$ S%ra9son Pe%er$ +C,=$ Gn referrin!$ 5ind ,C 21= - 244$ On Ro6an.an 4en3e0 Eb1.2F Croi%or 'lanca an# Ion Giur!ea$ 1==C$ Gn %he so-calle# Romanian neu%er$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics ++31 1+-2C$ Far-as Don-a$ +CC=$ T9o Cases of Dn#ers5ecifica%ion in :or5holo!0$ Lin uistic >nquiry 1+ ,2C-,,=$ Far-as Don-a an# Dra!a Fec$ +CC,$ A!reemen% an# 5ronominal reference$ In G$ Cin@ue an# G$ Gius%i (e#s$/ Advances in Ooumanian Lin uistics$ Ams%er#am/Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins B2P+=+$
C8a5te0 2? Ba0e No1ns

'e0ssa#e Claire an# Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin$ 1==,$ A s0n%a;-base# anal0is of 5re#ica%ion$ In 7$ Geor!ala an# N$ Oo9ell (e#s$/ /roceedin s of 9emantics and Lin uistic :!eory ;6 I%haca Ne9 qor-3 CLC Publica%ions 44-.+$ Carlson Gre!or0 N$ +C<<$ A unifie# anal0sis of %he 7n!lish bare 5lural$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y + 4+2-4,<$ Chierchia Gennaro$ +CCB$ Reference %o -in#s across lan!ua!es$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics . 22C-4=,$ Chun! San#ra an# Uilliam A$ La#usa9$ 1==2$ Oestriction and 9aturation$ Cambri#!e :ass$3 :IT Press$ Cohen Ariel an# Nomi 7r%eschi--Shir$ 1==1$ To5ic Focus an# %he In%er5re%a%ion of 'are Plurals$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics += +1,-+.,$ <=4
'iblio!ra5h0 Comorovs-i Ileana$ 1==<$ Cons%i%uen% @ues%ions an# %he co5ula of s5ecifica%ion$ In I$ Comorovs-i an# S$ von Oeusin!er (e#s$/ E'istenceW 9emantics and 9ynta'$ Dor#rech%3 S5rin!er 4C-<<$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==C$ Res%ruc%urin! s%ra%e!ies of %he Romanian verb fi >be? an# %he anal0sis of e;is%en%ial sen%ences$ In G$ Saiser ) 7$ Rember!er (e#s$/ /roceedin s of t!e Mor#s!op h3ullsub+ects% e'pletives and locatives in Oomancef $ Uor-in! 5a5er no +12 of %he Fachbereich S5rach9issenschaf% Dniversi%0 of Sons%anA +CC-12=$ Diesin! :oll0$ +CC1$ >ndefinites$ Cambri#!e :ass$3 :IT Press$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ +CC<a$ T05es of Pre#ica%es an# %he Re5resen%a%ion of 7;is%en%ial Rea#in!s$ In Aaron La9son (e#$/ /roceedin s of 9AL: VII (S%anfor# A5ril +CC</ Cornell Dniversi%0 Press$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ +CC<b$ Classes #e 5r#ica%s #is%ribu%ion #es in#finis e% la #is%inc%ion %h%i@ue-ca%!ori@ue$ Le KrV des Lan ues ,B-C<$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen an# Claire 'e0ssa#e$ 1==4$ DVfinir les indVfinis$ Paris 3 CNRS 7#i%ions$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen Tonia 'leam an# :aria Teresa 7s5inal$ 1==.$ Noms nus nombre e% %05es #?incor5ora%ion$ In Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin (e#$/ 3oms nus et VnVricitV$ Paris3 Presses Dniversi%aires #e Vincennes +1C-+,<$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen an# 'ren#a Laca$ 1==2 Les noms sans #%erminan% #ans les lan!ues romanes$ In D$ Go#ar# (e#$/ Les lan ues romanes0 /roblTmes de la p!rase simple $ Paris 3 CNRS 7#i%ions 12,-1<C$ 7s5inal :aria Teresa an# Louise :cNall0$ 1=++$ 'are sin!ular nouns an# incor5ora%in! verbs in S5anish an# Ca%alan$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 4< B<-+1B$ Far-as Don-a an# Oenri%%e #e S9ar%$ 1==2$ :!e semantics of incorporation$ S%anfor#3 CSLI Publica%ions$ van Geenhoven Veerle$ +CC.$ 9emantic >ncorporation and >ndefinite DescriptionsW 9emantic and 9yntactic Aspects of 3oun >ncorporation in Mest Kreenlandic $ PhD #isser%a%ion Tbin!en$ Publishe# in +CCB b0 CSLI$ Oe0coc- Caroline an# An%on0 Sroch$ +CCC$ Pseu#oclef% Connec%e#ness3 Im5lica%ions for %he LF In%erface Level$ Lin uistic >nquiry 2=32 2.,-2C<$ Oi!!ins Ro!er F$ +C<C$ :!e /seudocleft ,onstruction in En lis!0 Ne9 qor-3 Garlan#$ Siss Sa%alin $ +CCB$ Gn Generic an# 7;is%en%ial 'are Plurals an# %he Classifica%ion of Pre#ica%es$ In S$ Ro%hs%ein (e#$/ Events and Krammar$ Dor#rech%3 Slu9er +4,P+.1$ Sra%Aer An!eli-a$ +CC,$ S%a!e-level an# in#ivi#ual-level 5re#ica%es$ In G$ N$ Carlson ) F$ N$ Pelle%ier (e#s$/ :!e Keneric Loo#$ Chica!o3 The Dniversi%0 of Chica!o Press +1,-+<,$ Laca 'ren#a$ +CCC$ Presencia 0 Ausencia #e De%erminan%e$ In I$ 'os@ue an# V$ Demon%e (e#s$/ Krammtica Descriptiva de la Len ua Espaoola0 :a#ri#3 7s5asa Cal5e BC+-C1B$ Lin- Go#ehar#$ +CB2$ The Lo!ical Anal0sis of Plurals an# :ass Terms3 A La%%ice Theore%ic A55roach$ In R$ 'auerle C$ Sch9ar%Ae an# A$ von S%echo9 (e#s$/ 5eanin % use and interpretation of lan ua e$ 'erlin3 De Gru0%er 2=1-212$ Lon!obar#i Giuse55e$ +CC4$ Reference an# Pro5er Names$ Lin uistic >nquiry 1,34 .=C-..,$ Lon!obar#i Giuse55e$ 1==+$ Oo9 com5ara%ive is seman%icsK A unifie# 5arame%ric %heor0 of bare nouns an# 5ro5er names$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics C 22,-2.C$ :a%ushans-0 Gra an# 'en6amin S5ec%or$ 1==4$ Tin-er %ailor sol#ier s50$ In 7mar :aier Corien 'ar0 an# Nanne-e Oui%in- (e#s$/$ /roceedin s of 9inn p Ledeutun q$ Ni6me!en3 NCS 14+-1,,$ :cNall0 Louise$ +CCB$ 7;is%en%ial Sen%ences 9i%hou% 7;is%en%ial 8uan%ifica%ion$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y 2+ 2,2-2C1$ :i--elsen Line$ 1==4$ 9pecifyin M!oW Hn t!e 9tructure% 5eanin and Use of 9pecificational ,opular ,lauses$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of California San%a CruA$
<=,
'iblio!ra5h0 :i--elsen Line$ 1=++$ Co5ular clauses$ In Clau#ia :aienborn Slaus von Oeusin!er an# Paul Por%ner (e#s$/ Nandboo# of 9emantics$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er +B=,-+B1C$ :ilsar- Gar0$ +C<<$ To9ar#s %he e;5lana%ion of cer%ain 5eculiari%ies of e;is%en%ial sen%ences in 7n!lish$ Lin uistic Analysis 2 +-1C$ Ro0 Isabelle$ 1==.$ 3on verbal predicationsW a syntactic analysis of copular sentences $ PhD #isser%a%ion DSC$ Sasse Oans-Nur!en$ +CB<$ The The%ic / Ca%e!orical Dis%inc%ion Revisi%e#$ Lin uistics 1, ,++,B=$ S%ra9son Pe%er F$ +C,=$ Gn referrin!$ 5ind 21=-244$ #e S9ar% Oenri%%e qoa# Uin%er an# Noos% F9ar%s$ 1==<$ 'are nominals an# reference %o ca5aci%ies$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory 1, +C,-111$ Suver :ar!ari%a$ +CB1$ :!e 9ynta' and 9emantics of /resentational 9entence-:ypes in 9panis!$ Geor!e%o9n Dniversi%0 Press$
C8a5te0 3? T8e S9nta< of Dete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 F1n/t.onal Cate4o0.es

Abne0 S%even$ +CB<$ :!e En lis! noun p!rase in its sentential aspect$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ 'arbu Ana :aria$ 1==2$ "Numeralele& un% o3 o analiAL cri%icL En com5araRie cu nici un% nici o$ In G$ PanL-Din#ele!an (coor#/ Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i .,-<1$ 'orer Oa!i%$ 1==,$ 9tructurin 9ense$ Vol$ I 3 >n 3ame Hnly$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Car#inale%%i Anna an# Giuliana Gius%i$ +CC1$ Par%i%ive ne an# %he 8P-h05o%hesis$ In 7$ Fava (e#$/ /roceedin s of t!e FE>> 5eetin of Kenerative Krammar$ Turin3 Rosenber! ) Seiler +1+-+4+$ Car#inale%%i Anna an# Giuliana Gius%i$ 1==.$ The s0n%a; of @uan%ifie# 5hrases an# @uan%i%a%ive cli%ics$ In :$ 7veraer% an# O$ Van Riems#i6- (e#s$/ :!e Llac#&ell ,ompanion to 9ynta' volume V$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell 12-C2$ Coene :ar%ine$ +CCC$ Definite 3ull 3ominals in Oomanian and 9panis! $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%ei% An%9er5en$ Corblin Francis$ +CC,$ Les formes de reprise dans le discours $ Rennes3 Presses Dniversi%aires #e Rennes$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ +CC1$ Remar-s on %he De%erminer S0s%em of Romanian3 %he Demons%ra%ives AL an# C7L$ /robus 4 +BB-1.=$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1===$ No%es on %he In%er5re%a%ion of %he Pre5osi%ional Accusa%ive in Romanian$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics II3+ C++=.$ Dimi%rova-Vulchanova :ila an# Giuliana Gius%i$ +CCB$ Fra!men%s of 'al-an Nominal S%ruc%ure$ In Ar%emis Ale;ia#ou an# Chris Uil#er (e#s$/ /ossessors% /redicates and 5ovement in t!e Determiner /!rase$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 222-2.=$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ +CB<$ A 5ro5os #e la s%ruc%ure #u !rou5e nominal en roumain$ Rivis%a di rammatica enerativa +1 +12-+,1$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen Ton0a 'leam an# :aria Teresa 7s5inal$ 1==.$ Noms nus nombre e% %05es #?incor5ora%ion$ In Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin (e#$/ 3oms nus et VnVricitV$ Paris3 Presses Dniversi%aires #e Vincennes +1C-+,<$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen an# Ion Giur!ea$ 1==.$ The Suffi;a%ion of Defini%e Ar%icles in 'al-an lan!ua!es$ Oevue Ooumaine de Lin uistique LI3+ <2-+=2$ Doe%6es Nenn0$ +CC<$ @uantifiers and selectionW Hn t!e distribution of quantifyin e'pressions in Prenc!% Dutc! and En lis!$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Lei#en$ 7lbourne Paul$ 1==+$ 7-%05e ana5hora as NP-#ele%ion$ 3atural Lan a e 9emantics C32 14+1BB$ <=.
'iblio!ra5h0 7lbourne Paul$ 1==,$ 9ituations and >ndividuals$ Cambri#!e :ass$ Lon#on3 :IT Press$ Gianna-i#ou Anas%asia an# Nason :erchan%$ +CC.$ Gn %he in%er5re%a%ion of null in#efini%e ob6ec%s in :o#ern Gree-$ 9tudies in Kree# Lin uistics0 /roceedin s of t!e ;7t! Annual 5eetin of t!e Department of Lin uistics% Paculty of /!ilosop!y% Aristotle Univeristy of :!essaloni#i$ Thessaloni-i3 S0ria-i#is$ Gianna-i#ou Anas%asia an# :eli%a S%avrou$ +CCC$ NominaliAa%ion an# elli5sis in %he GreeDP$ :!e Lin uistic Oevie& +.3 1C,-22+$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==.a$ S5li%-DP To5icaliAa%ion3 a ne9 loo- a% an ol# 5roblem$ In qehu#a N$ Fal- (e#$/ /roceedin s of >srael Association for :!eoretical Lin uistics << The Oebre9 Dniversi%0 of Nerusalem h%%53//lin!uis%ics$hu6i$ac$il/IATL/11/Giur!ea$5#f$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==.b$ Problema numelor vi#e Mi a s%ruc%urii sin%a!melor nominale fLrL nume e;5rima%$ In :$ Sala (e#$/ 9tudii de ramatic i de formare a cuvintelor% Sn memoria 5ioarei Avram$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei RomWne +.+-+<.$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==<$ Des5re le!i%imarea numelor vi#e$ In C$ S%an R$ Fafiu A$ Nicolae (e#s$/ 9tudii lin vistice0 Hma iu profesoarei Kabriela /ana Dindele an% la aniversare $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii 'ucureM%i +2C-+,.$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==B$ Oec!erc!es sur la structure interne des pronoms et des e'pressions nominales sans nom e'primV$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Paris < tDenis Di#ero%&$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==C$ 7li5sa nominalL En !ru5uri cu #e%erminanRi #efiniRi$ In R$Fafiu '$ Croi%or an# A-:$ :ihail (e#s$/ 9tudii de ramatic0 Hma iu Doamnei /rofesoare Ealeria Kuu Oomalo$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii 'ucureM%i B,-C<$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1=+=a$ /ronoms% dVterminants et ellipse nominale0 Une approc!e minimaliste $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1=+=b$ Romanian !en#erless 5ronouns an# 5arasi%ic !a5s$ In S$ Colina A$ Glarrea an# A$:$ Carvalho (e#s$/ Oomance Lin uistics <77q0 9elected papers from t!e =qt! Lin uistic 9ymposium on Oomance Lan ua es )L9OL*% :ucson% Ari(ona% 5arc! <77q$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins 12+P14B$ Giur!ea Ion an# Isabela Ne#elcu$ 1==C$ 7li5sa nominalL Mi cons%rucRia 5ar%i%ivL& In R$ Fafiu G$ S%oica an# :$ N$ Cons%an%inescu (e#s$/ Limba romnW teme actuale$ Actele celui de al c-lea ,olocviu al ,atedrei de limba romn )Lucuresti% 6-] decembrie <77c*% 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i +=C-+14$ Gius%i Giuliana$ +CC+$ La sin%assi #ei nominali @uan%ifica%i in romeno$ Oivista di rammatica enerativa +. 1C-,<$ Gius%i Giuliana$ +CC2$ La 9intassi dei Determinanti$ Pa#ua3 Dni5ress$ Gius%i Giuliana$ +CC<$ The ca%e!orial s%a%us of #e%erminers$ In L$ Oea!eman (e#$/ :!e 3e& ,omparative 9ynta'$ Lon#on3 Lon!man C,-+12$ Gius%i Giuliana$ 1==1$ The func%ional s%ruc%ure of noun 5hrases3 A bare 5hrase s%ruc%ure a55roach$ In Gu!lielmo Cin@ue (e#$/ Punctional 9tructure in D/ and >/$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press ,4-C=$ Grimsha9 Nane$ +CC+$ 7;%en#e# Pro6ec%ion$ :s$ 'ran#eis Dniversi%0 Ual%ham :A$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ +CC4$ :!ree 9tudies in Locality and ,ase$ Lon#on Ne9 qor-3 Rou%le#!e$ Oe0coc- Caroline an# Rober%o Fam5arelli$ 1==,$ Frien#s an# Collea!ues3 Plurali%0 Coor#ina%ion an# %he S%ruc%ure of DP$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics +2 1=+P1<=$ Oi!!inbo%ham Names$ +CB<$ In#efini%eness an# Pre#ica%ion$ In 7$ N$ Reulan# an# A$ %er :eulen (e#s$/ :!e Oepresentation of )>n*definiteness$ Cambri#!e :IT Lon#on3 :IT Press$ Larson Richar# an# Fran- :arui$ 1==4$ In#efini%e Pronoun S%ruc%ures 9i%h APs$ A Re5l0 %o Sishimo%o$ Lin uistic >nquiry 2, 1.B1B<$ Lobec- Anne$ +CC+$ The Phrase S%ruc%ure of 7lli5sis$ In Susan Ro%hs%ein (e#$/ /erspectives on /!rase 9tructureW Neads and Licensin $ San Die!o3 Aca#emic Press B+P+=2$
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'iblio!ra5h0 Lobec- Anne$ +CC,$ EllipsisW Punctional Neads% Licensin % and >dentification $ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Lon!obar#i Giuse55e$ +CC4$ Reference an# Pro5er Names3 a Theor0 of N-:ovemen% in S0n%a; an# Lo!ical Form$ Lin uistic >nquiry 1,34 .=C-..,$ Lon!obar#i Giuse55e$ 1==+$ The s%ruc%ure of DPs3 Some 5rinci5les 5arame%ers an# 5roblems$ In C$ Collins an# :$ 'al%in (e#s$/ :!e !andboo# of contemporary syntactic t!eory$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell% ,.1-.=+$ :anoliu :anea :aria$ +C.B$ 9istematica substitutelor n romna contemporan standard$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei$ :arui Fran- an# Ro- aucer$ 1==<$ The Dual Source of %he a#6ec%ive-5lus-in#efini%e5ronoun cons%ruc%ion$ Tal- !iven a% %he ,olloque de 9ynta'e et 9Vmantique a /aris$ :unn Alan an# Cris%ina Schmi%%$ 1==4$ Number an# in#efini%es$ Lin ua ++, B1+-B,,$ Pana!io%i#is Phoebos$ 1==1$ /ronouns% clitics and empty nouns$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins$ Pana!io%i#is Phoebos$ 1==2$ 7m5%0 nouns$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory 1+ 2B+421$ Pos%al Paul$ +C.C$ Gn %he So-Calle# >Pronouns? in 7n!lish$ In D$ Reibel an# S Shane (e#s$/ 5odern 9tudies in En lis!$ 7n!le9oo# Cliffs NN3 Pren%ice-Oall 1=+-114$ Ri%%er 7liAabe%h$ +CC+$ T9o func%ional ca%e!ories in noun 5hrases3 7vi#ence from :o#ern Oebre9$ In S$ Ro%hs%ein (e#$/ 9ynta' and 9emantics 1.$ San Die!o Calif$3 Aca#emic Press 2<P.1$ Uil%sch-o :ar%ina$ +CCB$ Gn %he S0n%a; an# Seman%ics of (Rela%ive/ Pronouns an# De%erminers$ ?ournal of ,omparative Kermanic Lin uistics 1 +42-+B+$ Fam5arelli Rober%o$ +CC,/1===$ Layers in t!e Determiner /!rase$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Roches%er$ Revise# version available online (1===/$ Fam5arelli Rober%o$ +CCB$ A Theor0 of Sin#s Par%i%ives an# of$( Possessives$ In A$ Ale;ia#ou an# C$ Uil#er (e#s$/ /ossessors% /redicates and 5ovement in t!e Determiner /!rase$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 1.+-2=+$
C8a5te0 $? T8e Se6ant./s of Dete06.ne0s

