CARBONATE AND EVAPORITE ENVIRONMENTS Carbonate rocks make up roughl one !

uarter o" the se#$mentar rocks $n the geolog$c the pro%$#e about Earth&s h$stor an# en%$ronments an# to the$r econom$c $mportance as hosts "or petroleum an# some metall$c elements' Carbonates Although most mo#ern cont$nent shel%es are mantle# b s$l$c$clast$c

se#$ments carbonate #epos$ts the #om$nant se#$ment co%er on a "e( shel%es' Mo#ern carbonate shel%es are locate# pr$mar$l at lo( alt$tu#es n clear) shallo() trop$cal to subtrop$cal seas *"$g ++'+, (here l$ttle terr$genous s$l$c$clast$c #etr$tus $s $ntro#uce#' Carbonate se#$ments also "orm on some h$gher lat$tu#e *-./0. .,) cool/(ater shel%es ) (here the cons$st pre#om$nantl o" shell rema$ns *lees an# Buller)+1234 Nelson) +1554 6ames an# Clarke)*+112,' Se%eral temperate *cool/ (ater, carbonate en%$ronment are present $n the mo#ern ocean) $nclu#$ng the shel" o"" southern Austral$a bet(een -3 an# 7.o south lat$tu#e) port$ons o" the north(est European shel" an# the Orkne shel" o"" northeast Scotlan# *"$g ++'+, A "e( carbonates "rom $n nonmar$ne en%$ronment $n lakes) stream) ca%es so$ls) an# the$r %olume $n the anc$ent recor# $s !u$te small' The are to cons$#ere# "urther $n th$s %olume) ho(e%er a br$e" #escr$pt$on o" terrestr$al *nonmar$ne, carbonates $s g$%en $n Boggs *+113) ch'+.,' Turb$#$tes appear to be "ar) se#$mentar most abun#ant k$n# o" anc$ent #eep/sea #$spla repet$t$%e) (el/be##e#

rocks' Turb$#$tes commonl

success$ons o" th$n) gra#e# un$ts that are o"ten re"erre# to as rh thm$tes' Such

success$ons are also calle# "l sch "ac$es' 8$g +.'33 $s a "a$rl t p$cal e9ample o" rh thm$call be##e# turb$#$t$es' Th$s e9posure $s part o" the Cann$ng "ormat$on *earl tert$ar ,) (h$ch crops out $n the Arct$c nat$onal :$l#l$"e Re"uge)

Northeastern Alaska' The #epos$ts sho(n $n th$s outcrop cons$st o" shale an# s$ltstone) ($th generall th$n be#s o" "$ne ;gra$ne# san#stone' Man o" the

san#stone be#s #$spla gra#e# be##$ng *Bouma se!uences, an# groo%e an# "lute casts are common on the bases o" san#stone be#s' These turb$#$t$es "orme# at (ater #epth est$mate# to be about +3.. m *AN:R Assessment team) +111*' A##$t$onal #escr$pt$on o" both anc$ent an# mo#ern turb$#$t$es can be "oun# $n Mutt$ *+113,) the e9cellent compen#$um %olume e#$te# b an# $n Bouma an# stone *3...,' The relat$%el #ec$#e#l m$nor $mportant o" mo#ern carbonate #epos$t$on $s P$cker$ng et al *+11<*)

at p$cal o" man

geolog$c per$o#s o" the past (hen ($#esprea#

#epos$t$on o" carbonate se#$ments character$=e# se#$mentat$on $n broa# epe$r$c seas hun#re#s to thousan#s o" k$lometers ($#e *see "$g +.'3,' CARBONATE SHELF (NONREEF) ENVIRONMENTS Depos$t$onal Sett$ng As ment$one#) mar$ne carbonate se#$ments are #epos$te# pr$mar$l on shallo( shel" plat"orms) $nclu#$ng) $n the geolog$c past) broa# epe$r$c plat"orms co%ere# b shallo( (ater *e'g S$mo) Scott) an# Masse) +11-4 Tucker et al +11., ' carbonate plat"orms can occur on the marg$ns o" craton$c blocks) $n $ntracraton$c bas$ns) across the tops o" ma>or o""shore banks) an# on local$=e#

pos$t$%e "eatures on

($#e shel%es *:$lson an# 6or#an)

