2013.02 Journal of Literature and Art Studies

Journal of Literature and Art Studies
Volume 3, Number 2, February 2013 (Serial Number 15)
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Publication Information: Journal of Literature and Art Studies is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2159-5836) and online (ISSN 2159-5844) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: Journal of Literature and Art Studies, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of researches on literature studies, art theory, appreciation of arts, culture and history of arts and other latest findings and achievements from experts and scholars all over the world. Editorial Board Members: Eric J. Abbey, Oakland Community College, USA Andrea Greenbaum, Barry University, USA Punam Madhok, East Carolina University, USA Carolina Conte, Jacksonville University, USA H. S. Komalesha, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India Mary Harden, Western Oregon University, USA Lisa Socrates, University of London, United Kingdom Herman Jiesamfoek, City University of New York, USA Maria OConnell, Texas Tech University, USA Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web Submission, or E-mail to literature.art@davidpublishing.org, art.literature@yahoo.com. Submission guidelines and Web Submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.org, www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731 Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: literature.art@davidpublishing.org, art.literature@yahoo.com Copyright2013 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation, however, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLC Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. Ulrichs Periodicals Directory LLBA Database of ProQuest Summon Serials Solutions Subscription Information: Price (per year): Print $420 Online $300 Print and Online $560 David Publishing Company 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731 Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082. Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: order@davidpublishing.com
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DA VID PUBLISHING
David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com
Journal of Literature and Art Studies

Volume 3, Number 2, February 2013 (Serial Number 15)
Contents
Literature Studies
Media Representing Shakespeare: Adaptation, Inter-Textuality, and Gender Iris Hsin-chun Tuan The Beethoven FriezeKlimts Knight and the Disease of the Modern Man Antonela Corban Davenants The Siege of Rhodes: Islam, Heroism and Solyman the Magnificent Samia AL-Shayban Korean Wave: Towards Regional Cultural Diffusion? Seiko Yasumoto The Influence of Anima in Edgar Allen Poe LIU Jun-min 113 101 91 80 71
Art Studies
The Social Function of Art in the Macedonian Contemporary Society Antoanela Petkovska 118
Special Research
Physiological Analysis for Universal Design of Public Seat Under Diverse Conditions Takeshi Kitamura, Takeo Kato, Koichiro Sato, Yoshiyuki Matsuoka 125
Journal of Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836 February 2013, Vol. 3, No. 2, 71-79
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Media Representing Shakespeare: Adaptation, Inter-Textuality, and Gender

Iris Hsin-chun Tuan
National Chiao Tung University, Xinzhu, Taiwan
Applying the theory of adaptation, Feminism, and Performance Studies, this paper explores the adaptation, inter-textuality, and gender in the three films The Tempest (2010) directed by Julie Taymor, Prosperos Books (1991) directed by Peter Greenaway, and Shakespeare in Love (1998) directed by John Madden, referenced to Gnomeo and Juliet (2011), a cartoon animation. Both films of The Tempest show visual spectacle and technology images by CGI (Computer-Generated Cinematic Graphic Image) effect. The author argues the power struggle between Caliban and Prospero played by actress Helen Mirren, changes from post-colonial discourse in the male domain, to be more about the intellect contest between man and woman, and Taymors adaptation is more focused on maternity than actor John Gielguds on politics. Inter-textuality exists in Shakespeare in Love and Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, and Twelfth Night. Unlike the tragedy in the films, Gnomeo and Juliet ends happily as we can expect from most musicals and fairy tales. The inter-textuality of literature and art, dramatic plays, historical events, and biographical sketches are delicately intertwined. Media represent Shakespeare applied by Jean Baudrillards simulacra and Richard Schechners simulation to present the liminal threshold between reality, role-playing, and theatricality. Shakespeare represented by media rise to visual narratives. Keywords: media, Shakespeare, The Tempest, Prosperos Books, Shakespeare in Love, Gnomeo and Juliet
Introduction
Prospero: We are such stuff as dreams are made on, and our little lives are rounded with a sleep. (Shakespeare, The Tempest)
Shakespearean texts travel to new territories, and go across media. Performance media continue to blur the boundary dividing live theatre and film in multi-media stage productions become increasingly porous. With regard to the continued expansion of electronic editing and the Internet, applying the theory of adaptation, Feminism, and media studies, this paper explores the adaptation, inter-textuality, and gender in William Shakespeares plays The Tempest and Romeo and Juliet, and examines the different media between theater performances, films, animations, and YouTube. Shakespearean research can gain popularity and access to by the media, such as broadcast, film and theatre, and especially by television.1 Auslander (2008, pp. 13-14)
Iris Hsin-chun Tuan, associate professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Chiao Tung University. For instance, the papers and books related to media and Shakespeare, such as Lend Me Your Ear: Sampling BBC Radio Shakespeare, Shakespeare and British Television, Local Habitation and a Name: Television and Shakespeare, Unmooring the Moor: Researching and Teaching on YouTube, Global Shakespeare 2.0 and the Task of the Performance Archive, Shakespeare after Mass Media, etc., to name just a few.
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MEDIA REPRESENTING SHAKESPEARE
argued that television annexes the liveness and immediacy of theater, overshadowing it by claims to greater accessibility and convenience. Nowadays in the 21st century, the irresistible liveness and immediacy of theater finds its comparable competitor media, including TV, broadcasting, films, digital media, Internet, websites, Facebook, Twitter, etc., for their greater accessibility and convenience. Shakespeares cultural value and the cultural hierarchy of book or stage are transformed into the new meaning of the implications in the narratives of value associated with digital media (Rumbold, 2011, p. 314). The positive sides of Internet in interactivity, creativity, and participation have altered the previous relationship of replacing Shakespeare as the author vs. the passive readers/spectators by Shakespeare as a media script vs. the active users. By playing the online games, such as role-play in the Second Life, leaving messages in the Facebook of the four organizationsthe RSC (Royal Shakespeare Company), Shakespeares Globe, and the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, the British Library, the creative users can have interactive experiences. Shakespeares work is only legitimately produced as literary text (and perhaps also live theatre), while all other forms of media productions are inherently adaptation to represent Shakespeares work. Kidnie (2009) in Adapting Media in Shakespeare and the Problem of Adaptation indicated:
If ones idea of Shakespearean theatre is technologically minimalist, essentially defined by two planks and a passion, then a staging such as Lepages that relies heavily on computerized sets and electronic wonders will seem, at best, far from the heart of what one considers the authentic work. (p. 103)
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Applying the theory of adaptation, Feminism, and media studies, this paper explores the adaptation, inter-textuality, and gender in Shakespeares two plays The Tempest and Romeo and Juliet, and examines the different media between theater performances, films, animations, and YouTube. The four media cases include the films The Tempest (2010) directed by Julie Taymor, Prosperos Books (1991) directed by Peter Greenaway, Shakespeare in Love (1998), and Gnomeo and Juliet (2011), a cartoon animation, advertized an epic tale on a tiny scale. The theme of this paper is to use the above case studies to prove that Shakespeares cultural value can be elevated in the 21st century by media representation.
Case Studies
The Film The Tempest (2010) Directed by Julie Taymor In terms of adaptation and gender, the protagonist Prospero, a male character in Shakespeares original play, in Julie Taymors adaptation film is changed to be a female played by the actress Helen Mirren. Julie Taymor (born December 15, 1952) is an American director of theater, opera, and film. Shakespeares epic play is translated from page to screen, with the gender of the main character, Prospero, changed from male to female. Oscar award actress Helen Mirren played the lead role in Julie Taymors Tempest. In Julie Taymors version of The Tempest, the main character is now a woman named Prospera. Going back to the 16th and the 17th century, women practicing the magical arts of alchemy were often convicted of witchcraft.3 In Taymors adaptation version, Prospera is usurped by her brother and sent off with her four-year daughter on a ship. She ends up on an island; it is a tabula rasa: No society, so the mother figure becomes a father figure to Miranda. This leads to
The quotation is from Charles Spencers review of Robert Lepages non-performance of Elsinore at the Edinburgh Festival (When the machinery stops the show, Daily Telegraph, August 15, 1996). 3 For example, the Witch-Hunt historical events were happened in the witchcraft trials in Salem in Boston in 1692. For reference, there are books; Marc Aronson points out some mistaken stories such as the voodoo-inspired magic in the book Witch-Hunt: Mysteries of the Salem Witch Trials (2003). Bernard Rosenthal juxtaposes American culture has mythologized the events of 1692 by means of analyzing the surviving primary documentation in his book Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (1993).
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the power struggle and balance between Caliban and Prospera; a struggle not about brawn, but about intellect. The author argues that the power struggle between Caliban and Prospero, therefore, changes from primitive vs. cultivated or nature vs. art in the post-colonial discourse in the male domain, to be more about the intellect contest between man and woman, and Taymors adaptation is more focused on maternity than Gielguds on politics. In terms of performance, the author thinks that Helen Mirren plays the role of Prospera well as a banished and wronged duchess from Italy with her mind full of vengeance by employing powerful magic to have two enslaved sprites, Ariel and Caliban at her disposal and also as a strong stoical single mother, raising a lovely young daughter (played by Felicity Jones) on the isolated island by herself. In gender performance, the actor Ben Whishaw played the role of Ariel adeptly in a transgender way.4 Especially in the scene, when Prospera asks Ariel to prepare for her performance so as to demonstrate Prosperas powerful magic to Ferdinand,5 Ben Whishaw playing Ariels nice high-pitch singing and his reflections by CGI (Computer-Generated Cinematic Graphic Image) in sea and sky enforce the splendid magic. In modern technology, not just Taymors The Tempest uses CGI effects, but also Peter Greenaways Prosperos Books also adopts a lot a CGI special effects and cinematic graphic technology to add the visual aesthetics with multilayered inter-referentiality combined with art, literature, and film. Prosperos Books (1991) Directed by Peter Greenaway Prosperos Books (1991), written and directed by Peter Greenaway, is a cinematic adaptation of William Shakespeares The Tempest. In adaptation and representation, Prosperos Books is innovative in narration and stylistically in cinematography in its techniques, which combines mime, dance, opera, and animation. John Gielgud playing the protagonist role Prospero provides the off-screen narration and the voices to the other characters. Greenaway admits the 24 books of Prosperoan allusion, to cinemas 24 frames per secondprovide a powerful structuring device for the films exploration of the inter-connected materiality of book and cinematic frame (Tribble, 2008, p. 161). Michael Nyman composed the musical score and Karine Saporta choreographed the dance. Edited in Japan, the film makes extensive (and pioneering) use of digital image manipulation (using Hi-Vision video inserts and the Paintbox system), often overlaying multiple moving and still pictures with animations6. Shakespeare has been successfully represented by Media, in this case, the film technology. The visual in the film is extraordinary complex. Claus Schatz-Jacobsen mentioned:
It seems as if Greenaway has been inspired by Prospero-Shakespeares potent magic to pursue every conceivable visual possibility offered by the state of the art in film and television technology Nothing seems finally alien to Greenaways painterly urge to emulate by purely visual means the potent verbal magic of his ideal reflection in the mirror of the Tempest, Prospero-Shakespeare. (as cited in Tribble, 2008, p. 161)
In Greenaways The Tempest, Prosperos magic is aided by the cinematic visual special effects. For example, in the opening scene of The Tempest, the stormy weather with lightening and raged waves in sea hit the ship when Prospero begins to take his premeditated revenge upon his enemies who had usurped his
Ben Whishaws extraordinary acting in the other film Perfume in which he plays the role of series murderer just to make the perfect invincible perfume is impressive. 5 Concerning of reader response, according to the User Review, tcbently (Berkshire, England) in Dame Helen Reigns Supreme posted his ideas about the cast and the director adds CGI effect. Searched on March 6, 2011. 6 Resources from Wikipedia. Searched on March 11, 2012. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosperos_Books.
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kingdom, and put him and his little daughter in danger to intend to kill them. Greenaways The Tempest combines art, painting with the cinematic graphic images. Tribble (2008) in the abstract of Listening to Prosperos Books in Theatre Survey pointed out:
While it is of course correct to call attention to the painterly nature of the film, the contention that it is purely visual represents a misunderstanding of the full implications of its nature which, far from being exclusively visual, depends upon setting into play tensions and potential rivalries among cinematic image, post-production digital image, dialogue, sound and music. (p. 161)
Not just the extensive visual effects in Prosperos Books, but also the abundant CGI onscreen and off-screen images, sound and music for the director, and the production groups selection use. In Prosperos Books, Greenaway makes use of mirrors to reveal what goes on behind the camera, breaking, in this way, with the cinematographic illusion and with the narrative schemes of traditional cinema (Guimares & Luiza, 2011, pp. 103-104). The cinema camera leading the audiences eyes, like simulacrum, is implicit in every representation. The relations between film as media and Shakespeares plays, taking an example of Prosperos Books (1991) directed by Peter Greenaway, is like Bouchy (2005) pointed out:
But, for Peter Greenaway, the cinema is not a matter of reproduction, of realism or of authenticity. Shakespeares writing was only a starting point to determine a graphic rhythm. It was even more important that this writing be legible since Greenaways main intention was to explore the interactions among the movement of the strokes, the read word, the same word pronounced in voice-off and the image. (p. 9)
Combined with literature and art, as a Shakespeares work of artistic representation, the author argues that this film is beyond Walter Benjamins ideas of authenticity, presence, aura and media reproduction. To go further, this film is involved with inter-textuality, that is, of Shakespeares literature, painting art, and cinematic film. The film is also notable for its extensive use of nudity, reminiscent of the paintings in Mannerism, such as Parmigianinos (1504-1540) Madonna with the long neck, depicting mythological characters. The nude actors and extras represent a realistic cross-section of male and female humanity. Shakespeare in Love (1998) The case that film as media representing Shakespeare can be explained in mixing Shakespeares biological life and Shakespeares two plays in Shakespeare in Love (1998). This film is a British-American comedy film won seven Oscars,7 directed by John Madden, written by Marc Norman and playwright Tom Stoppard. The film depicts a love affair involving playwright William Shakespeare (played by Joseph Fiennes) with Viola de Lesseps (played by Gwyneth Paltrow) at the time when he was writing the play Romeo and the Pirates Daughter (later Romeo and Juliet). In the end, his unfulfilled love affair inspires Shakespeare to begin to write Twelfth Night. Though several of the characters are based on real people, the story is a fiction. In terms of inter-textuality, many of the characters, lines, and plot devices are references and inter-related to Shakespeares plays. For example, Viola (disguised as Kent) has to marry Wessex, a noble to sail with him to the Colony of Virginia, the spelling of the land is similar to the historical inter-textuality of Virgin Queen. Besides, the Queen (played by Judi Dench), as one of the audiences who watched the performance Romeo and Juliet moved by the real passionate feelings of the two lovers (Shakespeare and Viola), states that Romeo and Juliet has accurately
7
The Oscar Awards got including Best Picture, Best Actress, and Best Supporting Actress.
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portrayed true love so Wessex must pay Shakespeare 50 as they bet. In terms of inter-textuality related with the historical document, that is the exact amount, which Shakespeare requires to buy a share in the Lord Chamberlains Men, from then on continues his career development. Film director and playwright swiftly designed to let the Queen directs Kent (disguised by Viola) to tell Shakespeare to write something a little more cheerful next time, for Twelfth Night, which, the author thinks smartly intertwined to make the inter-textuality between the two playsRomeo and Juliet and Twelfth Night. The film closes as Shakespeare begins to write Twelfth Night, or What You Will imagining his love Viola washed ashore in a strange land after a shipwreck and musing, For she will be my heroine for all time, and her name will be Viola said by the actor in the film, inter-textuality to also design his character as a strong young woman castaway who disguises herself as a young man. Besides, interweaving of history and fiction in this romantic film intertwines the intriguing inter-textuality of linking Shakespeares biological theater career with his two plays. In addition, the author thinks that this film also explores the custom at the Elizabeth era that women are banned from the stage, and the cross-dressing (Viola disguised as Kent to act on stage, and Shakespeare dons a womans disguise to accompany Viola to the court). While in the film Shakespeare in Love the director fictionally adapts Shakespeares falling into love while he was writing the play Romeo and the Pirates Daughter (later Romeo and Juliet), in the 21st century, the cartoon animation Gnomeo and Juliet popularizes but not so much simplifies Shakespeares complex adult tragedy. Gnomeo and Juliet (2011), a Cartoon Animation Film Different from Baz Luhrmanns film, Romeo and Juliet (1996) starred by true human cast (lead Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes), Gnomeo and Juliet (2011) is a British computer-animated family comedy film based on Shakespeares play Romeo and Juliet. Gnomeo and Juliet, a cartoon animation film, directed by Kelly Asbury, and the two main characters are voiced by James McAvoy and Emily Blunt, is advertized an epic tale on a tiny scale. In adaptation, the plot is that Mrs. Montague and Mr. Capulet (voiced by Julie Walters and Richard Wilson) are two elderly neighbors who despise each other. When they leave the garden, objects come alive in both their gardens. The Montague garden is filled with blue garden gnomes, and the Capulet garden houses red garden gnomes. Later, both blue and red gnomes attend a lawnmower race. The representative of the blues is Gnomeo (voiced by James McAvoy) to go against with his feud enemy, representing the reds is Tybalt (voiced by Jason Statham), Juliets cousin. In a comparison, unlike the tragic ending of the lovers death in Romeo and Juliet, and the doomed fate of the love affair and the sad farewell in Shakespeare in Love, this computer-animated family comedy film Gnomeo and Juliet ends happily with the red and blue gnomes finally coming together to celebrate their newfound peace. As Gnomeo and Juliet is a cartoon for children and family, no real death as it is in Shakespeares play Romeo and Juliet and all of those true human cast films, which are faithfully presented what Shakespeares play says. Tybalt is also revealed to still be alive by having been glued back together. And presumably Tybalt is changed to have a more pleasant disposition. In the end of the film, Featherstone, the Flamenco bird as the supporting character in the complementary adaptation subplot which explains the feud reason of their masters divorce, is also reunited with his girlfriend after Benny finds her online and orders her back home. Meanwhile, Gnomeo and Juliet get married on a purple lawnmower, which symbolizes the new
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union of both gnome clans. Happy ending as we can expect from the cute and sweet cartoon adapted from Shakespeares original romantic tragedy Romeo and Juliet. In modern media technology representation, though the gnomes are little, however, the film is not simple. This film animation is designed by the complexity of cartoon cinematic graphics movements simulated with real human actions by computer modeling. To draw the similarity between these films representing Shakespeare, to echo it in The Tempest as Prospero says: We are such stuff/As dreams are made on; and our little life/Is rounded with a sleep (Act 4, Scene 1, Lines 157-159), the author thinks our little lives are made as they are magic in Shakespeares The Tempest, and also are played by God as if the Fairy King Oberon asks Puck to dip the magic herb juice from Cupids flower love-in-idleness in our dreams in sleep as Puck did on the lovers eyelids in A Midsummer Nights Dream (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 165-173), and epitomized as our simple sweet dream come true by the little gnomes in Gnomeo and Juliet, an epic tale on a tiny scale.
Media and Inter-Textuality