Abbo%% 'arbara$ +CCC$ Su55or% for a uni@ue %heor0 of #efini%e #escri5%ions$ In T$ :a%%he9s an# D$ S%rolovi%ch (e#s$/ /roceedin s from 9emantics and Lin uistic :!eory IV$ I%haca Nq3 CLC$ Publica%ions +-+,$ Abne0 S%even$ +CB<$ :!e En lis! 3oun /!rase in its 9entential Aspect $ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Abusch Dori%$ +CC2$ The sco5e of in#efini%es$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics 13 1 B2-+2,$ Aissen Nu#i%h$ 1==2$ Differen%ial ob6ec% mar-in!3 Iconici%0 vs$ econom0$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory 1+ 42,-4B2$ 'ar-er Chris$ 1===$ Defini%e 5ossessives an# #iscourse novel%0$ :!eoretical Lin uistics 1. 1++-11<$ 'ar-er Chris$ 1==,$ Possessive 9ea- #efini%es$ In Ni-0un! Sim qur0 Lan#er an# 'arbara O$ Par%ee (e#s$/ /ossessives and LeyondW 9emantics and 9ynta' $ Amhers% :A3 GLSA Publica%ions$ 'raMoveanu A#rian$ 1==<$ 9tructured 3ominal and 5odal Oeference$ PhD #isser%a%ion Ru%!ers Dniversi%0$ 'raMoveanu A#rian an# Don-a F$ Far-as$ 1==<$ 7;ce5%ional 9i#e sco5e as ana5hora %o @uan%ifica%ional #e5en#encies$ In /ro ram Loo#let of :!e rt! >nternational :bilisi 9ymposium on Lan ua e% Lo ic and ,omputation% Tbilisi$ Carlson Gre!$ +C<<$ Oeference to #inds in En lis!0 PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of <=B
'iblio!ra5h0 :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ Carlson Gre!$ 1==2$ Uea- In#efini%es$ In :ar%ine Coene an# qves$ D?Ouls% (e#s$/ Prom 3/ to D/W on t!e 9ynta' and /ra ma-9emantics of 3oun /!rases Vol +$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 'en6amins +C,-1+=$ Carlson Gre! an# Rachel Sussman$ 1==,$ Seemin!l0 in#efini%e #efini%es$ In S$ Se5sar an# :$ Reis (e#s$/ Lin uistic EvidenceW Empirical% t!eoretical% and computational perspectives $ 'erlin3 #e Gru0%er <+-B.$ Chierchia Gre!$ +CCB$ Reference %o -in#s across lan!ua!es$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics .34 22C-4=,$ Chris%o5herson Paul$ +C2C$ :!e ArticleW a 9tudy of t!eir :!eory and Use in En lis!0 Co5enha!en3 :un-s!aar#$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==+$ DG a% %he lef% 5eri5her0$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics% +-+B$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ +CC4$ :!e 9ynta' of Oomanian$ 'erlin3 #e Gru0%er$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen an# 'ren#a Laca$ 1==1$ Les noms sans #%erminan% #ans les lan!ues romanes$ In Daniple Go#ar# (e#$/ Les lan ues romanes - /roblTmes de la p!rase simple 7#i%ions #u CNRS 12,-1B+$ Far-as Don-a F$ +C<B$ Direc% an# In#irec% Gb6ec% Re#u5licai%on in Romanian$ /roceedin s of t!e ,!ica o Lin uistic 9ociety ;s BB-C<$ Far-as Don-a F$ an# qo-o Su!io-a$ +CB2$ Res%ric%ive if/9hen clauses Lin uistics and /!ilosopy . 311,-1,B$ Far-as Don-a F$ +CC,$ De5en#en% in#efini%es$ In F$ Corblin D$ Go#ar# an# N$-:$ :aran#in (e#s$/ Empirical >ssues in Pormal 9ynta' and 9emantics$ 'ern3 Pe%er Lan! 142-1.C$ Far-as Don-a F$ 1==1a$ S5ecifici%0 #is%inc%ions$ ?ournal of 9emantics +C +-2+$ Far-as Don-a F$ 1==1b$ 7;%reme non-s5ecifici%0 in Romanian$ In C$ 'e0ssa#e R$ 'o-'ennema F$ Dri6-onin!en an# P$ :onachesi (e#s$/ Oomance Lan ua es and Lin uistic :!eory <777$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins +1<-+,2$ Far-as Don-a F$ 1==.$ Free Choice in Romanian$ In '$ 'irner an# G$ Uar# (e#s$/ Dra&in t!e Loundaries of 5eanin $ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins <+-C,$ Far-as Don-a F$ an# Oenri%%e #e S9ar%$ 1==<a$ Ar%icle choice in 5lural !enerics Lin ua ++<3C +.,<-+.<.$ Far-as Don-a F$ an# Oenri%%e #e S9ar%$ 1==<b$ Inclusive an# e;clusive 5lurals reconcile#$ Tal- !iven a% %he Ams%er#am Collo@uium December 1==<$ Gierlin! Diana$ +CC<$ Cli%ic #oublin! s5ecifici%0 an# focus in Romanian$ In G$ R$ 'lac- an# V$ :o%a5an0ane (e#s$/ ,litics% /ronouns and 5ovement$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins .2-B,$ Oa9-ins Nohn$ +CC+$ Gn (in/#efini%e ar%icles3 im5lica%ures an# (un/!ramma%icali%0 5re#ic%ions$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 1< 4=,-441$ Oeim Irene$ +CB1$ :!e 9emantics of Definite and >ndefinite 3oun /!rases $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ Oeim Irene$ +CC+$ Ar%icles an# #efini%eness$ In A$ von S%echo9 an# Die%er Uun#erlich (e#s$/ 9emanti# 9emanticsW An >nternational Nandboo# of ,ontemporary Oesearc! $ 'erlin3 #e Gru0%er +-,C$ Sa#mon Niri%$ +CB<$ Hn Unique and 3on-Unique Oeference and Asymmetric @uantification $ PhD Disser%a%ion$ Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s3 Amhers%$ Sa#mon Niri%$ +CC=$ Dni@ueness$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y +2 1<2- 214$ Sar%%unen Lauri$ +C<.$ Discourse referen%s$ In N$ :$ :cCa9le0 (e#$/ 3otes from t!e Lin uistic Under round )9ynta' and 9emantics vol$ </ Ne9 qor-3 Aca#emic Press 2.22B,$ Sra%Aer An!eli-a$ +CCB$ Sco5e or Pseu#osco5eK Are %here Ui#e-Sco5e In#efini%esK In S$
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'iblio!ra5h0 Ro%hs%ein (e#$/ Events in Krammar$ Dor#rech%3 Slu9er +.2-+C.$ La#usa9 Uilliam$ +C<C$ /olarity 9ensitivity as >n!erent 9cope Oelations0 Ne9 qor-3 Garlan# Press$ Lan#man Fre#$ +CC,$ Plurali%0$ In S$ La55in (e#/ Nandboo# of ,ontemporary 9emantics$ Lon#on3 'lac-9ell 41,-4,<$ Le9is Davi#$ +C<,$ A#verbs of @uan%ifica%ion$ In 7$ Seenan (e#$/ Pormal 9emantics of 3atural Lan ua e$ Cambri#!e3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press 2-+,$ Lin- Go#ehar#$ +CB2$ The lo!ical anal0sis of 5lural an# mass nouns3 a la%%ice-%heore%ic a55roach$ In R 'aerle C$ Sch9arAe an# A$ von S%echo9 (e#s$/ 5eanin % Use% and >nterpretation of Lan ua e$ 'erlin3 #e Gru0%er 2=1-212$ Lon!obar#i Giuse55e$ 1==+$ Oo9 com5ara%ive is seman%icsK A unifie# %heor0 of bare nouns an# 5ro5er names$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics C34 22, -2.C$ :cCa9le0 Names D$ +CB+$ Everyt!in t!at Lin uists !ave Al&ays Manted to Ano& about Lo ic$ Chica!o3 Dniversi%0 of Chica!o Press$ :on%a!ue Richar#$ +C<2$ The 5ro5er %rea%men% of @uan%ifica%ion in or#inar0 7n!lish $ In N$ Oin%i--a N$ :oravcsi- an# P$ Su55es (e#s$/ Approac!es to 3atural Lan ua e$ Dor#rech%3 Rei#el 11+-14+$ :us-ens Reinhar#$ +CC.$ Combinin! :on%a!ue seman%ics an# #iscourse re5resen%a%ion$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y +C +42 - +B.$ Par%ee 'arbara Oall$ +CB<$ Noun Phrase in%er5re%a%ion an# %05e shif%in! 5rinci5les$ In N$ Groenen#i6- D$ #e Non!h an# :$ S%o-hof (e#s$/ 9tudies in Discourse Oepresentation :!eory and t!e :!eory of Kenerali(ed @uantifiers $ Dor#rech%3 Foris ++,-+42$ Poesio :assimo an# Rena%a Vierira$+CCB$ A cor5us-base# inves%i!a%ion of #efini%e #escri5%ion use$ ,omputational Lin uistics 14 +B2-1+.$ Poesio :assimo an# Alessan#ro Fucchi$ +CC1$ Gn %elesco5in!$ In /roceedin s of t!e >>nd ,onference on 9emantics and Lin uistic :!eory )9AL:/ 24<-2..$ Pos%al Paul$ +C..$ Gn so-calle# >5ronouns? in 7n!lish$ In F$ Dineen (e#$/ Oeport on t!e 9eventeent! Annual Oound :able 5eetin on Lin uistics and Lan ua e 9tudies% Uashin!%on DC3 Geor!e%o9n Dniversi%0 Press +<< - 1=.$ Ra9lins S0le$ 1==.$ Hf-5ossessive 5ivo%s$ In Donal# 'aumer Davi# :on%ero an# :ichael Scanlon (e#s$/ /roceedin s of t!e <6t! Mest ,oast ,onference on Pormal Lin uistics $ Somerville :A3 Casca#illa Procee#in!s Pro6ec% 22<-24,$ Rober%s Crai!e$ +CBC$ :o#al subor#ina%ion an# 5ronominal ana5hora in #iscourse$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y +13. .B2-<1+$ Rober%s Crai!e$ 1==1$ Demons%ra%ives as #efini%es$ In S$ van Deem%er an# R$ Sibble (e#s$/ >nformation 9!arin W Oeference and /resupposition in Lan ua e Keneration and >nterpretation$ CSLI BC-+C.$ Rober%s Crai!e$ 1==2$ Dni@ueness in #efini%e noun 5hrases$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y 1. 1B<-2,=$ Russell 'er%ran#$ +C=,$ Gn #eno%in!$ 5ind +4 4<C-4C2$ S%ra9son Pe%er$ +C,=$ Gn referrin!$ 5ind ,C 21= - 244$ SAabolcsi Anna$ +CC<$ S%ra%e!ies for sco5e %a-in!$ In A$ SAabolcsi (e#$/ Mays of 9cope :a#in $ Dor#rech%3 Slu9er +=C-+,,$ Tasmo9s-i Lilianne$ +CB<$ La re#u5lica%ion cli%i@ue en roumain$ In G$ Plan!! an# :$ Iliescu (e#s$/ Ottorumanisc! und Oumtnisc!0 A#ten der :!eodor Kartner-:a un 0 Romanica Aeni5on%ana +4 2<<-4==$ Vlachou 7van!elia$ 1==<$ Pree ,!oice in and out of ,onte't3 9emantics and Distribution of Prenc!% Kree# and En lis! Pree ,!oice >tems$ D%rech%3 LGT$ Uol%er L0nse0 Sa0$ 1==.$ :!at.s t!atW t!e 9emantics and /ra matics of Demonstrative
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'iblio!ra5h0 3oun /!rases$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of California San%a CruA$
C8a5te0 %? P0ono1ns
On 5e0sonal 50ono1ns Avram Larisa$ 1===$ From Possessive Cli%ics %o Gb6ec% Cli%ics3 a Dnif0in! Anal0sis$ In :ar%ine Coene an# Liliane Tasmo9s-i (e#s$/ :!e E'pression of /ossession in Oomance and Kermanic Lan ua es$ Clu63 Clusium B2-+==$ 'eninc Paola an# Gu!lielmo Cin@ue$ +CC2$ Su alcune #ifferenAe %ra enclisi e 5roclisi$ In3 Hma io a K0 Polena$ Pa#ova3 Pro!ramma ,+,-,B2$ 'one% 7ullia$ +CC,$ The Uhere an# Oo9 of Cli%ic Gr#er$ Oevue quVbVcoise de lin uistique 14 .+B+$ 're#emeier Nr!en$ +C<.$ 9tru#turbesc!rtn#un en im Oumtnisc!en0 9tudien (ur 9ynta' der prtund postverbalen /ronomina0 Tbin!en3 Gun%er Narr$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ +CC4$ :!e 9ynta' of Oumanian0 ,omparative 9tudies in Oomance0 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ 7LR$ 1==+$ :arius Sala (e#$/ Enciclopedia limbii romne$ 'uchares%3 Dnivers 7nciclo5e#ic$ Far-as Don-a$ +C<B$ Direc% an# In#irec% Gb6ec% Re#u5licai%on in Romanian$ /roceedin s of t!e ,!ica o Lin uistic 9ociety ;s BB-C<$ Far-as Don-a an# Sos%as SaAaAis$ +CB=$ Cli%ic Pronouns an# To5icali%0 in Rumanian$ Chica!o Lin!uis%ic Socie%0 +. <,-B1$ Gerlach 'ir!i%$ 1==1$ ,litics bet&een 9ynta' and Le'icon0 Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1=+=$ /ronoms% dVterminants et ellipse nominale0 Une approc!e minimaliste$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Oal5ern Aaron$ +CC,$ Hn t!e /lacement and 5orp!olo y of ,litics0 S%anfor#3 CSLI$ Ior#an Ior!u Valeria GuRu Romalo an# Ale;an#ru Niculescu$ +C.<$ 9tructura morfolo ic a limbii romne contemporane$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura i%iinRificL (55$ ++<-+,./$ Irimia Dumi%ru$ +CB<$ 9tructura ramatical a limbii romne0 3umele i pronumele0 Adverbul IaMi3 7#i%ura Nunimea$ Slavans Nu#i%h$ +CC,$ Hn ,litics and ,litici(ationW t!e >nteraction of 5orp!olo y% /!onolo y% and 9ynta'0 Ne9 qor-3 Garlan#$ So- Ans #e$ +CBB$ Gn %he Con6unc% Gb6ec% Pronoun S0s%ems of Rumanian an# French3 A Com5ara%ive Anal0sis$ In%erna%ional Nournal of Rumanian S%u#ies < 1C-,1$ LaenAlin!er Chris%o5her$ +CC2$ A S0n%ac%ic Vie9 of Romance Pronominal Se@uences$ /robus , 14+-1<=$ Le!en#re Gral#ine$ 1===$ Posi%ionin! Romanian Verbal Cli%ics a% PF$ In3 Gerlach 'ir!i% Gri6Aenhou% Nane%$ (e#s/$ ,litics in /!onolo y% 5orp!olo y and 9ynta'0 Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 1+C-142$ Lombar# Alf$ +C<4$ La lan ue roumaine0 Une prVsentation0 Paris3 Slinc-siec-$ :anoliu-:anea :aria$ +C.B$ 9istematica substitutelor n romna contemporan standard $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei$ :iller Phili5$ +CC+$ ,litics and ,onstituents in /!rase 9tructure Krammar0 PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of D%rech%$ :iller Phili5 an# Paola :onachesi$ 1=+=$ Cli%ic 5ronouns in %he Romance lan!ua!es$ In3 Go#ar# Daniple (e#/$ Pundamental >ssues in t!e Oomance Lan ua es$ S%anfor#3 CSLI ,2-+=.$ :uller Clau#e (e#/$ 1==+$ ,litiques et cliticisation0 Actes du ,olloque de Lordeau'0 Paris3 Oonor Cham5ion$ :uller Clau#e$ +CCB$ Gn %he Posi%ion of Romance Cli%ics$ Nermes 1= ++.-+2<$ Nevis Noel A$ 'rian D$ Nose5h Die%er Uanner an# Arnol# :$ F9ic-0$ +CC4$ ,litics0 A ,ompre!ensive Liblio rap!y (+BC1-+CC+/$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins$ <++
'iblio!ra5h0 Niculescu Ale;an#ru$ +C.,$ In#ivi#uali%a%ea limbii romne ntre limbile romanice0 ,ontribuii ramaticale$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura i%iinRificL Mi 7nciclo5e#icL$ Po5escu Ale;an#ra$ 1===$ The :or5ho5honolo!0 of %he Romanian Cli%ic Se@uence$ Lin!ua ++= <<2-<CC$ Reinheimer San#a an# Liliane Tasmo9s-i$ 1===$ La vo0elle neu%re e% les 5ronoms con6oin%s$ 9tudii i ,ercetri Lin vistice ,+ +C+-+CC$ Reinheimer San#a an# Liliane Tasmo9s-i$ 1==,a$ Cli%icele 5ronominale romWneM%i En%re fone%icL morfolo!ie Mi sin%a;L$ In Gabriela PanL Din#ele!an (e#$/$ Limba romn0 9tructur i funcionare0 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i 1+C-11C Reinheimer San#a an# Liliane Tasmo9s-i$ 1==,b$ /ratique des lan ues romanes0 II$ Les pronoms personnels$ Paris3 L?Oarma%%an$ van Riems#i6- Oen#ri- (e#/$ +CCC$ ,litics in t!e Lan ua es of Europe0 'erlin - Ne9 qor-3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ Tasmo9s-i Liliane$ +CB<$ La r#u5lica%ion cli%i@ue en roumain$ In Gun%ram Plan!! an# :aria Iliescu (e#s$/ Ottoromanisc! und Oumtnisc!0 A#ten der :!eodor Kartner-:a un $ Romanica Aeni5on%ana +4 2<<-4== Tasmo9s-i Liliane an# San#a Reinheimer$ 1==,$ Les s@uences #es 5ronoms 5ersonnels cli%i@ues #ans les lan!ues romanes$ In3 Lamber% Fr#ric Nl-e Oennin! (e#s/$ La synta'e au coeur de la rammaire0 Nomma es a ,laude 5uller0 Rennes3 PDRennes 2=C-211$ Vasilescu An#ra 1==B$ Pronumele$ In Kramatica limbii romne% vol$ I$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei +B+-1BB$ Fribi-Oer%A Anne$ +CC.$ L.anap!ore et les pronoms$ Lille3 Se5%en%rion$ F9ic-0 Arnol# :$ +C<<$ Hn clitics$ 'loomin!%on3 In#iana Dniversi%0 Lin!uis%ics Club$ On t8e se6ant./s of 5e0sonal 50ono1ns 'rin! Daniel$ 1==,$ Lindin t!eory$ Cambri#!e3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press$ Coo5er Robin$ +C<C The in%er5re%a%ion of 5ronouns$ In Fran- Oen0 an# Oelmu% Schnelle (e#s$/ 9ynta' and 9emantics ;7W 9elections from t!e :!ird Kronin en Oound :able $ Ne9 qor-3 Aca#emic Press .+-C1$ Corblin Francis$ +CC,$ Les formes de reprise dans le discours$ Rennes3 Presses Dniversi%aires #e Rennes$ Corblin Francis$ +CCB$ Celui-ci ana5hori@ue3 un men%ionnel$ Lan ue PranIaise +1= 22-42$ Corblin Francis$ 1==.$ Pronouns an# men%ions$ In Irn SorAen an# Lila Lun#@uis% (e#s$/ ,omparin Anap!ors0 Let&een 9entences% te'ts and Lan ua es Co5enha!en S%u#ies of Lan!ua!e 24 1<-42$ Croi%or 'lanca an# Ion Giur!ea$ 1==C$ Gn %he so-calle# Romanian neu%er$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics VI31 1+-2C$ 7lbourne Paul$ 1==,$ 9ituations and >ndividuals$ Cambri#!e :ass$ Lon#on3 :IT Press$ 7vans Gare%h$ +C<<$ Pronouns @uan%ifiers an# rela%ive clauses$ ,anadian ?ournal of /!ilosop!y < 4.<-,2.$ 7vans Gare%h$ +CB=$ Pronouns$ Lin uistic >nquiry ++ 22<-2.1$ Geach Pe%er$ +C.1$ Oeference and Kenerality$ I%haca Nq3 Cornell Dniversi%0 Press$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==Ba$ Gen#er on #efini%e 5ronouns$ University of Luc!arest Oevie&0 Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics V3+ C<-+1=$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==Bb$ GbservaRii #es5re seman%ica 5ronumelor #efini%e$ 9tudii i cercetri de lin vistic LIV3 1 2.,-2<C$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==C$ Romanian null ob6ec%s an# !en#er$ In VincenAo :osca%i an# 7milio Servi#io (e#s$/ 9:iL - 9tudies in Lin uistics Eol0= - ,>9,L Mor#in /apers W /roceedin s of t!e FFFE >ncontro di Krammatica Kenerativa h%%53//999$ciscl$unisi$i%/#oc/#ocr5ub/i!!5rocee#in!s1==C$5#f +.<-+B=$ <+1
'iblio!ra5h0 Giur!ea Ion$ 1=+=a$ /ronoms% dVterminants et ellipse nominale0 Une approc!e minimaliste $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1=+=b$ Romanian !en#erless 5ronouns an# 5arasi%ic !a5s$ In Sonia Colina An%;on Glarrea an# Ana :aria Carvalho (e#s$/ Oomance Lin uistics <77q$ 9elected papers from t!e =qt! Lin uistic 9ymposium on Oomance Lan ua es )L9OL*% :ucson% Ari(ona% 5arc! <77q$ Ams%er#am/Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins 12+P14B$ Oeim Irene$ +CC=$ 7-%05e 5ronouns an# #on-e0 ana5hora$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y +2 2<-+<<$ Oeim Irene an# An!eli-a Sra%Aer$ +CC<$ 9emantics in Kenerative Krammar (Llac#&ell te'tboo#s in Lin uistics +2/$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell$ Sar%%unen Lauri$ +C.C$ Pronouns an# variables$ In Rober% 'innic-m Alice Davi#son Geor!ia Green an# Nerr0 :or!an (e#s$/ /apers from t!e Pift! Oe ional 5eetin of t!e ,!ica o Lin uistic 9ociety$ Dniversi%0 of Chica!o +=B-++.$ Sra%Aer An!eli-a$ +CCB$ :ore s%ruc%ural analo!ies be%9een 5ronouns an# %enses$ In Devon S%rolovi%ch an# Aaron La9son (e#s$/ /roceedin s of 9emantics and Lin uistic :!eory )9AL:* E>>>$ I%haca Nq3 Cornell Dniversi%0 CLC Publica%ions C1P+=C$ Sra%Aer An!eli-a$ 1==C$ :a-in! a Pronoun3 Fa-e In#e;icals as Uin#o9s in%o %he Pro5er%ies of Pronouns$ Lin uistic >nquiry 4=31 +B<P12<$ Lan!ac-er Ronal#$ +C..$ Gn PronominaliAa%ion an# %he Chain of Comman#$ In D$A$ Reibel an# S$ Schane (e#s$/ 5odern 9tudies in En lis!$ Ne9 Nerse03 Pren%ice-Oall$ Picallo Carme$ 1==1$ Abs%rac% a!reemen% an# clausal ar!umen%s$ 9ynta' ,31 ++.-+4<$ On 50ono6.nal .ntens.f.e0s Gas% Vol-er$ 1==.$ :!e Krammar of >dentity0 >ntensifiers and refle'ives in Kermanic lan ua es $ Lon#on Ne9 qor-3 Rou%le#!e$ Gas% Vol-er an# Pe%er Siemun#$ 1==.$ Re%hin-in! %he rela%ioni5 be%9een S7LF-in%ensifiers an# refle;ives$ Lin uistics% 4431 242P2B+$ Oole Daniel$ 1==1$ A!en%ive selbst in German$ In G$ Sa%A S$ Reinhar# an# P$ Reu%er (e#s$/ /roceedin s of 9inn und Ledeutun E>$ Dniversi%0 of Gsnabrc- Ins%i%u%e of Co!ni%ive Sciences +22-+,=$ Sni! 7--ehar#$ 1==+$ In%ensifiers an# refle;ive 5ronouns$ In :ar%in Oas5elma%h 7--ehar# Sni! Uulf Ges%erreicher an# Uolf!an! Raible (e#s$/ Lan ua e :ypolo y and Lan ua e Universals - 9prac!typolo ie und sprac!lic!e Universalien - La :ypolo ie des lan ues et les universau' lin uistiques0 An >nternational Nandboo# - Ein internationales Nandbuc! - 5anuel international0 'erlin Ne9 qor-3 #e Gru0%er + <4<-<.=$ Sni! 7--ehar# an# Vol-er Gas% (e#s$/$ 1==1$ Oefle'ives and >ntensifiers " t!e Use of Self-forms in En lis! s5ecial issue of ueitsc!rift fvr An listi# und Ameri#anisti#% ,= 2$ Sni! 7--ehar# ) Pe%er Siemun#$ 1==,$ In%ensifiers an# Refle;ive Pronouns in :ar%in Oas5elma%h :a%%he9 S$ Dr0er Davi# Gil an# 'ernar# Comrie (e#s$/ :!e Morld Atlas of Lan ua e 9tructures0 G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press +C4-+C<$ Sb S6ell Nohan$ 1==.$ Self In%ensifica%ion an# Focus In%er5re%a%ion$ In '$ 'ehrens an# C$ Fabricius-Oansen (e#s$/ Hslo 9tudies in Lin uistics issue of 5rocee#in!s from %he Gslo conference E'plicit and >mplicit >nformation in :e'tW >nformation 9tructure across Lan ua es ?une c-;7% <77]$ h%%53//fol-$uio$no/-6ell6s/Research$h%m Siemun# Pe%er$ 1===$ >ntensifiers in En lis! and Kerman0 A comparison Lon#on Ne9 qor-3 Rou%le#!e$ Fribi-OerA Anne$ +CC,$ 7m5ha%ic or refle;iveK Gn %he en#o5horic charac%er of French lui-mdme an# similar com5le; 5ronouns$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 2+3 1 222-2<4$ Fribi-OerA Anne$ 1==B$ From in%ensive %o refle;ive 3 The 5roso#ic fac%or$ In 7--ehar# Sni! an# Vol-er Gas% (e#s$/ Oeciprocal and Oefle'ives0 :!eoretical and :ypolo ical E'plorations $ 'erlin Ne9 qor-3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er ,C+-.21$ <+2
'iblio!ra5h0
On 0e/.50o/al /onst01/t.ons 'ec- Si!ri#$ 1==+$ Reci5rocal are Defini%es$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics C .CP+2B$ Oas5elma%h :ar%in$ 1==<$ Fur%her remar-s on reci5rocal cons%ruc%ions$ In V$P$ Ne#6al-ov (e#$/ Oeciprocal ,onstructions$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 1=B<P1++,$ Sni! 7--ehar# an# Vol-er Gas% (e#s$/$ 1==B$ Oeciprocal and Oefle'ives0 :!eoretical and :ypolo ical E'plorations$ 'erlin Ne9 qor-3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ Lan!en#oen D$ Terence$ +C<B$ The Lo!ic of Reci5roci%0$ Lin uistic >nquiry C +<<P+C<$ PanL-Din#ele!an Gabriela$ 1==,$ Cons%rucRii refle;ive Mi cons%rucRii reci5roce$ In Kramatica Limbii Oomne% II$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei +4,-+.<$ Siloni Tal$ 1=+1$ Reci5rocal verbs an# s0mme%r0$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory 2= 1.+-21=$
C8a5te0 &? #en.t.2e DPs an3 P0ono6.nal Possesso0s