+15-,' Carbonate

en%$ronments ma be present also $n some parts o" marg$nal/mar$ne en%$ronments such as beaches) lagoons) an# tt$$#als "lats' :$th respect to the nature o" the plat"orm e#ge) "our bas$c t pes o" carbonate plat"orms or shel%es are recogn$=e# $n the mo#ern ocean *"$g ++'3,? *+, r$mme# carbonate plat"orms * 3,unr$mme#

*open #hel", carbonate plat"orm *-,carbonate ramps) an#*7, $solate# carbonate plat"orm *harr$s) Moore an# :$lson) +10<4 6ame an# @een#all) +113 4 Rea# +153) +15<,' :hen (e cons$#er anc$ent en%$ronments) (e must a## broa#) emp$r$cs plat"orms *"$g++'3, to th$s l$st' R$mme# carbonate shel%es are shallo( plat"orms marke# at the$r outer e#ges *marg$ns, b a pronounce# break $n slop $nto #eeper (ater' The ha%e a nearl cont$nuous r$m or barr$er along the plat"orm e#ge' Th$s barr$er cons$sts o" e$ther aree" bu$l#$ng or a skeletalAoo$# san# shoal that absorbs (a%e act$on an# ma restr$ct (ater c$rculat$on) creat$ng a lo(/energ shel" en%$ronment) somet$me scale# a BlagoonC lan#(ar# o" the shel"De#ge barr$er' The lagoon commonl gra#es lan# (ar# $nto a lo( energ t$#al/"lat en%$romet rather thana h$gh/energ beach =one ' An unr$mme# plat"orm has no pronounce# marg$nal barr$er'

Enr$mme# plat"orms occur to#a on the lee(ar# s$#e o" large trop$cal banksan#$n all coolD(ater carbonateseet$ng * 6ames an# @en#al) +113*' A ramp $s a gentl slop$ng *F +o, unr$mme# plat"orm on (h$ch shallo( (ater #epos$ts pass #o(n slope ($th onl as l$ght break $n slope $nto #eeper (ater "ac$es ' The break $n slope on a ramp $s not marke# b a pronounce# ree" tren#) but #$scont$nuous san# shals

ma be present along the shel" e#ge (here (ater energ $s h$gh' :ater c$rculat$on across an unr$mme# plat"orm ma be a#e!uate to allo( a mo#eratel h$gh/energ

beach =one to #e%elop alongshore an# skeletal croo$#/pellet san# shoals too "orm along the same ph s$cal processes ass s$l$c$clast$c she%es ' Isolate# plat"orms) *Bahama t pe,are shallo( (ater plat"orms tens to hun#re#s o" k$lometers ($#e) commonl locate# o""shore o" shallo( (ater plat"orm tens to hun#re#s o"

k$lometers #eep' The plat"orms ma rangee "rom se%eral hun#re#s o" meters to a "e( k$lometers #eep' The plat"orm ma ha%e gentl slop$ng) rampl$ke marg$ns or more steepl slop$ng marg$ns resembl$ng those o" r$mme# shel%es' Such $solate# plat"orms are essent$all "ree o" clast$c se#$ments trans$st$ons are kno(n $n a %ar$et o" en%$ronment ) $nclu#$ng coastal an# $nner/shel" ) m$##le/an# outer/shel" *$nclu#$ng ree", an# the slope to bas$n en%$ronments *Do le an# Roberts) +1554 Goman#o an# Harr$s) +11+,' The ma occur $n temperate as (ell as trop$cal shel" en%$ronment *e'g Ha ($ck) carter an# Hen#erson) +113,' In contrast to most s$l$c$clast$c shel%$es) man mo#ern carbonate plat"orm) part$cularl r$mme# plat"orms) are character$=e# b some k$n# to topograph$c bu$l#$ng at the shel" marg$n o" the outer shel" ' Th$s bu$l#$ng ma be cause# b organ$c re"s or banks) l$me san# shoals) or small $slan#s that create a barr$er to $ncom$ng (a%es' Th$s outer barr$er $s commonl #$ssoc$ate# b a net(ork o"

t$#al channels that allo( h$gh/%eloc$t t$#al currents to "lo( through onto the shel"' Although carbonate en%$ronments e9ten# "rom the suprat$#al =one to #eeper bas$ns o"" the shel") the shallo( plat"orm bas$n that const$tutes the m$##le an#