As pointed out earlier in this paper, in Taymors adaptation film, the protagonist Prospero, a male character in Shakespeares original play, is changed to be a female played by the actress Helen Mirren. The author argues that the power struggle between Caliban and Prospero, therefore, changes from primitive vs. cultivated or nature vs. art in the post-colonial discourse in the male domain, to be more about the intellect contest between man and woman, and Taymors adaptation is more focused on maternity than Gielguds on politics. In media representation, compared with the actor John Gielgud previously played the role of Prospero in director Greenaways film Prosperos Books. The actress Helen Mirren playing the role of Prospera in director Julie Taymors The Tempest is being emphasized on her maternal mothers love. Therefore, the authors point is that after 12 years, Prospera plans her revenge not only just to get her kingdom back from her betrayed brother as the plot is in Shakespeares original play, but also further to find a good marriage for her adult daughter Miranda with the noble Ferdinand as a mothers wish.8 In a comparison of media adaptation of Shakespeares The Tempest, both of the two filmsThe Tempest and Prosperos Books show the visual spectacle and technology images done by CGI effect. Compared with the actor John Gielgud previously played the role of Prospero in director Greenaways film Prosperos Books. In Taymors The Tempest, the actress Helen Mirren playing Prosperas magic is executed by Ariels beautiful singing in the sky, transformation under the sea currents, invisible and fast movement in the forest, and metamorphosis into the fierce hunting dogs tracing Caliban, and the drunken fat and drag queen sailors. In Greenaways Prosperos Books, Prosperos strong magic is expressed by the fabulous astonishing visual effects consisted of the cinematic graphic effect in the setting of the marvelous palace-like grand cave and his treasure-like knowledge library. Comparing the different media visual representing Shakespeare, just as Donaldson (2008) in the abstract of Bottom and the gramophone: Media, class and comedy in Michael Hoffmans A Midsummer Nights Dream published in Shakespeare Survey pointed out:
Not all of these films imply a narrative exclusively concerned with cinemainstead they often suggest journeys across mediafrom page or stage to screen, to be sure, but also, for example, from book to the magically animated and animating volumes in Prosperos collection in the Greenaway film, or from toy analogue video camera to complex digital
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In the theatre production The Tempest directed by Declan Donnellan and staged in Taiwan (February 17-19, National Theater in Taipei; February 25, Kaohsiung), the old professor who plays the role of Prospero also expresses his love as a father to concern about seeking for his daughter happy marriage to be one of the reasons that he contrives this revenge plan.
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editing suite in Almereydas Hamlet or, in the case of Luhrmanns Romeo + Juliet, in the blending of many media, including billboards, newspapers and newsmagazines, and broadcast television into a ubiquitous, reality-challenging array of simulacra. (p. 23)
The author agrees with Donaldsons view by offering some additional ideas. Journeys go across media not only from page or stage but also to cinema. Media include television, film, broadcast, newspaper, and Internet. Originated from Jean Baudrilliards theory of simulacra in postmodernism, the author would like to apply Schechners (2002) idea of simulation to analyzing these media cases in Performance Studies:
Simulation as the concept continues to evolve in the twenty-first century is closely related to reality television and Internet sites. A simulation is neither a pretense nor an imitation. It is a replication of itself as another. That makes simulations perfect performatives. (p. 117)
Therefore, in the authors view, Shakespeare in theatre studies has been explored from Aristotles Mimesis, experienced Ibsens and Russian Stanislavskis Realism, to be nowadays what Jean Baudrillards concept of simulation. Connecting simulation with performatives in Postmodernism and Performance Studies, in the 21st century, beyond postmodern, the new term globalocality makes media visualize Shakespeare in a hyper-reality cultural phenomenon; in other words, the author thinks, it is its own pure simulacrum.9 Media representing Shakespeare, Shakespearean studies are paying attention to Shakespeares exportation to the virtual world (Burt, 2002, pp. 1-32; Desmet, 2008, pp. 227-238; Holland, 2009, pp. 252-262). As Rumbold (2011) suggested, Shakespeares growing press in new media forms, from YouTube to Second Life, is increasingly being investigated as a twenty-first-century extension of the phenomenon of Shakespeares appropriation and adaption in mass media, previously concerned primarily with film and television (p. 313). Now new technology changes to add digital media, such as the interactive online video games. As Nakamura (2008) in Digitizing Race mentioned: It is a widely accepted notion that media interactivity is power (p. 176). In educational purpose, YouTube videos also have helped a lot in teaching theater courses including the theater performance adapted from Shakespeare and doing research. In the authors perspective, media are full of inter-textuality, which combines literature, cinema, and art, that is, with mages, allusions, paintings, and art homage. For example, in Prosperos Books, The sequence of acts and scenes follows the successive and chronological presentation of the twenty-four books that form Prosperos library (Guimares & Luiza, 2011, p. 100). To support the authors idea, similar academic proof can be provided by Guimares and Luiza (2011) in the journal paper Prosperos Books: Peter Greenaways Intersemiotic Transcreation of Shakespeare indicated:
In the compositional process of scenes and settings, paintings by Botticelli, Rubens and Raphael Sanzio are transcribed by the filmmaker, with striking similarity, among other visual appropriations or quotations. In Florence Bessons words, The Tempest in Prosperos library is blown by the Boticelli winds (from The Birth of Venus), the library itself pays homage to Michelangelos Laurenziana Library, and Prosperos writing room comes from St Jeromes by Da Messina (2006). In their turn, the Baroque canvases, ornamented with figures, flowers and fruit, like those of Rubens in the Louvre on Maria de Medicis life function, according to Gorostiza (1995, p. 167), to furnish the interior. (p. 108)
According to Jean Baudrillards postmodernism theory of Simulation in Simulations, these are the successive phases of the image: (1) It is the reflection of a basic reality; (2) It makes and perverts a basic reality; (3) It masks the absence of a basic reality; and (4) It bears no relation to any reality whatever: it is its own pure simulacrum. In the first case, the image is a good appearancethe representation is of the order of sacrament. In the second, it is an evil appearanceof the order of a spell. In the third, it plays at being an appearanceit is of the order of sorcery. In the fourth, it is no longer in the order of appearance at all, but of simulation (Baudrillard, 1983, pp. 11-12).
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In the authors view, the hyperlink between art Botticellis The Birth of Venus, homage to Michelangelos Library and St Jeromes study writing room is enforced by the visual spectacle of the Baroque interior decoration. The inter-textuality of art, literature, and film are triangle closely combined and reinforced by the CGI. The hybrid construction is read by the spectators who get the multi-layered cultural and artistic meanings of inter-textuality and homage.
Conclusions
Media represent Shakespeare applied by Jean Baudrillards simulacra and Richard Schechners simulation in Performance Studies evolves to present the liminal threshold between reality, role-playing, and theatricality intermingled in the documentary movies, for example, Al Pacinos Looking for Richard (2006), reality TV shows, YouTube, and the Internet sites. The media between theater, film, animation, television, broadcast, and YouTube are similar in all with stories, offering entertainment and education, but different in representation methods via different interfaces and technology. The relationship between theatre and film is like mother and child. Animation is one type of films. By the modern technology of computer and Internet, YouTube film clips provide us with free and accessible visual and audio pleasure. Shakespearean research gets popular by the above media. Representing Shakespeare via media makes Shakespearean research beneficial in the aspects of multiculturalism and cultural transnationalism. Media themes rise to the level of subject matter as visual narratives. In this aspect, Donaldson (2008) pointed out media themes are vying for attention with and sometimes supplanting the story line of the source play to such an extent that one may think of them as media fables or media allegories as well as Shakespeare adaptations (pp. 23-35). Shakespeare adaptations, the author thinks, can be literally done by story variations, deconstruction, and recreation. And the media technology can also definitely aid the verbal and written literature of Shakespeare to tell the story better in the contemporary adaptation sense by the utilization of audiovisual culture, inter-textuality, hyper-cultural referentiality, and modern technology. Shakespeare is represented by media, such as theater, cinema, visual arts, electronic technology, computer graphics, digital media coverage, online interactive games, YouTube film clips, iPad electronic books, smart phone app software, and other different media with the advance of modern technology. Representing Shakespeare via media and digital archive makes Shakespearean research have more cultural production and transnational knowledge in the sense of cultural creative industry, written, verbal, visual, audio, literature, art and the whole globalocality.
References
Appleton, M. (Ed.). (1883). Shakespeariana: A critical and contemporary review of Shakespearian literature. American Periodicals, 1883-1893. Asbury, K. (Director). (2011). Gnomeo and Juliet [Motion picture]. Writers: A. Riley, K. Cecil, M. Burton, E. Cook, K. Greenberg, S. H. Shaw, & K. Asbury; from a story by R. Sprackling, J. R. Smith, A. Riley, K. Cecil, & S. H. Shaw; and from an original screenplay by R. Sprackling & J. R. Smith (Based on Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare). US: Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. Auslander, P. (2008). Liveness: Performance in a mediatized culture (2nd ed.). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Baudrillard, J. (1983). The orders of simulacra. Simulations. USA: Foreign Agents Series. Bouchy, K. (2005). Lets make a renewal: Repetition, multiplicate, bifurcations: Les strategies de Peter Greenaway. Image and Narrative. Retrieved from http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/tulseluper/bouchy.htm Burt, R. (Ed.). (2002). Introduction. Shakespeare after mass media (pp. 1-32). New York: Palgrave. Cunningham, D. (Producer), & Greenaway, P. (Director). (1991). Prosperos books [Motion picture]. United Kingdom: PRT Studios and Abbey Road Studios.
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Desmet, C. (2008). Paying attention in Shakespeare parody: From Tom Stoppard to YouTube. Shakespeare Survey (Vol. 61, pp. 227-238). Donaldson, P. (2008). Bottom and the gramophone: Media, class and comedy in Michael Hoffmans A Midsummer Nights Dream. Shakespeare Survey: Shakespeare, Sound and Screen, 61, 23-35. Guimares, C. H., & Luiza, M. A. (2011). Prosperos books: Peter Greenaways intersemiotic transcreation of Shakespeare. Scrupta Uniandrade, 9(2), 97-114. Hara, M. (Producer), & Taymor, J. (Director). (2010). The tempest [Motion picture]. Screenplay by J. Taymor. (Based on The Tempest by William Shakespeare). United States: Touchstone Pictures. Holland, P. (2009). Performing Shakespeare for the web community. In A. C. Y. HUANG & S. R. Charles (Eds.), Shakespeare in Hollywood, Asia, and Cyberspace. West Lafayette, I.N.: Purdue University Press. HUANG, A. (2011). Global Shakespeare 2.0 and the task of the performance archive. Shakespeare Survey (Vol. 64): Shakespeare as Cultural Catalyst. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kidnie, M. J. (2009). Shakespeare and the problem of adaptation. London and New York: Routledge. Madden, J. (Director). (1998). Shakespeare in love [Motion picture]. (Written by M. Norman & T. Stoppard). US: Miramax Films; UK: Alliance Atlantis; Worldwide: Universal Studios. Nakamura, L. (2008). Digitizing race: Visual cultures of the Internet. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Rosenthal, B. (1993). Salem story: Reading the witch trials of 1692. New York: Cambridge University Press. Rumbold, K. (2011). From access to creativity: Shakespeare institutions, new media, and the language of cultural value. Shakespeare Quarterly, 313-336. Schechner, R. (2002). Simulation. Performance studies: An introduction. London and New York: Routledge. Shakespeare, W. (1592-1593). Richard III. The Ultimate Free Shakespeare Resource. Retrieved from PlayShakespeare.com Shakespeare, W. (1594-1596). Romeo and Juliet. The Ultimate Free Shakespeare Resource. Retrieved from PlayShakespeare.com Shakespeare, W. (1595-1596). A midsummer nights dream. The Ultimate Free Shakespeare Resource. Retrieved from PlayShakespeare.com Shakespeare, W. (1601-1602). Twelfth night. The Ultimate Free Shakespeare Resource. Retrieved from PlayShakespeare.com Shakespeare, W. (1988). The tempest. The Riverside Shakespeare (Authorized Taiwan ed.). Taipei: Bookman. Thompson, A. (2011). Unmooring the Moor: Researching and teaching on YouTube. Shakespeare Quarterly, 337-356. Tribble, E. (2008). Listening to Prosperos books. In P. Holland (Ed.), Shakespeare survey (Vol. 61): Shakespeare, sound and screen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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The Beethoven FriezeKlimts Knight and the Disease of the Modern Man*
Antonela Corban
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Jassy, Romania The motif of the knight is frequently used in medieval art; it has made a surprising comeback in the 19th century through artists, such as the Pre-Raphaelites or the Viennese artists at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. Gustav Klimt interprets this motif in a very personal manner, which throws a totally different light on the status of the knight than traditional interpretations. The aim of this paper is to indicate and analyze the very features that make Klimts knight different from that established through the historic, literary, and artistic canons and reveal it as closer to Nietzsches modern manafflicted by the malady that the philosopher diagnoses and whose symptoms he describes as follows: A weakened personality, and the absence of a strong will, associated with the specific age and culture. Keywords: knight, chivalric ideal, the malady of the modern man, allegorical scheme
The Beethoven FriezeLevels of Interpretation

The Beethoven Frieze is a fairly complex work inspired from several sources, which can lead to several layers of interpretation (whose origins can be traced in the works of Schiller, Wagner, and Nietzsche). It is equally a mixture of manners of representation (we have in mind the influences of artists such as Mackintosh, J. Toorop, Hodler, F. Knopff, and Rodin), as well as various techniques and materials used by Klimt (plaster stucco, casein paint, tacks, coloured glass, fragments of mirrors, and gilding), to which his personal vision and the unique style are added. Even if the frieze has several layers of meaning, the most obvious one is related to Beethoven, the subject of Max Klingers sculpture. As a matter of fact, the entire exhibition of the 1902 Viennese Secession was organized around this monumental piece. The fact that Klimt used quotes from Schillers (and Beethovens) Ode to Joy on the cover of the exhibition catalogue made many interpreters suggest that the frieze could be read as a visual representation of the Ninth Symphony. Especially so since both the frieze and the symphony imply a three-stage journey: On the one hand, in the musical composition, the advance of the spirit goes through despair, illusion, and finally religious hope (Rolland, 1962, p. 148); on the other hand, in the composition of the frieze, the artistHeros path first has to cross a territory of human despair and of illusion in the heros power to save the world; the second stage is his impotence when confronted by the hostile forces; and the third stage is the hope that the arts can provide.
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Acknowledgements: This study is the result of a research activity financed by the project POSDRU/89/1.5/S/49944 (Developing the Innovation Capacity and Improving the Impact of Research Through Post-doctoral Programmes). Antonela Corban, associate professor, Department of Philosophy, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University.
KLIMTS KNIGHT AND THE DISEASE OF THE MODERN MAN
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A second source of inspiration in the creation of the frieze could be Wagners essays of 1846 and 1870, in which he comments on the Ninth Symphony. The musician described (1846) the first movement of the symphony as built on a Titanesque struggle of the soul, on a thirst for joy against all the forces that oppose us and strive to raise a barrier between us and earthly happiness. At a philosophical level, Klimts frieze is closer to Wagners essay of 1870, in which the latter also introduces Schopenhauers ideas regarding the revelation of will (Bouillon, 1986, p. 26). The last source of inspiration to mention, equally important, is Nietzsches ideas of the role of art and of the artists as they are presented in BT (The Birth of Tragedy) (1999). In the Preface, he praises Wagners essay on Beethoven, emphasizing that his own text was written in about the same period. He then takes the opportunity to refer to this topic in the very first paragraph:
If someone were to transform Beethovens Ode to Joy into a painting and not restrain his imagination when millions of people sink dramatically into the dust, then we could come close to the Dionysian. Now is the slave a free man, now all the stiff, hostile barriers break apart, those things which necessity and arbitrary power or saucy fashion have established between men. [] Singing and dancing, man expresses himself as a member of a higher unity. He has forgotten how to walk and talk and is on the verge of flying up into the air as he dances. (Nietzsche, 1999, chapter 1)
However, it must be said that in the iconography of the frieze there are details that transcend the sources mentioned. Even if, for example, mankind takes the posture mentioned by Schiller in his Ode to Joy in the following terms (Do you fall on your knees, multitudes?), in the knights countenance one can still recognize the portrait of the composer Gustav Mahler. As Bouillon (1986, p. 47) stated, the likeness was confirmed in 1910 by Klimt himself, on the occasion of the public launching of a collection meant as a tribute to Mahler, published by writer Paul Stefan. For a better overall image of the topicality of the iconography used, we quote the clearest presentation of Klimts work, to be found in the very catalogue of the exhibition:
First long wall, opposite the entrance: the yearning for happiness. The sufferings of feeble humanity: who beseech the well-armed strong one as external, compassion and ambition as the internal, motivational forces, who move the former to take up the struggle for happiness. Narrow wall: the hostile powers. The giant Typhon, against whom even the gods battle in vain; his daughters, the three Gorgons, Sickness, Madness, Death, Lust and Lewdness, Excess. Nagging sorrow. The yearnings and desires of mankind fly over and above, away from these. Second long wall: the yearning for happiness finds gratification in poetry. The arts lead us into the ideal kingdom, where alone we can find pure joy, pure happiness, pure love. Choir of the angels of paradise, Joy, beautiful divine spark. This kiss for the whole world! (Bisanz Prakken, 1984)
Drer, Nietzsche, Klimt, and the Chivalric Ideal

Two persons had a crucial influence in young Nietzsches development. Firstly, his thinking was deeply influenced by Schopenhauers philosophy; this influence can be traced in The Birth of Tragedy, as well as in other fragments he wrote during that period. Secondly, Nietzsche expressed his enthusiasm for Wagners music, of which he believed it could prove to be an expression of the rebirth of Ancient Greek tragedy (it is well known that he placed tragedy in a privileged position in relation with the other arts). Schopenhauers considerations reveal Wagners interest for Drers engravings The Knight, Death and the Devil and Melancholy. Young Nietzsche was in turn fascinated by the former, which he used as an image capable of capturing his professors moral portrait:
Here a desperate, isolated man could not choose a better symbol than the knight with Death and the Devil, as Drer has drawn him for us, the knight in armour with the hard iron gaze, who knows how to make his way along his terrible
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path, without being dismayed at his horrific companions, and yet without any hope, alone with his horse and hound. Such a Drer knight was our Schopenhauer: he lacked all hope, but he wanted the truth. There is no one like him. (BT, chapter 20)
In his notes for The Birth of Tragedy of 1871 he mentions this image which he again associates with Schopenhauer, emphasizing that modern times are in need of a special type of art. Moreover, Drers engraving The Knight, Death and the Devil can indeed be considered a symbol of our existence. It is true that in his mature years, Nietzsche will no longer support this viewpoint regarding his professor, of which he will eventually hold the exact opposite. In one of his letters written in Basel to Malwida von Meysenburg (1875), he even explains how he came to be in the possession of one of the artists engravings:
A local patrician gave me a significant present in the form of genuine Drer print. I rarely derive pleasure from a pictorial representation, but I identify with this image, Knight, Death, and Devil in a way I can hardly explain. In The Birth of Tragedy I compared Schopenhauer to this image, and because of that comparison I received this picture. (as cited in Bertram, 2009, p. 38)
In his turn, Nietzsche himself will be associated with the person in the engraving by Franz Overbeck in a letter of 1871 which the latter sent him: In your expressive portrait you remind me of the bold Drer knight you once showed me. Bertram lists all the instances when Nietzsche mentions his passionate interest for Drer or in which he makes direct or indirect references to the knights motif. The scholar analyzes them in detail, in association with relevant particulars of the philosophers life (Bertram, 2009, pp. 37-55). Drer had dealt with this topic in other works such as The Knight Attacked by Death (1497) or The Armoured Knight (1498); between these two and the previously mentioned one (The Knight, Death and the Devil, 1593), the difference lies at the level of expression. The interpretation given to Drers engraving relies on the idea that the fearless knight embodies the champion for Christ who, in spite of the oncoming dangers awaiting for him, relentlessly pursues perfection, careless of the threatening fleeting emptiness of the Evil and of the world (Durand, 1998, p. 132). Together with the motif of the knight, the leit-motif of death is repeatedly interpreted by the artist as a remainder of mediaeval spirituality. For Klimt, too, Drers art held a special significance, since we trace the motif of the knight in two of his works, Life is a Struggle. The Golden Knight (Das Leben ein Kampf. Der goldene Ritter), 1903, and in the Beethoven Frieze, Yearning for Happiness (Die Sehnsucht nach Glck), 1902. Klimts first encounter with Drer occurred in the early 1880s, when three of Ferdinand Laufbergers pupils copied some of the 16th century engravings in honour of King Franz-Josef. In this way, Klimts first contact with the world of Drer provided him with rich iconographic resources which he was to draw on and develop further at a later date (Nret, 2003, pp. 9-10). In his work, The Golden Knight, the character is represented as the knight riding his dark horse, with his helmet and armour covering his entire body so as not to allow any hint at a physical or moral feature. In Drers work, the knights visor was lifted and his face showed his determination to go on. Klimts knight is represented mainly bi-dimensioanlly and leaves the impression that the armour is empty, that there is actually no one inside, that a hollow armour is fastened to the horses saddle. This decorative representation is in stark contrast with the realistic depiction of the horse. Also, his passage does not seem to be strewn with any dangers. On the contrary, the background is dotted with brightly coloured flowers and a white rose bush stands out. It is true, however, that behind this bush a silhouette looms, almost blending with the background. However, no real
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threat seems to come from that area. So the question arising naturally is: What does the struggle in life consist of in the case of the this knight? Paradoxically, the horse is standing on something resembling a pedestal, in the manner of an equestrian statue or in the manner in which Saint George is represented. The sense of motion is rendered realistically through the horses posture, one leg lifted in the air; however, the animal is at the same time apparently attached to a pedestal whose height we cannot estimate, since it is in the fore-ground. This manner is reminiscent of other works by Klimt, such as the allegory of Sculpture, where the main character, although meant to be a sculpture, seems real due to the way hair is represented. Similarly, the knight in the Beethoven Frieze only appears to have set out on his journey to fight evil. Even if the motif of death is found in several of Klimts works, such as Medicine, Death and Life, and Hope I, however, in the Beethoven Frieze, the knight is not out to fight death, but the hostile forces. In trying to account for the position of Klimts knight, we shall consider Huizingas remark on the model of the knight, in its medieval meaning, that of a redeemer, saviour, defender of the faith, protector of the weak, and the defenseless. A correct understanding of the chivalric ideal implies a merge of elements and features that can be analyzed from various perspectives: religious, ethical, social, esthetic, and affective (Huizinga, 1987, pp. 104-134). As a religious ideal, the knight draws the source of his deed from Archangel Michaels feat, and from the idea of fight for universal peace, associated with the effort to liberate Jerusalem. In the first panel of the Beethoven Frieze, the knight seems to really set out to fight evil and the hostile forces. As an ethic and moral ideal, chivalry ought to imply piety and virtue. However, it commonly falls short of expectations in this respect, ending up by being the exact opposite: (1) The essence of the ideal is haughtiness, elevated to beauty (Huizinga, 1987, p. 67); and (2) Ambition, the sense of honour and the desire for personal glory are conducive rather to the notion of sin (from a Christian perspective). An aspiration for glory and chivalric honour is closely connected to the cult of the hero (an immitation of the model of the ancient heroes or those in the Arthurian cycle). Equally, the emphasis is placed on asceticism: The knight errant is poor and disconnected from his earthly bonds. This is how Nietzsche describes him in The Dawn, chapter 191, also mentioning some of his possible attributes: Pictures of chivalric virtues, strict duty, generous devotion, and heroic self-denial! With Klimt, the problem of the moral model and of asceticism are not even touched upon: The heros crown and armour are made of gold, he is offered the laurel wreath before he takes part in the decisive battle, his back is turned upon the people asking for his help, and in the end he is presented embracing his woman. This seems to complement Nietzsches statement: So what do ascetic ideals mean? In the case of an artist, we know the answer immediately:absolutely nothing! (On the Genealogy of Morals, III, chapter 5). To Nietzsche, however, this ideal is still achievable:
What does it mean when a real philosopher pays homage to the ascetic ideal, a truly independent spirit like Schopenhauer, a man and a knight with an bronze gaze, who is courageous to himself, who knows how to stand alone and does not first wait for a front man and hints from higher up? (Nietzsche, 2009, III, chapter 5)
As a social ideal, chivalry contains a set of critical elements for social life: Chivalry would never have been the ideal of life during several centuries if it had not contained high social values (Huizinga, 1987, p. 106). As an esthetic ideal, chivalry is a model of beautiful life, everything being reduced to the beautiful image of honour and virtue, with noble rules creating the illusion of order. Huizinga (1987, p. 57) identified three ways to accede to a beautiful life: (1) forswearing this world, while life wil be eventually found in a
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different world; (2) righting this world; and (3) the escape from this reality by dreaming. The first and the last ways out of the three are suggested by Klimt through the presence of the dreamlike characters floating about and through the refuge in the garden of pleasures; the second way seems impossible to achieve. In Huizingas (1987) words, the force of this ideal consists of the beautiful exaggeration: the grander the ideal, the bigger the contrast between it and reality. Ultimately, chivalry proves to be a mere vain illusion, a beautiful and spurious game based on fashion and ceremony. Finally, one other element that must be taken into account is the old ideal of chivalric belief in love. In the frieze, there are details conducive to The Romance of the Rose, as the allegory of the rose was a theme frequently used during the mediaeval period and which made a surprising comeback during the art of the 19th century (for example, in painting in the works of the Pre-Raphaelites, especially in those of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, in music by Richard Strauss in his opera Der Rosenkavalier, whose libretto was written by the Austrian writer Hugo von Hofmannsthal). Along the time, the chivalric ideal undergoes various changes, the results of which are the fact that the above-mentioned features lose their force, grow increasingly weaker and each time another layer comes off, which had turned into a lie. With Klimt, all these alterations take the shape of the nude knight who retains none of the features of the medieval model. The hero of the modern age appears stripped of all the old ideals and revealed in his nudity. It seems a circumstamce similar to the one mentioned previously, that of the empty suit of armour, with no knight inside to play the part of the hero (a kind of Cheshire grin without a Cheshire cat in Lewis Carrolls story), only in this case the story is reversed: The knight has no suit of armour and he appears naked.
Klimts Knight and the Disease of the Modern Man

