EMBRYOLOGY BY Dr.

THAAER MOHAMMED DAHER ALSAAD SENIOR LECTURER MSU-IMS M.B.Ch.B. (MBBS) F.I.B.M.S. (Ph.D.) SPEICIALIST IN GENERAL SURGERY

Topics
Highlights Definition Chromosomes Cell Division mitosis _ meiosis _ significance A note on chronology

TYPES: Causal (experimental) embryology Comparative embryology

Descriptive embryology

EMBRYOLOGY
/em br-ol-je/

The science of the development of the individual during the embryonic stage and, by extension, in several or even all preceding and subsequent stages of life cycle.

General definitions of embryology The branch of biology that deals with the formation, early growth, and development of living organisms Study of the formation and development of an embryo and fetus

Why medical students should study Embryology?

Know how a single cell develops into a newborn, containing numerous tissues and organs. Help us understand many complicated facts of adult anatomy. Explain why some children are born with organs that abnormal.
Appreciate the factors responsible for maldevelopment to assist us in preventing or treating such abnormalities.

Some preliminary consideration

Embryo = developing individual during 1st two months. Fetus = developing individual from 3rd month until birth.

Gametes : are produced by testes and ovaries. Testis : produces gametes ( spermatozoa ). Spermatogenesis : process of producing spermatozoa.
Ovary : produces gametes ( ova ).

Oogenesis : process of producing ova. Fertilization : takes place when one spermatozoon enters an
ovum.

Zygote : the fused ovum and sperm.

What is Embryology?
Embryology is the study of the development of an individual before birth.

Every individual spends 266 days 38 weeks ( to be exact )

One celled structure pass stages to become organism having billions of cells, numerous tissues and organs are formed and come to function in perfect harmony.
The most spectacular of these changes occur in the 1st two months ( the unborn baby acquires its main organs and just begins to be recognized as human ).

1st two months = Embryo. 3rd month until birth = fetus. 1st 28 days post birth = Newborn baby .

Chromosome
A structure in the nucleus containing a linear thread of DNA, which transmits genetic information and associated with RNA and histones; during cell division.

Chromatid =
one of the paired chromosome strands, joined at the centromere, which make up a metaphase chromosome, resulting from chromosome reduplication during the DNA synthetic phase of interphase.

Chromatin
The more readily stainable protein of the cell nucleus, forming a network of nuclear fibrils. It is a DNA attached to a protein primarily (histone) structure base and is the carrier of the genes in inheritance. It coils to form the metaphase

chromosome.

Gene
A segment of DNA molecule that contains all the information required for synthesis of a product ( polypeptide chain RNA molecule ). It is biologic unit of hereditary, self reproducing and transmitted from parent to progeny. Each gene has a specific position (locus) on the chromosome.

DNA
THE NUCLEIC ACID IN WHICH THE SUGAR DEOXYRIBOSE, constituting the primary genetic material of all cellular organism and the DNA viruses; and occurring predominantly in the nucleus. DNA is duplicated by replication and it serves as atemplate for synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA ) (transcription).

Some facts about chromosomes

Number of chromosomes in each cell is fixed for a given species and in man it is (46). This is referred to as diploid (or double number ). In spermatozoa and ova the number of chromosomes in only half the diploid number (23), this is called haploid or half number . There are (46) chromosomes in human cell (44) autosomal (2) are sex chromosomes. (44) autosomal chromosomes = (22) pairs. The chromosomes forming a pair being exactly alike.

 Other facts
Characters of parents are transmitted to offspring through codes borne on strands of DNA. Genes are made up of such strands of DNA. Genes are located on chromosomes. A typical cell contains (46) chromosomes = diploid number. A gamete contains (23) chromosomes = haploid number. The diploid number of chromosomes is restored as a result of fertilization.

Human chromosome with coiled and uncoiled

Significance of chromosomes
The entire human body develops from the fertilized ovum. The fertilized ovum contains all the information necessary for formation of the numerous tissues and organs of the body, and for their orderly assembly and function. Each cell of the body inherits all directions that are necessary for it to carry out its functions through life. This tremendous volume of information is stored within the chromosomes of the cell.