outer shel%es $s the pr$mar s$te o" carbonate pro#uct$on' 6ames *+157, re"ers to th$s plat"orm as the Bsubt$al carbonate "actor C *"$g ++'-, ' The se#$ments

pro#uce# $n th$s carbonate "actor are #epos$te# ma$nl on the shel" ho(e%er) some s$#ement are e%entuall transporte# lan#(ar# onto t$#al "lats an# beaches an# $nto subt$#al sett$ng' Others are transporte# sea(ar# o"" the shel" onto the slope an# $nto the #eeper bas$n' G$ttle carbonate se#$ments $s generate# $nto #eeper (ater bas$n en%$ronment o"" the shel" e9cept "or "allout o" calc$um/carbonate secret$ng plankton "rom near/sur"ace (aters' The solub$l$t o" calc$um carbonate $s controlle# b PH) temperature) an# carbon #$o9$#e content o" sea(ater' Goss o" carbon #$o9$#e o($ng to $ncrease# temperature) #ecrease# pressure) or plant prec$p$tat$on o" calc$um

photos nthes$s e9erts a ma>or control on $norgan$c

carbonate $n the mo#ern an# anc$ent oceans) as compare# to organ$c pro#uct$on o" CaCo-) $s not #e"$n$tel kno(n *e'g Sh$m et al') +151 ,' Carbonate #epos$t$on brought about b organ$sms capable o" e9tractors calc$um carbonate "rom the sea(ater to bu$l# the$r shells or skeletal structures ma be a more $mportant process $n the mo#ern ocean than are purel $norgan$c processes' Such b$ogen$c processes ha%e l$kel been $mportant throughout post/precambr$an t$me) an#

some ma ha%e pla e# a role $n carbonate pro#uct$on #ur$ng the Precambr$an) organ$sms also contr$bute to the "ormat$on o" carbonate se#$ment through the$r "ee#$ng an# perturbat$on act$%$t$es) (h$ch cause break/#o(n o" skeletal "ragments an# other carbonate mater$als an# generate %ar$ous k$n#s o" trace "oss$ls'

The organ$sms pr$mar$l

respons$ble "or carbonate pro#uct$on $n the

mo#ern ocean are not necessar$l the same as those that (ere ma>or groups o" organ$sms ascarbonate "ormers #ur$ng Phanero=o$c *post ;precambra$n, t$me 'Note that the pr$nc$pal carbonate "ormers ha%e change# some(hat ($th t$me ' 8or e9ample) cr$no$#s) br o=oans an# brach$opo#s (ere more $mportant #ur$ng the Paleo=o$c than #ur$ng the Ceno=o$c) (here as acrol$ths) plankton$c "oram$n$"ers) corall$ne algae) an# green algae (ere part$cularl $mportant carbonate "ormers #ur$ng the Ceno=o$c The l$st o" carbonate/se#$ment "ormers sho(n $n "$gure ++'7 $s not complete' Other groups) such as sponges an# stromatopro$#s) (ere also $mportant se#$ment "ormers at t$mes' Ph s$cal processes Ph s$cal processes are $mportant pr$mar$l $n the re(ork$ng an# transport o" carbonate mater$als on the shel") but the also a$# $n the pro#uct$on o" carbonate se#$ments ' c$rculat$on o" (ater onto the shel" br$ngs "resh nutr$ents) necessar "or organ$c gro(th)"rom #eeper (ater 'break$ng (a%es aga$nst ree"

barr$ers on the outer shel" $ncrease o9 gen content $n the (ater b $nteract$ng ($th the atmospheres an# #ecrease Co3 because o" #ecrease# (ater pressure' Thus) mo#ern ree"s are best #e%elope# $n (a%e ;ag$tate# =ones) an# b$ogen$c pro#uct$on o" carbonate se#$ment $n general $s st$mulate# b strong (ater

mo%ement ' one the other han#) strong (a%es crash$ng on the ree" "ront break #o(n ree" rock) pro#uc$ng san# an# gra%el s$=e b$oclasts that subse!uentl un#ergo transport both sea(ar# an# lan#(ar# "rom the ree"'