'ar-er Chris$ +CC,$ /ossessive Descriptions$ CSLI Publica%ions Disser%a%ions in Lin!uis%ics series$ 'ar-er Chris$ +CCB$ Par%i%ives Double Geni%ives an# An%i-Dni@ueness$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory +. .<C-<+<$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ +CC2$ No%es on %he S%ruc%ure of Romanian DP an# %he Assi!nmen% of %he Geni%ive Case$ University of Eenice Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics 2$1$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ +CC4$ Remar-s on %he Romanian Gr#inal Numeral$ To9ar#s a Dni%ar0 Descri5%ion of Phrases Oea#e# b0 AL$ Oevue Ooumaine de Lin uistique% 2=2-224$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ +CC,$ Romanian Geni%ive Cons%ruc%ions$ In G$ Cin@ue an# G$ Gius%i (e#s$/ Advances in Oomanian Lin uistics$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins +-,4$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ 1===$ (In/#efini%eness S5rea#3 from Romanian Geni%ives %o Oebre9 Cons%ruc% S%a%e Nominals$ In Vir!inia :o%a5an0ane (e#$/ ,omparative 9tudies in Oomanian 9ynta'$ G;for#3 7lsevier +<<-11.$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ 1==+$ De la s0n%a;e l?in%er5r%a%ion #e :ilner (+CB1/ :ilner (+CC,/ 3 le !ni%if$ In Nean-:arie :aran#in (e#$/ ,a!ier ?ean-,laude 5ilner$ Paris3 Ver#ier ,,-CB$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ 1==1$ From DPs %o NPs3 A 'are Phrase S%ruc%ure Accoun% of Geni%ives$ In :ar%ine Coene an# qves D?Ouls% (e#s$/ Prom 3/ to D/$ Eolume <W :!e e'pression of possession in noun p!rases$ Ams%er#am/ Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins (Lin!uis%i- A-%uell/Lin!uis%ics To#a0/ <,-+1=$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ 1==4$ Geni%ives an# De%erminers$ In Ni-0un! Sim qur0 A$ Lan#er an# 'arbara O$ Par%ee (e#s$/ /ossessives and LeyondW 9emantics and 9ynta'$ Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Gccasional Pa5ers in Lin!uis%ics 1C ++,-+21$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen an# Ion Giur!ea$ 1==,$ Romanian Geni%ives an# De%erminers$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics < + BC-+=+$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen an# Ion Giur!ea$ 1=++$ Pronominal 5ossessors an# Fea%ure Dni@ueness$ Lan ua e B< +3 +1<-+,<$ FrWncu$ Cons%an%in$ +CB2$ Vechimea Mi rLs5Wn#irea cons%rucRiei 5ar%i%ive #e %i5ul un prieten de-al meu$ Limba romn VVVII + +,-12$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1=++$ A!reein! Possessors an# %he Theor0 of Case$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics +231 ,-2,$ Kramatica limbii romne$ +C.2$ Is% vol$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei RomWne$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ +CBB$ Gn %he Dis%ribu%ion of Geni%ive Phrases in Romanian$ Lin ustics 1.3 C2+-C4C$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ +CC4$ :!ree 9tudies in Locality and ,ase$ Lon#on Ne9 qor-3 Rou%le#!e$ <+4
'iblio!ra5h0 #?Ouls% qves :ar%ine Coene an# Lilianne Tasmo9s-i$ +CC<$ Gn %he S0n%a; of Romanian Possession Phrases$ Oevue roumaine de lin uistique 413 +4C-+..$ #?Ouls% qves :ar%ine Coene an# Lilianne Tasmo9s-i$ 1===$ Las% resor% s%ra%e!ies in DP3 Ar%icle Re#u5lica%ion in Romanian an# French$ In Vir!inia :o%a5an0ane (e#$/ 9tudies in Oomanian 9ynta'$ Lei#en3 7lsevier +2,-+<.$ Lbner Sebas%ian$ +CB,$ Defini%es$ ?ournal of 9emantics 4 1<C-21.$ :ilner Nean-Clau#e$ +CB1$ Hrdres et raisons de lan ue$ Paris3 Le Seuil$ Ne#elcu Isabela$ 1==C$ ,onstrucia partitiv n limba romn$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Gr%mann Alber% an# Ale;an#ra Po5escu$ 1===$ Oa5lolo!0 involvin! mor5holo!icall0 boun# an# free elemen%s3 evi#ence from Romanian$ bearboo# of 5orp!olo y 42-<=$
C8a5te0 (? T8e A37e/t.2e