An important part in disseminating Nietzsches ideas in the Viennese cultural world was played by a group of students from the university, known as the Pernerstorfer Circle. Some of the members of the circle were also members of the Leseverein der Deutschen Studenten Wiens (Reading Society of the Viennese German Students) group. Among them, Viktor Adler and Joseph Paneth were the initiators of debates on Nietzsches philosophical work at the unversity, especially on his 1874 work On the Advantage and Disadvantage of History for Life, Untimely Meditation II (Lehrer, Golomb, & Santaniello, 1999, pp. 182-183). Deeply impressed by the third one, Untimely Meditation III, Schopenhauer as Educator, the members of the circle sent Nietzsche a letter in which they collectively expressed their adhesion to the cultural ideal which his work promoted. What is of interest here is Untimely Meditation II (UM, 2), where Nietzsche speaks about the disease of the modern man consisting of his weakened personality (UM, 2, chapter 5). This weakening of the personality is the direct consequence of the gap between mans innwardness and outwardness, between essence and appearance, between form and content. When he makes these remarks, he relates modern man to the ancient man, as this contrast between the inner and the outer was not known by the old peoples. On the contrary, Nietzsche speaks about the harmony between the inner and the outer, between the body and the spirit which the Ancient Greeks, for example, presented in the form of the world of the Olympian gods and through the medium of tragedy. The disease of modern man is associated to the malady of modern culture, in that the weakened personality of modern man is linked to a weakeness in culture. This refers to those cultures based mainly on history or which, in most cases, misuse it. This weakeness is caused, among other things, by the lack of
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consequences, of effects of those cultural traditions which waste themselves in a contemplation of the past, divorced from action and relegated to inwardness (UM, 2, Preface). Modern man lacks precisely that balance between the form and the content, and Nietzsche even speaks about a troubling chasm between the two, the critical gulf (UM, 2, chapters 4, 25). Form has become a mere convention, in other words, it is dissimulation and disguise, while the fractured depth, feeling, and inwardness have been forced to learn to leap, to dance, to use make-up, to express themself with abstraction and calculation and gradually to lose themselves! (UM, 2, chapters 4, 25). Modern man is divided between the inner man and the outer man, while the two dimensions can no longer overlap in order to restore the balance. For the same reason, biologically, modern man represents a contradiction of values, he sits between two stools, he says yea and nay in one breath (Epilogue, CW, p. 51). Which, then, could be the meaning of the disguise, of the fact that it is hiding? The disguise, the act of putting on the mask, presupposes a form which is inadequate to the content. He who adopts it makes an attempt at hiding fear, lack of self-control and of will force, which is the most visible forms of weakness in the modern personality. The historic disease has been conducive to mans impossibility to create history. This impotentia, in Nietzsches terms, is in fact the fear of entering historic responsibilities in the first person, the uncertainty of his own decisions (Vattimo, 2001, p. 21).
As long as man no longer dare trust himself, but, seeking counsel from history about his feelings, asks how am I to fell here, will, from timidity, gradually become an actor and play a role, mostly even many roles and therefore each so badly and superficially. (UM, 2, chapter 5)
This uncertainty of modern man springs from an excess of historic culture in the sense that the expulsion of the instincts by history has almost transformed men into downright abstracts and shadows (UM, 2, chapter 5). Hence, a deeply-felt need for disguise, for putting on conventional masks, some of them frozen in a single expression (BT, chapter 17). In the Beethoven Frieze, helpless mankind places its hopes in the heros ability to deliver, since the world must go forward, that ideal condition cannot be achieved by dreaming, we must fight and struggle to achieve it (UM, 2, chapter 9). The great battle that Klimts hero is left to fight is that against opposing forces. Considering how the storyline unfolds in the three panels of the frieze (as Hofmann remarks, everything is static, narrative in the frieze, 1983, p. 88), we can draw the conclusion that Klimts knight is a representation of modern man, since he seems to suffer from the same malady as Nietzsches modern man, namely a weakened personality (UM, 2, chapter 5). The argument at the basis of this conclusion is that, in his struggle to achieve collective happiness, he no longer places his entire being at stake, no one dares to show his person, instead he disguises himself as a knight, in a way similar to that in which Nietzsches modern man hides behind masks and plays various parts: that of the cultivated person, of the poet, of the scholar, and of the politician. In the frieze, the balance is only apparent: The knight is well-armed and acts as an external force, while Compassion and Ambition (represented allegorically as two female figures) act as two forces from the inside. All this should be an incentive for the felicitous conclusion of the struggle for happiness. The so-called saviour is, however, a diseased man who avoids the great confrontation: The individual has withdrawn into his inner being: externally one discerns nothing of him anymore, as he turns into a walking lie (UM, 2, chapter 5). For this reason, the artist represents the suit of armour in a bi-dimensional, decorative manner,
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while in his work The Golden Knight it can be surmised that the suit of armour is empty inside. The armour in the frieze also looks as if it were empty, even if there is a head for the character, that of the composer Gustav Mahler. The body protected by the armour seems something abstract, a phantom, has no reality of its own. It has only a form, no substance. Since it is entirely decorative, it is more suitable to be placed in an art gallery than in a real life situation. Hence, his role which is rather esthetic than moral or social. Although one of his legs is extended forward as if he were marching, the knight is motionless, leaning against his sword, which seems too large for his powers. It must, however, be said that Gustav Klimt had practised the tridimensional representation of the knight in the portraits of the ancestors of the Romanian royal family, the Hohenzollern Sigmaringens. We are speaking here about the five life-size portraits painted in the academic art style between 1883 and 1885, of which we could mention those of: Eitel Friedrich VII, Phillip Friedrich Christoph sau Johann Georg at the Pele Castle in Sinaia. They are wearing shiny suits of armour painted in the minutest details. On the last panel of the Beethoven Frieze, the hero is represented in the nude, as the armour in which he had started to fight was no longer of use, especially since the battle had been no longer fought. He does not have to fight any longer, since the ancient values are now behind the time. He thus turns into one of those disguised universal people very careful about their disguise and who, when their mask is touched, in the notion that it is a genuine thing, a real person and not a fake, one suddenly has hold of nothing but rags and multi-coloured patches (UM, 2, chapter 5). However, Nietzsche says, there will come a time we shall take heed of the people who constitute a kind of bridge across the wild stream of becoming (UM, 2, chapter 9); they are those with strong spirits, endowed with will force, which is mentioned in his second Untimely Meditation. Then the gap between innwardness and outwardness will have to be annihilated under the hammer blows of need (UM, 2, chapter 4).
The Knight in the Allegorical Schemes of the Beethoven Frieze

The Beethoven Frieze is one of Klimts most complex allegories. It has to be emphasized that, after a long time when it was triumphantly used during romanticism and realism, allegory suddenly becomes outdated. Although during a large portion of the 19th century this opinion was still held by many, it makes a comeback due to the Nazarenes and the Pre-Raphaelites. As other Viennese artists, Klimt finds in allegory the vehicle to represent a set of themes and motifs of choice which he approached in various versions, adapted and interpreted repeatedly during his entire career. Due to the narrative nature of allegory, the characters seen in their unfolding actions require a certain amount of time. This amount of time, which is natural in literature, is converted into space in the case of the visual arts. In Klimts frieze, the time is mythical (due to the representation of certain characters from Ancient Greek mythology or of Edenic creatures such as angels) and modern at the same time (due to the picture of composer Gustav Mahler). Even if a certain symbolic crystallization occurs around the allegorical nucleus in the Beethoven Frieze and in spite of the ambiguity created by its mixture with other motifs, Klimt pursues a set of clearly delineated allegorical schemes. The allegorical scheme is an organizing model which offers a criterion for the internal structure of the work of art, and, at the same time, offers the author multifarious aesthetic possibilities to communicate his personal vision (Clin, 1969, p. 30). In the frieze, several such allegorical schemes can be identified: (1) the path; the road with no destination; (2) the fight; (3) both mans and womans roles; and (4) the confined space.
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In a comment on Klimts allegorical project, Ludwig Hevesi, who had seen the exhibition, said: Klimt has painted the yearnings of mankind for happiness. That, at any rate, is the general gist, because allegories are never meant to be understood completely (Novotny, 1967, as cited in Sabarsky & Haenlein, 1984, p. 147). As a rule, allegories imply two levels: The moral one, based on the confrontation between positive and negative principles, between vices and virtues (the knight, compassion, ambition, the choir of angels, poetry, music, on the one hand, and all the evil forces, the monster, on the other). There is also a general allegorical interpretation leading to deeper levels which expand the meanings. Thus, any allegory is a double action and requires a double reading able to exhaust the readings in the deeper levels (Tuve, 1966, pp. 45-55). Each panel of the frieze is associated with a main allegorical scheme, to which other, secondary, can be added. The first panel, The Aspiration to Happiness is related to the path as an allegorical scheme, while the second panel, The Hostile Forces is related to the scheme the battle (usually the path and the battle intermingle). The last panel contains the scheme of the confined space. Klimts knight is the traveller who set out on a journey with a destination which is known or presupposed; the path towards it contains all sorts of temptations and obstacles which he has to overcome or reject, by enduring, suffering, and sacrificing himself. He is a human prototype in that hethe knightappears as a human being (at least in the manner in which he is presented on the first panel), the saviour of mankind, as well as a lover in search for his love (as he is presented in the last panel) or as an individual thirsting for knowledge. It has been said about this character that he is in search for the truth, that he must overcome the constraints of a rational society in order to reveal and transform the terrible Dionysian will (Hilles, 1998, p. 176). The knight is encouraged to set out on this path alone (moreover, in spite of his rich clothing, he has no horse; that is why the reference to the image in Klimts Golden Knight, which he would paint a year later, makes sense here); his loneliness emphasizes the danger and anxiety. In the second panel it can be seen that, in fact, the destination is unknown, that the hero could be the subject of a spiritual adventure (allegorically presented, in its turn), which takes him to a labyrinth teeming with fearful creatures. Which he eventually chooses to avoid, as we can conclude from the third panel. The end of this path cannot be said to be entirely a failure, as it cannot be said to be a victory either. Or as it cannot be said to be a crucial ontological experience. We can, however, see that this journey of the false hero has become representative of an unreachable ideal, as the journey failed to reach its original purpose. The modern hero cannot take upon itself to save humanity and he takes part in no battle. This psychological attitude (of the allegories) is, as it were, a classical expression of a weak ego that finds a substitute for its lack of power over reality: desire is everything, and argument is avoided (Schorske, 1981, p. 248). As a rule, in most works of art, the knight is subject to all sorts of tempations and errors, he is, however, equally ability of feats that can lead him to the final victory. Although he seems to have embarked on reaching a noble ideal (that of saving humanity), which implies a clearly set path, Klimts knight was not spiritually stimulated in his deeds by what the two winged characters Ambition and Compassion have to offer, his only stimulus was his yearning for love and his own sexuality, as is revealed at the end. In most allegories, be they in visual arts or in literature, the hero, in his attempt to fulfill the destiny of humanity, is opposed by a negative principle, which tries to prevent this fufillment. In Klimts frieze, too, the battle scheme implies a struggle, possibly successful, against evil forces, embodied as a single character or a group opposing order (the Gorgons, Sickness, Madness, Death, Lust, Lasciviousness, Excess, and Gnawing Grief), also as the monster around which this group congregates (Typhon). As can be inferred from their
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names, they have individualizing physical and psychological features, related each to the vice they represent: disease, violence, and power. They are all at the basis of many myths, they bring about the evil, disasters; they are also the elements which, when fought against by the hero, will ultimately help reestablish order, freedom, and salvation. Along this frieze, the man initially plays the role of the knight, which he eventually gives up in order to ultimately play his own role. On the first panel, behind the armoured knight, there is another man, kneeling, humiliated by his nakedness and impotence, begging for help. Together with two female characters, he represents humanity. In this frieze, on the other hand, the woman is represented in several hypostheses, as she plays various roles: that of the lover, goddess, monster, angel, and floating dream. The allegorical scheme of the confined space is represented on the last panel of the frieze, through the paradise-like garden and the bell covering the characters. The confinement is, then, double: the bell also separates the two lovers from the rest of the confined garden. A closer inspection of this final section of the frieze reveals that Klimt knew the significance of the garden as described in the allegorical poem The Romance of the Rose. In medieval art and literature, the garden had a double meaning: The first one, valid for Christians, was the walled garden, the enclosed garden, hortus conclusus, and it was a symbol of Marys virginity. The secular meaning was that of garden of pleasures, hortus delicarium, where women could delight themselves in intellectual or cultural activities. Both types of gardens contain roses, as a symbol of the divine love on the one hand, and of the profane love on the other. In Klimts garden, the two lovers are surrounded by two bushes of Tudor roses, painted as having three petals, in Mackintoshs style, while the angels stand with their eyes closed, in an immobile posture. This choir of angels is a bidimensional repetitive motif, with almost identical chromatism for clothes, hands, and feet. A curious detail is that they have no wings, although the wings are an element recurrent in his work: the winged Nik (The Theater of Taormina, The Art of Ancient Egypt, and Sculpture), the bird associated with Isis (The Art of Ancient Egypt), Cronos (Januar), even Ambition and Compassion in this frieze. This absence of the wings may indicate that this is in fact an earthly paradise, hosting a profane love and not a celestial one. As they are in a garden of pleasures, the angels have no aura either. The garden has turned into a place of sensual pleasures, as revealed by the sensual embrace of the two lovers and by the symbols that are doubtlessly indicative of sexuality. The hero and his partner are surrounded, in Schorskes terms, by a column shaped as a penis. Another detail to be mentioned here: The two bushes of roses, on either side of the column, symbolically represent female sexuality. Klimt has left no detail out.
Conclusions
The Beethoven Frieze was created for an ephemeral existence, as it was to be relocated at the end of the exhibition (this was in fact the reason why Klimt used cheap materials). Since its restauration, it has represented a continuous challenge for interpreters in their attempt at clarifying its meanings. Due to its manifold levels of interpretation, the frieze has become a point of debate for a large number of scholars, Hofmann, Schorske, Bouillon, and Hilles among them. It has been analyzed from the point of view of the artists role in the social life, that of the artist-hero who has to fight against the forces opposing the creative act. It has also been seen as Klimts pictorial manner to present the Nietzschean view of the world (a view related to music and tragedy selected from among the arts). It has been interpreted as an instance of an essentially female dominated world, where the hero is subject to the female principle and which is replete with symbols of
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sexuality. It has been regarded as the artists response to those who opposed his vision and to criticisms directed to his proposals for the panels at the University of Vienna representing Philosophy, Medicine, and Jurisprudence.
The utopian vision of universal brotherhood which Beethoven had proclaimed [in his Ninth Symphony]a vision where the whole of mankind would be set free from its painswas contrasted with the chaos and corruption of modern civilization and the constraints imposed from above, by the state and the church. [] The hostile forces in the painting apparently also included those forces which obstructed his own development as an artist. (Bisanz Prakken, 1984, p. 537)
All these well-known perspectives are also well supported by argumentsfor this reason they have not been reproduced in the present paper. The issue at stake is the knights status and role in an age when his very presence seems anachronistic. It is true, however, that Hofmann remarked that the knight model, this character, is a very frequent symbol at the end of the 19th century; it bears the significance of the herald of a more beautiful world, an esthetic world (Hofmann, 1970, p. 27). Therefore, of the old chivalric ideal and its representations only the artistic, esthetic dimensions remain. If we consider the set of virtues and qualities that tradition has preserved as the attributes of the knight, Klimts character is not a genuine one (as he lacks most of the essential characteristics). The initial hypothesis we supported and argumented using a text by Nietzsche is that in Klimts representation, in spite of possible ideals which the knight may attempt to achieve, he proves a weak personality, as he fails to participate in the great battle. The solution Klimt finally suggests (the realm of music, poetry, and love) overlaps the solution offered by Nietzsche for this malady: A new age to herald a new form of collective culture under the auspices of art (UM, 2, chapter 10).
References
Bertram, E. (2009). Nietzsche: Attempt at a mythology. (R. E. Norton Trans.). Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Presss. Bisanz Prakken, M. (1984). Gustav Klimts Beethoven Frieze at the 14th Exhibition of the Viennese Secession (Der Beethoven Fries von Gustav Klimt in der XIV Ausstellung der Wiener Secesion). In Vienna 1870-1930. Dream and reality (Traum und Wirklichkeit) (exhibiton catalogue), Salzburg, Vienna. Bouillon, J. P. (1986). Klimt: Beethoven. Genve: Editions dArt Albert Skira. Clin, V. (1969). The allegory and the essences (Alegoria i esenele). Bucureti: Editura pentru Literatur Universal. Durand, G. (1998). Mythical figures and aspects of the work (Figuri mitice i chipuri ale operei). Bucureti: Editura Nemira. Hilles, T. W. (1998). Gustav Klimts Beethoven Frieze, truth, and The Birth of Tragedy. In S. Kemal (Ed.), Nietzsche, Philosophy and the Arts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hofmann, W. (1970). Gustav Klimt and the turn of the century (Gustav Klimt und die Jahrhundertwende). Salzburg: Verlag Galerie Welz. Hofmann, W. (1983). Vienna total artwork (Gesamtkunstwerk Wien). In H. Szeemann (Ed.), Leaning to total artworkEuropean utopias since 1800 (Der Hang zum GesamtkunstwerkEuropische Utopien seit 1800) (exhibition catalogue), Aarau/Frankfurt. Huizinga, J. (1987). The waning of the Middle Ages. (F. Hopman Trans.). London: Penguin Books. Lehrer, R., Golomb, J., & Santaniello, W. (1999). Nietzsche and depht psychology. Albany: State University of New York Press. McGrath, J. (1974). Dionysian art and Populist politics in Austria. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Nret, G. (1993). Klimt. Kln: Benedikt Taschen Verlag. Nietzsche, F. (1980). On the advantage and disadvantage of history for life, untimely meditation II (UM, 2). (P. Preuss Trans.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/10165014/On-the-Advantage-and-Disadvantage-of-History-for-Life Nietzsche, F. (1999). The birth of tragedy (BT). (F. Golffing & W. Kaufmann, Trans.). Retrieved from http://evans-experientialism.freewebspace.com/nietzsche_birth_tragedy_part_A.htm
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Nietzsche, F. (2008). The case of Wagner (CW). (A. M. Ludovici Trans.). Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=746821 Nietzsche, F. (2009). On the genealogy of morals (GM). (J. Johnston Trans.). Retrieved from http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/Nietzsche/genealogytofc.htm Novotny, F. (1967). Introduction to Novotny/Dobai. Gustav Klimt: Verlag Galerie Welz, Salzburg. Rolland, R. (1962). Beethoven. Bucureti: Editura Muzical. Sabarsky, S., & Haenlein, C. A. (1984). Gustav Klimt. Drawings 1880-1917 (Gustav Klimt. Zeichnungen 1880-1917) (exhibition catalogue of drawings). Hannover: Kestner-Gesellschaft Hannover. Schorske, C. E. (1981). Fin-de-sicle Vienna: Politics and culture. New York: Vintage Books. Tuve, R. (1966). Allegorical imagery. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Vattimo, G. (2001). The subject and the mask (Subiectul i masca). Constana: Editura Pontica.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Davenants The Siege of Rhodes: Islam, Heroism and Solyman the Magnificent
Samia AL-Shayban
King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
This study is concerned with William Davenants dramatization of Solyman the Magnificent as an ideal man of war and peace. The structure of the play and characters are designed to reveal Solymans honorable character. In the introduction, the author reviews the critical history of The Siege of Rhodes (1661). The section The Siege is concerned with the Sultans attitude to war and his behavior towards his foes, which is marked by ambition and valor. In the section Victory, the author traces Solymans generosity and mercy towards the defeated Rhodians. Ianthe and Alphonso dominate the Characters sections, which reveal how both characters play a central role in stressing Solymans honorable conduct in war and peace. The dramatic centre of the play, as highlighted by the author, is Solymans honorable character. With such dramatization Davenant departs from the conventional presentation of Turks as moral and political transgressors. Keywords: William Davenant, Solyman the Magnificent, Turks, knights of Rhodes
Introduction
Critical readings have neglected the play as a piece of drama and overlooked the interrelated significance of the image of the Turk that lies at its heart (Birchwood, 2007, p. 104). In spite of the fact that Birchwood acknowledges the plays need for a dramatic reading, he himself refrains from undertaking the task. The reading he offers does not touch the plays dramaturgy, but instead considers its relationship with contemporary issues and with Davenants accusations of apostasy (Birchwood, 2007, p. 104). Offering a different perspective, in his classic study of English Restoration drama, Hughes (1996, pp. 1-77) studied the pioneering theatricality of the play. Clare (2006, pp. 181-184) paid critical attention to the heroic love story between Ianthe and her husband, the Sicilian Duke Alphonso, whom she also considered as the protagonists of the play. However, Chew (1965, p. 496) believed that The Siege of Rhodes (1661) was not worth reading as a dramatic experience, although it is not clear whether Chews judgment is based on the original version of 1656 which was composed as an opera. After the restoration of 1660, Davenant revised the operatic version and turned it into a drama, adding a new part. By 1661, he staged The Siege of Rhodes as a drama in two parts at the Dukes Playhouse. It is noticeable that the available critical studies do not examine the dramatic function of the Turks as represented by Solyman the Magnificent. Therefore, this study is an attempt to reread The Siege of Rhodes through proposing the dramatic centrality of the Turkish Sultan. His centrality is traced through two elements: the structure of the play and the main characters on the Christian side, Ianthe and Alphonso. Both elements are designed to celebrate the Turkish Sultan as an ideal man of war and peace.
Samia AL-Shayban, assistant professor, Department of English, King Saud University.
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DAVENANTS THE SIEGE OF RHODES
Structure
The Siege The structure of the play Davenant employs to stress Solymans idealism is in two parts: the siege and the victory. During the siege of Rhodes, Solyman displays the conventional qualities of a heroic heroambition and valor. Solymans attack and subsequent siege of rocky Rhodes in an attempt to subdue the island is the best testimony of his ambition. The island is the home of the knights of Rhodes who have a military history that started with the first crusade to Jerusalem in the 11th century. The knights not only enjoyed a long experience in affairs of war but were reputed to be fierce and brave warriors (Giertz, 2010). During their two hundred years in Rhodes, which they captured from the Byzantine emperor, Andronicus, they sustained and overcame several serious attacks and sieges. In 1479 and 1480, the Turks expeditions to the island proved costly and futile as the knights forced them to retreat (Brockman, 1971). To attempt another assault against the island and undertake such a dangerous task proves Solyman to be an ambitious emperor who desires to succeed where others failed. The Admiral of Rhodes describes the fleet:
() the Bassas fleet appears; Her shady wings to distant sight, Spread like the curtains of the night. Each squadron thicker and still darker grows; The fleet like many floating forests shows. (1, 1, 9-14)
The enormous size of the fleet reveals Solymans ambition to win this war against the knights of Rhodes. It also reveals that the ambitious emperor takes his foes seriously. The experienced Admirals metaphoric description of the enormous fleet foretells the difficulties the contending powerful parties will face. As the task of capturing Rhodes proves difficult, Solyman expresses his determination to succeed. When his vizier Pyrrhus explains that the task the Turkish army is facing under the fortified walls of Rhodes is extremely difficult and dangerous, the Sultan reminds him of ants slow but assured labor. Ants face high hills raisd, in scorn/of labour, to be levelld with a spurn (2, 2, 74-76). The Sultan insists on being as patient and determined as the ants. This is clear through his plan to build a castle upon Philermus Hill that overlooks Rhodes. The Sultan explains his new tactics, as Grecians from Lycia will:
A spacious palace in a castle raise: A neighbourhood within the Rhodians view; Where, if my anger cannot them subdue, My patience shall out-wait them, whilst they long Attend to see weak princess make them strong: There Ile grow old, and dye too, if they have The secret art to fast me to my grave. (3, 1, 60-66)
To the ambitious Sultan, abandoning the siege is not an option. As a result, patience seems to be the only suitable tactic. He insists that he is ready to spend his lifetime besieging Rhodes. Thus, building a castle overlooking the town is a practical evidence of his determination. The other quality Solyman displays during the siege is valor. To him, it is a philosophical notion that he deeply understands, possesses, and appreciates. Solymans philosophical concept of valor can be perceived through his argument with his general over their failure to capture the town. He rebukes Pyrrhus, his General:

What sudden halt hath stayd thy swift renown, if, when old, Ore-running kingdoms, stopping at a town? courage cools because thy blood is cold. (2, 1, 60-61, 67-68)
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Solyman argues that bravery is a state of mind that transcends age and physical strength. Thus, an old man who is no longer physically fit but possesses mental bravery can emerge victorious. The fact that his aging General fails to capture a small town is an indicator of his dispossession of mental valor. The same philosophical concept motivates him to declare, The valiant man is his own emperor (4, 1, 18). As a state of mind, bravery enables those who possess it to enjoy a strong sense of independence that resists submission to power and fear of danger. To the emperor, bravery is not only a philosophy but also a way of life. His personal bravery can be perceived through his leadership of the dangerous expedition against such formidable opponents as the knights of Rhodes. When after three months of fierce fighting, Solyman manages to land on Rhodes, the chorus announces the news:
Great Solyman is landed now; All fate he seems to be; And brings those tempests in his brow Which he deservd at sea. (2, 1, 47-50)
The fact that Solyman succeeds in breaking the defenses of the island and landing is a testimony to his bravery. The chorus connects him to fate in the sense that he is decisive and brave in executing his will. The Sultans involvement in war goes beyond his leadership to include physical participation in the fight. The instructions he gives to Pyrrhus, his General, reveal this:
Pyrrhus, draw up our army wide! Then from the gross two strong reserves divide And spread the wings Bring thou the rear, we lead the van. (3, 1, 1-3, 12)
Solymans decision to head the van proves his insistence on sharing the dangers his men are facing in the battlefield. Furthermore, it reveals that, due to constant involvement, the Sultan is well practiced in the tactics of war. To give further credibility to the Sultans valor, Davenant employs his foe, Villerius, the Grand Master of the knights of Rhodes. He describes their experience in fighting Solyman:
The foe three moons tempestuously has spent Where we will never yield, nor he relent; Still we but raise what must be beaten down. (2, 1, 7-9)
The Master of Rhodes testifies that Solyman is more than their match in bravery. He also confirms that, due to his bravery, his victory is guaranteed. Being a brave man, Solyman cannot but appreciate those who display it. Thus, he holds in high esteem the bravery of the knights of Rhodes and Ianthe the Sicilian princess. When his armys assault against the town fails, Solyman recognizes the bravery of the knights who are defending it. He says:
In honors orb the Christians shine; Their light in war does still increase; Thus vildly they dare live, and yet dare dye. (2, 1, 95-96, 103)
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To the emperor, his armys failure is the result of the foes bravery and readiness to die defending their island. The Sicilian princess, Ianthe, proves to be no less brave and, thus, deserves the Sultans respect. The princess, who is the Bride to Alphonso, who in Rhodes so long/The team has been of each heroic song, has been captured while trying to reach her husband in besieged Rhodes (11, 1, 132-133). Mustapha explains that the princess, for [her husband] relief those gallies fraught;/Both stowd with what her dowr and jewels brought (11, 1, 134-135). Not only does the princess fill her ships with supplies but also she and her companions maintaind a bloody fight (2, 1, 118-120, 122). When captured by the Turks, the princess displays bravery by refusing the Sultans orders to unveil. She informs the Sultan, This curtain only opens to [her lords] eyes (2, 1, 145). She also demands to be conducted to her husband, To take my share of all his destiny (2, 1, 153). In case of her request being refused, she assures the Sultan that she will commit suicide where in death cold arms/My honour instant safety give (2, 1, 156-157). The Sultan finds it difficult not to admire the princess bravery and virtue:
O wondrous vertue of Christian wife! Adventring life support, then her life To save her ruind lord. (2, 1, 136-138)
The princess has loaded the ships with supplies to deliver to Rhodes. By doing so, she risks not only her resources but, most importantly, her life. As a practical gesture of respect and admiration, the Sultan informs Ianthe:
Thou great example of Christian wife, Thy gallies with their fraight, For which the hungry wait, Shall strait to Rhodes conducted be. (2, 1, 174-178)
The princess is allowed to land in Rhodes with all the supplies she has brought. Furthermore, the Sultan gives his permission that Ianthe and her husband can depart from besieged Rhodes to safe Sicily. He informs her as thy passage to him shall be free,/So both may safe return to Sicilie (2, 2, 179-180). Victory As a victorious warrior, Solyman maintains his ideal morals. In dealing with the defeated Rhodes, he displays generosity and mercy. Solymans generosity can be perceived through his response to the Rhodians request for a peace treaty and to Ianthe who visits to negotiate its terms. Usually, victorious leaders are particularly vindictive towards the foe who displays lengthy and brave resistance. The Grand Master of Rhodes, Villerius, warns his knights that the Turks will be enraged and ill-mannered when they besiege the city. He even advises them that All those attempts of valor we must shun/which may the Sultan vex (1, 1, 146-147). Throughout the siege, the knights of Rhodes display an outstanding bravery that delays Solymans capture of the island. However, the victorious Solyman proves that the Grand Masters fear is groundless. His General informs him that Rhodes has hung a flag of treaty out (2, 1, 1). Responding to the news, he says:
Thy courage, haughty Rhodes, Is but a braver kind of impudence. Thou knewst my strength, but thou didst better Know How much I prizd the braveryof a foe. (2, 1, 3-8)
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In Solymans response, there is no sense of elation or pride, but quiet recognition of his achievements and that of his foes. He expresses his respect for their bravery and strong sense of honour. In spite of their awareness of Solymans superior power and their unavoidable defeat, they have chosen to make his task difficult. Such conduct motivates the Sultan to consider them his equal in bravery and determination. He explains their desire to end the war:
When those who did such mighty deeds Before, Shall less, but by a little, do, It shews to me and you, Old Pyrrhus, that they mean to do no more. By treaty they but boldly beg a peace. (2, 2, 13-17)
The emperor argues that the Rhodians desire to end the war is not motivated by weakness but by a genuine desire for peace. He knows that they have the ability to continue the war but they choose to end it. The knights are not the only ones who deserve the Sultans respect. Ianthe is treated with generosity. Mustapha informs his Sultan that: Villerius sends his homage to your feet and Ianthe will be here to kneel and treat:
The emperor responds: () Mustapha, let her reception be As great as is the faith she has in me. (2, 2, 41-42)
To understand the moral significance of such instructions, we need to be aware of Ianthes stand in the strategy of this war. Unlike the knights who have qualified for Solymans generosity, Ianthe is in a difficult position. The roots of her difficult position can be traced to her previous encounter with the Sultan, when Ianthe was captured trying to give aid to the besieged island and her husband, Alphonso, the Duke of Sicily. She has been freed, allowed to join her husband and given the chance to depart from the island along with her husband. However, the offer is rejected and Ianthe joins the side of the emperors foes. He wonders at her presence:
What wandering star does lead her forth? Can she Who scornd a passport for her liberty, Vouchsafe to come, and treat without it now? (2, 2, 27-29)
The fact that Ianthe feels safe enough to meet him again and ask for what she has previously rejected is an undeniable sign of her faith in him as a reliable and honorable man. Solyman judges that Ianthes trust in him deserves the great reception she receives. The other moral quality Solyman reveals as a victorious emperor is mercy. The mercy he displays is of particular significance as it targets his defeated foes who betray his trust. Solyman preserves the life and honour of his enemies, the knights of Rhodes and their ally Alphono, Duke of Sicily. The knights and the Duke are under an obligation to respect their peace deal with the Turks while Ianthe is negotiating the treaty terms. However, suspecting that Ianthes honor is in danger they fail to respect the Sultan or the deal and launch a bloody assault against the Turkish camp. Pyrrhus informs the Sultan that the Rhodians, their flag of treaty have taken in. Alphonso and Villerius attack with two thousand Rhodian knights. However, the assault fails and the Grand Master Villerius laments:
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Ere morning does advance we must retire; Justly ashamd to let the days great light Shew what a little we have done to night. (5, 4, 2-4)
The Grand Master makes it clear that they have done very little. This testimony from the master is significant. It reveals that the Turkish army performance has been outstanding, and it allows the knights no option but to retreat. Despite the knights apparent military and moral defeat, the Sultan refuses to kill them. He informs Pyrrhus:
Let us no more the Rhodians flight Pursue; Who since below our angerneed our care. Compassion is to vanquisht valourdue Which was not cruel in Successful war. (5, 5, 1-4)
To the victorious Sultan, the defeated knights need compassion and not punishment. To him, compassion towards the enemy is a testimony of ones valor. The furious Pyrrhus disagrees with the Sultan and argues:
The world is wicked grown, and wicked men Are but enabled to offend agen, When they are pardond and left armd. (5, 5, 9-11)
Pyrrhus argument is meant to remind the Sultan of the knights treachery and their inability to honor the terms that they proposed. Considering their behavior, Pyrrhus judges that they are likely to launch another assault if they are not punished effectively. He insists that they do not deserve such generous treatment. However, he explains that the exceptional moral stand from the Sultan towards his treacherous foes is rooted in divinity. He explains:
Our Sultan does his powr from Heavn derive, Tis raisd above the reach of human force: It could not else with soft compassion thrive. (5, 5, 5-7)
To Pyrrhus, Sultans honorable dealing with his foes is beyond human behavior. As such it is located within the scope of divine norms. Significantly, the knights of Rhodes are not the only ones whose lives the Sultan preserves. The Duke of Sicily, Alphonso, who has played a crucial role in the assault against the Turks, has been saved and freed by orders from the Sultan. The Duke has played a crucial role in delaying the fall of the city. Mustapha, the Turkish General, informs the Sultan of Alphonsos heroism in defending Rhodes against their attacks. Alphonso is the one:
who in Rhodes so long The team has been of each heroic song; (2, 1, 132-133)
The brave Duke has been captured during his last attempt against the Turks. Mustapha confirms the identity of the prisoner:
The prisner whom in doubtfull fight We took, Is young Alphonso, the Sicilian Duke. (5, 5, 17-20)