Ag$tate# (ater $s $mportant to the "ormat$on o" oo$#s an# currents help to generate an# preser%es grapestones an# har#ene# "ecal pellets b submar$ne

accret$on an# cementat$on' :a%es an# current also ($nno( "$ne carbonate mu# "rom coarser se#$ment an# transport th$s mu#o"" the shel" plat"orm or $nto

sheltere# or protecte# areas o" the shel" ' Depen#$ng upon (ater energ the coarser se#$ment $tsel" ma e$ther rema$n as a ($nno(e# lag #epos$t ) "orm$ng san# or gra%el co%ere# "loat) or be transporte# an# #epos$te# to create (a%e "orme# bars an# shoals) beaches) sp$ts) or t$#al #atas an# bars' :a%e an# current transport$ng an# ($nno(e# carbonate san# #epos$ts are part$cularl common along the outer e#ge o" the shel" plat"orm) (here (ater energ $s h$ghest' In resuspens$on an# transport o" se#$ment) storms are as $mportant on carbonate shel%es as the are on s$l$c$clast$c shel%es ' "or e9ample) storms transport most se#$ment "rom the

subt$#al shel" $nto the $ntert$#al *t$#al "lat* en%$ronment' Absence o" (a%e an# current act$%$t on the shel" lea#s to stagnant c$rculat$on) conse!uent #e%$at$ons "rom normal sal$n$t ) an# poss$bl ano9$c con#$t$ons' Such restr$cte#

en%$ronments const$tute un"a%orable hab$tats "or man normal mar$ne organ$sms' Skeletal an# Se#$ment Character$st$cs o" carbonate Depos$ts The #epos$t$on o" carbonate se#$ments $s "a%oure# $n mo#eratel shallo() (arm (ater that rece$%es l$ttle terr$genous s$ll$c$clast$c se#$ment ' Although carbonates "rom presom$nantl $n (ater sett$ng) the can accumulate also $n some cool/(ater) h$gher lat$tu#e en%$ronments as ment$one# ' In these cool/(ater en%$ronments) the carbonate se#$ments $s compose# almost ent$rel o" the skeletal

rema$ns o" organ$sm' Cool/(ater assemblages o" organ$c rema$ns ha%e commonl been re"erre# o as "oramol assemblages *lees an# Buller) +1234 6ones an# Desrochrs) +113, name# "or the #om$nance o" "oram$n$"ers an# mollusecs' The are compose# o" benth$c *bottom #(ell$ng, "oram$n$"ers) mollusks 'barnacles) br o=oans) an# calcareous re# algae' B contrast) (arm/(ater *I3.oC,

assemblages o" organ$sms) calle# chloro=oan assemblages *name# "rom chloroph ta plus =oanthar$a corals, are #om$nate# b hermat p$c corals *corals that l$%e pr$mar$l $n the phot$c =one , an# calcareous green algae $n a##$t$on tto

"oramol compoents' 6ames *+112, suggests that hetero=oan assoc$ateon *name# "or organ$sms that "ee# through heterotroph$c means, $s a more appropr$ate term than "oramol assemblage' He proposes to replace thhe term chloro=oan assemblage b photo=oan assoc$at$on) to emphas$=e the l$ght/#epen#ent nature o" the ma>or b$ot$c const$tuents'

E9ample o" mo#ern carbonate plat"orms Mo#ern carbonate shel%es $nclu#e ramps) unr$mme# plat"orms *open shel%es,) r$mme# plat"orm) an# $solate# plat"orms' E9ample o" trop$cal nr$mme# shel%es or carbonate ramps $nclu#e the eastern Jul" o" me9$co o"" the 8lor$#a coast4 the Kucatan Shel") Me9$co) $n the southern part o" the Jul" o" Me9$co an#