#ene0al 'a-er :ar-$ 1==2$ Le'ical ,ate ories0 Eerbs% 3ouns and Ad+ectives $ Cambri#!e3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press$ 'olin!er D9i!h%$ +C.<$ A#6ec%ives in 7n!lish$ A%%ribu%ion an# Pre#ica%ion$ Lin ua +B3 +-24$ Demon%e Viole%a$ 1=++$ A#6ec%ives$ In Clau#ia :aienborn Slaus von Oeusin!er an# Paul Por%ner (e#s$/ 9emanticsW An >nternational Nandboo# of 3atural Lan ua e 5eanin $ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er vol$ II +2+4-+24=$ Oeim Irene an# An!eli-a Sra%Aer +CCB$ 9emantics in Kenerative Krammar$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell$ Oi!!inbo%ham Names$ +CB,$ Gn seman%ics$ Lin uistic >nquiry +. 4 ,4<,C2$ Larson Richar#$ +CCB$ 7ven%s an# mo#ifica%ion in nominals$ In D$ S%rolovich an# A$ La9son (e#s$/ /roceedin s of 9emantics and Lin uistic :!eory )9AL:* E>>>$ I%haca Nq3 CLC Publica%ions +4,-+.B$ Larson Richar#$ +CCC$ 9emantics of ad+ectival modification$ Lec%ures !iven a% %he LGT Uin%er School Ams%er#am3 LGT (Lan#eli6-e Gn#erAoe-school Taal9e%enscha5/$ Available a% h%%53//semlab,$sbs$sun0sb$e#u/rlarson/$ :a%ushans-0 Gra$ 1==.$ Les a#6ec%ifs P une in%ro#uc%ion$ Oec!erc!es Lin uistiques de Eincennes 24 C-,4$ Sie!el :uff0 +C<.$ ,apturin t!e Ad+ective$ PhD #isser%a%ion$ Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ Publishe# b0 Ne9 qor-3 Garlan# Publishers +CB=$ On DP+.nte0nal a37e/t.2es Ale;ia#ou Ar%emis$ 1==2$ A#6ec%ive S0n%a; an# (%he absence of/ noun raisin! in %he DP$ 9ynta' at 9unset /roceedin s of t!e Mor#s!op on Nead-movement$ DCLA +-2C$ 'os@ue I!nacio$ 1==+$ A#6ec%ive Posi%ion an# %he In%er5re%a%ion of In#efini%es$ In N$ Gu%ierreA-Re;ach an# L$ Silva-Villar (e#s$/ ,urrent >ssues in 9panis! 9ynta' and 9emantics$ 'erlin Ne9 qor-3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er +<2<$ 'os@ue I!nacio an# Carme Picallo$ +CC.$ Pos%nominal a#6ec%ives in S5anish DPs$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 2131 24C-2B,$ 'ouchar# Denis$ +CCB$ The Dis%ribu%ion an# In%er5re%a%ion of A#6ec%ives in French$ /robus +=3 +2CP+B2$ 'ouchar# Denis$ 1==1$ Ad+ectives% 3umber and >nterfacesW M!y Lan ua es EaryQ Ams%er#am3 7lsevier$ 'ouchar# Denis$ 1==,$ Sria%ion #es a#6ec%ifs #ans le SN e% forma%ion #e Conce5%s$ In Pa%ricia Cabre#o Oofherr an# Gra :a%ushans-0 (e#s$/ L.Ad+ectif$ Oec!erc!es
<+,
'iblio!ra5h0 Lin uistiques de Eincennes 24$ Sain%-Denis3 Presses Dniversi%aires #e Vincennes$ Cin@ue Gu!lielmo$ 1==4$ A Phrasal :ovemen% Anal0sis of %he Romanian DP$ In A$ :inu% an# 7$ :un%eanu (e#s$/ 9tudia Lin uistica et /!ilolo ica in !onorem D0>rimia$ IaMi3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii A$I$ CuAa +1C-+41$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra 1==1$ A% %he Romanian Lef% Peri5her0$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics 43 + BC-+=B$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==4$ Romanian Rela%ive A#6ec%ives as In%ersec%ive NP-mo#ifiers$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics VI3+ +=2++,$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==.a$ :o#es of Seman%ic Combina%ions3 NP / DP A#6ec%ives an# %he S%ruc%ure of %he Romanian DP$ In Nenn0 Doe%6es an# PaA GonA|leA (e#s$/ Oomance Lan ua es and Lin uistic :!eory 1==4 42P<+$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==.b$ Romanian #ouble #efini%e cons%ruc%ions an# %he S%ruc%ure of Nominal Peri5heries$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics B 1+-4,$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==<$ Des5re %rLsL%urile 5eriferice Mi cum le-am 5u%ea folosi$ In R$ Fafiu C$ S%an A$ Nicolae (e#s$/ 9tudii lin vistice0 Hma iu profesoarei Kabriela /an Dindele an% la aniversare$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i 42,.$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==C$ Gn %he LineariAa%ion of A#6ec%ives in Romanian$ In D$ Torc- L$ Ue%Aels (e#s$/ Oomance Lan ua es and Lin uistic :!eory <77] Ams%er#am Nohn 'en6amins 22-,1$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra an# Ale;an#ru Nicolae$ 1=++$ Nominal Peri5heries an# Phase S%ruc%ure in %he Romanian DP$ Oevue Ooumaine de Lin uistique LVI3 + 2,P.B$ Demon%e Viole%a$ +CCC$ A minimal accoun% of S5anish a#6ec%ive 5osi%ion an# in%er5re%a%ion$ In N$ Franco A$ Lan#a an# N$ :ar%n (e#s$/ Krammatical analyses in Lasque and Oomance Lin uistics$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 4,-<,$ 7mbic- Davi#$ 1==4$ Gn %he s%ruc%ure of resul%a%ive 5ar%ici5les in 7n!lish$ Lin uistic >nquiry 2,32 2,,-2C1$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==,$ La linarisa%ion #es a#6ec%ifs en roumain3 mouvemen% #u N ou con%rain%es sman%i@uesK$ In :ar%ine Coene an# Liliane Tasmovs-i (e#$/ Hn 9pace and :ime in Lan ua e$ Clu63 Clusium ,+-<2$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==C$ A#6ec%ive 5lacemen% an# lineariAa%ion$ In Neroen van Craenenbroec(e#$/ Alternatives to ,arto rap!y 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er 1<,-212$ Oe%Aron Rober%$ +C<B$ Gn %he rela%ive or#er of a#6ec%ives$ In O$ Seiler (e#$/ Lan ua e Universals0 Tbin!en3 Narr +.,P+B4$ Sni%%el :arie Laurence$ 1==,$ Some remar-s on a#6ec%ive 5lacemen% in %he French NP$ /robus% +<3 +B,P11.$ Sremers Noos%$ 1==2$ :!e Arabic 3oun /!raseW A 5inimalist /erspective PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Ni6me!en$ LaenAlin!er Chris%o5her$ 1===$ French A#6ec%ive Gr#erin!3 Pers5ec%ives on DP-in%ernal :ovemen% T05es$ Kenerative Krammar in Keneva + ,,P+=4$ Lamarche Nac@ues$ +CC+$ Problems for N=-movemen% %o NumP$ /robus 231 +,P1.$ :cNall0 Louise an# Gemma 'ole#a Torren%$ 1==4$ Rela%ional a#6ec%ives as 5ro5er%ies of -in#s$ In G$ 'onami an# P$ Cabre#o Oofherr (e#s$/ Empirical >ssues in 9ynta' and 9emantics 6 +<C-+C.$ :olea Amelia$ 1==4$ :!e Ad+ectival /!rase in En lis! and Oomanian $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of 'uchares%$ Pus%e6ovs-0 Names$ +CC,$ :!e Kenerative Le'icon$ Cambri#!e :A3 :IT Press$ Sco%% Gar0-Nohn$ 1==1$ S%ac-e# a#6ec%ival mo#ifica%ion an# %he s%ruc%ure of nominal 5hrases$ In G$ Cin@ue (e#$/ Punctional 9tructure in D/ and >/W :!e ,arto rap!y of 9yntactic 9tructures$ Ne9 qor-3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press C+-+1=$ S5roa% Richar# an# Chilin Shih$ +CC=$ The Cross-Lin!uis%ics Dis%ribu%ion of A#6ec%ival
<+.
'iblio!ra5h0 Gr#erin! Res%ric%ions$ In C$ Geor!o5oulos e% R$ Ishihara (e#s$/ >nterdisciplinary Approac!es to Lan ua eW Essays in Nonor of 9-b Auroda$ Dor#rech% Slu9er% ,.,-,C2$ S%avrou :eli%a$ 1==+$ The Posi%ion an# SerialiAa%ion of APs in %he DP3 7vi#ence from Gree-$ In A$ Ale;ia#ou G$ Oorroc-s :$ S%avrou (e#s$/ 9tudies in Kree# 9ynta' Dor#rech% Slu9er$ Svenonius Pe%er$ +CC4$ The s%ruc%ural loca%ion of %he a%%ribu%ive a#6ec%ive$ In 7$ Duncan e% al$ (e#s0*% /roceedin s of t!e :&elft! M,,PL$ CSLI Publica%ions S%anfor# CA% 42CP4,4$ Svenonius P$ 1==B$ The 5osi%ion of a#6ec%ives an# o%her 5hrasal mo#ifiers in %he #ecom5osi%ion of DP$ In3 :cNall0 L$ Senne#0 C$ (7#s$/ A#6ec%ives an# A#verbs3 S0n%a; Seman%ics an# Discourse$ G;for# Dniversi%0 Press G;for# 55$ +.-41$ Fam5arelli Rober%o$ +CC2$ Prenominal :o#ifiers De!ree Phrases an# %he S%ruc%ure of %he AP$ University of Eenice Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics 23 +2B-+.+$ On 3e40ee /onst01/t.ons 'ar%sch Rena%e an# Theo Vennemann$ +C<1$ The !rammar of rela%ive a#6ec%ives an# com5arison$ In T$ S%orer an# D$ N$ Uin%er (e#s$/ Pormal Aspects of ,o nitive /rocesses% vol$ 11 of Lecture 3otes in ,omputer 9cience0 'erlin3 S5rin!er Verla! +.BP+B,$ 'ha%% Ra6esh an# Roum0ana Pancheva$ 1==4$ La%e mer!er of #e!ree clauses$ Lin uistic >nquiry 2, +P4.$ 'ier9isch :anfre#$ +CBC$ The seman%ics of !ra#a%ion$ In :$ 'ier9isch an# 7$ Lan! (e#s$/ Dimensional Ad+ectives0 Krammatical 9tructure and ,onceptual >nterpretation $ 'erlin3 S5rin!er <+-1.1$ 'resnan Noan$ +C<2$ S0n%a; of %he com5ara%ive cons%ruc%ion in 7n!lish$ Lin uistic >nquiry% 4 1<,P24,$ Cress9ell :a;9ell Nohn$ +C<.$ The seman%ics of #e!ree$ In '$ O$ Par%ee (e#$/ 5onta ue Krammar$ Ne9 qor-3 Aca#emic Press 1.+-1C1$ Cruse D$ Alan +CB=$ An%on0ms an# !ra#able com5lemen%aries$ In D$ Sas%ovs-0 (e#$/ /erspe#tiven der Le'i#alisc!en 9emanticW beitra e (um Muppertaler 9emanti##olloquium $ 'onn3 'ouvier Verla! +4-1,$ Doe%6es Nenn0$ +CC<$ @uantifiers and selectionW Hn t!e distribution of quantifyin e'pressions in Prenc!% Dutc! and En lis!$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Lei#en$ Doe%6es Nenn0$ 1==B$ A#6ec%ives an# #e!ree mo#ifica%ion$ In L$ :cNall0 ) C$ Senne#0 (e#s$/ Ad+ectives and AdverbsW 9ynta'% 9emantics and Discourse$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press +12-+,,$ Oeim Irene$ +CB,$ No%es on com5ara%ives an# rela%e# ma%%ers$ Dn5ublishe# ms$ Dniversi%0 of Te;as Aus%in$ Oeim Irene$ +CCC$ No%es on Su5erla%ives$ :s$ :IT$ Oeim Irene$ 1===$ De!ree o5era%ors an# sco5e$ In '$ Nac-son ) T$ :a%%he9s (e#s$/ 9emantic and Lin uistic :!eory +=$ I%haca Nq3 CLC Publica%ions 4=-.4$ Sam5 Oans$ +C<,$ T9o %heories abou% a#6ec%ives$ In 7$ L$ Seenan (e#$/ Pormal 9emantics of 3atural Lan ua e0 Cambri#!e3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press +12P+,,$ Senne#0 Chris%o5her$ +CCC$ /ro+ectin t!e Ad+ective0 :!e 9ynta' and 9emantics of Kradability and ,omparison$ Ne9 qor-3 Garlan#$ PhD #isser%a%ion DCSC +CC<$ Senne#0 Chris%o5her$ 1==+$ Polar o55osi%ion an# %he on%olo!0 of #e!rees$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y 143 2+-<=$ Senne#0 Chris%o5her$ 1==<$ Va!ueness an# !rammar3 %he seman%ics of rela%ive an# absolu%e !ra#able a#6ec%ives$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y 2=(+/3 +-4,$ Senne#0 Chris%o5her an# Louise :cNall0$ +CCC$ From even% s%ruc%ure %o scalar s%ruc%ure3 #e!ree mo#ifica%ion in #everbal a#6ec%ives?$ In T$ :a%%he9s an# D$ S%rolovi%ch (e#s$/ /roceedin s of 9AL: q$ I%haca Nq3 CLC Publica%ions +.2P+B=$ <+<
'iblio!ra5h0 Senne#0 Chris%o5her an# Louise :cNall0$ 1==,$ Scale s%ruc%ure an# %he seman%ic %05olo!0 of !ra#able 5re#ica%es$ Lan ua e B+3 24,-2B+$ Lassi%er Daniel$ 1=+=$ Gra#able e5is%emic mo#als 5robabili%0 an# scale s%ruc%ure$ /roceedin s of 9AL: <7 +C<P1+,$ :a%ushans-0 Gra$ 1==1$ 5ovement of De ree $ De ree of 5ovement$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Neeleman A# Oans van #e Soo% an# Nenn0 Doe%6es 1==4$ De!ree e;5ressions$ :!e Lin uistic Oevie& 1+3 +-..$ Ro%s%ein Carmen an# qoa# Uin%er$ 1==4$ To%al a#6ec%ives vs$ 5ar%ial a#6ec%ives3 Scale s%ruc%ure an# hi!her-or#er mo#ifiers$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics +13 1,C-1BB$ Sch9arAschil# Ro!er$ 1==,$ :easure 5hrases as mo#ifiers of a#6ec%ives$ Oec!erc!es Lin uistiques de Eincennes% 2,3 1=<P11B$ Sch9arAschil# Ro!er$ 1==.$ The role of #imensions in %he s0n%a; of noun 5hrases$ 9ynta'% C3 .<P++=$ Sch9arAschil# Ro!er an# Sarina Uil-inson$ 1==1$ 8uan%ifiers in com5ara%ives3 A seman%ics of #e!ree base# on in%ervals$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics +=3+P4+$ Seuren Pie%er A$ +C<2$ The com5ara%ive$ In3 F$ Siefer ) N$ Ru9e% (e#s$/ Kenerative Krammar in Europe$ Dor#rech%3 Rei#el ,1B-,.4$ Seuren Pie%er A$ +CB4$ The com5ara%ive revisi%e#$ ?ournal of 9emantics 23 +=C-+4+$ qoon qoun!eun +CC.$ To%al an# 5ar%ial 5re#ica%es an# %he 9ea- an# s%ron! in%er5re%a%ions$ 3atural Lan ua e semantics 43 1+<-12.$ On t8e /o65le6entat.on of a37e/t.2es Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==C$ Res%ruc%urin! s%ra%e!ies of %he Romanian verb fi >be? an# %he anal0sis of e;is%en%ial sen%ences$ In G$ Saiser ) 7$ Rember!er (e#s$/ /roceedin s of t!e Mor#s!op h3ullsub+ects% e'pletives and locatives in Oomancef $ Uor-in! 5a5er no +12 of %he Fachbereich S5rach9issenschaf% Dniversi%0 of Sons%anA +CC-12=$ Giur!ea Ion an# 7lena Soare$ 1=+=a$ :o#al non-fini%e rela%ives in Romance$ In :ar%in 'ec-er an# 7va-:aria Rember!er (e#s$/ 5odality and 5ood in OomanceW 5odal interpretation% mood selection% and mood alternation$ 'erlin Ne9 qor-3 De Gru0%er ,<B=$ Giur!ea Ion an# 7lena Soare$ 1=+=b$ Pre#ica%ion an# %he Na%ure of Non-Fini%e Rela%ives in Romance$ In Anna :aria Di Sciullo an# Vir!inia Oill (e#s$/ Ed es% Neads and /ro+ectionsW >nterface /roperties$ Ams%er#am/Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins 2+2-2,2$ PanL Din#ele!an Gabriela$ +CC1$ 9inta' i semantic0 ,lase de cuvinte i forme ramaticale cu dubl natur$ 'uchares%3 Ti5o!rafia Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Soare 7lena$ 1==1$ Le supin roumain et la t!Vorie des catV ories mi'tes $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Paris <$
C8a5te0 )? A3no6.nal P0e5os.t.onal P80ases

Asbur0 Anna$ 1==,$ A#5osi%ions as case realisa%ions$ S%ruc%ures an# conse@uences$ In :$ SalAmann an# L$ Vicen%e (e#s$/ Leiden /apers in Lin uistics 1$2 .C-C1$ 'e0ssa#e Claire an# Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin$ 1==,$ A s0n%a;-base# anal0sis of 5re#ica%ion$ In 7$ Geor!ala an# N$ Oo9ell (e#s$/ /roceedin s of 9emantics and Lin uistic :!eory ;6% I%haca Ne9 qor-3 CLC Publica%ions 44-.+$ 'onami Glivier$ +CC,$ wlVments d.analyse des roupes prVpositionnels dans la dVpendance d.un verbe$ :A %hesis Dniversi% Paris <$ 'onami Glivier$ +CCC$ Les constructions du verbe W le cas des roupes prVpositionnels ar umentau'0 Analyse synta'ique% sVmantique et le'icale$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi% Paris <$ <+B
'iblio!ra5h0 Ciobanu Fulvia an# Isabela Ne#elcu$ 1==B$ Pre5oAiRia$ In Valeria GuRu Romalo (coor#$/ Kramatica limbii romne I3 ,uvntul$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei RomWne .=<-.2=$ Corver Norber% an# Oen#ri- van Riems#i6- (e#s$/$ 1==+$ 9emi-le'ical ,ate ories$ 'erlin Ne9 qor-3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ Demon%e Viole%a$ +CB<$ C-Comman# Pre5osi%ions an# Pre#ica%ion$ Lin uistic >nquiry +B +4<-+,<$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ 1==+$ De la s0n%a;e l?in%er5r%a%ion #e :ilner (+CB1/ :ilner (+CC,/ 3 le !ni%if$ In N$-:$ :aran#in (e#$/ ,a!ier ?ean-,laude 5ilner$ Paris3 Ver#ier ,,-CB$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ 1==<$ Ar%icle-#ro5 in Romanian an# 7;%en#e# Oea#s$ In G$ Alboiu A$ A$ Avram L$ Avram an# D$ Isac (e#s$/ /itar 5o W A Luildin &t! a Eie&0 /apers in Nonour of Ale'andra ,ornilescu$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i CC-+=.$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==.$ Nouns an# S0mme%ric Rela%ions$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics B3+$ Gorrie Colin$ 1==B$ The s5li%-PP h05o%hesis an# i%s im5lica%ions$ /roceedin s of t!e <77c annual conference of t!e ,anadian Lin uistic Association h%%53//999$chass$u%oron%o$ca/cla-acl/ac%es1==B/CLA1==BrGorrie$5#f Nac-en#off Ra0$ +C<2$ The base rules for Pre5osi%ional Phrases$ In S$ R$ An#erson ) P$ Si5ars-0 (e#s$/ A Pestsc!rift for 5orris Nalle$ Ne9 qor-3 Ool% Rinehar% ) Uins%on 24,-2..$ :ar#ale Ale;an#ru$ 1==<a$ Case :ar-in! an# Pre5osi%ional :ar-in!$ Some Remar-s Concernin! D7-Phrases in Romanian$ >nternational ?ournal of Lasque Lin uistics and /!ilolo y VLI 31 1=+-1=C$ :ar#ale Ale;an#ru$ 1==<b$ La 5r5osi%ion 3 une classe h%ro!pne$ In R$ Fafiu e% al$ (e#s$/ 9tudii lin vistice0 Hma iu /rofesoarei Kabriela /an Dindele an% la aniversare$ 'uchares% 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i +.,-+<<$ :ar#ale Ale;an#ru$ 1==Ba$ Gn %he al%erna%ion be%9een inflec%ional case an# 5re5osi%ional 5hrases in Romanian$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics +=3+ +4<-+,C$ :ar#ale Ale;an#ru$ 1==Bb$ Pr5osi%ions e% ar%icle #fini en roumain$ In A#ple #e Sain%-Pierre ) :lanie Thibeaul% (e#s$/ Actes des <;Tmes ?ournVes de Lin uistique$ 8ubec Cen%re in%er#isci5linaire #e recherche sur les ac%ivi%s lan!a!ipres Dniversi%aire #e Laval <B-C2$ :ar#ale Ale;an#ru$ 1==C$ Les prVpositions fonctionnelles du roumain0 wtudes comparatives sur le marqua e casuel$ Paris3 L?Oarma%%an$ :ar#ale Ale;an#ru$ 1=++$ Pre5osi%ions as a semile;ical ca%e!or0$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics LVII 1 2,-,=$ :elis Lu#o$ 1==+$ La 5r5osi%ion es%-elle %ou6ours la %o%e #?un !rou5e 5r5osi%ionnel$ :ravau' de lin uistique 41-42 ++-11$ :ilner Nean-Clau#e$ +CB1$ Les !ni%ifs a#nominau; en franais$ In N$-C$ :ilner Hrdres et raisons de lan us$ Paris3 7#i%ions #u Seuil .C-+4=$ PanL Din#ele!an Gabriela$ +CC<$ Din nou #es5re s%a%u%ul 5re5oAiRiei$ Cu referire s5ecialL la 5re5oAiRia P7$ Limba romn VLVI3+-2 +.,-+<4$ PanL Din#ele!an Gabriela$ 1==<$ Gru5ul 5re5oAiRional$ Pre5oAiRiile calitii$ In G$ Alboiu A$ A$ Avram L$ Avram an# D$ Isac (e#s$/ Pi%ar 5o W A Luildin &t! a Eie&0 /apers in Nonour of Ale'andra ,ornilescu$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i ,2<-,4<$ Pullum Geoffre0 S$ an# Ro#ne0 Ou##les%on$ 1==1$ Pre5osi%ions an# Pre5osi%ional Phrases$ In G$ S$ Pullum an# R$ Ou##les%on :!e ,ambrid e Krammar of t!e En lis! Lan ua e $ Cambri#!e3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press ,C<-..+$ Rauh Uu55er%al Gisa$ +CC4$ Pr5osi%ions e% rles3 5oin%s #e vue s0n%a;i@ue e% sman%i@ue$ Lan a es ++2 4,-<B$ van Riems#i6- Oen#ri- C$ +CC=$ Func%ional Pre5osi%ions$ In O$ Pin-s%er an# I$ Gene (e#s$/
<+C
'iblio!ra5h0 Unity in diversity$ Dor#rech% Foris 11C-14+$ RiAAi Lui!i$ +CBB$ Il sin%a!ma 5re5osiAionale$ In L$ RenAi (e#$/ Krande Krammatica di consulta(ione$ 'olo!na Il :ulino ,=<-,2+$ S%an Camelia$ 1==,$ ,ate oria ca(ului$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Svenonius Pe%er$ 1==.$ The Ana%om0 of %he ca%e!or0 P$ Class no%es cole #?Au%omne en Lin!uis%i@ue EALin Paris 7NS Se5%ember +B-1.$ TLnase-Do!aru :ihaela$ 1=+=$ Dia!nos%ic cri%eria for semi-le;icali%0$ Tal- !iven a% :!e ;<t! Annual ,onference of t!e En lis! Department Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% Nune 2-,$ Tsen! Nesse$ 1===$ :!e Oepresentation and 9election of /repositions $ PhD Disser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of 7#inbur!h$ F9ar%s Noos%$ +CC<$ Le;ical an# Func%ional Pro5er%ies of Pre5osi%ions$ In Da!mar Oaumann an# S%efan SchierholA (e#s$/ Le'i#alisc!e und rammatisc!e Ei ensc!aften prtpositionaler Elemente$ Tbin!en3 :a; Nieme0er Verla! +-+B$
C8a5te0 *? A3no6.nal Non+F.n.te Const.t1ents an3 Co65le6ent Cla1ses