To such news the Sultan expresses his delight and insists that, Fortunes could never find if she had Eyes, A present for me which I more would prize. (5, 5, 21-23)
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With such response, one would expect Solyman to punish the Duke for attacking his camp in the middle of treaty negotiations or indeed for his role in delaying the capturing of the island. However, the Sultan informs his prisoner:
You may imbark for the Sicilian coast, And there possess your wife when Rhodes is lost. (5, 6, 184-185)
The Sultan saves the Dukes life, restores his freedom and love. Furthermore, he exempts him, along with his wife, Ianthe, from sharing the tragic fate of Rhodes, as they are allowed to depart to Sicily. Besides preserving the lives of his foes, the Sultan enables them to maintain an honorable stand. When Solyman informs Alphonso that he can depart to Sicily, the Duke responds:
Since freedom, which is more than life, You give Who durst not ask you leave to live, I cannot doubt your bounty when I crave That, granting freedom, you will honour save. My honour I shall lose, unless I share In Rhodes, the Rhodians worst effects of war. (5, 6, 186-191)
The Duke makes it clear that he would lose his honor if he were to abandon Rhodes and depart to Sicily. He asks the Sultan to save his honor by allowing him to go back to Rhodes and share its fate with the people. The Sultan grants him the wish and allows him to depart to Rhodes along with his wife, Ianthe. He states that Both may to Rhodes return. Alphonso is not the only one whose honor has been saved by the Sultan. The knights of Rhodes receive similar generous treatment. He allows Ianthe, who nobly did [his] honor trust, to decide the terms of the treaty for Rhodes. He says:
Go back, Ianthe; make your own Conditions boldly for the town. (5, 4, 208-209)
Ianthe is allowed to go back to Rhodes to decide the terms of the treaty. Through Ianthe, the Sultan gives the knights of Rhodes the chance to dictate their own terms and enjoy an honorable end to the long and bloody war.
Characters
Ianthe To further stress Solymans ideal moral stand, Davenant allows him to be judged by his Christian foes, Ianthe and her husband, Duke Alphonso. By doing this, Davenant creates an objective dramatic space between the emperor and the audience. This space gives the audience the chance to perceive the Sultan not through his person or the view of his friends, but most importantly through the judgment of his foes. Ianthe and Alphonso, however, highlight Solymans ideal character in different ways. Throughout the play, Ianthe displays fierce and firm belief in the Sultans honor. On the other hand, Alphonso maintains a hostile attitude towards the Sultan, only to change at the end of the play. Conventionally, Turkish Sultans are staged as political tyrants and sexual
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transgressors (Birchwood, 2007, pp. 69-128). By choosing a beautiful Christian princess to defend Solymans honor, Davenant makes it clear that he is opposing the negative conventional presentation of the Turks. Significantly, Ianthes mission proves to be far from easy. After her first encounter with Solyman, Ianthe finds herself expressing an opinion opposed by many. She tells her husband that there is no ground for All that of Turks and Tyrants I had heard (3, 2, 163). She gives a more elaborate picture of his virtuous and generous treatment. She states that:
He seemd in civil France, and monarch there: For soon my person, gallies, fraight, were free By his command. (3, 2, 168-169)
Ianthe appreciates his chivalrous treatment as he allows her and her ships to pass his army and go to Rhodes to join her husband, who happens to be his foe. To her, the Sultan is no different from the refined and chivalrous French monarchs. With such comparison, she closes the moral distance that the Europeans usually construct to separate and distinguish themselves from their enemies, the Turks. By venturing such an unusual attitude, Ianthe opposes not only the dominant views of the Turks, but also that of her husband. Adamant in her belief in the Sultan, Ianthe finds herself defending him against the ill opinion of her husband. When Alphonso calls him faithless Solyman (4, 1, 70), she responds:
O say not so! To strike and wound the virtue of your foe Is cruelty, which war does not allow: Sure he has better words deservd from you. (4, 1, 69-72)
When her husband expresses his surprise and suspicion of her zealous defense of the Sultans virtue, she remains firm in her opinion and tells her husband that the Sultan though a foe, is generous and true. Alphonso Like Ianthe, Alphonso plays a crucial role in stressing the moral merits of Solyman. However, Davenant follows a different technique by allowing Alphonso to change his attitude from that of a foe to a friend of the Sultan. In harmony with the conventional attitude of the time to the Muslim Turks, Alphonso rejects the Sultans faith and denies him any possession of honor. When Solyman attacks Rhodes, Alphonso, who has been visiting, is advised to depart to his bride in Sicily. The Grand Master explains that, we love to lodge, not to entombe a guest (1, 1, 71). To that he answers:
Here for my tomb or triumph I will stay. My sword against proud Solyman I draw, His cursed prophet, and his sensual law. (1, 1, 82-84)
Alphonso makes it clear that his fight against Solyman is for religious reasons. By cursing Solymans prophet and his laws, Alphonso denies Islam any validity and makes himself the enemy of the Muslim Sultan. Since, to Alphonso, Islam is invalid as a religion, he cannot allow it to be connected to Providence. Ianthe explains to him that Providence sends Solyman to deliver them from the war-weary Rhodes to the safety of Sicily. To that he responds:
Had Heavn that pass-port for our freeDom sent, It would have chose some better instrument Than faithless Solyman. (4, 1, 67-70)
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When he finds himself was forced to acknowledge the Sultans generous behavior towards his wife, he comments, This Christian Turk amazes me (3, 3, 178). The fact that he calls him Christian Turk reflects Alphonsos inability to connect Islam with any honorable and virtuous behavior. This attitude becomes more explicit when he suspects that his wife must have compromised her virtue to receive chivalrous treatment from the Sultan. In response to Ianthes acknowledgement of the Sultans honorable dealings with her, he responds:
He in two days your high esteem has Won: What he would do I know; who knows what He has done? (4, 1, 81-83)
In spite of the fact that Ianthe is well known for her virtue as well as her love for Alphonso, his inability to expect honorable actions from the Sultan motivates him to question his wifes behavior (Mcjannet, 2009, pp. 183-193). Significantly, Alphonsos hostility towards Solyman ends when he personally experiences the Sultans generosity. As a prisoner in the Turkish camp after the failed attack, he constructs, Alphonso is pardoned and freed. The Sultan rebukes him for his distrust and informs him:
You may imbark for the Sicilian coast, And there possess your wife when Rhodes is lost. (5, 4, 184-185)
Touched by Solymans behavior, the friendship Alphonso rejects for so long becomes a fitting end for their encounter. He assures the Sultan:
To Rhodes I go, To be in Rhodes your suppliant, not your foe. (5, 4, 194-195)
Indeed, Solymans honorable deeds, which Alphonso once believed to be strange above miracle, prove to be a reality.
Conclusions
Solymans miraculous stand is at the dramatic and moral heart of the play. The Muslim Sultan displays honorable qualities that can be recognized and appreciated by friends and foes. Such approach is of dramatic and ideological significance. Davenant opposed the conventional heritage of the British theatre that dramatizes Muslim Turks as political and moral transgressors. Thus, to allow Ianthe, the Sicilian Princess to be one of the Sultans most ardent defenders is not a coincidence. Davenant is deliberately dramatizing Solyman in particular and Muslim Turks in general under favorable light. In a sign of further endorsement of Solymans virtuous stand, Davenant secures the support of his strong opponent, Alphonso. After long and vicious hostility, the Sicilian Duke joins his voice to that of his wife, Ianthe, and recognizes Solymans moral merits. Such departure from the conventional dramatization of Turks can be explained in connection with the restored theatre in 1660 England. The audience of the Restoration era desired unusual elements to be displayed on the stage. It can also be read as a change of priorities: The Catholic Spanish and not the Muslim Turks, are the enemies of England. Thus, by championing the Muslims, the classical enemies of the Spaniards, Davenant is in fact undermining Spain along with its religious and political ideologies.
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References
Birchwood, M. (2007). Staging Islam in England: Drama and culture, 1640-1685. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer. Bradford, E. (2012). The shield and the sword: The knights of St. John, Jerusalem, Rhodes and Malta. E-reads. Brockman, E. (1971). The two sieges of Rhodes, 1480-1522. London: Transatlantic Arts. Chew, S. C. (1965). The crescent and the rose: Islam and England during the Renaissance. London: Octagon Books. Clare , J. (2006). Drama of the English Republic, 1649-1660. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Fuchs, B. (2000). Faithless empires: Renegades and the English nation. ELH, 67, 45-69. Giertz, B. (2010). The knights of Rhodes. (B. Erickson Trans.). Canada: Resource Publication. Hughes, D. (1996). English drama, 1660-1700. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Matar, N. (1998). Islam in Britain, 1558-1685. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mcjannet, L. (2009). Islam and English drama: A critical history. Early Theatre, 12, 183-193. Stumoulis, M. L. (2008). Knights in Rhodes. Maryland: Publish America.
D
Seiko Yasumoto
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Korean Wave: Towards Regional Cultural Diffusion?
The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
The aim of this paper is firstly to determine if the Korean television drama Winter Sonata and its spinoffs are contributing to contemporary cross-cultural diffusion in Japan. Secondly, if cross-cultural diffusion is occurring, is it contributing to a loss of local identity? Winter Sonata is a small but significant part of the Korean Wave and in the vanguard of Korean television drama content viewed in Japan. There have been macro political changes in East Asia, largely driven by Korea, resulting in an easing of restrictions on cross-border media trade. These in turn have progressively created a new dynamic in content and volume. The methodology used for the study is triangulation including document analysis, audience analysis, and commercial outcomes. The convergent validation derived from the three parameters advances the proposition that Winter Sonata has contributed to cultural diffusion from a Japanese perspective but not to a loss of local identity. Arguably, the process is an enriching one in East Asia reinforced by multi-lateral media trade. Keywords: popular culture, Korean Wave, cross-cultural diffusion, cultural hybridity, triangulation
Introduction
When popular culture products such as television drama are distributed across geographical boundaries in East Asia, they take on multi-dimensional aspects and, potentially, contribute to an evolving cultural re-engagement between Japan and South Korea (hereafter Korea). The Korean Wave, which forms part of the media cultural flows in East Asia, specifically a component of the Korean Wave, the television drama Winter Sonata, was at the forefront of the Korean Wave in Japan and provided an opportunity to study the extent to which it was viewed by its Japanese audience and to ascertain its influence on them. The primary thematic concern of this paper and the principle question to be addressed is: Is the television drama Winter Sonata and its spinoffs contributing to contemporary cross-cultural diffusion in Japan from Korea? The study also explores the proposition that cultural diffusion does not necessarily lead to a loss of local identity. Dore, in his article in honour of Josef Kreiner, noted that Cultural diffusion works through two main mechanisms: Imitation and Conquest (as cited in Kreiner & Olschleger, 2008, p. 19). Arguably, the mechanisms contributing to diffusion, if it occurs, are more complex. Straubhaar (2007), from the perspective of imitation or absorption, used the word hybridization and defined it as new elements from outside a culture, whether from slow gradual contact or major threshold change, tends to be adapted to local culture over time (p. 12). However, hybridization is rarely used to describe cultural products. Cultural hybridity (Burke, 2009) or hybrid culture is other concepts to describe the outcome of cultural diffusion, or mixing. Alongside cultural diffusion, we also need to consider indigenization. Appadurai (2003) recognized the process of indigenization
Seiko Yasumoto, doctor, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, The University of Sydney.
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KOREAN WAVE: TOWARDS REGIONAL CULTURAL DIFFUSION?
at least as rapidly as forces from the metropolises are brought into new societies they tend to become indigenized in one way or another (p. 30). Both Straubhaar and Appadurai refer to hybridity more as a tendency towards a degree of acceptance in the new culture. Yasumoto (2012) articulated the word harmonization in respect to the sociological impact of media popular culture products migrating across international borders.
Background
The Korean Wave is known as Kanryuu in Japan. In the context of this paper it comprises, from the Japanese viewpoint, media cultural flows from Korea into Japan and being, in part, television drama, K-pop music, and Korean film. It is postulated that the Korean Wave is changing the cultural relationships between Japan and Korea. The antecedent term Hallyu (Korean Wave) first appeared in Hong Kong in 1998 and Taiwan in 1999, and was later reported in Asahi Shimbun, a mainstream Japanese newspaper, in 2001 (AERA (Asahi Shimbun Extra Report and Analysis), 2004; Ogura, 2005b). The phenomenal success of Winter Sonata, Fuyu no Sonata in Japan may have contributed to a greater understanding of Korean culture and society in that country. East Asian cultural flows have been dramatically affected by political changes in the East Asian region. Although Japan and Korea are geographic neighbors and share some cultural aspects because of historical contact with China, there are a number of barriers that divide the two countries; they are separated physically by the Japan Sea, have separate written and spoken languages, and have had frequent periods of political and military hostility. Winter Sonata was an important part of the emergence of the Korean Wave in Japan. Its impact on Japanese viewing audiences took Japanese media by surprise, despite the fact that Ogura (2005a, p. 10) had coined the term Look Korea in June 2000. This enquiry said: Let us pay more attention to what is happening in Korea. Winter Sonata, while initially produced for a Korean audience, was traded to Japan and broadcast on Japanese television a year after it was shown in Korea. It initially captured 9% of the total viewing audience, but this figure rapidly increased with exposure. In 2003, the series was broadcast in Japan on the NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai) satellite cable network from April to July, at 10 p.m., and rebroadcast in December of that year. Despite the late hour, Winter Sonata received progressively larger audience ratings. In 2004, NHK rebroadcast Winter Sonata, and this led to audience ratings of 20.6% in the Kanto district and 23.8% in the Kansai district (Moori, 2004). Moori reported that at this golden time and in such a competitive market an audience rating of 10% represented a success. Subsequently, Winter Sonata has been broadcast on Japanese local networks. The influence of Winter Sonata was sustained after the initial success in 2003-2004. It continues to attract audience interest in Japan. Winter Sonata was remade into an animation drama voiced by Bae Yong-Joon and Choi Ji-Woo in 2009, with Japanese subtitles. The phenomenon of Winter Sonata was not exclusive to Japan. The regional audience provided by NHK and local television viewing rates of Winter Sonata, including TV drama and anime, had reached 20,000,000 by 2010 (K-avex, 2010). Although beyond the scope of this paper it is noted that Winter Sonata was also broadcast throughout the Asian regionChina, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesiaas well as elsewhere in the world. It has become an iconic Asian drama and was created by its manifestation of cultural history. The impact on the audience of the Korean Wave also includes that from music, for example, drama in Winter Sonata My memory sung by Ryu.
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Arguably, we must consider four factors that underlie the success of Winter Sonata in Japan. The first factor is the development of global television markets in the latter part of the 20th century. Television programs are not dependent on a single language community for their market. Subject to government regulations, they may be imported and exported. Television dramas are designed for mass audiences, and, when successful, are major revenue earners. Modern broadcast technology, including satellite transmission, is expensive, and program makers and broadcasters seek the widest possible audience to recover production costs. In summary, the development of the global television industry has established a platform for transnational communication and communication genres, for example, television drama, that was not previously possible. The second factor underlying the success of Winter Sonata in East Asia is that, it is a product of a local television industry that has evolved to meet local and regional needs through three definable phases: (1) Phase 1: The cloning of American programs; (2) Phase 2: The influence on Korean audiences deriving from the development of local genres by the Japanese television industry, starting in the 1990s with the idol drama genre (Komatsu, 1999). These were also popular with viewers not only in Korea but also in Hong Kong and Taiwan. However, Korea banned the import of Japanese popular culture products from 1945 until the 1990s. During this time, the emerging and protected Korean television industry was developing productions that were similar to Japanese programs, such as the idol drama genre (Iwabuchi, 2003). However, the Korean government did permit co-productions with Japanese production companies; And (3) Phase 3: The removal by the Korean government in 2004 of all restraints on the import and export of Japanese television signaled the coming of age of the dynamic Korean television program industry, an essential prerequisite for the Korean Wave. The third factor is the evolution of serial television dramas such as Winter Sonata and other popular culture programs that cross-national borders. Jacobson (1995) explained:
Then, as now, the nature of television drama is in the use of conflict, which is expressed through characters, dialogue and plots. Television drama functions for some viewers as a means for diversion or escape, and for others it is a fictional representation of realistic human relationships and social behaviour (p. 34)
The fourth factor is cultural proximity. Cultural proximity, with the impact of global migration, is not necessarily regionally based. However, it may be appreciated that in East Asia, cultural proximity has a significant regional aspect to it. The languages in the region have some common elements from historical Chinese influences and there are manifestly other cultural similarities, for example, family values, education, art, music, cuisine, and literature.
Theoretical Framework
The research approach to outcomes arising from the impact of Winter Sonata in Japan utilizes triangulation. This methodology is designed to address the research question and to maximize the information gained from the quantitative and qualitative data gathered and collated. This procedure enables the disparate data to be connected in line with the objectives of the paper. It is used to achieve a convergent validation from the research to draw together the information gathered, thus enabling analysis, and for conclusions to be drawn from the findings. The method adopted was designed to capitalize on the comparative potential of various data sets rather than establishing a hierarchy of evidence (Barbour, 2007, p. 47). Bryman, citing Denzin (1970),
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referred to this approach as methodological triangulation (Bryman, 2011; Morse, 1991). The research method is a mixed method (Creswell & Clark, 2011, p. 12), and the three chosen segments for data collection and analysis are complementary to the context of this paper. In adopting the concept of methodological triangulation the three data sets illustrated in Figure 1 are: (1) document analysis; (2) audience analysis; and (3) commercial outcomes. Document analysis is primarily focused on political changes in Korea; audience analysis falls within the ambit of socio-cultural context, and commercial outcomes are a gauge of Winter Sonatas market influence in Japan. The analysis of audience utilizes grounded theory within the scope of qualitative analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Flick, Kardorff and Steinke (2004) referred to the heterogeneity of approaches that may be characterized as qualitative research (p. 6). The study acknowledges the complexity of the research method and that quantitative research is weak in understanding the context of the setting in which people talk, whereas qualitative research is seen as deficient because of the personal interpretations made by the researcher (see Figure 1).
Document analysis
Findings
Audience analysis
Commercial outcomes
Figure 1. Triangulation.
Document analysis is applied for understanding government regulations on composite cultural trade of media content between Korea and Japan. This analysis is used to determine the political change process in Korea which has led to the Korean Wave flowing into Japan. The corollary, not within the ambit of this paper, is Japanese media and popular culture being traded and localized in Korea through the process of remaking. Audience analysis determines the reasons for the acceptance or rejection of media content. The analysis also searches for regional influences on cultural diffusion in Japan of the television drama Winter Sonata. Commercial outcomes are explored to gauge the extent of trade created beyond the relationship between content and the viewing audience. A convergent validation is derived from the qualitative and quantitative information gained from the respective analyses. Document Analysis. During the early part of the second half of the 20th century, Korea actively discouraged friendly relations between itself and Japan. Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and maintained occupation until 1945. At the end of Japanese imperial policies in 1945 and since the partitioning of Korea into two countries in 1948, residual ill-feeling between Japan and Korea has kept relations at a distance. As a result, there was little interaction during this time between Japanese and Korean media. Prior to the 1990s, Korean government legislation
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restricted the import of television, music, and film production. However, from the 1990s, government legislation created the opportunity for Korean media to become regional and progressively global. The historical antipathy changed towards the end of the 20th century, when the Korean Government implemented a far-sighted program to ease the restrictions on the exchange of Korean and Japanese popular cultural material. This change process can be traced back to 1973. At that time, during a visit to Japan, Kim Dae-Jung (hereafter Kim) was seized by the KCIA (Korean Central Intelligence Agency), taken back to Korea and imprisoned. In his publication Jail Correspondence, written while he was in prison, he formulated his three hans: (1) opposition to adverse feelings towards the Japanese; (2) opposition to the use of military force; and (3) to use a harmonious approach towards Japan (Maeda, 2007). Later, he became the President of Korea, from 1998-2003, and was instrumental in leading the way to improved relations between Korea and Japan. Kim was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2000, confirming international recognition of the significance of his political leadership. Kim was visionary in his view of the future relationship between Korea and Japan. There were a number of events that contributed to the reshaping of the cultural interrelationship between Korea and Japan: (1) 1988: Seoul Olympics; (2) 1994: Visa requirements lifted for Japanese residents visiting Korea; (3) 1996: Japan-Korea World Cup soccer agreement; (4) 1997: Korea experienced an economy crisiscultural industries; (5) 1998: Korean government policy change, progressive openness towards Japanese popular culture; (6) 2000: FriendsFirst joint Korea-Japan TV drama; (7) 2002: World Cup soccer in Korea/Winter Sonata in Korea; (8) 2003:Winter Sonata in Japan; (9) 2004-2009: Winter Sonata major and local TV networks; (10) 2009-2011: Winter Sonata animation; and (11) 2010-2012: K-drama stations and K-pop music. Arguably, the most important of these was the initiative by Kim, and the progressive implementation of the initiatives from 1998. He instigated four steps to open up the Korean door to Japan, leading to the entry of Japanese popular culture into Korea for the first time in 1998 and then in 1999, 2000, and 2004 (Ishii, 2001; Maeda, 2007). This initiative was revolutionary in changing the relationship between Japan and Korea, progressively allowing the legal importation of Japanese media and cultural products. This first step resulted in an adverse reaction from some of Koreas mass media, intellectuals, and academia, thus highlighting, with the benefit of hindsight, their short-sightedness. There was significant resistance to change and hesitation in accepting this new open door policy. However, Kims actions gradually enabled cultural flows between Japan and Korea; he saw this as a way to improve the understanding of Koreans for things Japanese and, conversely, Japanese for things Korean. It was a pragmatic policy as, by 1995, 80% of Japanese television anime had already unofficially penetrated into Korean society. In 1998, Japan possessed a sophisticated and dynamic media industry. The Korean government had been careful, initially, in preventing the exposure of the Korean media industry to open competition from Japan. Notwithstanding that initial reticence, some anime was screened without government approval before 1998, and with government approval after 2004. A greater range of content, except anime, was accepted and screened in Korean theatres post-1998. The Korean Cultural Tourist Bureau and Chosen Nippo (2004) instigated Kims visionary four steps as outlined in Table 1, and the ban on Japanese media products was lifted progressively, as illustrated in Table 1.
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Table 1 Koreas Four Steps