the Truc$al coast o" the Pers$an Jul"' As ment$one# )most cool/(ater ca rbonnates accumulate on unr$mme# *open, shel%es E9ample o"r$mme# shel%es $nclu#e 8lor$#a ba ) thhe bahama plat"orm *an $solate# pat"orm, thhe bel$=ee shel" $n the (estern Car$bbean o"" Juatemala)an# the Creal Barr$er Re"" area o" Austral$a'Other $mportant #epos$ts o" carbonate se#$ments $n Austral$an (aters l$e along the (estern coast ' The character$st$c o" se%eral o" these mo#ern ' The best ;stu#$e# e9ample o" a mo#ern $solate# plat"orm $s the bahama plat"orm) (h$ch $s also r$mme# ' coralgal san#s a# oo$# "ac$es are present along the plat"orm marg$n $n =ones a""ecte# b (a%e turbulence an# t$#al currents) an# #$scont$nuous coral ree"s are present along the ($n#(ar# *east, marg$n oo$# "acc$es are best #e%elope# $n (ater less than -m #eep a# occur as san#(a%esan# suba!ueous #une "$el#s up to<. km long ' Jrapestone "ac$es) (h$ch co%er large areas " the plat"orm $nter$or #o(n too #epths o" 1/+. m) conta$n l$ttle carbonate mu#' The are stal$=e# b c anobacter$s mats calcareous algae) an# sea grasses ' pellet mu# an# mu# "ac$es accumulate $n thhe lo(est energ parts o" the plat"orm $nter$or) commonl at (atr #epths less than 7m' The se#$ment cons$sts o" h$ghl b$oturbate# aragon$te mu#) (h$ch $s r$ch n "ecal pellets $n some areas'

E9ample o" anc$ent carbonates shel" success$ons Isolate# plat"orms E9ample o" carbonate se#$ments that ha%e "orme# $n anc$ent sett$ngs s$m$lar to all o" the plat"orm t pes $llustrate# $n "$gure ++'3 ha%e been reporte# $n

the publ$she# l$ternatre ' "or e9ample) earl to m$##le Tr$ass$c carbonates $n the Dolom$te Alps o" northern Ital are thought to represent #epos$t$on on $solate# plat"orms much l$ke the mo#ern #a bahama Banks *Boselln$) +11+*' These

anc$ent carbonates cons$st o" "lat l $ng success$on up to 5.. $n th$nk compose# o" meter scale) c cl$c per$t$#al carbonates ($th teepee structures ' These #epos$ts probabl mo#eratel "orme# ($th$n thhe $nter$ors o" $solate# carbonate plat"orm un#er lo( energ $open torestr$cte# shallo( subt$$#al con#$t$ons ' plat"orm a sea(ar# #$rect$on to pelo#$al skeletal

$nter$ose#$ments gra#e $n

gra$nstonesApackstones an# alaga boun#stones ($th sponges ) (h$ch (ere #epos$te# on the the$r energ plat"orm marg$n' R$mme# Shel%es The Perm$an *Jua#alup$an, carbonate #epos$ts o" the Dela(are Ba$n) (estern Te9as an# southern Ne( Me9$co ha%e o"ten been c$te# as an outstan#$ng e9ample o" an anc$ent r$mme# shel" #epos$t *e'g (ar#) ken#all)an# Harr$s) +150 saller et al)+111, these #epos$ts 9ten# throughout an area o" about +..)...km3 an# are completel enc$rcle# b a ree" marg$n) the cap$tan an# Joat seep ree"s 'Outer/shel" #epos$ts make up a bel" about +. to +<km across) #om$nate# b shallo($ng up(ar# c cles o" lagoonal mu#stone an# (ackstone) cappe# b lam$nate# anh #r$ e ' The outer shel" belt gra#es abruptl to an $nner lagoonal to marg$nal coastal pla a "ac$es about 7. km ($#e compose# o" $ntercalate#

#olom$te mu#stones an# s$ltstones an# e%apor$t$c un$ts up to 2 m th$ck' Bet(een thhe ree" an# shel" lagoonal #epos$ts $s a belt o" carbonate san# bo#$es ) 5..m to

-km ($#e) cons$st$ng o" a coarsen$ng up (ar# success$on o" cross lam$nate# to structureless "$ne gra$ne# carbonate gra$nstones' Ramps Carbon$"erous l$mestones o" south(estern Br$ta$n pro%$#e an e9ample o" an anc$ent carbonate ramp #epos$t * Burchette) :r$ght) a# 8aulkner +11., ' The ramp success$on "orms a (e#ge that beg$ns ($th beg$ns ($th outer ramp carbonate mu#s an# b$oclast$c l$mestones conta$n$ng aboun#ant cr$no$# an# brach$opo# rems$ns' Ree" moun#s ($th rel$e" up to 3.. m also "orme# $n thhe outer ramp sett$ng ' Outer ramp #epos$ts g$%e (a $na shore(ar# #$rect$on to b$oclast$c san# bo#$es o" the m$# ramp an# "$nall to oo$# san# bo#$es la$# #o(n as shoals or beaches $n thhe nearshore area' Eper$c plat"orm The great bulk o" carbonate se#$ments "orme# throughout geolog$c t$me ha%e probabl ($#esprea# at been #espos$te# on eper$r$c plat"orms' Such plat"ors (ere %ar$ous t$mes) such as thelate Precambr$an*e'g ch$na, Tr$ass$c

