"Diagenesis in carbonate reservoirs in foreland folds and thrust belts with special emphasis on hydrothermal dolomites" Rudy Swennen

Dept. Earth and Environmental Sciences, Geology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. Rudy.Swennen@ees.kuleuven.be In an attempt to deduce the major diagenetic processes that can affect hydrocarbon reservoir properties in carbonate rocks and to reconstruct the general controlling processes on fluid flow in carbonates in Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts (FFTB), several belts were studied in the framework of the SUBTRAP (SUBThrust Reservoir Appraisal) consortium project coordinated by the Institut Francais du Ptrole (France) as well as part of several Ph.D studies carried out in collaboration at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium). Attention was particularly paid to the Cretaceous-Eocene Ionian and Kruja zones of the Albanides (Albania; Van Geet et al., 2002; Vilasi et al., 2009), the Eocene Potwar Plateau and Salt Range of Pakistan (Swennen et al., 2009a), the Cretaceous Cordoba Platform-Veracruz Basin in Mexico (Ortuno et al., 2003; Ferket et al., 2003, 2009), the Devonian-Carboniferous Canadian Cordillera (Vandeginste et al., 2007, 2008) and time equivalent systems in the Variscan frontal zone in Belgium (Muchez et al., 2000). By studying several systems it was aimed to be able to differentiate the overregional from location specific processes, and thus to be predictive at an over-regional scale. This finally resulted in constraining some of the key parameters allowing to carry out a modelling in the PVTXt domain (Pressure - P, Volume - V, Temperature - T, chemical composition of the fluid (X) and time - t; Schneider, 2003). In contrast to the classical studies on diagenesis, focussing on a particular diagenetic process and its geochemical characteristics, in this study the diagenetic processes are placed into their geodynamic context in the space domain. As the Fold and Thrust Belt develops with time and progresses towards the foreland (finally often involving major parts of the latter) several of the diagenetic phenomena also progress in a caterpillar way through the orogen (e.g. earthquake induced fluid flow, squeegee fluid flow, topography driven flow, etc. ). The latter results in a dynamic diagenesis and is to a major extend predictable. In this contribution some of the major results will be presented. For more detailed information the reader is referred to Roure et al. (2008 & 2009) where main results have been published. The results given below rely on the integration of data derived from boreholes as well as field reservoir analogues, based on detailed petrographical analysis (classical as well as cathodeluminescence, fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy), geochemistry (trace elements, stable carbon and oxygen isotopes, Sr-isotopes) and fluid inclusion microthermometry (incl. micro-raman analysis). In some cases also poroperm data as well as micro-Computed Tomography were used to understand the effect of diagenesis on the reservoir. One of the key remaining problems, however, relates to the absolute timing of the diagenetic events. Key element in the unravelling the succession of diagenetic processes is the reconstruction of the paragenetic succession. The latter is primarily based on crosscutting relationships, e.g. diagenetic products cut by fractures and veins and/or stylolites. With respect to the fractures and veins their orientation and strain characteristics allow to place them into the deformational history of the area under investigation, while with respect to the stylolites often two major types can be differentiated. The first set consists of bed parallel stylolites which are compactional in origin (Bathurst, 1995). They generally develop from burial depths >600-

800m depending on lithology type. The second set consists of tectonic stylolites, which normally are oriented perpendicular to the sedimentary layering (Whitaker and Bartolomew, 1999). Tectonic stylolites relate to parallel shortening during tectonic compression and develop immediately prior to thrust emplacement. Detailed knowledge of the geodynamic evolution of the study area thus allows to put so time constraints on the otherwise relative paragenetic sequence. Based on the crosscutting relationship with the stylolites, in each of the studied FFTBs, the paragenesis can be split up in several main diagenetic phases, i.e. a (i) pre-bed parallel stylolite (BPS) phase, (ii) post-BPS but pre- tectonic stylolite (TS) phase and (iii) post-TS phase. Early diagenesis regularly starts with marine burial or meteoric phreatic biomoldic porosity development due to the dissolution of aragonitic bioclasts, followed or preceded by marine phreatic cementation and/or meteoric calcite cementation. Of major importance is here the development of framework stabelising cements (especially syntaxial cements) around specific nucleation sites such as crinoids and rudist fragments. The latter may counteract (burial as well as tectonic) compaction, at least if they are not so dominant that the entire pore system becomes blocked by this early fabric selective cementation event. Evaporite related stratabound dolomites, reflux or shallow burial dolomites are often important diagenetic products possessing and preserving important porosity in platform settings. Especially in situations where some of the bioclasts have not been dolomitised, because of their impermeable calcitic fabric (e.g. rudists, crinoids, stromatoporoids, ), and where subsequent during FFTB evolution selective dissolution of the calcitic constituents occurred, important secondary porosity may have developed. Paleokarst horizons predictable from a sequence stratigraphic or regional tectonic point of view are potential major horizons with well connected vug porosity which during subsequent diagenetic stages may become reactivated by preferential fluid flow such as in the forebulge structural situation of an emerging FFTB. In all FFTB systems studied, the fracturing history can be split up into the three previously mentioned episodes. The pre-BPS veins are often small sized features associated with normal faulting, in relation to the foreland evolution. These veins nearly always possess the same CLfabric, and similar stable isotope and Sr87/Sr86 signature as their host rocks testifying of rock buffering (Kenis et al., 2000). In some cases, the depleted 13C signatures of some veins (up to -10 ) testify of the infiltration of karst related meteoric fluids (Ferket et al., 2003). The latter are often easily recognisable by the solution enlarged nature of the veins, and a CL fabric which reflects a change towards more reducing diagenetic settings. In all studied areas these veins are characterised by the development of cleavage twinning, which testify of subsequent tectonic strain. The post-BPS to pre-TS veins are regularly characterised by the development of different systems of hydraulic and crack and seal (C&S) fracturing. In some of the cases studied more then 50 C&S fracturing stages have been be recognised. These fracture systems testify of some overpressuring which is linked to squeegee type of fluid expulsion towards the foreland at the onset of tectonic compression. Their similar luminescence as the host rock supports again a host rock buffering, or point to a pervasive recrystallisation of the host rock. At this stage also some veins develop which are filled by blocky calcite (with cleavage twinning). The latter often possess depleted 18O signatures which best can be explained by precipitation at elevated temperatures, a features also supported by the elevated Th temperatures of their fluid inclusions. With regard to Tm saline as well as non saline fluids have been identified. The 13C signatures of these veins are generally in equilibrium with their host rock or display a slight depletion due to some temperature fractionation effect in those cases where precipitation occurred at elevated temperature (>100C). In some cases some fracture compartmentalisation has been