Avram Larisa$ +CCC$ Au'iliaries and t!e 9tructure of Lan ua e$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of 'uchares% Romania$ 'ha%% Ra6esh$ +CCC$ ,overt 5odality in 3on-Pinite ,onte'ts PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Penns0lvania D$S$A$ 'ha%% Ra6esh$ 1==1$ The Raisin! Anal0sis of Rela%ive Clauses3 7vi#ence from A#6ec%ival :o#ifica%ion 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics +=3 42-C=$ 'ianchi Valen%ina$ +CCC$ ,onsequences of AntisymmetryW Neaded Oelative ,lauses0 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ 'o9ers Nohn$ +CC2$ The s0n%a; of 5re#ica%ion$ Lin uistic >nquiry 143 ,C+-.,.$ 'ro9nin! :ar!are%$ +CB<$ 3ull Hperator ,onstructions$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen$ +CC4$ :!e synta' of OomanianW comparative studies in Oomance$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ Fo; Dann0$ 1==2$ Gn Lo!ical Form$ In Ran#all Oen#ric- :al#en (e#$/ 5inimalist 9ynta'$ :A3 'lac-9ell B1-+12$ Giur!ea Ion an# 7lena Soare$ 1=+=a$ :o#al non-fini%e rela%ives in Romance$ In 7va :aria Rember!er an# :ar%in 'ec-er (e#s$/ :o#ali%0 and 5ood in OomanceW 5odal interpretation% mood selection% and mood alternation$ 'erlin Ne9 qor-3 De Gru0%er .<-C4$ Giur!ea Ion an# 7lena Soare$ 1=+=b$ Pre#ica%ion an# %he Na%ure of Non-Fini%e Rela%ives in Romance&$ In Di Sciullo Anna :aria an# Vir!inia Oill (e#s$ / Ed es% Neads and /ro+ectionsW >nterface /roperties$ Ams%er#am/Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins 2+2-2,2$ Grosu Ale;an#er an# Nulia Oorva%h$ +CB<$ Gn Non-fini%eness in 7;%rac%ion Cons%ruc%ions$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory , 13 +B+-+C.$ Oa@uar# Valen%ine$ 1==.$ Aspects of 5odality PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Oorns%ein Norber%$ 1===$ 5ovei A 5inimalist :!eory of ,onstrual$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell$ Sa0ne Richar#$ +CC4$ :!e Antisymmetry of 9ynta'$ :IT Press$ Su5ferman Lucien$ +CC+$ L]as5ec% #u !rou5e nominal e% l?e;%rac%ion #e en$ Le PranIais 5oderne LIV$1$ ++2-+4<$ Lan#au I#an$ 1==+$ Elements of ,ontrol0 9tructure and 5eanin in >nfinitival ,onstructions $ Dor#rech%3 Slu9er Aca#emic Publishers$ Rosenbaum Pe%er S$ +C.<$ T!e rammar of En lis! predicate complement constructions $ Cambri#!e :ass$3 :IT Press$ <1=
'iblio!ra5h0 Ross Nohn$ +C.<$ ,onstraints on variables in synta'$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT Cambri#!e :ass$ Siloni Tali$ +CC<$ 3oun p!rases and nominali(ations0 Dor#rech%3 Slu9er$ Soare 7lena$ 1==1$ Le supin roumain et la t!Vorie des catV ories mi'tes $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Paris < France$ Soare 7lena an# Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin$ 1==1$ The Romanian Su5ine an# A#6ec%ival Com5lemen%a%ion$ Tou!h Cons%ruc%ions$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics$ 9ynta' and /!onolo y0 Vol 4 NT +3 <,-B<$
C8a5te0 1,? Relat.2e Cla1se Const01/t.ons an3 Unbo1n3e3 De5en3en/.es

farli Tor$ +CB4$ Oelativi(ation% prepositions and parasitic aps$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Tron#heim Nor9a0$ Ale;ia#ou Ar%emis Paul La9 An#r :einun!er an# Chris Uil#er (e#s$/$ 1===$ :!e synta' of relative clauses$ Ams%er#am/Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins0 An#re9s Aver0$ +CB,$ 9tudies in t!e 9ynta' of Oelative and ,omparative ,lauses0 Gu%s%an#in! #isser%a%ions in lin!uis%ics$ Ne9 qor-3 Garlan#$ Au9era Nohan van #er$ +CC1$ Free Rela%ives$ In :$ For%escue P$ Oar#er an# L$ Sris%offersen (e#s$/ Layered structure and reference in a functional perspective $ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins$ 21C-2,4$ 'ach 7mmon an# Robin Coo5er$ +C<B$ The NP-S anal0sis of rela%ive clauses an# com5osi%ional seman%ics$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y 1 +4,-+,=$ 'asilico Davi#$ +CC.$ Oea# 5osi%ion an# in%ernall0 hea#e# rela%ive clauses$ Lan ua e <1 4CB-,21$ 'a%%0e A#rian$ +CBC$ Free rela%ives 5seu#o-free rela%ives an# %he s0n%a; of CP in I%alian$ Oivista
di Lin uistica + 1+C-1,=$
'ause9ein Sarin$ +CC+$ Oaben -o5flose Rela%ivs%Ae %a%schlich -eine S5feK In G$ Fanselo9 an# S$ Feli; (e#s$/ 9tru#turen und 5er#male synta#tisc!er Aate orien$ Tbin!en3 Gn%her Narr +44-+,B$ 'erman S%e5hen (+CC+/$ Hn t!e semantics and lo ical form of &!-clauses $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ 'ha%% Ra6esh$ 1==1$ The raisin! anal0sis of rela%ive clauses3 7vi#ence from a#6ec%ival mo#ifica%ion$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics += 42-C=$ 'ha%% Ra6esh$ 1==2$ Locali%0 in correla%ives$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory 1+32 4B,-,4+$ 'ianchi Valen%ina$ +CC,$ ,onsequences of antisymmetry for t!e synta' of !eaded relative clauses$ PhD #isser%a%ion Scuola Normale Su5eriore Pisa$ 'ianchi Valen%ina$ +CCC$ ,onsequences of antisymmetryW Neaded Oelative ,lauses$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ 'onneau Nos$ +CC1$ :!e structure of internally !eaded relative clauses$ PhD #isser%a%ion :cGill Dniversi%0 :on%real$ 'or!a%o Gian Lui!i$ +CB.$ Frasi rela%ive libere in %e#esco e i%aliano$ In S$ Lichem 7$ :ara an# S$ Snaller (e#s$/ /arallela < - Aspetti della sintassi dellUitaliano contemporaneo$ Tbin!en3 Gun%er Narr <,-B2$ 'orsle0 Rober%$ +CB4$ Free rela%ives in Polish an# 7n!lish$ In N$ Fisia- (e#$/ ,ontrastive Lin uisticsW /rospects and /roblems$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er +-+B$ 'o9ers Nohn$ +CC+$ The s0n%a; an# seman%ics of nominals$ In S$ :oore an# A$ U0ner (e#s$/ /roceedin s from 9AL: +$ Cornell Dniversi%0 I%haca +-2=$ 'resnan Noan an# Nane Grimsha9$ +C<B$ The s0n%a; of free rela%ives in 7n!lish$ Lin uistic >nquiry C 22+-2C+$ <1+
'iblio!ra5h0 'roa#9ell Geor!e A$ +CB<$ A]-ana5hora an# rela%ive clauses$ 3ort! Eastern Lin uistic 9ociety +. 4<-,.$ 'ro9nin! :ar!are%$ +CC+$ 3ull Hperator ,onstructions$ Ne9 qor-3 Garlan#$ 'ur0 Dir-$ +CCB$ >s &!at you et &!at you seeQ 5atc!in effects and t!e derivation of Pree Oelatives$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 Colle!e Lon#on$ Carlson Gre!or0$ +C<<$ Amoun% Rela%ives$ Lan ua e ,2 ,1=-,41$ Ci%-o 'arbara$ +CCB$ AT' anal0sis of Free Rela%ive Clauses$ ,L9 24W :!e 5ain 9ession .C-B+$ Chica!o3 The Chica!o Lin!uis%ic Socie%0$ Cole Pe%er$ +CB<$ The s%ruc%ure of in%ernall0 hea#e# rela%ive clauses$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory , 1<<-2=1$ Cul0 Chris%o5her$ +CC=$ :!e synta' of internally !eaded relative clauses$ PhD #isser%a%ion S%anfor# Dniversi%0$ Da0al Venee%a Srivas%av$ +CC+a$ M! dependencies in Nindi and t!e t!eory of rammar $ PhD #isser%a%ion Cornell Dniversi%0 I%haca$ Da0al Venee%a Srivas%av$ +CC+b$ The s0n%a; an# seman%ics of correla%ives$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory C .2<-.B.$ Da0al Venee%a Srivas%av$ +CC,$ 8uan%ifica%ion in correla%ives$ In 7$ 'ach A$ Sra%Aer an# '$O$ Par%ee (e#s$/ 8uan%ifica%ion in 3atural Lan ua es Volume +$ Dor#rech%3 Rei#el +<C-1=,$ Da0al Venee%a Srivas%av$ +CC.$ Locality in M!-quantificationW @uestions and Oelative ,lauses in Nindi (9tudies in Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y .1/$ Dor#rech%3 Slu9er$ Da0al Venee%a Srivas%av$ +CC<$ Free Rela%ives an# ever3 I#en%i%0 an# free choice rea#in!s$ /roceedin s of 9AL: E>> CC-++.$ De--er Paul$ +CC2$ 7;is%en%ial #isclosure$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y +. ,.+-,B<$ Demir#ache Oami#a$ +CC+$ Oesumptive c!ains in restrictive relatives% appositives and dislocation structures0 PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Den Di--en :arcel An#r :einun!er an# Chris Uil#er$ 1===$ Pseu#o-clef%s an# elli5sis$ 9tudia Lin uistica ,4 4+-BC$ Do9nin! 'ruce$ +C<2$ Correla%ive rela%ive clauses in universal !rammar$ 5innesota Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y of Lan ua e 1$ :innea5olis :inneso%a3 Dniversi%0 of :inneso%a +-+<$ 7mon#s Nose5h$ +C<C$ A55osi%ive rela%ives have no 5ro5er%ies$ Lin uistic >nquiry += 1++142$ Fo; Dann0$ +CCC$ Recons%ruc%ion 'in#in! Theor0 an# %he In%er5re%a%ion of Chains$ Lin uistic >nquiry 2= +,<P+C.$ Fo; Dann0$ 1===$ Economy and 9emantic >nterpretation (Lin uistic >nquiry 5ono rap!s 2,/$ Cambri#!e :assachuse%%s3 :IT Press$ Gee Nim$ +C<4$ 3otes on Pree Oelatives$ :anuscri5% S%anfor# Dniversi%0$ Groenen#i6- Neroen an# :ar%in S%o-hof$ +CB1$ Seman%ic anal0sis of 9h-com5lemen%s$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y , +<,-122$ Groos A$ an# O$ van Riems#i6-$ +CB+$ :a%chin! effec%s in free rela%ives3 A 5arame%er of core !rammar$ In A$ 'elle%%i L$ 'ran#i an# L$ RiAAi (e#s$/ :!eory of mar#edness in enerative rammar$ Pisa3 Scuola Normale Su5eriore$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ +CBC$ Pie# Pi5in! an# %he :a%chin! Parame%er$ :!e Lin uistic Oevie& . 4+-,B$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ +CC4$ :!ree studies in locality and ,ase0 Lon#on ) Ne9 qor-3 Rou%le#!e$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ +CC,$ Free Rela%ives 9i%h >missin!? 5re5osi%ions in Romanian an# Dniversal Grammar$ In G$ Cin@ue an# G$ Gius%i (e#s$/ Advances in Oomanian Lin uistics$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins$
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'iblio!ra5h0 Grosu Ale;an#er$ +CC.$ The 5ro5er anal0sis of >missin! P? free rela%ive cons%ruc%ions Lin uistic >nquiry 1< 1,<-1C2$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1===$ T05e resolu%ion in rela%ive cons%ruc%ions$ In A$ Ale;ia#ou P$ La9 A$ :einun!er an# C$ Uil#er (e#s$/ Peature mar#in and dependency encodin 0 :!e synta' of relative clauses$ Ams%er#am ) Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins B2-+1=$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1==1a$ >Trans5aren%? free rela%ives as a s5ecial ins%ance of >s%an#ar#? free rela%ives$ In :$ Coene q$ D?Ouls% an# L$ Tasmo9s-0 (e#s$/ :!e structure of D/s$ Ams%er#am3 7lsevier Nor%h-Oollan#$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1==1b$ S%ran!e rela%ives a% %he in%erface of %9o millennia$ KLH: >nternational% . +4, P +.<$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1==2$ A unifie# %heor0 of >s%an#ar#? an# >%rans5aren%? free rela%ives$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory 1+31 14<-22+$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1==4$ :o#al 7;is%en%ial 9h-Cons%ruc%ions$ In G$ Tomic (e#$/ Lal#an 9ynta' and 9emantics :!e 9ynta'-9emantics of Lal#an Lan ua es$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins 4=,-42B$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1==Ca$ T9o -in#s of #e!ree-#eno%in! rela%ives3 Oebre9 versus Romanian$ LrillUs Annual of Afroasiatic Lan ua es and Lin uistics + +<.-1=2$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1==Cb$ A refine# %05olo!0 of in%ernall0-hea#e# rela%ives$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics VI + +4C-+.4$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1=+=a$ The s%a%us of %he in%ernall0-hea#e# rela%ives of Na5anese/Sorean 9i%hin %he broa#er %05olo!0 of >#efini%e? rela%ives$ :!e ?ournal of East Asian Lin uistics +C 2$ Grosu Ale;an#er$ 1=+=b$ Gn %he 5re-%heore%ical no%ion "5hrasal hea#&3 I!norin! %he lef% 5eri5her0 is al9a0s a% 0our o9n ris-$ In Anna-:aria #i Sciullo an# Vir!inia Oill (e#s$/ >nterface propertiesW ed es% !eads and pro+ections$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins +,+-+C=$ Grosu Ale;an#er an# Fre# Lan#man$ +CCB$ S%ran!e rela%ives of %he %hir# -in#$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics . +1,-+<=$ Grosu Ale;an#er an# :anfre# Srif-a$ 1==<$ The !if%e# ma%hema%ician %ha% 0ou claim %o be3 7@ua%ional in%ensional ]recons%ruc%ion] rela%ives$ Lin uistics p /!ilosop!y 2=34 44,4B,$ Oas%in!s Rachel$ 1==4$ :!e synta' and semantics of relativi(ation and quantificationW :!e case of @uec!ua0 PhD #isser%a%ion Cornell Dniversi%0$ Oeim Irene$ +CB<$ Uhere #oes %he #efini%eness res%ric%ion a55l0K 7vi#ence from %he #efini%eness of variables$ In 7$ Reulan# an# A$ %er :eulen (e#s$/ :!e representation of )in*definiteness$ Cambri#!e :ass$3 The :IT Press$ Oeim Irene an# An!eli-a Sra%Aer$ +CC<$ 9emantics in Kenerative Krammar (Llac#&ell te'tboo#s in Lin uistics +2/$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell$ Oer#an Simona$ 1==B$ A su5erla%ive %heor0 of amoun% rela%ives$ In Charles '$ Chan! an# Oanna N$Oa0ne (e#s$/ /roceedin s of t!e Mest ,oast ,onference on Pormal Lin uistics$ Somerville :A 124-141$ Oe0coc- Caroline an# An%hon0 Sroch$ +CCC$ Pseu#oclef% Connec%ivi%03 Im5lica%ions for %he LF In%erface Level$ Lin uistic >nquiry 2= 2.,P2C<$ Oirschbhler Paul$ +C<,$ :&o analyses of free relatives in Prenc!$ :imeo!ra5he# Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ Oirschbhler Paul$ +C<.$ Oea#e# an# hea#less Free Rela%ives3 a s%u#0 in :o#ern French an# Classical Gree-$ In P$ 'arbau# (e#$/ Les contraintes sur les rT les% (Oapport de Oec!erc!e 1/$ Dniversi% #u 8ubec :on%ral$ Oirschbhler Paul$ +C<B$ :!e 9ynta' and 9emantics of M!-,onstructions $ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$
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'iblio!ra5h0 Oirschbhler Paul$ +CB=$ La s0n%a;e #es rela%ives in#5en#an%es$ In :$ Dominic0 an# :$ Uilme% (e#s$/ Lin uistique romane et lin uistique franIaise - Nomma es a ?acques /o!l$ 'russels3 7#i%ions #e l]Dniversi% #e 'ru;elles ++,-+2=$ Oirschbhler Paul an# :ara-Luisa Rivero$ +CB2$ Remar-s on free rela%ives an# ma%chin! 5henomena$ Lin uistic >nquiry +4 ,=,-,1=$ Oorn Larr0$ 1===$ An0 an# (-/ever3 Free choice an# free rela%ives$ In A#am Fachar0 U0ner (e#$/ /roceedin s of t!e fifteent! annual conference of t!e >srael Association for :!eoretical Lin uistics$ Nerusalem3 A-a#emon <+-+++$ Oorva%h Nulia$ 1==+$ Pie# Pi5in!$ 9yn,om ,ase xc7$ Oorva%h Nulia an# Ale;an#er Grosu$ +CB<$ Gn %he no%ion "hea#&3 evi#ence from free rela%ives an# in%erro!a%ives$ :!eoretical Lin uistics +4 2,-.4$ Ooshi So6i$ +CC,$ 9tructural and interpretive aspects of !ead-internal and !ead-e'ternal relative clauses$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Roches%er$ IAvors-i Roum0ana$ +CC.a$ Non-ma%chin! effec%s in free rela%ives an# 5ro-#ro5$ In :$ PrAeA#Aiec-i an# L$ Uhale0 (e#s$/ E9,HL ;qq6W /roceedin s of t!e ;< t! Eastern 9tates ,onference on Lin uistics$ Dar%mou%h Colle!e$ IAvors-i Roum0ana$ +CC.b$ The S0n%a; an# Seman%ics of Correla%ive Proforms$ In S$ Susumo%o (e#$/ /roceedin s of 3EL9 1.$ Amhers% :assachuse%%s GLSA +22-+4<$ IAvors-i Roum0ana$ +CC<$ Sub6ec% Free Rela%ives in Null-Sub6ec% Lan!ua!es3 7vi#ence from Slavic$ In U$'ro9ne 7$ Dornisch N$ Son#rashova e% al$ (e#s$/ Pormal Approac!es to 9lavic Lin uistics0 :!e ,ornell 5eetin $ Ann Arbor 1.<-1BB$ IAvors-i Roum0ana$ +CCB$ Non-in#ica%ive UO-com5lemen%s of e;is%en%ial/5ossessive 5re#ica%es$ In P$N$ Taman6i an# S$ Susumo%o (e#s$/ /roceedin s of 3EL9 1B +,C+<2$ IAvors-i Roum0ana$ 1===$ Free a#6unc% free rela%ives$ In 'illere0 an# Lillehau!en (e#s$/ M,,PL ;q /roceedin s 121-14,$ Nacobson Pauline$ +CC4$ 'in#in! connec%ivi%0 in co5ular sen%ences$ In :$ Oarve0 an# LSan%elmann (e#s$/ Procee#in!s of 9AL: >E$ Cornell Dniversi%0 I%haca% +.+-+<B$ Nacobson Pauline$ +CC,$ Gn %he @uan%ifica%ional force of 7n!lish free rela%ives$ In 7$ 'ach 7$ Neline- A$ Sra%Aer an# '$ Par%ee (e#s$/ @uantification in 3atural Lan ua es vol$ 1$ Dor#rech%3 Slu9er 4,+-4B.$ Nacobson Pauline$ 1==1$ Direc% com5osi%ionali%0 an# variable-free seman%ics3 The case of bin#in! in%o hea#s$ In '$ Nac-son (e#$/ /roceedin s of t!e ,onference on 9emantics and Lin uistic :!eory )9AL:* E>>$ Nacobson Pauline$ 1==4$ Direc% Com5osi%ionali%03 Is %here an0 reason 9h0 no%K$ Dniversi%0 of :ichi!an Uor-sho5 on Lin!uis%ics an# Philoso5h0 November 1==4$ No :$-N$ 1==4$ The correla%ion be%9een s0n%ac%ic nominaliAa%ion an# an# %he In%ernall0 Oea#e# Rela%ive Cons%ruc%ions in Sorean$ 9tudies in Kenerative Krammar +2 ,2,-,.4$ Sa0ne Richar#$ +CC4$ :!e Antisymmetry of 9ynta' (Lin uistic >nquiry 5ono rap!s 1,/$ Cambri#!e :A3 :IT Press$ Seenan 7#9ar#$ +CB,$ Rela%ive Clauses$ In T$ Sho5en (e#$/ Lan ua e typolo y and syntactic description Vol$ 1$ Cambri#!e 7n!lan#3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press +4++<=$ Sim :in-Noo$ 1==<$ Formal Lin-in! in In%ernall0 Oea#e# Rela%ives$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics +,3 1<C-2+,$ Suro#a Si!e-qu-i$ +C.B$ 7n!lish rela%iviAa%ion an# cer%ain rela%e# 5roblems$ Lan ua e 44 1 144-1..$ Lan#man Fre#$ +CBC$ Grou5s II Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y% +1 <12-<44$ Larson Richar#$ +CB<$ >:issin! 5re5osi%ions? an# %he anal0sis of 7n!lish free rela%ive clauses$ Lin uistic >nquiry +B 12C-1..$
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'iblio!ra5h0 Larson Richar#$ +CCB$ Pree relative clauses and missin /sW Oeply to Krosu $ :s$ S%a%e Dniversi%0 of Ne9 qor- S%on0 'roo-$ Lebeau; Davi#$ +CC=$ Rela%ive clauses licensin! an# %he na%ure of %he #eriva%ion$ /roceedin s of 3EL9 1= 2+BP221$ Amhers% :assachuse%%s$ GLSA$ Lehmann C$ +CB4$ Der Oelativsat($ Tbin!en3 Gun%er Narr Verla!$ Lin- Go#ehar#$ +CB2$ The lo!ical anal0sis of 5lurals an# mass %erms3 A la%%ice-%heore%ical a55roach$ In Rainer 'urle Chris%o5h Sch9arAe an# Arnim von S%echo9 (e#s$/ 5eanin % Use% and >nterpretation of Lan ua e$ 'erlin3 #e Gru0%er 2=1-212$ :a0 Rober%$ +CB,$ Lo ical formW >ts structure and derivation $ Cambri#!e :A3 :IT Press$ :cCrei!h% Sa%e$ +CB<$ Case hierarchies3 %he evi#ence from Free Rela%ives$ In '$ Nee# 7$ Schiller an# A$ 'osch (e#s$/ /apers from t!e <=rd Annual Oe ional 5eetin of t!e ,!ica o Lin uistic 9ociety Par% + 1,C-1.<$ :ihara Sen-ichi$ +CC4$ Gn %he so-calle# hea#-in%ernal rela%ive clauses$ 3i!on o a#u +2 B=-C1$ :ilsar- Gar0$ +C<4$ E'istential sentences in En lis!0 PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ :urasu!i Sei-o$ +CC4$ Oea#-in%ernal rela%ive clauses as a#6unc% 5ure com5le; NPs$ 9ync!ronic and Diac!ronic approac!es to lan ua eW A festsc!rift for :os!io 3a#ao on t!e occasion of !is si'tiet! birt!day 41,-42<$ To-0o3 Liber Press$ :urasu!i Sei-o$ 1===$ An an%is0mme%r0 anal0sis of Na5anese Rela%ive clauses$ In Ale;ia#ou e% al$ 12+-1.4$ Par%ee 'arbara$ +CB<$ Noun 5hrase in%er5re%a%ion an# %05e shif%in! 5rinci5les$ In N$ Groenen#i6- D$ #e Non!h an# :$ S%oc-hof (e#s$/ 9tudies in discourse representation and t!e t!eory of enerali(ed quantifiers (GRASS B/$ Dor#rech%3 Foris ++,-+42$ Phili55a-i-Uarbur%on Irene an# :eli%a S%avrou$ +CB.$ Free Rela%ives in :o#ern Gree-$ 9tudies in Kree# Lin uistics < ++<-+24$ Pierrar# :ichel$ +CBB$ La relative sans antVcVdent en franIais moderne$ Pee%ers3 Louvain$ Pierrar# :ichel$ +CC1$ A 5ro5os #e la #%ermina%ion #es classes 5ro5osi%ionnelles3 l?in%erro!a%ive in#irec%e e% ses ra55or%s avec la rela%ive sans an%c#en%$ ueitsc!rift fvr fran(ysisc!e 9prac!e und Literatur +=1 12<-1,+$ Pi%%ner Sarin$ +CC+$ Freie Rela%ivs%Ae un# #ie Sasushierarchie$ In 7$ Fel#busch R$ Po!arell an# C$ Ueiss (e#s$/ 3eue Pra en der Lin uisti#0 A#ten des <60 Lin uistisc!en Aolloquiums in /aderborn$ Tbin!en3 Nieme0er 24+-24<$ Pi%%ner Sarin$ +CC4$ Re!eln fr #ie 'il#un! von freien Rela%ivs%Aen$ 7ine An%9or% an G##leif Leirbu-%$ Deutsc! als Premdsprac!e 21 +C,-1==$ Pi%%ner Sarin$ +CC,$ The case of German rela%ives$ :!e Lin uistic Oevie& +1 +C<-12+$ Pla%ero Paul R$ +C<4$ The Nava6o rela%ive clause$ >nternational ?ournal of American Lin uistics 4= 2.,-414$ Posner Rebecca$ +CB,$ Diachronic s0n%a; P free rela%ives in Romance$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 1+ +B+-+BC$ Pos%al Paul$ +C<4$ Hn Oaisin $ Cambri#!e :assachusse%s3 :IT Press$ Rebuschi Geor!es$ 1==+$ Semi-free rela%ive clauses an# %he DP h05o%hesis3 'as@ue evi#ence an# %heore%ical conse@uences$ In A$ Grosu (e#$/ 9elections from t!e annual meetin of t!e >srael Association for :!eoretical Lin uistics% and from t!e &or#s!op on t!e synta' and semantics of relative clause constructions$ Tel Aviv Dniversi%0 ,,-.4$ van Riems#i6- Oen#ri- C$ +CBC$ S9iss rela%ives$ In D$ Nas5ers U$ Sloos%er q$ Pu%se0s an# P$ Seuren (e#s$/ 9entential ,omplementation and t!e Le'iconW 9tudies in Nonour of Mim de Keest$ Dor#rech%3 Foris 242-2,4$ van Riems#i6- Oen#ri- C$ 1===$ Free rela%ives insi#e ou%3 Trans5aren% Free Rela%ives as !raf%s$ In '$ RoA9a#o9s-a (e#$/ /roceedin s of t!e ;qqq /A9E ,onference% Dniversi%0
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'iblio!ra5h0 of Uroca9$ van Riems#i6- Oen#ri- C$ 1==+$ A far from sim5le ma%%er3 s0n%ac%ic refle;es of s0n%a;5ra!ma%ics misali!nmen%s$ In I$ Senesei an# R$:$ Oarnish (e#s$/ 9emantics% /ra matics and Discourse0 /erspectives and ,onnections0 A Pestsc!rift for Perenc Aiefer0 Ams%er#am 3Nohn 'en6amins 1+-4+$ van Riems#i6- Oen#ri- C$ 1==.$ Graf%s follo9 from :er!e$ In :$ Frascarelli (e#$/ /!ases of interpretation$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er +<-44$ Rivero :ara-Luisa$ +CB.$ Dialec%s an# #iachronic s0n%a;3 free rela%ives in Gl# S5anish$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 11 442-4,4$ Rober%s Ta0lor$ +CC<$ Pash%o free rela%ives an# %ri5l0-fille# Com53 7vi#ence for a hea#e# anal0sis$ Lin ua +=1 <<-B,$ Roor0c- Nohan$ +CC4$ GeneraliAe# %ransforma%ions an# %he &!-c0cle3 free rela%ives as bare &!-CPs$ In C$ N$-U$ F9ar% (e#$/ 5inimalism and AayneUs Asymmetry Nypot!esis (Kronin er Arbeiten (ur Kermanistisc!en Lin uisti# )KAKL* 2< +C,-1=B$ Ross Nohn Rober%$ +C.<$ ,onstraints on Eariables in 9ynta'$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Rullmann Oo%Ae$ +CC,$ 5a'imality in t!e semantics of &!-constructions$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ Dis%ribu%e# b0 GLSA$ Safir Senne%h$ +CB.$ Rela%ive clauses in %he %heor0 of bin#in! an# levels$ Lin uistic >nquiry +< ..2-.BC$ Sells Pe%er$ +CB,$ Oestrictive and non-restrictive modification$ Re5or% mCSLI-B,-1B S%anfor# Dniversi%0$ Sharvi% qael$ +CC<$ :!e synta' and semantics of functional relative clauses$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Amhers%$ Sharvi% qael$ +CCC$ Connec%ivi%0 in s5ecifica%ional sen%ences$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics ( 1CC-22C$ Shimo0ama Nun-o$ +CCC$ In%ernall0 hea#e# rela%ive clauses in Na5anese an# 7-%05e ana5hora$ ?ournal of East Asian Lin uistics B +4<-+B1$ Simi- Ra#e-$ 1=+=$ :o#al 7;is%en%ial 9h-Cons%ruc%ions$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of Gronin!en$ Suver :ar!ari%a$ +CB4$ Free rela%ives an# %he ma%chin! 5arame%er$ :!e Lin uistic Oevie& 2 2.2-2B<$ Ver!nau# Nean-Ro!er$ +C<4$ French Rela%ive Clauses$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Vo!el Ralf$ 1==+$ Case Conflic% in German Free Rela%ive Cons%ruc%ions$ An G5%imali%0 Theore%ic Trea%men%$ In Gereon :ller an# Uolf!an! S%ernefel# (e#s$/ ,ompetition in 9ynta'$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er 24+P2<,$ #e Vries :ar-$ 1==1$ :!e synta' of relativi(ation0 D%rech%3 Lo%$ Ua%anabe A-ira$ +CC1$ UO in si%u Sub6acenc0 an# chain forma%ion$ 5>: occasional papers in lin uistics 1$ Ua%anabe A-ira$ 1==4$ Parame%riAa%ion of @uan%ifica%ional #e%erminers an# hea#-in%ernal Rela%ives Lan ua e and Lin uistics ,3 ,CPC<$ Uil#er Chris%o5her$ +CCB$ Trans5aren% free rela%ives$ In A$ Ale;ia#ou N$ Fuhrho5 P$ La9 an# D$ SleinhenA (e#s$/ uA9 /apers in Lin uistics +=$ 'erlin3 Fen%rum fr All!emeine S5rach9issenschaf% +C+-+CC$ Uilliamson Nanis$ +CB<$ An in#efini%eness res%ric%ion for rela%ive clauses in La-ho%a$ In 7ric Reulan# an# Alice %er :eulen (e#s$/ :!e representation of )in*definiteness $ Cambri#!e/:ass3 The :IT Press +.B-+C=$ Uil%sch-o :ar%ina$ +CCC$ Free rela%ives as in#efini%es$ In S$N$ Shahin S$ 'la-e an# 7-S$ Sim (e#s$/ /roceedin s of t!e 9eventeent! Mest ,oast ,onference on Pormal Lin uistics !eld at t!e University of Lritis! ,olumbia ;qqc$ CSLI$ Cambri#!e3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press <==-<+1$
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'iblio!ra5h0
C8a5te0 11? De2e0bal No1ns

