Fabrics (): Foliation and Lineations ()

Jyr-Ching Hu, Department of Geosciences National Taiwan University

Fabric Terminology
Random fabric (): No preferred orientation (i.e., alignment) of the fabric element. Nonrandom fabric (preferred fabric, ): Fabric elements are aligned in some manner and/or repeated at approximately regular spacing. Planar fabric (foliation,): Fabric element is a planar or tabular feature. Linear fabric (Lineation, ): Fabric element is a linear feature.

Basic categories of fabrics

Random fabric A 1-D preferred fabric

A foliation

A lineation

Distinction between continuous and spaced fabrics

Continuous fabrics ( ) Fabric elements are closer than 1 mm (below the resolution of the eye) Spaced fabrics ( )

Continuous fabric () 1 mm Spaced fabric () ( )

The nature of tectonites ()

Tectonites: Rock with a penetrative tectonic fabric () L-tectonite: Linear fabric elements dominate; S-tectonite: A rock with dominantly planar fabrics; LS-tectonite: Rock with both types of fabric elements

S-tectonite

L-tectonite

LS-tectonite

Tectonites () : (Rocks with penetrative tectonic fabric). S-Tectonite L-Tectonite LS-Tectonite Penetrative()

Foliations ()
Foliation: Any type of planar fabric in a rock. Bedding, cleavage (), schistosity () and gneissosity () all qualify as foliations. Fractures are not considered to be foliations, because fractures are breaks through a rock and are not a part of rock itself. Convention: Track of different foliations (s0, s1, s2,) S0: bedding; S1: First foliation formed after bedding; S2: Foliation forms after S1. L: Lineation, S: surface in English, schistosit in French or Schieferung in German

 (foliation) (primary foliation) (secondary foliation)

What is cleavage ()?

Nongenetic definition: A secondary fabric element, formed under low-temperature conditions, that imparts on the a rock a tendency to split along planes. 1. Feature of rock that forms subsequent to the origin of rock. 2. Tectonic planar fabrics formed at or below lower greenschist facies conditions (i.e., 300oC). 3. The term cleavage is not used when referring to the fabric in schists or in gneiss. 4. A rock with cleavage, there are planes of weakness across which the rock may break when uplifted and exposed at the surface, even though cleavage itself forms without loss of cohesion. Closely spaced fractures array is not a cleavage.

 1. 2. (lower greenschist facies)( 3000C) 3.

Slaty cleavage

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU


Powell (1979) (domainal structures) (cleavage domain): (microlithon domain)

 (domainal structures)

Spaced disjunctive cleavage (, ,): solution cleavage in limestone

Disjunctive cleavage ()
The disjunctive implies that the cleavage domain cut across a preexisting foliation in the rock (bedding) without affecting the orientation of the preexisting foliation in the microlithons. Pressure solution is always involved in the formation of a disjunctive cleavage, pressure-solution cleavage ( , ) and stylolitic cleavage () have been used for this structure.

 (disjunctive cleavage)
(marls)

Stylolite ()

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU

Pressure shadows ()

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU

Cleavage description and classification

Sutured domains Planar domains

Wavy domains

Anastomosing array of wavy domains

Spaced cleavage: Domain spacing

Anastomosing array of wavy domains

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU

Pencil Cleavage
Fine-grained sedimentary rock (shale or mudstone) breaks into elongate pencil-like shards because of its internal fabric. Pencils are 5-10 cm long and 0,5-1 cm in width. It results from the interaction of two fracture sets. Pencil cleavage forms because of the strong shape anisotropy of clay flakes creates a preferred orientation parallel to bedding.

Progressive development of slaty cleavage via the formation of pencil structure

Cleavage formation process begin to take place: Large detrital phyllosilicates fold and rotate, while fine grain undergo pressure solution along domain perpendicular to the shortening direction, and new clay crystallizes.