recognised, i.e. specific fractures only occur along the hanging or footwall of a normal fault (e.g. Breesch et al., 2009). Of major importance is that the hydraulic fracturing may also cause fracturing of the sealing rocks, as studied in detail in the Cretaceous carbonates of the Cordoba Platform (Mexico) explaining major reservoir leakage in one of the affected thrust sheets. Bacterial mediated crenulated calcite cements, possessing depleted 13Cvalues, as low as -30 , testify of the involvement of oxidation of methane as a major carbon source. In the Mexico-Cordoba case the Sr87/Sr86-ratios of these calcites, with values between 0.70769 and 0.70793, support an Eocene-Oligocene age, corresponding to the major period of oil migration as modelled by kinematic modelling. Obviously, the majority of the fracture systems are syn- to post-tectonic in origin. Often a differentiation between non-ferroan rock buffered and ferroan exotic fluid flow system can be made. Because the latter are often not in chemical or thermal equilibrium with the host rock they can generate important secondary porosity. A peculiar type of diagenetic event is the development of hydrothermal dolomites which testify of fluid flow induced by earth quakes (Swennen et al., in press). Here a cyclic succession of fracturing, dissolution and subsequent cementation/dolomite replacement can be differentiated. Another criterion to differentiate fracture types is on texture, whereby the presence of cleavage planes indicates that the fractures have been deformed after cementation, while if these cleavage twin planes are absent the cementation clearly post dates tectonic deformation. In the latter case the stable carbon, oxygen, and Sr isotope data often support the involvement of meteoric derived fluids, testifying of a telogenetic regime. In general it can be stated that most FFTB systems are characterised by low fluda fluxes (see also Machel and Cavell, 1999; Muchez et al., 2000) and only at places where focalised flow occurs massive diagenetic bodies can be involved in the diagenetic transformations. Fluid flows that might generate important secondary porosity relate to hydrothermal karstification, mixing corrosion and thermal sulphate reduction. The latter is easily to proof based on the presence of peculiar mineral phases (e.g. native sulphur, saddle dolomite and bright luminescent blocky calcite; very depleted 13Cvalues & depleted 18Ovalues), however the former two processes often remain speculative. Another common phenomenon is that some of these fluid paths have been reused several times. This might explain why indications of MVTmineralisations often have been recognised next to the coarse crystalline dolomites (e.g. Kicking-Horse and Monarch mineralisations, Canadian Cordillera, Swennen et al., 2003; Variscan MVT deposits in Belgium; Swennen, 1986) or hydrothermal columnar calcites along sequence boundaries at the northern Variscan front in Belgium (Nielsen et al., 2003). Unfortunately it is unclear whether the chemical principles of "cooling of formation waters" also could play a role in "thrust emplacement cooling" during tectonic deformation. In conclusion, it seems feasible from these studies to predict to some extent the different episodes of fluid flow. Therefore, a diagenetic module should be added to the kinematic modelling. In this respect the "Ceres" PVTX modelling developed at the Institut Franais du Ptrole is a very promising development.
Acknowledgements: The author likes to thank his former collaborators (see reference list) and F. Roure, J.-L. Faure, W. Sassi, (IFP), K. Osadetz (Geol. Survey of Canada), P. Robion (Cergy-Pontoise), T. Jaswal and K. Akhtar (OGCD-Pakistan) for their help. M. Joachimski (Erlangen, Germany) is thanked for the stable isotope analysis. The authors would like to thank H. Nijs and D. Coetermans for thin-section preparation and chemical analysis, respectively. The Canadian part of this study was financed by the BOF K.U. Leuven, while the Albanian study is supported by a research grant from the Fund of Scientific Research in Flanders (Belgium).

References:
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