Significance of chromosomes(continue)

The nature and functions of a cell depend on the proteins synthesized by it So the genes control the development and functioning of cells by determining what types of proteins will be synthesized within them.
Genes play an important role in the development of tissues and organs of the individual.

Characters ( traits) of an individual are determined by genes carried on his (or her) chromosomes.

Half of these characters are inherited from the

father and half from the mother.

Significance of chromosomes

CONTINUE

Each chromosome bears on itself a very large number of genes. Genes are made up of a nucleic acid called DNA and all information is stored in the molecules of this substance. Genes are involved in synthesis of proteins.

Proteins are the most important constituents of our body, they make up the greater part of each cell and intercellular substance. Enzymes, hormones and antibodies are also proteins.

Chromosome structure
In resting cell, the chromosomes arent visible under light microscope. During cell division the chromatin network becomes condensed into a number of chromosomes. (visible under light microscope)

Chromosome is made up of two ( rod shaped structure) called chromatids. Each chromatid has two arms.

Chromatids unite at an area called centromere ( kinetochore ).

Chromosome structure (continue)

Individual chromosome differs from one another in total length, relative length of the two arms and in various other characteristics and these differences enable us to identify each chromosome individually . Classification of chromosomes in this way is called KARYOTYPING.

Karyotyping makes it possible for us to detect abnormalities in

chromosome number or in the individual chromosome.

MITOSIS /maitosis/

MEIOSIS /maiosis

Cell Division

Cell Division
Cell Division

MITOSIS /maitosis/
This term is used interchangeably with cell division,
but strictly speaking it refers to

nuclear division,

whereas cytokinesis refers to division of cytoplasm.

Cell Division
multiplication is an essential feature for embryonic development and is necessary after birth for growth and for replacement of dead cells. Chromosomes with the nuclei of cells carry genetic information that controls the DEVELOPMENT and FUNCTIONING of various cells and tissues.

When cell divides the daughter cells must have chromosomes identical in number ( and in genetic content ) to those in the mother cell.
This type of division is called mitosis

Cell Division (continue)

A different kind of cell division is called MEIOSIS occurs during the formation of gametes.
MEIOSIS consist of two successive divisions.

The cells resulting from the first and second MEIOTIC divisions (gametes) differ from other cells of the body in that: 1. The number of chromosomes is reduced to half the normal number.
2. The genetic information in various gametes produced isnt identical.

Mitosis
Multiplication of cells takes place by cell division.

The usual method of cell division, seen in most tissues.

Daughter cells resulting from mitotic division are similar to the parent cells and have the same number of chromosomes (46).
Many cells of the body have limited span of functional activity, At the end of functional activity, cells undergo division into two daughter cells. The daughter cells in turn have their own span of activity; followed by another division. The period between two successive division is called interphase.

Stages of MITOSIS
MITOSIS IS DIVIDED INTO FOUR STAGES 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

The best phase for understanding is TELOPHASE

Interphase
During a specific period of the interphase, the DNA content of the chromosome is duplicated.
So that
Interphase refers to all stages of the cell cycle other than mitosis.

Another chromatid is formed.(identical to the original one)

Chromosome now is made up of two chromatids. In Early interphase = chromosomes are in the form of extended threads. In Late interphase DNA of each chromosome has undergone duplication.

Prophase
The chromatin of the chromosome becomes gradually more and more coiled, That means the chromosome becomes recognizable as a thread-like then as a rod like appearance. Toward the and of prophase, the two chromatids become distinct and the chromosome now has its typical structure. The two centerioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. The two centerioles produce a number of microtubules that pass from one centeriole to the other and form a spindle. The nuclear membrane breaks down. The nucleoli disappear.

Metaphase
With the formation of spindle, chromosomes move to a position midway between the two centerioles. ( at the equator of the cell)

Each chromosome becomes attached to microtubules of the spindle by its cenrtomere.

Anaphase
The centromere splits longitudinally into two,
The chromatids now become independent chromosomes.

The cell contains (46) pairs of chromosomes.

One chromosome moves along the spindle to either pole of the cell.

Telophase
Two daughter nuclei are formed by appearance of nuclear membranes.
Chromosomes gradually elongate and become indistinct.

Nucleoli reappear.
Centeriole is duplicated at this stage or in the early interphase.
The division of the nucleus is accompanied by the division of the cytoplasm = (CYTOKINESIS). In this process THE ORGANELLES are presumably duplicated . Each daughter cell comes to have a full complement of them.