Strain ellipsoid: pancake

Layer-parallel shortening


(a) (b) diagenetic foliation


(c) diagenetic foliation (pencil cleavage) (d)

Slaty cleavage ()
Slaty cleavage is defined by strong dimensionally preferred orientation of phyllosilicates ( ) in a very clay-rich rock. Slaty cleavage forms under temperature condition that mark the onset of metamorphism (250oC-350oC), there is a notable decreasing in the amount of interlayered water in clays; that is, smectite (, water-bearing clay) transforms to illite (). (smectite) (illite)

Phyllitic cleavage () and schistosity ()

When metamorphic conditions reach lower greenschist (), the clay and illite in a pelitic rock ( ) react to form white mica (muscovite, ) and chlorite (). Phyllite (): Rock is composed of strongly aligned fine-grained white mica and/or chlorite. Phyllitic cleavage is intermediate between slaty cleavage and schistosity. Schist (): When metamorphic conditions get into the middle greenschist facies (), , the minerals in a pelitic lithology react to form coarser-grained mica and other minerals.

Phyllitic cleavage () and schistosity ()

Conveniently, a schist is named by the assemblage of metamorphic index minerals that in contains, garnetbiotite schist (-). Phyllite: Rock is composed of strongly aligned finegrained white mica and/or chlorite. In schist contains porphyroclasts (, relict large crystals) or porphyroblasts () newly grown large crystals), the schistosity tends to be wavy, as the mica curve around the large crystals.

(Phyllitic cleavage) (Schistosity)

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU

Continuous cleavage

Crenulation Cleavage ()
A lithology containing a closely and evenly spaced foliation that is shortened in a direction at a low angle of this foliation.

Symmetric crenulation cleavage

asymmetric (sigmoidal) crenulation cleavage

Crenulation cleavage ()

http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/Ben/differentiated%20cren%20cleav.JPG

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU

Differentiation ()during the formation of crenulation cleavage

Crenulation cleavage forms under conditions that are also amenable to the occurrence of pressure solution ().

Qtz: Removed from limbs of the microfold and precipitates in the hinges as the crenulation cleavage forms.

Gneissic layering and Migmatization ( )

Foliated gneiss (gneissosity): metamorphic rock in which the foliation is defined by compositional banding(). Light-colored layers: feldspar and Qtz Dark-colored layers: amphibole ( )/pyroxene ()(and/or biotite) Gnesis formation (amphibolite to granulite facies, ): muscovite reacts to form feldspar, so the rocks contains no schistosity.

Fold hinges in transposed () gneiss: (transposed)

Felsic mineral (): feldspar, Qtz

Mafic mineral (, ): amphibole/pyroxene, biotite

Gneissic layering and Migmatization ( )

Paragneiss (): Sedimentary protolith ( ). Orthogneiss (): Igneous protolith ( ). Augen gneiss (): Contains relatively large feldspar clasts floating in a fine-grained matrix.

Augen Gneiss ()

http://www.psibertrip.com/geology/metamorphic.asp

(gneiss)
(compositional banding) (gneissosity) ( )(amphibolite to granulite facies) (paragneiss) (orthogneiss)

(gneissic structure)
(compositional banding)

Mechanism of formation of a gneiss

(a) Inheritance from an original lithology (b) Creation of new composition banding via transposition: Hinge of fold detached (c) Metamorphic differentiation: Diffusion, ions to be excluded

(d) Igneous process: Litpar-lit intrusion

(compositional layering)
(a) (b) (transposition) (c) (metamorphic differentiation) (d) (lit-par-lit intrusion)

Migmatite ()

The metamorphic rocks exposed in this outcrop near Michigamme, Michigan are over 3 billion years old.

http://epod.usra.edu/archive/epodviewer.php3?oid=204160 Eric Cohen, Westhampton Beach High School

Migmatite ()
() ()( )(refractory minerals) (partial melting or anatexis)

Cleavage and Strain

Does the study of a foliation in the field provide any constraints on the nature of strain in the region? A whisy-washy answer: sometimes yes, sometimes no. Strain marks in a cleaved rock