Abne0 S%eve$ +CB<$ :!e En lis! 3oun /!rase in its 9entential Aspect$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Ale;ia#ou Ar%emis$ 1==+$ Punctional 9tructure in 3ominalsW 3ominali(ation and Er ativity $ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins$ Ale;ia#ou Ar%emis$ 1==,$ Gerun# T05es %he Presen% Par%ici5le an# Pa%%erns of Deriva%ion$ In Clau#ia :aienborn an# An!eli-a Ulls%ein-Leis%en (e#s$/ Event Ar uments in 9ynta'% 9emantics and Discourse$ Tbin!en3 Nieme0er3 +2C-,1$ Ale;ia#ou Ar%emis Gianina Ior#Lchioaia 7lena Soare$ 1==B$ Plural :ar-in! in Ar!umen% Su55or%in! NominaliAa%ions$ In Pa%ricia Cabre#o Oofherr ) 'ren#a Laca (e#s/ Layers of Aspect$ S%anfor#3 CSLI$ 'orer Oa!i%$ +CC4$ Gn %he 5ro6ec%ion of ar!umen%s$ In 7lena 'ene#ic%o an# Neff Runner (e#s$/ Punctional pro+ections (Dniversi%0 of :assachuse%%s Gccasional Pa5ers +</3 +C-4B$ 'orer Oa!i%$ 1==+$ The formin! %he forma%ion an# %he form of nominals$ :s Dniversi%0 of Sou%h California DSA$ 'orer Oa!i%$ 1==,$ 9tructurin sense0 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Cin@ue Gu!lielmo$ +CCC$ Adverbs and Punctional NeadsW A ,rosslin uistic /erspective$ Ne9 qor-3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==+$ Romanian NominaliAa%ions3 Case an# As5ec%ual S%ruc%ure$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 2<32$ 4.<-,=+$ Demon%e Viole%a an# Sole#a# Varela$ +CC<$ S5anish 7ven% Infini%ives$ From Le;icalSeman%ics %o S0n%a;-:or5holo!0$ :!eoretical >ssues at t!e 5orp!olo y-9ynta' >nterface su55lemen% of >nternational ?ournal of Lasque Lin uistics and /!ilolo y VI e#$ b0 Ama0a :en#i-oe%;ea ) :0riam Dribe-7%;ebarria 1,2-1<<$ 7n!elhar#% :iriam$ 1===$ The Pro6ec%ion of Ar!umen%-Ta-in! Nominals$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory +B3 4+-BB$ F|bre!as An%onio ) Sole#a# Varela$ 1==.$ Verb Classes 9i%h 7ven%ive Infini%ives in S5anish$ 9elected /roceedin s of t!e qt! Nispanic Lin uistics 9ymposium e#$ b0 Nuria Sa!arra an# Almei#a Nac@ueline Toribio 14-22$ Somerville :A3 Casca#illa Procee#in!s Pro6ec%$ Grimsha9 Nane$ +CC=$ Ar ument 9tructure0 Cambri#!e :ass3 :IT Press$ Oarle0 Oei#i$ 1==,$ Oo9 Do Verbs Ge% Their NamesK Denominal Verbs :anner Incor5ora%ion an# %he Gn%olo!0 of Verb Roo%s in 7n!lish$ :!e 9ynta' of As5ec% e#$ b0 Nomi 7r%eschi--Shir ) Tova Ra55a5or% 41-.4$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Ior#Lchioaia Gianina an# 7lena Soare$ 1==B$ T9o Sin#s of 7ven% Plurals3 7vi#ence from Romanian NominaliAa%ions$ In Glivier 'onami an# Pa%ricia Cabre#o-Oofherr (e#s/ Empirical >ssues in 9ynta' and 9emantics r% h%%53//999$css5$cnrs$fr3 +C2P1+.$ Ior#Lchioaia Gianina an# 7lena Soare$ %o a55ear$ S%ruc%ural Pa%%erns 'loc-in! Plural in Romance NominaliAa%ions$ Oomance lan ua es and lin uistic t!eory <77r e#$ b0 7noch Aboh 7lisabe%h van #er Lin#en Nose5 8uer ) Pe%ra Sleeman$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins$ Ior#achioaia Gianina an# 7lena Soare$ 1==C$ S%ruc%ural 5a%%erns for 5lural bloc-in! in Romance nominaliAa%ions$ In 7noch Aboch 7lisabe%h Van #er Lin#en Nose5h 8uer an# Pe%ra Sleeman (e#s/ Oomance Lan ua es and Lin uistic :!eory0 9elected papers from BKoin Oomance. <77r$ Nohn 'en6amins3 +4,-+.=$ Nac-en#off Ra0$ +CC+$ Par%s an# 'oun#aries$ ,o nition 4+$ C-4,$ Sra%Aer An!eli-a$ +CC4$ Gn 7;%ernal Ar!umen%s$ University of 5assac!usetts Hccasional /apers +<3 +=2-2=$ Sra%Aer An!eli-a$ +CC,$ S%a!e-level an# In#ivi#ual-level Pre#ica%es$ In Gre!or0 N$ Carlson <1<
'iblio!ra5h0 an# Francis Neffr0 Pelle%ier (e#s$/ :!e Keneric Loo#$ Chica!o3 Dniversi%0 of Chica!o Press$ Sra%Aer An!eli-a 1==,$ Gn %he Plurali%0 of Verbs$ 9emantics Arc!ive3 h%%53//seman%icsarchive$ne%/ Archive/6I4qURlG/$ Laca 'ren#a$ 1==.$ In#efini%es 8uan%ifiers an# Plurac%ionals3 Uha% Sco5e 7ffec%s Tell us abou% 7ven% Plurali%ies$ In Liliane Tasmo9s-i an# Sve%lana Vo!eleer (e#s/ 3ondefiniteness and /lurality$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins3 +C+P1+<$ Lasersohn Pe%er$ +CC,$ /lurality% ,on+unction and Events$ Dor#rech% 'os%on3 Slu9er$ :i!uel 7lena #e$ +CC.$ Nominal Infini%ives in S5anish3 An As5ec%ual Cons%rain%$ ,anadian ?ournal of Lin uistics$ 4+3+$ 1C-,2$ :ourela%os Ale;an#er P$ D$ +C<B$ 7ven%s Processes an# S%a%es$ Lin uistics and /!ilosop!y 132$ 4+,-424$ Picallo :$ Carme$ +CC+$ Nominals an# nominaliAa%ion in Ca%alan$ /robus 23 1<C-2+.$ Picallo :$ Carme$ 1==.$ Some No%es on Gramma%ical Gen#er an# l-Pronouns$ In Slaus von Oeusin!er Geor! A$ Saiser an# 7lisabe%h S%ar- (e#s/ /roceedin s of t!e &or#s!op h9pecificity and t!e evolution$ emer ence of nominal determination systems in Oomancef0 Dniversi%% Sons%anA Arbei%s5a5ier Nr$ ++C$ +=<-+1+$ Ri6-hoff Nan$ 1==1$ :!e 3oun /!rase$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Roo#enbur! Nas5er$ 1==.$ The role of Number 9i%hin Nominal Ar!umen%s3 %he Case of French PluraliAe# 7ven% NominaliAa%ions$ Pa5er 5resen%e# a% %he 2. %h Lin uistic 9ymposium on Oomance Lan ua es$ Ru%!ers :arch-A5ril 1==.$ Soare 7lena$ 1==<$ :or5hos0n%ac%ic :isma%ches Revisi%e#3 %he Case of Romanian Su5ine$ Acta Lin uistica Nun arica ,4/ 1==< (Procee#in!s of %he +1%h In%erna%ional :or5holo!0 :ee%in! 'u#a5es% Nune 1==,/3 +-+C$ Tenn0 Carol$ +CB<$ Krammaticali(in aspect and affectedness$ PhD #isser%a%ion :IT$ Van Geenhoven Veerle$ 1==4$ For-a#verbials Fre@uen%a%ive As5ec% an# Plurac%ionali%0$ 3atural Lan ua e 9emantics +13 +2,P+C=$ Ver-u0l Oen-$ +CC2$ A :!eory of Aspectuality$ :!e >nteraction bet&een :emporal and Atemporal 9tructure0 Cambri#!e3 Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press$ Valois Daniel$ +CC+$ :!e internal structure of D/$ PhD #isser%a%ion Dniversi%0 of California a% Los An!eles$
C8a5te0 12? P0o5e0 Na6es

Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==1$ A% %he Romanian Lef% Peri5her0$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics 43+ BC-+=B$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==.$ :o#es of Seman%ic Combina%ions3 NP / DP A#6ec%ives an# %he S%ruc%ure of %he Romanian DP$ In Nenn0 Doe%6es an# PaA GonA|leA (e#s$/ Oomance Lan ua es and Lin uistic :!eory 1==4 42P<+$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==<$ Gn classifiers an# 5ro5er names$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics C3+ .+-<,$ Dobrovie-Sorin Carmen an# Ion Giur!ea$ 1==.$ The suffi;a%ion of #efini%e ar%icles in 'al-an lan!ua!es$ Oevue roumaine de lin uistique LI3+ <2-+=2$ 7vans Gare%h$ +CB1$ :!e Earieties of Oeference0 G;for#3 Claren#on$ Gar0 Prieur :arie-Nolle$ +CC+a$ Le nom 5ro5re cons%i%ue-%-il une ca%!orie lin!uis%i@ueK Lan ue PranIaise C1 4-1,$ Gar0 Prieur$ :arie-Nolle$ +CC+b$ La mo#lisa%ion #u nom 5ro5re LPr C1 4C-.4$ Gar0 Prieur :arie-Nolle$ +CC4$ Krammaire du nom propre$ Paris3 Presses Dniversi%aires #e France$ Gar0 Prieur :arie-Nolle$ +CC.$ Fi!ura%ions #e l?in#ivi#u %ravers #iffren%es cons%ruc%ions <1B
'iblio!ra5h0 #u nom 5ro5re en francais$ ,a!iers de pra'Vmatique 1< ,<-<2$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1==<$ A#6ec%ives an# 5ro5er nouns in Romance an# 7n!lish$ >nternational ?ournal of Lasque Lin uistics and /!ilolo y VLI31 +=<-+1=$ Gius%i Giuliana$ 1==1$ The func%ional s%ruc%ure of noun 5hrases3 A bare 5hrase s%ruc%ure a55roach$ In Gu!lielmo Cin@ue (e#$/ Punctional 9tructure in D/ and >/$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press ,4-C=$ Oa9-ins Nohn A$ +C<B$ Definiteness and >ndefiniteness0 A 9tudy of Oeference and Krammaticality /rediction$ Lon#on3 Croom Oelm$ Nonasson Sers%in$ +CC+$ Les noms 5ro5res m%a5hori@ue3 cons%ruc%ion e% in%er5r%a%ion$ Lan ue PranIaise C1 .4-B+$ Nonasson Sers%in$ +CC4$ Le nom propre0 ,onstructions et interprVtations$ Louvain3 Duculo%$ Sleiber Geor!es$ +CB+$ /roblTmes de rVfVrenceW descriptions dVfinies et noms propres0 Paris3 Slinc-siec-$ Sleiber Geor!es$ +CB4$ Dnomina%ion e% rela%ions #nomina%ives$ Lan a es <. <<-C4$ Sleiber Geor!es$ +CC=$ L.Article LE VnVrique0 La KVnVricitV sur le mode massif $ Geneva/Paris3 DroA$ Sri5-e Saul$ +CB=$ 3amin and 3ecessity$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell$ Lon!obar#i Giuse55e$ +CC4$ Reference an# Pro5er Names3 a Theor0 of N-:ovemen% in S0n%a; an# Lo!ical Form$ Lin uistic >nquiry 1,34 .=C-..,$ Lon!obar#i Giuse55e$ 1==+$ The s%ruc%ure of DPs3 Some 5rinci5les 5arame%ers an# 5roblems$ In C$ Collins an# :$ 'al%in (e#s$/ :!e !andboo# of contemporary syntactic t!eory$ G;for#3 'lac-9ell% ,.1-.=+$ :iron-Fulea :ihaela$ 1==,$ 3umele proprii0 >nterfaa semantic-sinta'$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Noaill0 :ichple$ +CC+$ L?ni!ma%i@ue Tombouc%ou&3 nom 5ro5re e% 5osi%ion #e l?5i%hp%e$ Lan ue PranIaise C1 +=4-++2$ Se!al Gabriel$ 1==+$ T9o Theories of Names$ 5ind and Lan ua e +.3, ,4<-,.2$ Soames Sco%%$ 1==1$ Leyond Oi idity$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Uee Lionel$ 1==.$ Pro5er Names an# %he Theor0 of :e%a5hor$ ?ournal of Lin uistics 4131 2,,P2<+$
C8a5te0 13? Class.f.e0 an3 -1al.tat.2e B.no6.nal Const01/t.ons

Aar%s 'as$ +CCB$ 'inominal Noun Phrases in 7n!lish$ :ransactions of t!e /!ilolo ical 9ociety C. ++<-,B Aboh 7noch$ 1==4$ :!e 5orp!osynta' of ,omplement-Nead 9equences$ G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ 'ar%ra Anna an# Vavier Villalba$ 1==.a$ A!reemen% an# Pre#ica%e Inversion in %he S5anish DP$ In N$ Doe%6es ) P$ GonAaleA (e#s$/ Oomance Lan ua es and Lin uistic :!eory <77s Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins 12-4+$ 'ar%ra Anna an# Vavier Villalba$ 1==.b$ S5anish non A!reein! 8uan%ifica%ional Nominals$ In L$ 'ru!p (e#$/ 9tudies in 9panis! 9ynta'$ VeneAia3 Libreria 7#i%rice Ca Foscarina +,4.$ 'ennis Oans Norber% Corver an# :arcel #en Di--en$ +CCB$ Pre#ica%ion in nominal 5hrases$ :!e ?ournal of ,omparative Kermanic Lin uistics + B,-++< 'ha%%achar0a Tanmo0$ 1==+$ Numeral/8uan%ifier-Classifier as a Com5le; Oea# in Semile;ical Oea#s$ In Oen- van Riems#i6- an# Norber% Corver (e#s$/ 9emi-Le'ical Neads$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er +C+P111$ 'orer Oa!i%$ 1==,$ 9tructurin sense0 >n 3ame Hnly$ G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Casillas :ar%neA Luis D$ 1==2$ Gen#er misma%ches in S5anish an# French N+/A #e N1 <1C
'iblio!ra5h0 affec%ive cons%ruc%ions3 In#e; a!reemen% vs$ :or5hos0n%ac%ic concor#$ In N$-'$ Sim an# S$ Uechsler (e#s$/ /roceedin s of t!e qt! >nternational ,onference on N/9K$ S%anfor#3 CSLI +-+<$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ +CC,$ Romanian Geni%ive Cons%ruc%ions$ In G$ Cin@ue G an# G$ Gius%i (e#s$/ Advances in Oomanian Lin uistics$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins +-,4$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==2$ Romanian Geni%ive Cons%ruc%ions Revisi%e#$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics ,3+ 4,P<=$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==.$ Din nou #es5re "un 5rie%en #e-al meu&$ In G$ PanL-Din#ele!an (e#$/ Limba romn0 Aspecte sincronice i diacronice$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i 1,P2<$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==<$ Des5re %rLsL%urile 5eriferice Mi cum le-am 5u%ea folosi$ In R$ Fafiu C$ S%an A$ Nicolae (e#s$/ 9tudii lin vistice0 Hma iu profesoarei Kabriela /an Dindele an% la aniversare$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i 42P,.$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1=+=$ The :o#al @uan%ifica%ional na%ure of nominal 5eri5heries$ :s$ Dniversi%0 of 'uchares%$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra an# Ale;an#ru Nicolae$ 1=++$ Nominal Peri5heries an# Phase S%ruc%ure in %he Romanian DP$ Oevue Ooumaine de Lin uistique LVI3 + 2,P.B$ Corver Norber%$ +CCB$ Pre#ica%e :ovemen% in Pseu#o5ar%i%ive Cons%ruc%ions$ In A$ Ale;ia#ou an# C$ Uil#er (e#s$/ /ossessors% /redicates and 5ovement in t!e Determiner /!rase$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 1+,-1,<$ Chen! Lisa an# Rin% S0besma$ +CCC$ 'are an# No%-so-'are Nouns$ Lin uistic >nquiry 2=34 ,=C-,41$ #en Di--en :arcel$ +CCB$ Pre#ica%e Inversion in DP$ In A$ Ale;ia#ou an# C$ Uil#er (e#s$/ /ossessors% /redicates and 5ovement in t!e Determiner /!rase$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins +<<-1+4$ #en Di--en :arcel$ 1==.$ Oelators and Lin#ers$ Cambri#!e :ass3 :IT Press$ #en Di--en :arcel ) Pornsiri Sin!ha5reecha$ 1==4$ Com5le; Noun Phrases an# Lin-ers$ 9ynta' <3++ +-,4$ Doe%6es Nenn0 ) Nohan Roor0c-$ 1==2$ GeneraliAin! over @uan%i%a%ive an# @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions$ In :$ Coene ) q$ D?huls% (e#s$/ Prom 3/ to D/ )Eolume ;W :!e synta' and semantics of noun p!rases*$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins 1<<-1C,$ 7mon#s Nose5h$ +CB,$ A Unified :!eory of 9yntactic ,ate ories$ Dor#rech%3 Foris$ 7s5avol-7chevarra :anuel$ +CC.$ Defini%eness Pa%%erns in 3$A of an 3 Con%e;%s an# DPIn%ernal VP-:ovemen%$ 5>: Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics 2+ +4,-+.C$ 7s5avol-7chevarra :anuel$ +CCB$ N/A of a N DP?s$ Pre#ica%e raisin! an# sub6ec% licensin!$ In A$ Sch9e!ler '$ Tranel an# :$ Dribe-7%;ebarria (e#s$/ Oomance Lin uistics0 :!eoretical perspectives$ Ams%er#am Phila#el5hia3 Nohn 'en6amins .<-B=$ Giur!ea Ion$ 1=+=$ /ronoms% dVterminants et ellipse nominale0 Une approc!e minimaliste $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Grimsha9 Nane$ 1==,$ Mords and 9tructure$ S%anfor# CA3 CSLI Publica%ions$ Oul- Aaf-e an# Chris%ine Tellier$ 1===$ :isma%ches3 A!reemen% in @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ions$ /robus +1 22-.,$ Sa0ne Richar# S$ 1==2a$ Silen% 0ears silen% hours$ :s$ NqD Ne9 qor-$ Sa0ne Richar# S$ 1==2b$ Gn %he s0n%a; of @uan%i%0 in 7n!lish$ :s$ NqD Ne9 qor-$ Leu Thomas$ 1==B$ Uha% for In%ernall0$ 9ynta' ++3+ +-1,$ Lbel 7lisabe%h$ 1==+$ Classifiers an# Semi-Le;icali%03 Func%ional an# seman%ic selec%ion$ In Norber% Corver an# Oen- van Riems#i6- (e#s$/ 9emi-Le'ical ,ate ories$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er 122-1<1$ :a%ushans-0 Gra$ 1==1$ Ti55in! %he Scales3 The S0n%a; of Scalari%0 in %he Com5lemen%s of 9eem$ 9ynta' ,32 1+C-1<.$
<2=
'iblio!ra5h0 :ilner Nean Clau#e$ +C<B$ De la synta'e a l.interprVtation0 @uantitVs% insultes% e'clamation $ Paris3 7#i%ions #u Seuil$ Riems#i6- Oen- C$ van$ +CCB$ Ca%e!orial fea%ure ma!ne%ism3 The en#ocen%rici%0 an# #is%ribu%ion of 5ro6ec%ions$ :!e ?ournal of ,omparative Kermanic Lin uistics 13+-4B$ Riems#i6- Oen- C$ van$ 1==,$ Silen% nouns an# %he s5urious in#efini%e ar%icle in Du%ch$ Grammar an# be0on#$ In :ila Vulchanova an# Tor A$ farli (e#s$/ Essays in !onour of Lars Nellan$ Gslo3 Novus Press +.2-+<B$ Ru9e% Nicolas$ +CB1$ Krammaire des insultes et autres Vtudes$ Paris3 7#i%ions #u Seuil$ TLnase-Do!aru :ihaela$ 1==.$ The Pro6ec%ion of Number an# Classifier Phrasesin Romanian$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics B3+ .<-<,$ TLnase-Do!aru :ihaela$ 1==<$ Pseu#o-5ar%i%ives an# (silen%/ classifiers in Romanian$ In S$ 'laho e% al$ (e#s$/ /roceedin s of ,on9HLE FE h%%53999$sole$lei#enuniv$nl$ TLnase-Do!aru :ihaela$ 1==C$ :!e ,ate ory of 3umber$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ TLnase-Do!aru :ihaela$ 1=++$ The Sin!le-DP an# Double-DP 8uali%a%ive Con%ruc%ions in Romanian$ Oevue Ooumaine de Lin uistique LVI 1 ++,-+2,$ Villalba Vavier$ 1==4$ An e;ce5%ional e;clama%ive sen%ence %05e in Romance$ Lin ua ++2 <+2-<4,$ Villalba Vavier$ 1==<$ True an# s5urious ar%icles in Germanic an# Romance$ ,uadernos de Lin uistica del >0U0 Hrte a y Kasset +43 +1+-+240 Villalba Vavier an# Anna 'ar%ra-Saufmann$ 1=+=$ Pre#ica%e focus fron%in! in %he S5anish #e%erminer 5hrase$ Lin ua% +1=34 B+C-B4C$ ViMan Ru;an#ra$ 1==2$ Charac%eriAin! N #e N 8uali%a%ive Cons%ruc%ions in Romanian$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics ,3+ +2<-+4B$ Vos Rie%$ +CCC$ A rammar of partitive constructions$ PhD #isser%a%ion Tilbur! Dniversi%0$
C8a5te0 1$? A55os.t.ons an3 J1<ta5ose3 No1ns

'rLescu Raluca$ 1==,$ A5oAiRia$ In Kramatica Limbii Oomne% II$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei .+C-.24$ Combe%%es 'enrar#$ 1===$ L?a55osi%ion comme uni% %e;%uelle e% cons%i%uan% 5hras%i@ue3 a55roche #iachroni@ue$ Lan ue franIaise +1, C=P+=,$ Cornilescu Ale;an#ra$ 1==<$ Gn classifiers an# 5ro5er names$ Luc!arest Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics C3+ .+-<,$ Diaconescu Ion$ +CBC$ /robleme de sinta' a limbii romne actuale$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura i%iinRificL Mi 7nciclo5e#icL3 +1<-1=<$ Fors!ren :a%s$ 1===$ A55osi%ion a%%ribu% 5i%hp%eI mome comba% 5r#ica%ifK$ Lan ue franIaise +1, 2=P4,$ Gius%i Giuliana$ 1==1$ The func%ional s%ruc%ure of noun 5hrases3 A bare 5hrase s%ruc%ure a55roach$ In Gu!lielmo Cin@ue (e#$/ Punctional 9tructure in D/ and >/$ G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press ,4-C=$ GuRu Romalo Valeria$ +C<2$ 9inta'a limbii romne0 /robleme i interpretri $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Di#ac%icL Mi Pe#a!o!icL3 42P.+$ Oo#iM Viorel$ +CC=$ Apo(iia i propo(iia apo(itiv$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura i%iinRificL$ Ou##les%on Ro#ne0 an# Geoffre0 S$ Pullum$ 1==1$ :!e ,ambrid e Krammar of t!e En lis! Lan ua e$ Cambri#!e Cambri#!e Dniversi%0 Press3 +2,=P+2,B$ Le-a-ou :ari-a an# SrisA%a SAen#roi$ 1==C$ Close a55osi%ion 9i%h an# 9i%hou% noun elli5sis3 an anal0sis of Gree- 5ol0#efini%es$ /roceedin s of t!e <qt! 5eetin of t!e Lin uistics Department of Aristotle University of :!essaloni#i $ Dniversi%0 of Thessaloni-i +,+-+..$ <2+
'iblio!ra5h0 Neveu Franc-$ 1===$ 8uelle s0n%a;e 5our l?a55osi%ionK Les %05es #?a55ariemen% #es a55osi%ions fron%ales e% la con%inui% rfren%ielle$ Lan ue franIaise +1, +=.P+14$ Noaill0 :ichple$ 1===$ A55osi%ion coor#ina%ion reformula%ion #ans les sui%es #e #eu; GN 6u;%a5oss$ Lan ue franIaise +1, 4.P,C$ Picabia Llia$ +CC+$ Ar%icle Aro e% s%ruc%ures a55oses$ Lan a es +=1 BBP+=1$ Picabia Llia$ 1===$ A55osi%ions nominales e% #%erminan% Aro3 le cas #es a55osi%ions fron%ales$ Lan ue franIaise +1, <+PBC$ Po%%s Chris%o5her$ 1==,$ :!e Lo ic of ,onventional >mplicatures$ Ne9 qor-3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ 8uir- Ran#ol5h Si#ne0 Greenbaum Geoffre0 Leech an# Nan Svar%vi-$ +C<1$ A Krammar of ,ontemporary En lis!$ Lon#on3 Lon!man3 .1=P.4B$
C8a5te0 1%? 'o/at.2es