Meiosis
special kind of cell division takes place in the testis and ovary for formation of gametes.
The gametes resulting from meiosis have the haploid number of chromosomes (23). The various gametes formed dont have the same genetic content.

Meiosis (continue)
Consists of two successive divisions. They are called the 1st and 2nd meiotic divisions.
During the interphase preceding the 1st division;

DUPLICATION OF DNA as in mitosis.

Another chromatid identical to the original one is formed.

Each chromosome is made up of two chromatids.

Meiosis
Prophase Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene Diplotene

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

First Meiotic Division

The is prolonged and is usually divided into a number of stages as follow:

Prophase

1. Leptotene 2. Zygotene 3. Pachytene 4. Diplotene

Leptotene
Chromosomes become visible ( as in mitosis). Chromatids arent distinguished.

Zygotene
Pairing =two chromosomes lie parallel to each other.

Synapsis = conjugation = pairing

BIVALENT

 Chromatids become distinct. The bivalent has (4) chromatids is called a TETRAD. There are (2) central and (2) peripheral chromatids one from each chromosome. The (2) central chromatids become coiled over each other at a number of points = CROSSING OVER. Chromatids become adherent at crossing points, these points are called chiasmata.

Pachytene

Diplotene
Exchange of genetic material between chromatids. The two chromosomes of bivalent move apart

This result in crossing over BREAK at the points of crossing over.

Loose pieces become attached to the opposite chromatid.

Metaphase
As in mitosis the (46) chromosomes become attached to the spindle at the equator.

The two chromosomes of pair being close to each other.

Anaphase
( differs from that in mitosis).

There is no splitting of the centromeres.

One entire chromosome of each pair moves to each pole of the spindle.

Daughter cells have (23) chromosomes (each made up of two chromatids.

Telophase Two daughter nuclei are formed.

The division of the nucleus is followed by division of the cytoplasm

Telophase- the final stage of meiosis

Telophase 1

Second Meiotic Division

The first meiotic division is followed by short interphase. There is no duplication of DNA.
(Such duplication is unnecessary as chromosomes of cells possess two chromatids each). The 2nd meiotic division is similar to mitosis. The daughter cells arent identical in genetic content because of the crossing over has occurred during the 1st division .

Significance of Meiosis
WHY ARE NO TWO PERSONS ALIKE? EXCEPT IDENTICAL TWINS NO TWO PERSONS ARE ALIKE!

1. There is a reduction of the number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid. At time of fertilization the diploid number is restored. This provides consistency of chromosome number from generation to generation. 2. Chromosomes from mother and father are distributed between the daughter entirely. 3. Crossing over results in thorough SHUFFLING of genetic material (ova and spermatozoa all have a distinctive genetic content).
4. A THIRD STEP OF SHUFFLING TAKES PLACE AT FERTILIZATION.

Teratogen
The development of defects in an embryo Abnormalities in development can result due to exposing the embryo to certain agents (chemical or physical). The list of teratogens keeps increasing. Some particular organs are most sensitive to teratogens when they are passing through critical phase in their development. This period of great susceptibility to teratogens differs from organ to organ. In early stages of development , the age reckoned in days. Later when the events are less dramatic, age can be expressed in weeks or months. However , the exact age of embryo isnt always known.

Teratogen (continue)
An estimate can be made by observing the size of the embryo (expressed as C.R. length).
Some other feature like the number of somites.

There are numerous references to the timing of embryonic events (most commonly in terms of C.R. length). The disadvantage of doing so is that it adds yet one more complication to understanding of an already intricate subject.

CRL
Drown-rump length = the length of any embryo, fetus, or infant from the crown of the head to the breech; used in estimating the age of the embryos from the fourth to the eighth week . It is the equivalent of sitting vertex height in older individuals.

Somite /somt/
One of the paired, block like masses of mesoderm, arranged segmentally alongside the neural tube of the embryo, forming the vertebral column and segmental musculature; called also mesodermic, mesoblastic, primitative, primordial, or protovertebral segment.

This shows prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

Aster short fibers produced by cells during mitosis and meiosis.

The end
Thank you

next lecture = spermatogenesis and oogenesis