Strain markers: Reduction spots

Strain markers: Reduction spots

The rock has a light colored reduction spot. When the rock forming sediments were deposited there was a small bit of organic material mixed in. As this was decomposed by bacterial processes the Fe3+ was reduced to Fe2+. Reduced Iron is much more soluble in water therefore subsequent water flow through the rock rinsed away the iron. The redish color in the rest of the rock is the oxidized iron mineral hematite that is present in the cement.
http://www.uoregon.edu/~lemerson/rotd/

The lose or not to lose volume

Assuming no change in the third dimension, the intermediate strain axis Y=1

Volume loss strain

Volume constant strain

Graptolite: strain marker for finite strain

Studies of deformed markers and geochemical studies: Rock volume may have decreased by up to 50% during cleavage formation

http://www.ukfossils.co.uk/LIVE/keswick04.htm

Geochemical studies
Based on relative immobile elements TiO2, Y, and Zr

~45%

Foliations in Folds and Fault Zones

How cleavage develops during progressive deformation?
Layer-parallel shortening

Pencil cleavage

Disjunctive cleavage Region shear

Cleavage refraction: Change in cleavage attitude that occurs where cleavage domain cross from one lithology into another of different competency.
Flexural slip

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU

Transecting Cleavage
Cross-cutting cleavage forms in transpressional environments (: components of both pure and simple shear).
Q: Is it subjected to dextral shear of sinistral shear?
Dextral shear (dextral transpression): Counterclockwise transecting cleavage relative to roughly synchronous fold hinges Sinistral shear: Clockwise transecting cleavage.

()

Courtesy of Professor Yang Chao-Nan, Dept. Geosciences, NTU

Cleavage-bedding relationships and cleavage refraction

Facing: younging

Assumption: S1 cleavage is axial planar to the F1 fold

A: On the overturned limb of the upward facing part of the F2 fold, bedding dips more steeply than cleavage.

Assumption: S1 cleavage is axial planar to the F1 fold

B: On the upright limb of the upward facing part of the F2 fold, cleavage dips more steeply than bedding.

Assumption: S1 cleavage is axial planar to the F1 fold

C: On the upright limb of the downward facing part of the large fold, bedding dips more steeply than bedding.

Assumption: S1 cleavage is axial planar to the F1 fold

D: On the overturned limb of the downward facing part of the large fold, cleavage is steeper.

Examples of Lineations
a: Fold and crenulation hinges

b: mullions ()

c: boudins, boudinage ()

Mullions ()

Cusplike corrugations that form at the contact between units of different competencies in a deformed multilayered sequences, the axes of mullions are a lineation. More rigid lithology occurs in convex bulge that protrude into the ductile lithology. Because of their mechanical origin, mullions cannot be used as a facing indicator.

Boudinage ()

Elongate pebbles in a stretched conglomerate ( )

Surface Lineation
Intersection lineation Slip lineations ( )

Bedding-cleavage interaction

Groove lineations Fiber lineations

Shear wave splitting ()

(isotropic) SSS () (t)

Shear wave splitting

Courtesy of Professor Rau Ruey-Juin Dept. Earth Sciences, NCKU

Magnetic fabrics in pressively cleavaged mudrock AMS: Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility ( )

Maximum susceptibility axis: Minimum susceptibility axis:

The minimum axes are sensitive Indicator of cleavage intensity

Assignments
Structural Analysis: An interactive course for Earth Science Student by Declan G. De Paor Chapter 14: Fabrics (1) Foliation (2) Lineation (3) S-C foliation (4) Low/High T

Homeworks: Geometric Rules of bedding and cleavage

1. Foliations in folds and fault zone (p. 285-288) 2. If cleavage/foliation is axial planar the upright limb of an overturned fold will dip less than the fabric whereas the overturned limb will have a steeper dip. Please explain which is the possible structural interpretation in Figures B and C for the outcrop in Figure A.