Step I 1998 1. Film and video Japan and Korean co-production films were allowed. (1) Participation of Japanese actors in Korean films became legal. (2) Only award-winning Japanese films were allowed to be shown, and these awards were restricted only to the following four film festivals: Cannes, Venice, Berlin, and Academy. 2. Manga (print publication) was allowed. Step 2 1999 1. Film and video 1.1 All films allowed except anime film. 1.2 Seventy international film festival awards were now acceptable. 1.3 Only general viewing films were allowed. 2. No change 3. Musical performance 3.1 Performers of Japanese music were restricted to sell a maximum of 2000 seats, and only indoor performances were allowed. 3.2 Performances of Japanese music were not allowed to be broadcast or recorded (in any format including videos). Step 3 2000 1. Film and video 1.1 Only films allowed for the 18+ age group. 1.2 Anime films that had won awards at international film festivals were allowed. 1.3 Videos of already screened films were allowed. 3. Musical performance 3.1 The outdoor performance of Japanese music ban was lifted. 3.2 Recording: No Japanese language lyrics, only songs with Korean translation lyrics were legal. 4. Soft games 4.1 All soft games (PC games, online games, and video games (using a video game machine)) allowed. 4.2 Soft games not to be played using television sets. 5. Broadcast: television Japanese-related sports, documentary, and news became allowed. 6. Television Movies on cable television, satellite broadcast allowed (however, only films which met Step II conditions were allowed to be broadcast on television). Step 4 2004 1. Film and videos Japanese film/video ban completely lifted and all films were allowed, no restrictions.
In 1998, for the first time, Japanese films were officially exported to Korea, and Japanese pop musicians were permitted to perform there, with audiences restricted to 2000 people (Ishii, 2001, p. 79; Maeda, 2007, p. 47). In 2004, both the Korean and Japanese markets were opened with regard to the importation of popular culture productions. The Japanese and Korean governments legislated to support co-productions with funding support. These changes remain fertile grounds for an expansion of media trade. The opening of media trade in the domain of popular culture has been a diplomatic success. The Korean Cultural Promotion Research Center reported findings from a survey within Japan on the question: Do you agree to the Korean government open door policy towards Japanese popular culture? The result was 50.3% positive, 23.7% generally positive, and 12.2% with no real view. This sample, with 86.2% not opposing the
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policy, strongly supported Kims vision and subsequent action to enable cultural threads between Japan and Korea to strengthen and cultural exchange to grow (Maeda, 2007). Around the same time, Japanese film was legally traded in Korea, and Korean dramas began to be shown in Japan. This was an unprecedented change. In the past, Japanese viewers had shown a lack of interest in these productions, and so their impact and success came as a surprise to the Korean media industry. The now well-known Korean drama Winter Sonata, with its strong love story elements, was broadcast by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation NHK network and led to an enormous cult following in Japan. NHK is historically known for its orthodox programs, and concentrates on broadcasting news, cultural, and educational programs. Winter Sonata was the forerunner of a number of Korean productions that were distributed in Japan and received acclaim from Japanese audiences. Audience AnalysisWinter Sonata The viewing audience. It is noted from the following information that the Japanese viewing audience of Winter Sonata is very specific and that this television drama did not have broad based appeal. Notwithstanding this fact, its success is significant as it illustrates an improvement in regional relationships and understanding. A questionnaire was put to people who logged on to the Goo social media website and who identified themselves as fans of Winter Sonata. It was reported that 97% of the respondents identified themselves as women. The Goo (2004) questionnaire also reported that 80% of the respondents were women in their 30s and 40s with some 7% in their 20s and 9% in their 50s. The evidence for a female fan based for Winter Sonata is further supported by reports in AERA (Asahi-Shimbun Extra Report and Analysis) magazine, a weekly magazine published by Asahi Shimbun publications (AERA, 2004). The relative absence of the teenager demographic from the Winter Sonata viewing audience is significant, because it suggests that this type of drama does not appeal to them. It can be construed from the female audience demographic that the targeting of the drama was to that audience demographic. One important finding from the AERA sample was that nearly 30% of the 326 women who responded had not felt attached to any particular celebrity before Winter Sonatas Bae Yong-Joon (AERA, 2004). Of the 12 most popular celebrities who were identified by others in the sample, only seven were Japanese. The rest were international sportsmen and film stars, such as David Beckham and Brad Pitt. The Japanese audiences have engaged with and continue to engage with Bae Yong-Joon through media mix items such as photos, calendars, fan meetings, blogs, and the like (East, 2011). Japanese viewers would observe in Winter Sonata the culturally proximate ways the characters portray emotion and interact, that are: (1) their etiquette and non-verbal behaviours; (2) the display of tears, and sentimental and delicate emotional expressions; (3) communication through eye contact; and (4) gentle love, which means the absence of emphasis on kissing, nudity, lovemaking, Western verbosity, overt conflict, and disagreement. The stressing of values such as kindness, love, family and respect for elders, harmony, and tranquility are also relevant. Audience segmentation. As outlined above, the principal audiences for Winter Sonata were women. Hayashi (2005), drawing on surveys of the Japanese Winter Sonata viewing audience, described the typical viewer as female aged between 40 and 50, with an average age of 47.3. Another approach to identifying the Japanese audience for Winter Sonata is reception group analysis. From the above information, it is known that the core audience is women between 30 and 50 years of age. The prospective female audience has been segregated into socioeconomic types using Miuras (2005) categories: Oyome-kei (Housewife type); Mirioneze-kei (Millionaire working type); Kamayatsuonna-kei (Artistic personality type); Gyaru-kei (Girl
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type); OL-kei (Office Lady) (pp. 41-67). This has been done to determine if Miuras segmentation has any relevance to the predominantly female viewing audience of Winter Sonata. Miuras definition of these socioeconomic types are as follows. Miuras positioning of Japanese women who are fans of Winter Sonata are illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Miuras societal positioning of Japanese females. Source: Adapted from Miura (2005, p. 42).
Winter Sonatas Korean director, Yoon Suk-Ho, reported that he created a fantasy world, a reality to meet the needs of modern day people. He saw that what they were missing in their busy, changing, and everyday world was the age-old, core certainties of life: (1) respect for parents and elders, love for family and friends, as well as romantic love; (2) a pure mind; (3) trust; (4) belief in self; and (5) caring and kindness for others. Yoon sought to create a new space for the audience that rolled up all these elements in it. These values, like Polaris, the pole star, are a recurrent theme in the Winter Sonata series and provide a framework in which all the characters and plots interact. In other words, he deliberately designed Winter Sonata as a cult text to provide viewers with an idealist view of reality (Maruyama, 2004). While Winter Sonata was a very important part of the Korean Wave into Japan, the story of its introduction to Japan shows it was not accepted passively. Some viewers became dedicated fans, but it proved to be particularly attractive to, and captured the hearts of, an audience in the Oyome-kei category. The audience figures for Winter Sonata indicate that it is not just another television drama; there is much more to it than that. Many viewers have become fans, and the program has achieved cult status, with lead actor, the Korean, Bae Yong-Joon, attaining celebrity status in Japan virtually overnight. There were 50 websites devoted to Bae, and he is popularly called Yon sama.1 In terms of the media cult model described by Hills (2002), Winter Sonata is a cult text and the Japanese fans are an extra-textual manifestation of this text. Commercial Outcomes The value of Winter Sonata has been increased by the introduction of multiple revenue streams. The DVD of the series was released in Japan at the end of 2003, and the initial run of 10,000 copies sold out in four hours. In 2005, Winter Sonata had created an economic effect in Japan for NHK (excluding the Korean revenues) worth three billion yen (US$27 million). Other merchandised products amplified the financial returns,
1
Sama is an honorific suffix, used for higher ranking such as assigned to Japanese royalty.
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including: (1) themed fashion clothing; (2) calendars; (3) spectacle frames as worn by Bae Yong-Joons character, Kang Joon-Sang and Lee Min-Hyung; (4) pendants as worn by the heroine, Jung Yu-Jin; (5) automobiles as driven by the hero, Lee Min-Hyung; and (6) magazines and books. 50,000 copies of a book of photographs of the main characters sold out on the first day. A strong fan industry followed. Attendance at a fan club meeting cost 35,000 yen (US$320). A tour industry was set up to cater for Japanese who wished to visit the dramas locations in Korea. This is consistent with Hillss (2002) theory of cult geography: Cult geographies are spaces associated with cult icons, which cult fans take as the basis for material touristic practices (p. 144). Major book stores established a Korean corner, while the Kanji Proficiency Society reported that the kanji character Kan (as in kankoku, the Japanese word for Korea) ranked sixth in its annual popularity ranking scale (Hayashi, 2005). In 2004, Japan was the source of half of Koreas overseas visitors. In 2005, significant reaction to the Korean Wave was represented on shelves of bookstores in publications for and against the Korean Wave, and manga portraying explicit anti-Korean sentiment. In 2005, Korean Air announced special film flights from Japan so that Japanese tourists could visit the Winter Sonata location sites. In 2005, NHK television media publishers announced an increase in annual sales of its Korean language textbook to 20,000 copies. The Korean Wave fever continues in Japan with television drama. From 2002 to 2006 at least 27 Korean drama series, including Rondo, a joint Korea-Japan production, were broadcast in Japan. Of these the three most successful were Winter Sonata in 2003-2004, with an audience share growing from 9% to 22%, and, ultimately, 24%; Jewel in the Palace, in 2005, with an audience share of 16%; and Rondo, in 2006, with an audience share of 15% (Video Research, 2009). There is also an evolving market for DVD sales of the anime version of Winter Sonata released in 2010. and a supplementary memory album of the anime Winter Sonata released in 2012 (Avex, 2012). An examination of print media articles from 2004 to 2006, and later, in 2010 to 2012 on the release of the animated version of Winter Sonata was carried out to ascertain trends in Korean and Japanese issues. Table 2 illustrates some article titles from 30 or so articles studied from each year, illustrating the flavour of the Korean Wave. The selected titles of articles were chosen for their significance and are illustrative of media reporting during the selected period (see Table 2). A change is evident in print media between 2004 and 2006. In 2004, the media supported the Korean Wave and the success in Japan of Winter Sonata. However, in Korea, political issues masked pro-Japanese sentiment. This became even more evident in 2006. However, in 2006 the Korean government undertook to maintain and broaden the positive aspects of the Korean Wave. Currently, there is a further evolution, with the Korean Wave progressing into Japanese academia, manifesting in the continued Japanese-Korean co-productions of drama, and is evident in the promotion of the image of Korea in East Asia and internationally, extending even to Australia. When the author visited Japan in 2008, there was an advertisement for chocolate in the arrivals hall at Narita International Airport. This advertisement, made for the well-known Japanese department store chain Lotte, portrayed Korean actors. This reflects, in part, the powerful trends in communication that cut across national borders and political, cultural, demographic, and media domains. The Korean Wave is broadening its content. Together with the pioneering Winter Sonata there is growth in the music industry since 2011, as Shojo-Jidai, a Korean girl pop group, and Psy, a rap singer with parody elements attest.
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Table 2 Selected Titles of Japanese Media Articles on Korea 2004-2012 (Asahi Digital News)
2004 Yon-Sama boom in Japan 2005 2006 Korean celebrity, 30,000 Japanese fandom Takeshima/Dokdo and the roots of Japan-Korea conflict Korean Air to operate special flights for Japanese visits to Korea increase despite Channel J (Japan) reported in April that Winter Sonata Japanese fans diplomatic differences the theme park Korean Wave would be opened Economic effects of Winter Sonata worth Bae Yong-Joon goods: DVD, calendars, Comics stoke Japan-Korea tension US$2.3 billion Joon-Bear, etc. Knowing Korea through Winter Sonata Korean boom in cultural exchange Korean government invested 200 million star Bae Yong-Joon won for Hangul promotion Winter Sonata improves Japanese views Korean Wave contributes to Koreas Exported Korean television dramas of Korea exports improving nations image in Asia 2010 2011 2012 Takeshima/Dokdo and the roots of K-pop Shojo-jidai, girls Pop-music group Takeshima/Dokdo and the roots of Japan-Korea conflict Japan-Korea conflict K-drama and K-pop music boom continue Psy, Konan Style (Gangnam Style), Psy, Konan Style (Gangnam Style) in Japan YouTube top viewers rates reached top two for three consecutive weeks on US Billboard K-drama BS premium Bae Yong-Joon goods: DVD, calendars, Psy, 2012 Europe music video award Joon-Bear, etc. Knowing Korea through Winter Sonata Korean boom: K-pop music in cultural K-pop Shojo-jidai, girls pop-music group star Bae Yong-Joon and DVD exchange Winter Sonata improves Japanese views New Tohoshinki contributes to Koreas Exported Korean television dramas of Korea exports improving nations image in Asia.
Conclusions
Winter Sonata was the vanguard of the Korean Wave into Japan and made a significant contribution to contemporary cross-cultural diffusion. This diffusion occurred as an enriching process with little evidence to demonstrate a loss of personal or national identity in Japan. Arguably, increasing cross-border trade can reinforce cultural diffusion without diminishing national identity, as is confirmed by the discrete Japanese audience enjoyment of Winter Sonata. The Korean Wave has proven to be sustainable in Japan, and it has maintained a progressively broader base of appeal to the present day. This paper has outlined four factors that provided the trade environment for enabling media popular culture products to be distributed across geographical boundaries. The move by the Korean Government, initiated by the visionary Kim, in opening up Korean media to external competition has proved to be the basis for the creation of a media industry in Korea to be able to prosper in the local, regional, and international markets, even displacing, to a degree, US hegemony. The audience analysis, though only encompassing the Japanese audience for Winter Sonata, confirms by its acceptance of the television drama that the sharing of values and cultural flows are multi-directional. Television, the new technologies deriving from telecommunications, and the internet are powerful communicative mediums that are bringing about greater cross-cultural awareness and interest, evident in the trade of television dramas, in whatever mode of transmission, across geographical borders to engage cross-cultural fandom. The success of Winter Sonata in Japan was due in part to the attempt by the Korean producers to appeal to common factors in the target market. They were without doubt very familiar with, and influenced by, the content and format of Japanese television dramas.
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The methodology of triangulation from the corner-stones of document, audience, and commercial outcome analyses has enabled a convergent validation to ascertain if cultural diffusion has occurred in Japan as a result of a specific cross-cultural trade in media popular culture. The positive response of Japanese women in the 40-50 years old demographic for Winter Sonata was of prime importance in establishing the popularity of the television drama, with these women comprising its major audience. This targeting provides an iconic example of the fertile ground for content directed to other audience segments where a flow on effect of cultural diffusion may be amplified. The commercial success of Winter Sonata and the concurrent emergence of ancillary product sales and tourism proved to be significant for commercial outcomes, and they have reinforced the value chain of the production. This provides multi-stream revenues, encouraging and enabling a succession of television drama production and other media, for example, music. The Korean Wave was initiated by, and has prospered because of a significant change in regional political thinking and perceptive Korean producers. Korea has also broadened the Korean Wave into academia. Cross-border cultural stimulus derived from media content, even imitation, absorption, or copying of originating textual materials is shown to be a factor in both Korea and Japan. The Korean Wave, at the micro level in this context, Winter Sonata, illustrates the propensity for of cultural diffusion to be derived from regional trade in popular culture content. Winter Sonata appealed to a specific audience and an unquantified degree of cross-cultural diffusion occurred, importantly without physical conquest. The multi-dimensional aspect of trade in media popular culture products is important. Governments from time to time, primarily for internal political reasons, will fuel historical cross-cultural antipathy. The continued press coverage of the Takeshima/Dokdo and the roots of Japan-Korea conflict are an example of this. Media popular culture can negate this and be cross-culturally beneficial to both nations, comprehensively confirmed by the vision of Kim and the ensuing Korean Wave, exemplified by Winter Sonata.
References
AERA. (2004). Kanryuu. AERA (Asahi Shimbun Extra Report and Analysis). Tokyo: Asahi Shimbun. Appadurai, A. (2003). Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy. In J. E. Braziel & A. Mannur (Eds.), Theorizing diaspora (pp. 25-48). Oxford: Blackwell. Avex. (2012). Anime Winter Sonata (Anime Fuyu no Sonata). Retrieved from http://mv.avex.jp/fuyusona-anime/introduction.html Barbour, R. (2007). Research design. In U. Flick (Ed.), Doing focus groups (Vol. 4, p. 47). London, New Delhi, and Singapore: SAGE Publications. Bryman, A. (2011). Triangulation. Retrieved from http://referenceworld.com/sage/socialscience/triangulation.pdf Burke, P. (2009). Cultural hybridity. Cambridge: Cambridge Polity Press. Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). London, New Delhi, Singapore, and Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. East, K. (2011). Wine and people. Retrieved from http://www.keyeast.co.kr/jap/press/press_list.asp Flick, U., Kardorff, E. V., & Steinke, I. (2004). What is qualitative research? An introduction to the field. In U. Flick, E. V. Kardorff, & I. Steinke (Eds.), A companion to qualitative research (p. 6). Los Angles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, and Washington D.C.: SAGE Publications. Hayashi, K. (2005). Adoring audience of Winter Sonata (Fuyu Sona ni Hamatta Watashitachi). Tokyo: Bungeishunju. Hills, M. (2002). Fan cultures. New York: Routledge. Ishii, K. (2001). Popular culture in East Asia (Higashi Ajia no Taishuu Bunka). Tokyo: Sososha. Iwabuchi, K. (2003). Asian media flows as global prism (Groobaruka no Purizumu to shiteno Ajia Media Kotsuu). In K. Iwabuchi (Ed.), Global prism: Asian dream of Japanese television (Groobaru Purizumu: Ajian Doriimu to Shiteno Niho no Terebi Dorama) (pp. 11-18). Tokyo: Heibonsha.
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Jacobson, R. L. (1995). Television research: A directory of conceptual categories, topics, suggestions and selected sources. London: McFarland. K-avex. (2010). Anime: Winter Sonata (Anime: Fuyu no Sonata). Retrieved from http://mv.avex.jp/fuyusona-anime/index.html Komatsu, K. (1999). Thats TV drama 90s (Thats Terebi Dorama 90s). Tokyo: Daiamondosha. Kreiner, J., & Olschleger, H. D. (2008). Theories and methods in Japanese studies: Current state and future developments (p. 19). H. D. Olschleger (Ed.). (Papers in honor of Josef Kreiner). Bonn: V&R Unipress GmbH.. Maeda, Y. (2007). The historical meaning of R.O.K. president Kim Dae-Jungs policy for Japanese popular culture (Kindaichu Daitoryo no Tainichi Taishu Bunka KaihoSeisaku no Rekishiteki Imi) (Vol. 37, pp. 45-57). Tokyo: Otsuma Joshi University Higher Education. Maruyama, S. (2004). Yoon Suk-Hos world (Yoon Suk-Ho no Sekai). Tokyo: Mook 21 Kyodo Press. Miura, A. (2005). Korean Wave society (Karyuu Shakai). Tokyo: Kobunsha Shinsho. Moori, Y. (2004). Passive audience culture of Winter Sonata (Fuyu no Sonata to Nodoteki Fan no Bunka Jissen). In Y. Moori (Ed.), Japanese-Korean Wave (Nisshiki Kanryuu) (pp. 14-50). Tokyo: Serika Shobo. Morse, J. (1991). Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation. Nursing Research, 40(2), 120-123. Ogura, K. (2005a). Impact of Korean Wave (Kanryu Impakuto). Tokyo: Kodansha. Ogura, K. (2005b). Knowing Korea through heart (Kokoro de Shiru Kankoku). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Straubhaar, J. (2007). World television: From global to local. London: SAGE Publications. Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of qualitative research. London, New Delhi, Thousand Oaks, and Singapore: SAGE Publications. Video Research. (2009). Viewers ratings. Retrieved from http://www.videor.co.jp/data/ratedata/program/02asa.htm Yasumoto, S. (2012). Remade in Asia: Transformation across in Asain markets and popular culture (Unpublished Ph.D., Queensland University of Techology Brisbane).
D
LIU Jun-min
DA VID
PUBLISHING
The Influence of Anima in Edgar Allen Poe
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
Through the analysis of Poes works and his life, the influence of anima in Poes soul is explored in this study according to Carl Jungs theory of archetype. Anima is one of the archetypes, which made both negative and positive influences in Poes life and literary creation, leading him to be the master of poetry and short stories, but also consumed his life and caused his death in the prime. In the study about the influence of anima in Poe, Anima was proved acting as the feminine complement factors in Poes unconscious, and made Poe more sensitive in literary creation. As Poe knew the mans world and also understood the womans world, which is the accumulative influence of both negative and positive influences of Anima in Poe, his literary creativity was strong and he had the unique aesthetics. Keywords: anima, negative influence, positive influence, accumulative influence
Introduction
Edgar Allan Poe was a great American poet, editor, and literary critic of the 19th century, and his remarkable achievements have a profound impact on the whole literary world. Poe was one of the earliest American short story writers. He is considered as the inventor of the detective-fiction genre and best known for his poetry and horror fictions. His works explore profoundly the human psychology and describe the most secret corners of the inner world. Poes special aesthetic tendencies and unique aesthetics penetrate between the lines of his poetry and short stories. Poe paid special attention to aesthetics and created beauty in his works, such as the mysterious beauty, the macabre beauty, the mortal beauty, the musical beauty, the classical beauty, the melancholy beauty and so on. That is why Edgar Ellen Poe defined poetry as the rhythmic creation of beauty and his horror fictions are regarded as the horribly beautiful and attractive works of art in which horror and beauty are mixed marvelously with insanity and rationality coexisting. Poe like all the men was influenced by the anima in his soul. Anima is the soul-image, the spirit of a mans lan vital, his life force or vital energy (Guerin, Labor, Morgan, Reesman, & Willingham, 2004, p. 181), which is not in the sense of religion but soul. Anima is the contra sexual part of a mans psyche, the image of the opposite sex that he carries in both this personal and his collective unconscious (Guerin et al., 2004, p. 181). Carl Jung defined anima as the expressions of the feminine nature in the males consciousness realizing the basic and primal image function (Vincent Brome, 1978, p. 204, as cited in CHANG, 1999, p. 105), so anima is the feminine nature of a male, the feminine complements of the male collective unconscious, and the collection of female images in the male mind. In the males collective unconscious, this collection of female images is left
LIU Jun-min, M.A., School of Foreign Language, Harbin Institute of Technology.
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THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMA IN EDGAR ALLEN POE
through heredity, and through this collection, man can experience the feminine nature (CHANG, 1999, p. 104).
Anima is a primal model form, and its connotation signifies the fact that there is a little feminine nature or gene in a male, which is not presented and does not disappear, but exists in a males body to realize the feminizing function. (CHANG, 1999, p. 104)
Anima influences a mans temperament and his sense of art. As a great poetry and writer, Poes literary creating capacity and aesthetic capacity are influenced by the anima in his soul, but there is still no thesis or treatise probing into it. As to Poes works, there are two mainstream critiques: One is about the aesthetic values and the other is about the psychological analysis. QIs The Classic Reconstruction Under the Threshold of Cultural Poetics: Commentary on Zhu Zhenwus New Book A Review of a Study on Edgar Allan Poe (2011), is one of the voluminous researches about Poes poetry and short stories abroad and domestic, but QI also points out that in the study of Poes work there is a problem in seeking breakthroughs and innovations in the literary critical methods on the base of the premier scholars and researchers. QIs review also focuses on Poes aesthetic implication, aesthetic creation, and aesthetic factors. WANGs Psychoanalytic Theory and Modern Literary Criticism (1992, p. 145) relates that Poes depressed emotions are condensed, and then presented in his fictional characters through empathy. In order to stuff up blank in the exploitation of Poes anima, this paper will probe into the negative, positive, and accumulative influence of anima in Poe through the analysis of his works and the reliable experiences in his life, which is invisible but existing in the initiation process of a literary master.
The Negative Influence of Anima in Poe

The existence and formation of anima is influenced by the mans mother. If the mans mother brings negative influences on him, anima presents as the negative moods, such as dysphoria, irascibility, and melancholia (CHANG, 1999, p. 106). Poes mother, Elizabeth Arnold, was a famous actress at that time, and she was a beautiful woman. His father David Poe was also an actor, but his acting career was not smooth. When Poe was two years old, his father David Poe disappeared because of his blighted aspiration and straitened living circumstance. Elizabeth was abandoned with two sons and a daughter. Because of the ponderous burden of stretching herself to provide for the family, Poes mother was ill at the October of 1811, and died just tow month later. At this time Poe was only three years old. A three years old boy already has the perception ability and memory. His mothers youth, beauty, and responsibility left a nice image in his memory. However, his mothers sorrow and obsession of being abandoned, her worry and bitterness of the straitened life, her despair and suffering of the disease, and her yearning and love for her children and life also became the everlasting pain and sorrow in Poes life. Poe started his life with the memory of his affectionate mother and yearning for the affection from family. The memory of his mother carved a deep imprint in Poes anima, so Poe sought the consolation in his writing career. Poes anima was shaped by his mother, and there was the death of beauty, the fear of being abandoned, the suffering of disease, and the desire for life in his anima inherited from his mother. These themes are presented in his poetry and short stories. The early death of Annabel Lee reflects the death of beauty. In the short story The Black Cat (1843), the young wife has just married for three years, but she was murdered by his drunken husband and her body was walled in the cellar by him, which reflects Poes accusation of his mothers being abandoned and death of illness and sorrow. In the The Fall of the House of Usher (1839), the beautiful but sick Madeline
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with a suspiciously lingering smile upon the lip is encoffined alive by her brother, but she breaks the coffin and gets out at last, which reflects the suffering of illness and the desire for life. Most of the affection and love in family for Poe was from his foster mother, but she died at about 40 when Poe was 20 years old. The death of his foster mother deepened the shadow of death of beauty and losing of love in his anima. The dark and depressed part of anima was not only reflected in his works, but also threatened his real life. The death of his mother and foster mother meant the being abandoning of Poe and the losing of the precious love. In the soul of Poe, the negative mother-anima seems to repeat I am a nihil and meaningless entity again and again (CHANG, 1999, p. 106). The suspicion of the meaning of life forced him to explore the secret corners of the inner world and became a master of psychological fictions. That is why Poe was honored as the adventurer who dared to break into the horrible hell of human soul by D. H. Lawrence (ZHU, 2010, p. 109). This negative theme derives a mans motion and feeling, and causes the fear of emergency, disease, and death. Poes whole life was enshrouded in the pathetic, blue, and depressed mood shadowed by the negative anima in his soul, which to some degree prevailed on him to commit suicide. Poe died at the age of 40 by indulging himself drinking, taking drugs, being lost in the physically and mentally tiredness, and lacking in consolation. The anima is the feminine soul of a man. The death of beauties in Poes works, such as the death of Annabel Lee, Berenice, Ligeia, and Madeline, reflects his soul suicide. He suffered from the bouts of depression and madness. In his letter to his mother-in-law, Poe wrote I have no desire to live since I have done Eureka. I could accomplish nothing more (Harris, 2000, p. 1, as cited in Poe, 1948, p. 452), and then he attempted suicide by swallowing opium in 1848. At this time, anima became the fatal daimon for Poe.
The Positive Influence of Anima in Poe

The anima in Poes soul was the feminine nature in him, so the stronger anima became, the more profound he understood woman, which helped him know clearly what kind of woman he really love. According to the theory of Carl Jung, If a man can understand his anima, he will choose his love with its criteria, so he may enjoy a happy marriage with a great possibility (CHANG, 1999, p. 106). The positive influence anima for Poe was on his only marriage which was happy, even though it was short-lived. No matter happy or sad, Poes marriage life gave him inspiration of several profound and influential works. At the age of 27, Poe married his cousin Virginia who had even not reached the age of 14. The marriage life was happy and warm. Unfortunately, in the January of 1842, Virginia expectorated blood because of tuberculosis, which aroused the memory of his mother expectorating blood in Poes deep inner world. Anima was enhanced once more, so Poe became more sensitive literarily and he created The Masque of the Red Death at the same year. Five years later, Virginia died of illness, which was a fatal shock to Poe. At this year, Poe created UlalumeA Ballad (1847) that memorialized the faithful love between them and Eureka about his view of life and universe. Three years later, Poe created Annabel Lee (1850) which was praised profusely. Poes anima became more active than before and the art in his works came to the prime. After the death of Virginia, Poe lost his bosom friend, and he did not find the substituted one, so his anima was a kind of self-protection to fill his emotional vacancy. As the usual form of anima presents as the illusion of pornography, men will nourish their needs with the blue movies, strip, and reverie, which is the primal and natural feature of anima. Especially after the death of Virginia, Poe took drugs and drunk immoderately, because
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the women he fell in love with and had a relationship, such as Ester Anne Lewis, Mary Sue, Helen Whiteman, Mrs. Shelton and several women, were finally inaccessible. As long as a mans attitude to the emotion of life is still childish, he will be uncontrolled and lost under this feature (CHANG, 1999, p. 107). From the moment of [Poes] wifes death, he waged an unequal battle with a relentless fate (Peeples, 1995, p. 330). Poe longed for consolation, but his failure of love enhanced his loneliness and sorrow. That is why Poe died at a young age because of drinking and taking drug. On the other hand, too much drinking leads to the losing of sexuality. The weaker his masculine nature in his soul was, the stronger his feminine nature in his soul was. The failure of love and drinking enhanced Poes anima and his capacity of understanding women, but also depressed Poe, leading to his early death, and caused the great lost for the whole literary world. If a man is impotent to face some facts in his unconscious, anima will present and help him analyse his ego (CHANG, 1999, p. 107). One of the important functions of anima is making a mans soul coordinating with sound internal values. In Poes spiritual world, anima plays the role of a guide or an intermediary leading him to the internal world and unconscious ego. At the last years of Poe, the anima in his soul was enhanced to the prime, so his literary creativity also came to prime. Poe created The Bells (1848), when he heard the sound of church bell. In this poem, Poes description of the sound of the church bell was the best conclusion of his whole lifeliving the happy but transitory childhood, then experiencing the last half of life with sorrow and hardships, finally coming to the end of life with a hear full of scars. Two months before his death, Poe created Annabel Lee throughout ages for his wife Virginia dead at the age of 22. As the guide or intermediary, anima invisibly helped Poe sing the last song from his inner world.
The Accumulative Influence of Anima in Poe