Sources 'la!a Y+C14Z [ Lucian 'la!a Sn marea trecere% in /oe(ii0 'ucureM%i Alba%ros +CC1$ 'la!a Y+C+CZ [ Lucian 'la!a /oemele luminii% in /oe(ii0 'ucureM%i Alba%ros +CC1$ Cara!iale Y+BB,Z [ Ion Luca Cara!iale D.ale carnavalului% in :eatru0 'ucureM%i 7#i%ura #e s%a% 5en%ru li%era%urL Mi ar%L +C,1$ Coresi Y+,B+Z [ Diaconul Coresi ,arte cu nvtur (+,B+/$ Comisia is%oricL a RomWniei$ a%elierele !rafice Socec ) Co$ 'ucureM%i +C+4 (a5u# Vasiliu +C,./$ Cos%in Y+.<,Z [ :iron Cos%in Letopiseul rii 5oldovei de la Aron Eod ncoace0 Fun#aRia 5en%ru li%era%urL Mi ar%L$ 'ucureM%i +C44 (a5u# Vasiliu +C,./$ :arius :Lcelaru 5ndru de peste deal (son! %i%le 1=++/$ Sa#oveanu Y+C1BZ [ :ihail Sa#oveanu Nanu Ancuei0 'ucureM%i Nunimea +C<+$ Sa#oveanu Y+C4=Z [ :ihail Sa#oveanu Divanul persian0 /oveste oriental0 7#i%ura Car%ea RomWneascL 'ucureM%i +C42 (a5u# Vasiliu +C,./$ Tocilescu Y+C==Z [ Gr$ G$ Tocilescu 5aterialuri folcloristice$ Ti5o!rafia Cor5ului Di#ac%ic C$ Is5LMescu ) 'rL%Lnescu$ 'ucureM%i +C== (a5u# Vasiliu +C,./$ Varlaam Y+.42Z [ Varlaam (:i%ro5oli%ul :ol#ovei/$ ,a(ania (+.42/$ Fun#aRia 5en%ru li%era%urL Mi ar%L$ 'ucureM%i +C42 (a5u# Vasiliu +C,./$ 999$moni%orul#e!ala%i$ro 1=+1$ 999$5an#urul$ro 1=++$ Bibliography Alboiu, Gabriela, and Virginia Hill. 2011. A Criterial Analysis of V-movement in the Moldavian Chronicles. The +2%h Conference on Diachronic Genera%ive S0n%a; Nune 4-.$ Penns0lvania S%a%e Dniversi%0$ h%%53//999$0or-u$ca/!alboiu/cv$h%ml Ale;an#rescu 7ca%erina$ +C<4$ Sin%a;a Mi s%ilis%ica voca%ivului$ Analele Universitii din >ai 1= 4<-,4$ Ash#o9ne Richar#$ 1==4$ Re(#e/finin! a##ress3 an overloo-e# French 5henomenon$ H'ford University Mor#in /apers in Lin uistics% /!ilolo y and /!onetics C +-2,$ Avram :ioara$ +CB=$ Poa%e fi voca%ivul 5ar%e #e 5ro5oAiRieK Limba Oomn 1C31 +.2-+.4$ 'u6or I$ I$$ +C.B$ Voca%ivul tu$ ,ercetri de Lin vistic +23+ ++<-++C$ Chivu Gheor!he e% al$ (e#s$/$ +CC<$ >storia limbii romne literare0 Epoca vec!e );6=<-;rc7* $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei RomWne$ ComMulea 7lena$ +C<4$ Nomina%iv sau voca%ivK ,ercetri de Lin vistic +C3+ C<-+=1$ Co!nilio :arco an# Iulia Fe!rean$ 1=+1$ S5li%%in! u5 Force3 evi#ence from #iscourse 5ar%icles$ In L$ Aelbrech% L$ Oae!eman an# R$ N0e (e#s$/ 5ain ,lause /!enomena$
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'iblio!ra5h0 Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 11C-1,.$ Co%eanu Ion$ +C,B$ Ce es%e -ule #e la voca%ivK In 'oris CaAacu e% al$ (e#s$/ Hma iu lui >or u >ordan% cu prile+ul mplinirii a r7 de ani$ 'uhares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei Re5ublicii Po5ulare RomWne 1+2-1+.$ Croi%or 'lanca$ 1==4$ Voca%ivul En romWna ac%ualL 0 In Gabriela PanL Din#ele!an (e#s$/ :radiie i inovaie n studiul limbii romne $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i <2-<B$ Dan Ilie +C.4$ DiscuRii asu5ra voca%ivului romWnesc$ Analele Xtiinifice ale Universitii din >ai +=3+ +-+2$ Dan Ilie$ +C<B$ Dn as5ec% archa@ue #ans la mor5holo!ie roumaine3 le voca%if$ ,a!iers d.Vtudes romanes 4 +,C-+<,$ DascLlu LaurenRia$ +CB4$ Asu5ra in%onaRiei voca%ivului En limba romWnL$ 9tudii i cercetri lin vistice 2,3, 4+=-4,+$ Densusianu Gvi#$ +C2B$ Nistoire de la lan ue roumaine% II$ Paris +C2B$ Diaconescu Paula$ +C.B$ Voca%ivul En -)ul*e0 9tudii i cercetri lin vistice +C3, 4.C-4<1$ D?Ouls% qves :ar%ine Coene an# Liliane Tasmo9s-i$ 1==<$ Romance voca%ives an# %he DP h05o%hesis$ In A$ CuniRL C$ Lu5u an# L$ Tasmo9s-i (e#s$/ 9tudii de lin vistic i filolo ie romanic0 Nomma es offerts a 9anda Oein!eimer Opeanu $ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i 1==-1++$ Dumi%rescu Florica e% al$ (e#s$/$ +C<B$ >storia limbii romne$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Di#ac%icL Mi Pe#a!o!icL$ Floricic Fran-$ 1=+=$ Eocatives and t!e 5inimal Mord syndrome0 Pa5er 5resen%e# a% %he 9or-sho5 on Voca%ives December +=-++ 'amber!$ GheRie Ion$ +C..$ Voca%ivul doamnele0 Limba Oomn +,32 2=,-2=.$ G-sel Asli an# :ar-us Pch%ra!er$ 1=+=$ :!e prosodic vocative and !is #in0 Pa5er 5resen%e# a% %he 9or-sho5 on Voca%ives December +=-++ 'amber!$ Graur Al$ +CB<$ /uin ramatic0 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei RomWne$ Graur Al$ +C2.$ 5Vlan es lin uistiques0 Paris 3 Librairie 7$ DroA ) 'uchares% 7#i%ura Cul%ura NaRionalL$ GruiRL G$ +C<2$ Sin%a;a fraAei Mi 5roblema voca%ivului$ 9tudia Universitatis Labes-Lolyai +B3+ +22-+2<$ Oae!eman Liliane an# Vir!inia Oill$ 1=+1$ Gn s5eech ac%s an# s0n%a;$ In :arleen Van Pe%e!hem e% al (e#s$/ Pestsc!rift for Dominique Millems$ Ghen%3 Aca#emia Press +.++B=$ Oae!eman Liliane an# Vir!inia Oill %o a55ear (a/$ Voca%ives an# s5eech ac% 5ro6ec%ions3 a case s%u#0 in Ues% Flemish$ In A$ Car#inale%%i G$ Cin@ue an# qoshi 7n#o (e#s$/ Hn perip!eries$ To-0o3 Oi%uAi S0obo$ Oae!eman Liliane an# Vir!inia Oill %o a55ear (b/$ The s0n%ac%iciAa%ion of #iscourse$ In R$ Folli R$ Trus9ell an# C$ Sev#ali (e#s$/ No& muc! of rammar is synta'Q G;for#3 G;for# Dniversi%0 Press$ Oill Vir!inia$ 1==<$ Voca%ives an# %he Pra!ma%ics-S0n%a; In%erface$ Lin ua ++<3+1 1=<<1+=,$ Oill Vir!inia$ 1=+1a$ Fea%ures an# s%ra%e!ies3 %he in%ernal s0n%a; of voca%ive 5hrases$ In P$ Noel an# '$ Sonnenhauser (e#s$/$ Eocativesi Addressin bet&een system and performance$ 'erlin3 :ou%on #e Gru0%er$ Oill Vir!inia$ 1=+1b$ A main clause com5lemen%iAer$ In L$ Aelbrech% e% al$ (e#s$/ 5ain ,lause /!enomenaW 3e& Nori(ons$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 1<C-1C,$ Oill Vir!inia an# :eli%%a S%avrou %o a55ear$ Voca%ives3 Oo9 s0n%a; mee%s 9i%h 5ra!ma%ics$ Lei#en3 'rill$ Series3 "7m5irical A55roaches %o Lin!uis%ic Theor0&$ (:s$ Dniversi%0 of Ne9 'runs9ic- P SN$/
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'iblio!ra5h0 O6elmslev Louis$ +C2,-2<$ La catV orie des casR Vtude de rammaire VnVrale0 Aarhus3 Dniversi%e%svorla!e%$ YRevise# e#i%ion +C<1 e#i%e# b0 7li Fischer-Nr!ensen$ :unich3 U$ Fin-$Z Sur0o9icA NerA0$ +C4C$ Le 5roblpme #u classemen% #es cas$ Liuletyn /ols#ie o :o&ar(yst&a ?z(y#o(na&c(e o C 1=-42$ YRe5rin%e# +C.= in3 NerA0 Sur0o9icA Esquisses lin uistiques$ Uroca93 Fa-a# Naro#o90 Imienia Gssolis-ich U0#a9nic%9o Pols-ie6 A-a#emii Nau- +2+-+,=$Z Lon!obar#i G$ +CC4$ Reference an# Pro5er Names3 a Theor0 of N-movemen% in s0n%a; an# Lo!ical Form$ Lin uistic >nquiry 1,34 .=C-..,$ :ai#en :ar%in$ 1==.$ Gn Romanian im5era%ives$ /!ilolo ica ?assyensia II 3+ 4<-,C$ :ies-a -Tomi Gl!a$ 1==.$ Lal#an 9prac!bund 5orp!o-syntactic Peatures Dor#rech%3 S5rin!er$ :oro An#rea$ 1==2$ No%es on Voca%ive Case3 a case s%u#0 in clause s%ruc%ure$ In N$ 8uer e% al$ (e#s$/ Oomance Lan ua es and Lin uistic :!eory <77;$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 14<-1.+$ :i0a!a9a Shi!eru$ M!y A reeQM!y 5oveQ Unifyin A reement-Lased and Discourse,onfi urational Lan ua es$ Cambri#!e3 The :IT Press$ Niculescu Al$ +C,B$ No%e asu5ra voca%ivului romWnesc 9tudii i cercetri lin vistice C ,22,2,$ Niculescu Al$ +C., >ndividualitatea limbii romne ntre limbile romanice% I$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura i%iinRificL Mi 7nciclo5e#icL 1,-1C$ Gsenova Pe%0a N$ an# Siril Iv$ Simov Lul arian Eocative &it!in N/9K frame&or# Nune 1==1 999$'ulTree'an-$or! PWrlo! :$ an# Domnica Gheor!hiu$ +C.,$ GbservaRii asu5ra caAului voca%iv$ Analele Universitii de Eest din :imioara 2 1,<-1..$ PL%ruR I$ +C.2$ Consi#eraRii En le!L%urL cu voca%ivul romWnesc En -o0 Oomanoslavica < B<-C1$ PL%ruR I$ +C.4$ To% #es5re voca%ivul romWnesc En -o0 Oomanoslavica += +C2-+C4$ PuMcariu Se;%il$ +C2<$ Le nominatif comme vocatif ) Les e'clamations comme moyen stilistique0 In wtudes de lin uistique roumaine0 Clu6 ) 'ucureM%i 3 :oni%orul oficial ) Im5rimeriile s%a%ului Im5rimeria naRionalL 4,B-4.C$ Rieschil# V$r$ +CCB$ Lebanese Arabic reverse role voca%ives$ Ant!ropolo ical Lin uistics 4=34 .+<-.4+$ RiAescu I$ +C.2$ GbservaRii asu5ra %o5icii voca%ivului$ Limba Oomn +13. .+1-.+<$ Rose%%i Al$ +C,4$ >nfluena limbilor slave meridionale asupra limbii romne$ 'ucureM%i$ Ross Nohn R$ +C<=$ Gn #eclara%ive sen%ences$ In Ro#eric- A$ Nacobs an# Pe%er S$ Rosenbaum (e#s$/ Oeadin s in En lis! :ransformational Krammar $ Uashin!%on DC3 Geor!e%o9n Dniversi%0 Press 111-1<1$ Rusu Valeriu$ +C,C$ Formule #e a#resare En limba romWnL (m% mi/$ Limba Oomn <3+ ,1.=$ Rusu Valeriu$ +C.4$ No%e #es5re f Mi m En limba romWnL$ 9tudii i cercetri lin vistice +,3. <,C-<.+$ San#fel# Sris%ian$ +C2=$ Lin uistique bal#anique% Paris$ Sche!loff 7manuel A$ +C.B$ Se@uencin! in conversa%ional o5enin!s$ American Ant!ropolo ist <=3. +=<,-C,$ Re5rin%e# in Nohn Laver an# San#0 Ou%cheson (e#s$/ +C<1 ,ommunication and face to face interaction 24.-2B=$ Seche LuiAa$ +C.,$ Dn nou mo# #e e;5rimare a voca%ivului feminin En limba romWnL (En P a/$ Limba Oomn +43+ +,C-+.+$ Shiina :ichi$ 1==,$ Posi%ionin! an# func%ionin! of voca%ives3 case9or- in his%orical 5ra!ma%ics$ In Carmen Rosa Cal#as-Coul%har# :ichael Toolan (e#s$/ :!e Mriter.s ,raft% :!e ,ulture.s :ec!nolo y$ Ne9 qor-3 Ro#o5i +<-4B$
<24
'iblio!ra5h0 S5eas :ar!are% an# Caroll Tenn0$ 1==2$ Confi!ura%ional 5ro5er%ies of 5oin% of vie9 roles$ In A$:$ Di Sciullo (e#$/ Asymmetry in Krammar$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 2+,-244$ S5eas :ar!are%$ 1==4$ 7vi#en%iali%0 lo!o5horici%0 an# %he s0n%ac%ic re5resen%a%ion of 5ra!ma%ic fea%ures$ Lin ua +4432 1,,-1<.$ S%avrou :eli%a %o a55ear$ About t!e Eocative /!rase$ In Dr%Ai 7%;eberria Anas%asia Gianna-i#ou Pe%er Sos%a an# Lilia Shuer-s (e#s$/$ 3/$D/$ S5rin!er$ S%emmer 'ri!i%%e$ +CCC$ An on-line in%ervie9 9i%h Noam Choms-03 Gn %he na%ure of 5ra!ma%ics an# rela%e# issues$ Lrain and Lan ua e .B32 2C2-4=+$ Svennun! N$ +C,B$ Anredeformen Eer leic!ende Porsc!un en$ D55sala3 Alm@vis% ) Ui-sell$ TschiAmarova Ivelina$ 1==,$ The anal0sis of %he 'ul!arian #iscourse mar-er !a+de$ ?ournal of /ra matics 2< ++42-++.2$ Vasiliu Laura$ +CB,$ Din nou #es5re voca%ivul feminin$ 9tudii i cercetri lin vistice 2.32 1<=-1<1$ Vasiliu Laura$ +C,.$ GbservaRii asu5ra voca%ivului En limba romWnL$ In Al$ Graur an# Nac@ues '0c- 9tudii de ramatic% I$ 'uchares% 3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei Re5ublicii Po5ulare RomWne ,-12$ Vul5e :a!#alena +CB=$ Sur le s0s%pme #es %ermes #]a#resse en roumain$ Oevue Ooumaine de Lin uistique 1,34 41C-42+$ Fafiu Ro#ica$ 1==+$ Diversitate stilistic n romna actual$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i$ Fafiu Ro#ica$ 1==2$ Tu !eneric En limba romWnL ac%ualL$ In Gabriela PanL Din#ele!an (e#$/ Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale% II$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Dniversi%LRii #in 'ucureM%i 122P1,.$ Fanu%%ini Raffaela$ 1==B$ 7nco#in! %he A##ressee in %he s0n%a;3 7vi#ence from 7n!lish im5era%ive sub6ec%s$ 3atural Lan ua e and Lin uistic :!eory 1.3+ +B,-1+B$ F#ren!hea :ircea$ +C.=$ 7s%e voca%ivul un caAK 9tudii i cercetri lin vistice ++32 <C<-B=+$ F9ic-0 A$ +C<4$ Oe0 9ha%s0ournamed In :$ La Gal0 R$ A$ Fo; an# A$ 'ruc- (e#s$/ /apers from t!e :ent! Oe ional 5eetin of t!e ,!ica o Lin uistics 9ociety$ Chica!o3 CLS <B<-B=+$
C8a5te0 1&? No6.nal Infle/t.on

Avram :ioara$ 1==,$ 9tudii de morfolo ie a limbii romne$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei RomWne$ GALR 1==,$ Kramatica limbii romne$ 'ucureM%i3 7#i%ura Aca#emiei RomWne$ Ior#an Ior!u Valeria GuRu Romalo an# Ale;an#ru Niculescu$ +C.<$ 9tructura morfolo ic a limbii romne contemporane$ 'uchares%3 7#i%ura i%iinRificL$ Gr%mann Alber% an# Ale;an#ra Po5escu$ 1===$ Romanian #efini%e ar%icles are no% cli%ics$ In 'ir!i% Gerlach an# Nane% Gri6Aenhou% (e#s$/ ,litics in p!onolo y% morp!olo y% and synta'$ Ams%er#am3 Nohn 'en6amins 1C,-214$ Po5escu-:arin :a!#alena$ 1==,$ A#6ec%ivul$ *1 Fle;iunea a#6ec%ivului$ In GALR I +44+.,$ Tomescu DomniRa$ 1==,$ Subs%an%ivul3 *1 Fle;iunea subs%an%ivului$ In GALR I .2-C,$
<2,

Gramatica Limbii Romane

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Gramatica Limbii Romane

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A Reference Grammar of Romanian

Volume I The Noun Phrase

2. BARE NOUNS (Carmen Dobrovie-Sorin/ +$ In%ro#uc%ion

2$ Seman%ic Cons%rain%s on 'are Nouns in Ar!umen% Posi%ions

4$ Coun% 'are Sin!ulars in Ar!umen% Posi%ions

,$ 'are Nouns in a#nominal 5osi%ions .$ 'are Abs%rac% Nouns in Ar!umen% Posi%ions

<$ 'are Nouns in Pre#ica%e Posi%ions$ A com5arison 9i%h Sin!ular In#efini%es

2$ The 5ronominal in%ensifier nsui

1$ The In%er5re%a%ion of Geni%ives

2$ Geni%ive Case al%erna%in! 9i%h Pre5osi%ional :ar-in!

1$ Classes of a#6ec%ives$ Seman%ic %05es of a#6ec%ives an# %heir #is%ribu%ion

2$ A#6ec%ive 5lacemen% insi#e %he DP

4$ Gra#a%ion$ De!ree e;5ressions #e!rees of com5arison

,$ The com5lemen%a%ion of a#6ec%ives

1$ A#nominal 5re5osi%ional 5hrases hea#e# b0 le;ical 5re5osi%ions

2$ A#nominal 5re5osi%ional 5hrases hea#e# b0 func%ional 5re5osi%ions

2$ Dis%inc%ive 5ro5er%ies of sub-%05es of RCCs 2$+$ Dis%inc%ions amon! seman%ic %05es

4$ Possible !a5 loca%ions ,$ Non-in#ica%ive RCCs

1$ NominaliAa%ion of %ransi%ive an# unaccusa%ive verbs3 %he NG s%ruc%ure

2$ NominaliAa%ion of uner!a%ive verbs3 %he NS s%ruc%ure 4$ As5ec% an# nominaliAa%ion

,$ Sim5le #everbal nouns an# o%her nominals 9i%h even%-rela%e# rea#in!s

1$ The in%ernal s%ruc%ure of DPs hea#e# b0 5ro5er names

2$ Pro5er names use# as common nouns

1$ The @uali%a%ive cons%ruc%ion

.$ S0n%a;3 5hrase s%ruc%ure

<$ S0n%a;3 %he voca%ive in %he sen%ence

Abb0e2.at.ons 1se3 .n 4losses

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

1. Int0o31/t.on. No6.nal Feat10es an3 No6.nal P0o7e/t.ons

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

Uhen %he DP is in%ro#uce# b0 an i%em carr0in! an obli@ue mor5heme a limi%e# 5henomenon ++

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

nouns bein! inclu#e# in%o a DP e$!$ ci%a%ion forms/9or#s in me%alin!uis%ic use3

2. P0ono1ns an3 t8e Pe0son Feat10e

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

3. Dete06.ne0s an3 ot8e0 no6.nal f1n/t.onal /ate4o0.es

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

Non-in%ersec%ive a#6ec%ives3 - classif0in! an# %hema%ic

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

Pre5osi%ional 5hrases3 - Com5lemen%s3

Non-fini%e verbal cons%i%uen%s - Com5lemen%s3

Fini%e clauses in%ro#uce# b0 a com5lemen%iAer (com5lemen%s onl0/3

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

:ore rarel0 %he firs% DP is base# on a common noun3

%. D.st0.b1t.on an3 S9nta/t./ F1n/t.ons of No6.nal P0o7e/t.ons

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

&. T8e Se6ant./s of Dete06.ne0s an3 Dete06.ne0 P80ases

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions

In%ro#uc%ion$ Nominal Fea%ures an# Nominal Pro6ec%ions #$ ; (bcSTDD7NT(;/ L7AV7(;//