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Trauma or recent surgical intervention is usually self-evident.[24] Occasionally, a hemorrhagic diathesis such as hemorrhagic disease of the newborn or Henoch-Schnlein purpura can lead to spontaneous hemothorax.[12, 11] Internal thoracic artery rupture has been reported in association with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. A few patients with spontaneous pneumothorax develop hemothorax.[25, 20] Chest pain and dyspnea are common symptoms. Symptoms and physical findings associated with hemothorax in trauma vary widely depending on the amount and rapidity of bleeding, the existence and severity of underlying pulmonary disease, the nature and degree of associated injuries, and the mechanism of injury. Hemothorax in conjunction with pulmonary infarction is usually preceded by clinical findings associated with pulmonary embolism. Catamenial hemothorax is an unusual problem related to thoracic endometriosis. Hemorrhage into the thorax is periodic, coinciding with the patient's menstrual cycle.
Physical Examination
Tachypnea is common; shallow breaths may be noted. Findings include diminished ipsilateral breath sounds and a dull percussion note. If substantial systemic blood loss has occurred, hypotension and tachycardia are present. Respiratory distress reflects both pulmonary compromise and hemorrhagic shock. Children may have traumatic hemothorax without bony fractures of the chest wall.
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Delayed hemothorax can occur at some interval after blunt chest trauma. In such cases, the initial evaluation, including chest radiography, reveals findings of rib fractures without any accompanying intrathoracic pathology. However, hours to days later, a hemothorax is seen. The mechanism is believed to be either rupture of a traumaassociated chest wall hematoma into the pleural space or displacement of rib fracture edges with eventual disruption of intercostal vessels during respiratory movement or coughing.
Penetrating trauma
Hemothorax from penetrating injury is most commonly caused by direct laceration of a blood vessel. While arteries of the chest wall are most commonly the source of hemothorax in penetrating injury, intrathoracic structures, including the heart, should also be considered. Pulmonary parenchymal injury is very common in cases of penetrating injury and usually results in a combination of hemothorax and pneumothorax. Bleeding in these cases is usually self-limited.[26]
Nontraumatic hemothorax
Symptoms and physical findings are variable, depending on the underlying pathology. Hemothorax secondary to acute hemorrhage from structures within the chest can produce profound hemodynamic changes and symptoms of shock. Massive hemothorax can result from vascular structures such as a ruptured or leaking thoracic aortic aneurysm or from pulmonary sources such as lobar sequestration or arteriovenous malformation. Disruption of a vascular pleural adhesion unrelated to trauma can produce a significant hemothorax with an associated spontaneous pneumothorax. Occult hemorrhage is most commonly related to metastatic disease or complications of anticoagulation. In these situations, bleeding into the pleural cavity occurs slowly, resulting in subtle or absent changes in hemodynamics.
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When the effusion is large enough to produce symptoms, dyspnea is usually the most prominent complaint. Signs of anemia may also be present. Physical examination reveals findings similar to those for any pleural effusion, with dullness to percussion and decreased breath sounds noted over the area of the effusion.
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Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Chief Editor Jeffrey C Milliken, MD Chief, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of California at Irvine Medical Center; Clinical Professor, Department of Surgery, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine Jeffrey C Milliken, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Cardiology, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Surgeons, American Heart Association, American Society for Artificial Internal Organs, California Medical Association, International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation, Phi Beta Kappa, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, Southwest Oncology Group, and Western Surgical Association Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Additional Contributors The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors Jane M Eggerstedt, MD, and Allen Fagenholz, MD, to the development and writing of the source articles.
References
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