In Poes life, the influence of anima was the process of accumulation, and it was in synchronism with his initiation process, because anima was part of his soul and the basic source of life within the human being (Allen, 1947, p. 317). This accumulative process of gradation has three phases. The first phase is about the pure instinct of the biological relationship, and its perfect symbol is Miltons Eve (CHANG, 1999, p. 107). In the short story Berenice of Poe, the narrator is crazily attracted by Berenices teeth, so he digs her body out of the coffin and pulls her teeth out. The narrators love to Berenice becomes biological attachment to her teeth. Then the phase is about the embodiment the romantic and esthetic horizon, which is still based on the sexual features, such as The Helen of Troy (CHANG, 1999, p. 107). In the homonymous poem To Helen, Thy hyacinth hair, thy classic face is the embodiment of Jane Stith Stanards beauty which is also sexual attractiveness. The last phase is that anima composes the divine and pure embodiment of wisdom, such as the nymph like the Mona Lisa of DaVinci (CHANG, 1999, p. 107). In the short story Ligeia (1838), the narrator describes Ligeia as a learned woman, as Ligeia is the embodiment of wisdom. Ligeias resurgence in the body of Lady Rowena shows Poes fear of death and love of life. The changes of the beauties in Poes works record the accumulation of animas influence. The strong and active anima was an important factor in Poes initiation to be a master in poetry and short stories. When a man treats the emotion, mood, dream, and illusion transmitted by anima positively, he will convert them into some set forms, such as literature, panting, sculpture, music dance and so on (CHANG, 1999, p. 107). Poe converted the themes including the death of beauty, the fear of being abandoned, the suffering of disease, the desire for life, the love of musical beauty, and the exploration of the secret parts of the inner world
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into the fictional characters in his poetry and short stories. If this conversion process of a man is long-term and diligent, his individualization process will not only be an illusion, but also gradually become real and solid for this man (CHANG, 1999, p. 107). In Jungs teaching, the process of individuation, or a recognition and integration of the unconscious contents of the psyche into consciousness, is the most important goal of human life (Jurkevich, 1991, p. 47). Man who is influenced by anima will present a special gift in literature, panting, sculpture, music dance or other form of art, while Poe presented it in literary creation. As anima was the feminine complement factors in mans unconscious making Poe more sensitive, he knew the mans world and also understood the womans world, so his literary creativity was strong and he had the unique aesthetics. Even though Poe died in his prime, as a master of poetry and short stories, he fully expressed his special literary gift in his works and left his unique aesthetics for the readers to explore.
Conclusions
The anima in Poes soul was shadowed by the death of his mother, and then it was enhanced by the death of his foster mother. The dark and depressed part of anima was reflected in Poes poems and short stories. The negative mother-anima threatens Poes real life. Poes whole life was enshrouded in the pathetic, blue, and depressed mood shadowed by the negative anima in his soul, which to some degree prevailed on him to commit suicide. The anima in Poes soul was the feminine nature in him, which helped him to understand women, so the heroines in his works were beautiful and attractive. His anima was enhanced once more by his wife Virginias death and drinking. The strong anima also plays a positive role as a guide or an intermediary leading Poe to the internal world and unconscious ego, and invisibly helped Poe sing the last song from his inner world. The influence of anima was the process of accumulation during Poes initiation process. The strong and active anima enhanced Poes literary gift, so Poe realized his gift in his literary creation, and was honored as a master of poetry and short stories.
References
Allen, L. D. (1947, May). The literary background for Claudels parabole dAnimus et Anima. Modern Language Notes, 62(5), 316-320. CHANG, R. S. (1999). The myth of human soul: Psychological analysis of Carl Jung. Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. (1999) Guerin, W. L., Labor, E., Morgan, L., Reesman, J. C., & Willingham, J. R. (2004). A handbook of critical approaches to literature. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Harris, W. C. (2000, Spring/Summer). Edgar Allan Poes Eureka and the poetics of constitution. American Literary History, 12(1&2), 1-40. Jurkevich, G. (1991, Winter). Unamunos intrahistoria and Jungs collective unconscious: Parallels, convergences, and common sources. Comparative Literature, 43(1), 3-59. Peeples, S. (1995, Fall). Life writing/death writing: Biographical versions of Poes final hours. Biography, 18(4), 328-338. QI, L. (2011). The classic reconstruction under the threshold of cultural poetics: Commentary on Zhu Zhenwus new book A Review of a Study on Edgar Allan Poe. Contemporary Foreign Literature, 4, 164-168. ( <>20114164-168) WANG, S. R. (1992). Psychoanalytic theory and modern literary criticism. Contemporary Foreign Literature, 144-152. ( 1992144-152) ZHU, Z. W. (2010). The tell-tale heart. Shanghai: Huangdong University of Technology. ( 2010)
DA VID
PUBLISHING
The Social Function of Art in the Macedonian Contemporary Society

Antoanela Petkovska
Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia The recent social processes that are striking the Republic of Macedonia are distorting the nature of many sophisticated socio-anthropological phenomena, including the artistic practices. Thus, we will try to briefly elaborate on several tendencies about contemporary art in the Republic of Macedonia, by screening the theoretical discourses on the issue and by critical perception of recent practices concerning the field. Todays views on the creative practices, incorporated in conceptual packages that should develop a new culture of living, are manifested in the creative industries, have been just recently recognized in the Macedonian society. The propaganda character of the treatment of artistic practice changes only formally the media of their manifestations. The idea about the possible and necessary engaged attitude of art towards society had its place also in the modern as well in the postmodern concept of art. In the Republic of Macedonia this ideological attitude towards art regretfully has also become the main mechanism for political domination, manifested mainly in architecture and landscaping of public space. The commercialisation of art supported by the media imposes the discourses of popular art over the content of high art. It seems that art is represented in the field of education and science in the Republic of Macedonia only when certain pragmatic, frequently politicised, interests need to be satisfied. Keywords: art, artistic practice, propaganda art, commercial art, Macedonian art
Some Notes on the Theoretical and the Historical Discourses

Deliberations on art in terms of the social context, in all possible areas of the parameters through which, sociologically speaking, one usually gains insight into the place and role of such an inherently creative, phantasmagoric, subversive, comprehensive, and immanently aestheticized act of human activity, is continuously exposed to possible compromise. Emphasis is always put on the question whether it is possible to have a narrative of the social ethos of artistic creation, that is to what extent art follows or transcends, how much it divides and how much it integrates the different, synchronically and diachronically analyzed practices, for which time and space are important in their rigid sociable determination. In our opinion, basically, all sciences of art are faced with the inability to reduce it to a single common denominator and to discipline it in accordance with the strictly determined rules of scientific thought (Petkovska, 2009, p. 249). A similar view is expressed by Nochlin (1989), when she said that:
The social history of art often fails to question the status of history itself, accepting historical discourse as a given, a kind of originating or causative ground, and then positioning visual representation as a result or secondary phenomenon. The difficult or thorny issue of mediation is, understandably, often sidestepped by the social history model, leaving a heap Antoanela Petkovska, professor, Faculty of Philosophy, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University.
THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF ART IN THE MACEDONIAN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 119

of historical or social data on one side of the equation and a detailed analysis of pictorial structure on the other, but never really suggesting how the one implicates the other, or whether, indeed, there really is any mutual implication. (p. xv)
Faced with this danger of oversimplifying the understanding of the true dynamics of real life, we will try, however, to briefly note down some evident tendencies in the development of the art in contemporary Macedonia. The initial introductory procedure is logically based on a brief cultural history or social history of art in the territory of present-day Macedonia, with a special emphasis on the period which essentially saw the start of the development of secular art (as opposed to the previous, otherwise rich history of the predominance of sacral and folk art), understood in those of its manifestations that are included in the concept of elite artistic practices. Further discourse, one that is characteristic of recent and diverse forms of artistic creation, will be discussed and any other relevant activities that carry predicates art, whether that includes controversial works created in the era of mass media and culture. The area which encompasses the contemporary socio-cultural integrity and identity of Macedonia is one of the typical examples of complex, sometimes harsh, multilayer processes of intercultural communication whose output positions within many cultural contacts have emanated an original cultural and artistic content. They are mainly characteristic of the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and the European cultural context, variability, and features whose original synthesis (synchronic and diachronic perspective) was the outcome of a series of interesting and even indigenous phenomena. Macedonia is a product of vigorous and conflicting historical processes, otherwise fairly typical for the region of Southeast Europe, where the actions of conflict and convergence of cultures postulate the possibility of syncretism between the East and the West, the North and the South. The basic matrix of this discourse of identity/identities building, of the integrative and disintegrative processes in Macedonia builds upon the interaction of: ancient and classical Mediterranean cultures, the Byzantine civilization, pagan and later Christianized variant of Old Slavic Culture, the Ottoman civilization, aspects of Western European cultural tradition, as well, of course, the shared and autochthonous Balkan and indigenous national cultural foundation. It is necessary to note that we can speak of a profane, evident social history of art in Macedonia, in accordance with the conventional understanding of the phenomenon in a European spirit, only starting from the second half of the 19th and early 20th century (meaning after the five-century rule of the Ottoman Empire in the territory of what is now Macedonia and the wider region). What we consider particularly important in the presentation of the circumstances of todays development of art on Macedonian soil is certainly the fact that the 20th century in this territory involves social, military, and cultural traumas, and thus the trauma of national identity and integrity (Balkan wars, aggressive policies and military actions by neighboring countries, two world wars, socialist revolution, and confirmation of national identity and territorial integrity, independence of the Republic of Macedonia after the breakup of SFRY (Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) and the transition from socialism to capitalism/liberal democracy). Their momentum and brutality left deep traces in the national fabric as well as in the development of the value systems of citizens of the Republic of Macedonia. The development of artistic works, in terms of thematic and stylistic tendencies, as well as in terms of institutional solutions, in that sense, is under the obvious influence of rapid changes in social contexts, in the traditions that are indigenous but also under the influence of contemporary, emerging trends.
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Modernity officially entered Macedonian art in the first decades of the past century (20th), accompanied by the traditional, locally authentic and artistically sophisticated aesthetical features. The national avant-gardism has postulated the values of the Macedonian art of the recent ages. Even during the period of socialist realism (which was essentially dominant in Macedonian art only in the period from 1945 to 1950), artists showed interest and intrigue with different stylistic solutions derived from the concept of modernity as well as from the traditional Macedonian art (Petkovski, 2001).
The Macedonian Art Within the Recent Social Tensions and Tendencies
Recent social processes in all their complexity, conflicting nature, and redundancy have distorted the nature of many sophisticated socio-anthropological phenomena, and this particularly applies to art. Despite the serious and developed epistemological apparatus (within the sciences of art) that allows the postulation of a rich matrix of theories and methodologies that undeniably confirm the strangeness, the complexity of the phenomenon of art in the context of the social in all its historical dimensions, still, relating the artistic phenomenon to other forms (explicit as well as implicit) of social reality today reveals the general tendency towards making reality as banal as possible. That unfortunately is also reflected on artistic practice. This may, in our opinion, be seen in the positivistic, and overtly ideologized and commercialized treatment of art in the social context of the contemporary age. This situation is also obvious in the field of artistic practice in Macedonia. Current views of creative practices, the designing of reality and the construction of formulas for diverse lifestyles incorporated and modeled through diversified frameworks of activities, materialized or delivered in conceptual packages intended to help develop and build a new culture of living adequate for the present time, and supported by new technologies (Hartley, 2005), are manifested in the phenomenon of creative industries (which of course includes the cultural industries). For a few years now they have been recognized as a contemporary form of artistic practice and its institutionalization in the Republic of Macedonia. Cultural industries include the immanent forms of the phenomenon of selling ideas, whose nature and purpose are basically economically and ideologically commercial and tendentious in the context of postulating and affecting the way forward for public policies, whose main intention is to exercise influence in the public sphere. It means creating public opinion through the point of view of living taste, changing value systems and life orientations, implementation of new forms of interaction and communication, etc.. The marked needs of the creativity market (design, crafts, spectacle, information technologies, media content, advertising, and even cultural tourism, etc.) emanate practices that define and subsume the technocratic and commercialized aesthetical logic and practice of contemporary consumer society and the virtually postulated society. As in most of the world, cultural/creative industries take up a dual role: combining skills, art, technology, reproduction capability; they also emanate the undeniable, the manifest or latent power to impose lifestyles and change value systems. On the other hand, they enhance artistic products with the power of profitability and productivity within a primarily market driven economy. In Macedonia, the process of sensitizing the public and the official authorities as to the lucrativeness of these innovative practices has found its outcome in the passing of the National Strategy on Creative Industries (2008), which recently began to be operationalized through action plans (2012). Creative industries, in almost all of their basic forms of action, both traditional and contemporary (although for them there is no global coherent and conventional nomenclature), have been present in the
THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF ART IN THE MACEDONIAN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 121 Macedonian cultural context for a longer period of time. Today, still, they are recognized through specific, modern media and their relationship to businesses is far more evident. The audience recognizes and expects their products, but is not fully aware of the specific structure and modes of action of this model of creation, which of course includes various segments of the arts. The public sphere is replete with commercialized variants of the fusion between technology, aesthetics, and innovation that play a subversive but vital part in the life of Macedonian citizens (propaganda, marketing, advertising, spinning, and implementation of diverse public policies). It could be said that there is a certain criterion in assessing the virtues of the accomplishments of this production, which vary according to the distinctions of taste in the sense of the meaning of Bourdieus (1984) phrase, of the Macedonian audience. That does not necessarily mean total foundation of the knowledge of economic, cultural/artistic and political, nor the ideological implications of the functions of the creative industries in Macedonia, neither as a real condition, nor as a potential consequence. The philosophy behind the National Strategy on Creative Industries (2008) incorporates also the classical forms of artistic creation, or the conventional, elite institutions of symbolic and artistic culture, thus trying to transform the traditional meaning of these phenomena as part of consumer section of society into practices that produce real income and which can be economically sustainable. Of course, this venture also entails countless hidden dangers, such as: (1) profanization and commercialization of art; and (2) opportunity for the government to reduce subsidies for the sector of national art institutions, etc.. On the other hand, the experts, members of academia, actors within the creative industries and the authorities in Macedonia, see in this aggressive, ubiquitous, and markedly developmental phenomenon, a way to branch out into the global markets and global economies, as well as a path towards the international promotion of Macedonian culture and art. The propaganda nature of the treatment of artistic practice and artistic production changes, only seemingly and in formal terms, the media of its manifestations. The idea of the possible and necessary engaged relationship between art and the social had its place in the modern concept of art, too (of course, it would not sacrifice artistic form to this nature of art), and it seems that it is emphatically and openly advocated even in todays, so to speak, post-modern age. Within the official and unofficial framework and forms of ideological and political action (civil society, public sector, and even the economic sector), on both a local as well as national and global level, there appear frequent attempts for quasi-aestheticization of practices through which certain civic interests are exercised, the fight for human rights is fought, state projects are realized, protests and disagreements are conceived, designs of ethical and aesthetically postulated environment are postulated, etc., for example community art, graffiti. Processes of this kind, on a global level as well as in the Republic of Macedonia, display an intention towards what Clark has called propaganda against propaganda. Commenting on all the levels of combatting stereotypes and prejudices recognizable in some types of artistic creation, he also uncovers the power of art to include content and to represent attitudes that transcend all types of rigidity in relation to the judgment of human behavior or the characteristics of others, who are different. Speaking of pictorial intervention in the form of a quilt, dedicated to the acceptance of AIDS patients, Clark (1997) said:
Speaking many voices, existing in no single place, movable, expandable, made both privately and collectively, and able to remember an individual within an inclusive community, the quilt may have succeeded in bringing together the political and human functions of art. (p. 161)
The inertia of mentality and the spirit of dogmatized consciousness embodied in socialist realism (Petkovska, 2009, p. 209), as mentioned above, represented for a relatively short time the ideational/ideological
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framework of artistic practice in the former SFRY. However, some of its essential reminiscences have persisted for a long time after the opening of the former Yugoslav, and within its borders, Macedonian cultural space to free artistic expression, both in terms of themes as well as styles. But the idea of engaged art is obviously not completely overcome in the new modernity or post-modernity, and thus some recurrences of the tendency for political and ideological use of art in todays Republic of Macedonia have completely corresponded to the logic of domination of the political elites in power in the past 20 years of the countrys independence. Of course, these phenomena are related to the institutional framework of artistic activity, and do not reflect the overall nature of artistic creation. On the contrary, there is evident commitment to further free exploration of artistic forms and contents, in connection with the spirit of the times and global trends in art. Much of this work also follows the national traditions (themes, forms, and means of expression) but without closing them down into a traditionalist conventional expression, but gives them an immanently contemporary dimension and uses all the new media. These conditions have had repercussions on the institutional treatment of art, too. In addition to the already existing institutions in the field of art, national as well as local (in accordance with the policy of decentralization of culture), which largely rely on subsidies by the national government and by the local governments, there has simultaneously been an establishment of alternative, amateur or (quasi) private institutions (which still generate part of their income from official sources, and part from national and international foundations) that facilitate artists to work more freely, and to be more mobile (some of them include the cultural industries). There is a marked and recognized need to introduce new forms of management in these institutions, which would keep up with the spirit of the times and keep pace and be competitive at a global level. In the Republic of Macedonia there is an ongoing and developing practice of having art festivals, again of national and local character. These events are part of the commitment of national cultural policy towards: (1) more influential and open presentation of Macedonian art in public spaces; (2) exchange of artistic works and mobility of staff in the field of artistic creation and artistic practice in general; and (3) attracting a wider audience. The ideologization of art is still at work in the Republic of Macedonia, as one of the mechanisms of political domination and emphasized nationalistic treatment of its manifestations, particularly in the field of architecture and regulation of public space. This phenomenon, in the recent history of independent Macedonia, has come to the fore in two forms: On one hand, authorities which show no great interest in designing and giving meaning to the public, particularly urban space; on the other hand, authorities, which in the context of reinventing tradition and expressing some relation towards collective memory, express the sense of social cohesion through attempts at aestheticizing and (quasi) historicizing public spaces. In both cases one can recognize, in their latent or manifest form, commercialization and ideological manipulation of the environment in which Macedonian citizens operate. In this respect, the audience is segmented. Experts are divided in their assessments, as is the general public. Some accept the intervention of the government as an indicator of its interest to strengthen the national fabric and identity, to aestheticize space, while others feel that such products (e.g., public buildings, monuments, and free interventions in space), of such form, emanate vulgar ideologization, chauvinism, manifestation of quasi artistic values, and creation of conditions for divisions (religious, ethnic, class, educational, etc.) within the social fabric of the nation. Thus, these ventures have in reality produced debates and movements that have manifested themselves, in fact, as internal conflicts of stigmatization and destigmatization of the freedom of art, and especially public creation.
THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF ART IN THE MACEDONIAN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 123 The power of the market, the vulgar commercialization of art, assisted by the power of the media, imposes the discourses of popular or mass art and their interference with the concept of high, elite art. As in the other global regions, particularly the Balkans, the Republic of Macedonia sees the formation (although its origins date back to the period of socialism!) of a rather trivial popular culture, which often bears the name of pop-folk, neo-folk, or turbo-folk (phenomena that, to a certain degree, can be compared with some global trends, such as ethno-pop culture, world music, etc.). Basically, what we have here is the old struggle for arbitration of the proper taste, cultural needs, standards, and redundant practices of human living and acting particularly burdened by the transformation of the system from a socialist one into a civil (capitalist) one. Often in the literature that treats this phenomenon, characteristic of the post-cultural trauma of the former socialist countries of the Balkans is brought in relation with the new type of stratification of transitional societies (Dragievi-ei, 1994). On one side are the new political and business elites, with their petty bourgeois taste and snobbery, and on the other are the intellectual elites with their elitism (or, sometimes, quasi-elitism), there is also the urban-rural or populist taste of a significant portion of the population (lower-ranking officials, people who have lost their jobs in the competitive and market-oriented model of the new liberal democratic society, owners of small- and medium-size businesses, even a part of the intelligentsia which is unable to maintain its status, etc.), and finally the taste of the rural population obsessed with folklore in all its ethnic varieties. It is interesting to note that, except for a small part of the elites, especially the artistic and the intellectual part of the avant-garde youth (among other things, fascinated by the new-old manifestations of countercultures), the concepts of high or elite or rebel art are rarely consumed, much less accepted. In fact, in the majority of the population, products of popular culture are the most widely accepted. These choices are often a response to existential inconveniences, economic uncertainty, dominance of party interests in state affairs, the need to escape from arduous reality, the ethnic and even religious, especially educational and class divisions of the social fabric. The cheap level of creation characteristic of the aforementioned forms of mass culture emanates content capable of causing, or deepeningby means of its trivialitythe emergence of resignation, fear and even violence within the social fabric. These are the dominant lifestyles that high art and culture, regardless of their real sophisticated developments in Macedonia, are slowly losing the battle with.
Conclusions: What Has to Be Done?

It seems that art is present in education and science in the Republic of Macedonia only when there is a need to meet certain pragmatic, often politicized interests (cultural heritage and national identity, racial, ethnic, gender, class-ideological point of view, etc.). Basically, such extremes of changing the status of art in society according to the sporadic interests of certain social groups speak of a dangerous marginalization and manipulation of artistic practice. More recent trends in the context of education and cultural policies, however, show sensitivity to the role of art education, and the inclusion of educational content to track the history of culture and art, supplying those who are in the process of education with the skills, knowledge, and critical thinking that would substantially increase their cultural capital, and would allow them to be able to participate freely, movably, and authentically in the building of not only national but global patterns of production, recreation, and remodeling of life. Such ventures are viewed as an indispensable segment of the self-affirmation of individuals and groups, but also of the whole Macedonian social tissue in its resistance against parochialism, the marginalization of Macedonian artistic and cultural practice, and its defense against all types of colonial consciousness, unfortunately encouraged by some aspects of globalization.
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References
Bourdieu, P. (1984). DistinctionA social critique of the judgment of taste. Cambridge and Massachusets: Harvard University Press. Clark, T. (1997). Art and propaganda in the twentieth century. New York: Harry N. Abrams Publishers. Dragievi-ei, M. (1994). Neo-folk culture (Neofolk kultura). Sremski Karlovci, Novi Sad: Izdavacka Knizarnica Zorana Stojanovica. Hartley, J. (2005). Creative industries. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.. National strategy on creative industries ( ). (2008). Skopje: Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Macedonia. Nochlin, L. (1989). The politics of visionEssays on nineteenth-century art and society. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Petkovska, A. (2009). Essays on the sociology of culture ( ). Skopje: AZBUKI. Petkovska, A., Grchev, K., Ivanov, G., Lazarevski, P., Tonovski, G., & Abdulai, J. (2009). Mapping of the creative industries in the Republic of Macedonia ( ). Skopje: Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Macedonia and British Council in Macedonia. Petkovski, B. (2001). Studies on contemporary Macedonian art ( ). Skopje: Makedonskacivilizacija.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Physiological Analysis for Universal Design of Public Seat Under Diverse Conditions*
Takeshi Kitamura, Koichiro Sato, Yoshiyuki Matsuoka
Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
Takeo Kato
Tokai University, Tokyo, Japan
Public vehicle seats are used under diverse conditions, therefore, the design of these seats is desired to be universal design. In the past study, seat swing function used in public vehicle seats, and it was optimized from the mechanical aspect under diverse conditions. Seat swing function is the function to prevent hip-sliding force, which causes sitting uncomfortable feeling. Recent study clarified that the reduction of blood flow in the legs causes physiological dysfunction, which is one of the causes of Long Flight Thrombosis, and the social issue. Thus, in the design of seat swing function, it is necessary to consider not only mechanical aspects but also physiological aspects. For the universal design of seat swing function considering the physiological aspect (blood flow), the influence of blood flow on seat swing function in diverse conditions was analyzed. The method of this study was measuring blood flow and body pressure distribution on seat cushion of seat swing function under diverse conditions. From the analysis, it was indicated that it was necessary to reduce the compressive force behind the knees of the user conditions; the short physique and the high weight physique in standard sitting posture, for the universal design of seat swing function to prevent reduction of blood flow in the legs. Keywords: universal design, diverse conditions, seat, blood flow
Introduction
Background Because the general population utilizes public seats, such as railway vehicle seats, they are used in diverse conditions, and are influenced by many factors related to humans, objects, and the environment. Although railway vehicle seats are used under varied conditions, conventional seat designs typically consider only average conditions, which include the average physique and standard sitting posture. Thus, conventional design solutions are often poorly evaluated under specific conditions. Therefore, for robust evaluations, public vehicle seats should be universally designed by considering diverse conditions.
*
Acknowledgements: This work is supported in part by a Grant in Aid for the Global COE (Center of Excellence) for Center for Education and Research of Symbiotic, Safe, and Secure System Design from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan. Takeshi Kitamura, master, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Keio University. Takeo Kato, Ph.D., Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tokai University. Koichiro Sato, Ph.D., Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University. Yoshiyuki Matsuoka, Ph.D., Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University.
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PHYSIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS FOR UNIVERSAL DESIGN OF PUBLIC SEAT A previous study has clarified that hip-sliding force causes an uncomfortable sitting posture, and optimized
the seat swing function used in public vehicle seats based on mechanical aspects to prevent this force (see Figure 1) (Matsuoka & Morita, 2001; Niwano & Matsuoka, 1998). The seat swing function is a function to prevent hip-sliding force by adjusting the C.A. (cushion angle) when a user adjusts the B.A. (back angle) to assume comfortable sitting posture. In the previous study, human-seat models were constructed, and simulations with the constructed models yielded a hip-sliding prevention curve to depict the relationship between the back angle and cushion angle to prevent hip-sliding force. Then a seat swing function was designed using the hip-sliding prevention curve, and the validity of the design solution was evaluated by a sensory experiment. Although the seat swing function was optimized from mechanical aspects, physiological aspects were not assessed.
Seat back
Hip-sliding force
Hip-sliding force : smaller
Seat cushion
Step 1 : A user adjusts the seat back to assume comfort sitting posture. (Hip-sliding force generates in the situation.)
Step 2 : Seat swing function prevents hip sliding force by adjusting seat cushion. (Hip-sliding force is smaller than Step 1.)
Figure 1. Seat swing function and hip-sliding force.
Recently, it has been reported that sitting on a seat for a long time can cause deep vein thrombosis (Kuipers, Schreijer, & Cannegieter, 2007; Hitos, M. Cannon, & S. Cannon, 2007; Becker, Salim, & Kelman, 2006; Paganin, Bourde, & Yvin, 2003), and preventing thrombosis is a social issue. One plausible cause is reduced blood flow in the lower limbs. Thus, seat swing function designs must consider not only mechanical aspects, but also physiological aspects, especially the influence of the seat swing function on blood flow in the lower limbs. Employing the seat swing function changes the human-seat compression, and previous studies have clarified that the distribution of body pressure affects blood flow (Sato & Nakamura, 2007; Kawa, Morooka, & Kitamura, 1995; Tanaka, Yoshida, & Hirata, 1999). Therefore, it is likely that changing the human-seat compression with the seat swing function affects blood flow. Hence, this study evaluates the influence of the seat swing function on blood flow using the relationship between human-seat compression and blood flow. Objective and Method of This Study This study aims to clarify the influence of the seat swing function, which was optimized with regard to hip-sliding force, on blood flow under diverse conditions. Additionally, this study will provide useful knowledge to design a universal seat swing function with respect to physiological aspects. The first part of the experiment measures blood flow for various physiques and sitting postures to determine
PHYSIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS FOR UNIVERSAL DESIGN OF PUBLIC SEAT
127
the influence of the seat swing function on blood flow under diverse conditions. Herein the results of a pervious study were used to determine the seat angles (Matsuoka & Morita, 2001; Niwano & Matsuoka, 1998). The second part measures body pressure distribution using the same conditions as the first part as well as anatomical analysis to elucidate the influence of the seat swing function on blood flow under diverse conditions, because previous studies have clarified that the distribution of body pressure affects blood flow (Sato & Nakamura, 2007; Kawa, Morooka, & Kitamura, 1995; Tanaka, Yoshida, & Hirata, 1999; Shibata & Hirata, 1995). Finally, from the analysis, which is based on the relationship between blood flow and compressive force under diverse conditions, useful knowledge to design a universal seat function with respect to physiological aspects is clarified.
Experiment to Measure Blood Flow

Experimental Conditions Subjects. To evaluate passengers with various physiques, three different levels of height and weight were considered (Reference Manual Anthropometry in Ergonomic Designing, 1996). Of the nine possible height and weight combinations, two were statistically rare, and eliminated based on the robust design method, the mean value m, and 3 2 (see Tables 1-2). Table 1 Physique Level of Examinees
Height m -3 / 2 Weight m - 3 / 2 m : Average m + 3 / 2 Physique 1 (Short physique) Physique 4 (Corpulent physiqu m : Average Physique 6 (Corpulent physiqu Physique 2 (Average physique) Physique 7 (Slim physique) m +3 / 2 Physique 5 (Slim physique) Physique 3 (Tall physique)
Table 2 Height and Weight of Each Physique Level

m - 3 / 2 Height (cm) Weight (kg) 163.7 53.2 m : Average 171.4 63.3 m + 3 / 2 179.6 73.4
Sitting postures. Two types of sitting postures, the standard sitting and hip-sliding sitting, have been previously reported for passengers in public vehicles (Saito & Wakabayashi, 1997). In the standard sitting posture, a passenger sits such that the buttocks are firmly on the seat cushion and the waist comes in contact with the seat back. In contrast, in the hip-sliding sitting posture, a passenger sits with the buttocks slid forward and the pelvis rotated such that the waist does not come into contact with the seat back. Herein three types of sitting postures are considered as diverse conditions, the standard sitting posture and hip-sliding sitting postures where the buttocks is slid 100 mm and 200 mm from the standard sitting posture (see Figure 2).
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100mm
200mm
(100mm from standard sitting posture) Standard sitting posture Hip-sliding sitting posture 1
(200mm from standard sitting posture) Hip-sliding sitting posture 2
Figure 2. Sitting postures.
Seat angle (B.A. and C.A.). The seat angle in the experiment was determined from the hip-sliding prevention curve (Matsuoka & Morita, 2001; Niwano & Matsuoka, 1998), which is the design solution of the seat swing function optimized in the previous study (see Figure 3). This curve shows the B.A. is maximized at 40 degrees, which is where the hip-sliding force is maximized and the seat swing function is most effective. Thus, B.A. is fixed at 40 degrees, the C.A.s are determined. The standard is C.A. = 8 degrees, which is the same condition as a seat not equipped with a seat swing function. Because the hip-sliding force is the same as C.A. = 8 degrees, but in the opposite direction, C.A. = 32 degrees is also selected. In addition, C.A. = 24 degrees and C.A. = 20 degrees are used, because in the previous optimization C.A. = 24 degrees is the design solution considering average conditions, and C.A. = 20 degrees is the design solution considering diverse conditions.
Robust design solution assuming average conditions Robust design solution assuming diverse conditions 32 30 24 20
C.A. [deg]
10 8
10
20
30 B.A. [deg]
40
50
60
Figure 3. Hip-sliding prevention curve.
Environment and measurement region. Before measuring blood flow, subjects rested quietly in sitting posture for one hour to prevent the influence of the subjects condition, posture, meal, and temperature on blood flow. Measurements began three hours after the last meal. The temperature in the room was 26 1C.
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Previous studies have reported that mechanical compression on the body influences blood flow on the feet more than that of the pressed body (Sato & Nakamura, 2007; Kawa, Morooka, & Kitamura, 1995; Tanaka, Yoshida, & Hirata, 1999; Shibata & Hirata, 1995). Hence, sesamoid bones were used as the measuring point, because blood flow through these bones is easy to measure and is not influenced by autonomic nerves (see Figure 4).
Sesamoid bones
Figure 4. The measuring region of blood flow.
Experimental Procedure Seat angle measurements. Seat angles were measured using a spirit level based on the method provided by Japan Railway. Blood flow measurements. Blood flow was measured for three minutes with a laser blood flow meter (Kubli, Waeber, Dalle-Ave, & Feihl, 2000). There were 12 experimental variations per person: three sitting postures (standard sitting posture, 100 mm hip-sliding sitting posture, and 200 mm hip-sliding sitting posture) and four C.A. variations (C.A. = 8, 20, 24, and 32 degrees).
Results and Discussion

Previous studies have reported that blood flow is influenced by mechanical force on a human body (Sato & Nakamura, 2007; Kawa, Morooka, & Kitamura, 1995; Tanaka, Yoshida, & Hirata, 1999; Shibata & Hirata, 1995), and have indicated that human-seat compressive force on a seat cushion with a seat swing function influences blood flow. Thus, to clarify the influence of seat swing function on blood flow, the human-seat force was measured. Human-Seat Force on the Seat Swing Function Estimated human-seat force. The human-seat force has two directions: perpendicular to the cushion surface, i.e., compressive force, and parallel to cushion surface, i.e., the hip-sliding force. The hip-sliding force and compressive force were estimated using human-seat models as well as by the equation constructed in the previous study (Matsuoka & Morita, 2001; Niwano & Matsuoka, 1998) (see Table 3). Table 3 Hip-Sliding Force and Compressive Force Estimated by Simulation
Standard sitting posture
Hip-sliding force (N) Compressive force (N)
Hip-sliding sitting posture 1

Hip-sliding sitting posture 2

8 C.A. [deg] 20 24 32
59.5 15.0 1.2 35.4
213.2 181.6 169.2 142.5
35.1 10.4 26.6 60.9
234.6 204.9 193.0 167.0
80.1 51.8 40.7 14.1
195.0 147.0 130.0 95.0
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PHYSIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS FOR UNIVERSAL DESIGN OF PUBLIC SEAT Influence of the human-seat force on blood flow. The influences of the hip-sliding and compressive
forces on blood flow were analyzed through multiple regression analysis where the objective variable was blood flow and the explanatory variables were the hip-sliding force and compressive force. The multiple correlation coefficient for the compressive force was 0.92, where the standard partial regressions of the hip-sliding and compressive forces were -0.07 and -0.96 (p < 0.01), respectively. Thus, compressive force impacts blood flow more than the hip-sliding force. Body pressure distribution measurements. Body pressure distribution on the seat cushion was measured by analyzing the influence of compressive force on blood flow. The conditions used to measure body pressure were the same as those used to measure blood flow. That is, diverse conditions were considered: seven physiques and three sitting postures. The conditions used to measure body pressure distribution were as follows: (1) Seat area to measure body pressure distribution. The seat cushion was the measurement area; (2) Method to measure the body pressure distribution. The measuring equipment included a sensor mat, called I-SCAN produced by NITTA. It consisted of an aggregate of 10-square-millimeter sensors. After calibration, body pressure distribution was measured using the same experimental order as that used to measure blood flow. Influence of the Seat Swing Function on Blood Flow in Diverse Conditions Relationship between C.A. and blood flow. Figures 5-6 show the results of the blood flow and the body pressure measurement for all subjects by C.A., respectively. The blood flow results are shown as the average of blood flow for all subjects over three minutes. The result of the body pressure distribution shows the body pressure curves, which estimate the total body pressure by compressing a 10-square-millimeter sensor at the cross section of the seat cushion. For all participants, when C.A. increased, blood flow decreased. Additionally, the body pressure distribution at each C.A. indicated that two parts of the body had striking changes in body pressure: the ischial tuberosity and the thigh, confirming that compressive forces in these two body regions influence blood flow.
30
Max of blood flow
Blood flow [ml/min]
25 20 15 10 5
1 Average of 1 blood flow Minimum of blood flow
(P<0.05 ) 0 8 20 C.A. [deg]

Figure 5. Blood flow on changing C.A..
24
32

Ischial tuberosity Thigh
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0 Compressive force on the cross line of the seat cushion [N] 250
100
200
300
400
500
C.A.=8 C.A.=20 C.A.=24 C.A.=32
Ischial tuberosity 200 150 100 50 0
Thigh
100
200
300
400
500
Distance from seat cushion origin [mm]
Figure 6. Body pressure curves on changing C.A..
Thus, correlation analyses between blood flow and compressive force at these two parts of the body were performed. Similar to previous studies (Sato & Nakamura, 2007; Kawa, Morooka, & Kitamura, 1995; Tanaka, Yoshida, & Hirata, 1999; Shibata & Hirata, 1995), mechanical compressive force to the body affected blood flow. High correlation levels were observed between the compressive force at the ischial tuberosity and the thigh and blood flow. The correlation coefficients at the ischial tuberosity with the standard sitting posture, hip-sliding posture 1, and hip-sliding posture 2 were 0.79, 0.63, and 0.71 (p < 0.05), respectively, whereas the correlation coefficients at the thigh with the standard sitting posture, hip-sliding posture 1, and hip-sliding posture 2 were -0.85, -0.88, and -0.96 (p < 0.01), respectively. Hence, the decreased blood flow with an increased C.A. led to a decrease in the compressive force at the ischial tuberosity, but an increase in compressive force at the thigh. Therefore, an increase in the compressive force at the thigh decreases blood flow. Relationship between sitting postures and blood flow. Figures 7-8 show results of the blood flow measurement and body pressure distribution for each sitting posture, respectively. Blood flow increased for hip-sliding postures, but the result of body pressure distribution measurement showed that the compressive force increased. The reason for this was analyzed from an anatomical viewpoint. The popliteal vein and small saphenous vein in the lower limbs are particularly close to the skins surface just behind the knees (see Figure 9). Thus, these veins are probably very susceptible to compressive force. Because the knees in the hip-sliding sitting posture are away from the edge of the seat cushion compared to the standard sitting posture, there is less compressive force on the popliteal vein and small saphenous vein relative to the standard sitting posture
132
(see Figure 2). Therefore, blood flow increases in the hip-sliding sitting posture due to a decrease in the compressive force on the popliteal vein and small saphenous vein.
Max of blood flow 1 Average of 1 blood flow Minimum of blood flow
30 Blood flow [ml/min] 25 20 15 10 5
(P<0.05 ) 0 Standard sitting posture Hip-sliding sitting posture 1 Sitting posture Hip-sliding sitting posture 2
Figure 7. Blood flow on each sitting posture.

Standard posture Hip-sliding posture 100 Hip-sliding posture 200
250 200 150 100 50 0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 8. Body pressure curves on each sitting posture.

Closer region of thigh Popliteal vein Sec. A Rectus femoris muscle Vastus lateralis muscle Biceps femoris muscle Adductor mugnus muscle Popliteal vein Sec. A
Small saphenous vein
Farther region of thigh
Right anterior aspect
Right posterior aspect
Figure 9. Superficial vein in the lower limbs.
133
Relationship between physiques and blood flow. Relationship between height and blood flow. To analyze the influence of height on blood flow, we focused on the body pressure of the thigh, and the compressive force ratio (Rp) on the thigh, which is calculated below (see Formula 1). The thigh was defined as the 100 mm range from the edge of seat cushion.
Rp = Pt/PT Rp: Compressive force ratio from the edge of seat cushion on the thigh; PT: Compressive force from the entire seat cushion on the thigh; Pt: Compressive force for the 100 mm area from the edge of seat cushion on the thigh. Formula (1)
Figure 10 shows the analysis result of the compressive force ratio for each C.A. on the height of each examinee. The compressive force ratios at C.A. = 8, 20, and 24 degrees, which are common inclines, for short physiques were larger than these on tall physiques. Thus, the blood volume decreased more for short physiques than tall physiques, implying that shorter users have more compressive force on the thigh in the standard sitting posture. This observation is reasonable, because shorter physiques have shorter lower limbs than tall physiques, and for the foot to be in contact with the floor the knee angle of short physiques at these angles is more acute. Thus, compared to tall physiques, short physiques have more compressive force at the C.A. = 8 degrees, which leads to a larger decrease in volume of blood flow, and shorter users have a greater risk of deep vein thrombosis.
30 The compressive force ratio on short physique is higher. 25 20 15 10 5 0 8 20 C.A. [deg]
Figure 10. Compressive force ratio on the thigh of each height examinee.
Short physique Average physique Tall physique
The rate of compressive force on thigh Rp [%]
Incline of graph on tall physique is higher.
24
32
For C.A. = 8 degrees, the knee angle of tall physiques is larger than that of short physiques, whereas for C.A. = 32 degrees, the knee angle of tall physiques is the same as short physiques. Therefore, taller physiques experience a greater incline, and the decrease in blood volume is larger as the C.A. increases. Hence, the increasing volume of compressive force on tall physiques is greater than that on other physiques. However, if highly used frequencies (C.A. = 8, 20, and 24 degrees) are considered, then the compressive force on short physiques is larger than that on tall physiques. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the compressive force on short physiques compared to the tall physiques for a universally designed seat swing function. Relationship between body type and blood flow. Figures 11-12 show the results of the blood flow measurement and body pressure distribution for each body type, respectively. Blood flow of corpulent physiques was less than that of slim physiques for each C.A. and body pressure distribution on the thigh of corpulent physiques was larger than that of slim physiques.
134

15 Blood flow [ml/min]
Slim physique Standard physique Corpulent physique
10
Blood flow of corpulent physique was less than that of slim physiques.
20 C.A. [deg]
24
32
Figure 11. Blood flow on each body type.
250 200 150 100 50 0 0 100 Body pressure of corpulent physique was larger than that of slim physiques. 200 300 400 500

Figure 12. Body pressure curves on each body type.
From the analysis based on an anatomical viewpoint, one reason that the compressive force on the veins, particularly the popliteal vein and small saphenous vein, in the lower limbs of corpulent physiques is larger than that of slim physiques is due to increased weight. Therefore, the risk of deep vein thrombosis on corpulent physiques is higher than that on slim physiques. Useful Knowledge for a Universally Designed Seat Swing Function Considering Physiological Aspects From the analysis of influence of the seat swing function on blood flow in diverse conditions, useful knowledge to design a universal seat swing function with respect to physiological aspects was clarified. First, from the analysis of relationship between sitting postures and blood flow, it was clarified that compressive force on the veins, especially the popliteal vein and small saphenous vein in the lower limbs, must be decreased to prevent reduced blood flow when creating a universally designed seat swing function. Second, from the analysis of relationship between physiques and blood flow, it was clarified that reducing the compressive force is crucial for short physiques and corpulent physiques, because the compressive force on the veins of these physiques is higher than other physiques (see Figure 13).
135
=>Short physiques =>Corpulent physiques
=>Popliteal vein =>Small saphenous vein Compressive force from seat cushion Seat cushion It is necessary to reduce compressive force on the veins.
Figure 13. Useful knowledge for universal design of seat swing function.
Conclusions
Physique influences blood flow; short and corpulent physiques have a greater risk of deep vein thrombosis as they were more impacted than other physiques. Second, compared to the standard sitting posture, assuming a hip-sliding posture increases the blood flow. Furthermore, analysis from an anatomical viewpoint clarifies that compressive force on the popliteal vein and small saphenous vein in the lower limbs influences the reduction in blood flow. Hence, to design a universal seat swing function, it is important to reduce the compressive force on the veins of short physiques and corpulent physiques to prevent decreased blood flow.
References
Becker, N. G., Salim, A., & Kelman, C. W. (2006). Air travel and the risk of deep vein thrombosis. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 30(1), 5-9. Hitos, K., Cannon, M., & Cannon, S. (2007). Effect of leg exercise on popliteal venous blood flow during prolonged immobility of seated subjects implications for prevention of travel-related deep vein thrombosis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 5(9), 1890-1895. Kawa, H., Morooka, H., & Kitamura, K. (1995). The influence of localized pressure of lower body on the amount of skin blood flow, an assumption to establish a design guide to support panty hose. Journal of the Japan Research Association for Textile End-Uses, 36(7), 491-494. Kubli, S., Waeber, B., Dalle-Ave, A., & Feihl, F. (2000). Reproducibility of laser Doppler imaging of skin blood flow as a tool to assess endothelial function. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, 36(5), 640-648. Kuipers, S., Schreijer, A. J. M., & Cannegieter, S. C. (2007). Travel and venous thrombosis a systematic review. Journal of Internal Medicine, 262(6), 65-72. Matsuoka, Y., & Morita, A. (2001). Design of swing-seat function using simulation of hip-sliding force. The Science of Design, 47(5), 615-634. Niwano, A., & Matsuoka, Y. (1998). Robust design method for variety of ba (pp. 93-100). Third Asia Design Conference. Paganin, F., Bourde, A., & Yvin, J. L. (2003). Venous thromboembolism in passengers following a 12-h flight, a case-control study. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, 74(12), 1277-1281.
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Reference manual anthropometry in ergonomic designing. (1996). Industrial Products Research Institute Agency of Industrial Science and Technology. Saito, M., & Wakabayashi, H. (1997). Development and verification of railway seat for long term sitting (pp. 405-408). JSME Centennial Grand CongressThe 6th Transportation and Logistics Conference. Sato, H., & Nakamura, M. (2007). Relationship between numbness and peripheral blood flow in seiza position (sitting on ones heels) of healthy subjects. Yamanashi Nursing Journal, 6(1), 53-57. Shibata, Y., & Hirata, K. (1995). The physiological effects of shoes pressure on the feet (Section 2) the effects of posture change and exercise on peripheral circulation of the feet. Report of the Consumer Science Research Institute of Hyogo Prefecture, 10, 150-156. Tanaka, K., Yoshida, M., & Hirata, K. (1999). Effect of the peripheral pressure at groin region immediately after the wear of girdle on the rate of blood flow in the skin at the bottom of feet and surface humidity on the skin. Journal of the Japan Research Association for Textile End-Uses, 40(3), 46-53.

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Journal of Literature and Art Studies

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David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com

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