cambroorso%$c$an *e'g North Amer$ca M$##le East, m$ss$sspp$sn

6urasss$c *e'g (estrn Europe, Perm$an an# tert$ar e'g m$##le east , :r$ght an# Burchette +110? Tuker an# (r$ght +11.'storms a# hurr$canes (ere l$kel

#om$nant processes on these broa# shel%es)ho(e%er t$#al processes ma also ha%e been $mportant eg prattan# 6ames +150' she$" carbonate "ac$es aree character$=e# b #$st$nct$%e su$tes o" largel normal mar$ne organ$sms an# carbonate te9tures

that are generall mu##l ) although l$tho"ac$es t pes range "rom l$me mu#stone

an# patch ree" bounstone' Be##$ng o" shel" carbonates $s %ar$able an# lens oor (e#ge shape# la ers are common) although some shel" carbonate be#s ma be laterall e9tens$%e' Carbonates are commonl $nterbe##e# ($th th$n shale be#s' Se#$mentar structures $nclu#e cross be##$ng $n l$me san# un$ts) e9tens$%e

b$oturbat$on structures an# burro(s) an# "laser an# no#ular be##$ng' ++'- SGOPEABASIN CARBONATES Althoughh (e ten# to th$nk o"" carbonate se#$ments as str$ctl shallo( ; (ater #epos$ts) as ment$one#) #eeper (ater carbonates ha%e been $#ett$"$e# $n se%eral areas o" the mo#ern ocean) such as the slope an# a#>acent bas$n "loor aroun# the Bahama plat"orm' The ha%e also been reporte# "rom man

phanero=o$c age strat$graph$c success$ons' As sho(n $n ++'- %carbonate se#$ments are generate# pr$mar$l on the shel"' No $mportant source o" carbonate se#$ments e9$sts ($th$n #eep (ater e9cept that pro%$#e# b the ra$n o" calcareous se#$ments $n#eep (atr are #er$%e# "rom the shel" b transport processes that $nclu#e storm (a%es ) turb$#$t currents #ebr$s an# gra$n "lo(s) slump$ng sl$#$ng an# rock "alls' Carbonate se#$ment #epos$te# on the slope an# bas$n b these processes

generall cons$st o" b$oclast$c #ebr$s an# l$mestone blocks #er$%es "rom the talus slopes o"" ree" "ronts' Also se#$ments ma be transporte# #o(nslope "rom

carbonate slopes ha%e been reporte# "rom thhenorthern Bahamas "lor$#a reg$on as (ell as "rom Bel$=e) 6ama$ca Jran# ca man) the northeast Austral$an coast an# se%eral atolls $n the pac$"$c an# In#$an Occeans con$gl$o an# D$9 +113' mo#ern slope #epos$ts that $nclu#e a large percentage o" terr$genous clast$c rocks

Three t pes o" carbonate slopes are recogn$=e# eros$nal steep slope angle b pass mo#erate slope angle an# accret$onar lo( slope angle ' Onl accret$onar slope are s$tes o" s$gn$"$cant carbonate #epos$t$on although m$nor amounts o"" se#$ments ma be #epos$te# on b pass slopes' Eros$onal an# b pass slopes

ma$nl ser%e as con#u$ts b (h$ch carbonate se#$ments can be #epos$te# shallo( to #eeper (ater ' se%eral k$n#s o" carbonate se#$ments can be #epos$te# on slopes' Per$pla"orm oo=es cons$st o" "$n# se#$ment s(ept o"" the shel" m$9e# ($th

"oram$n$"ers an# coccol$ths that settle "rom the (ater column' Talus #epos$ts an# #ebr$tes are carbonate brecc$as an# conglomerates #er$%e# "rom shollo( (ater' Turb$#$tes are the carbonate e!u$%alents o" s$l$c$clast$$c turb$#$es' ++'7 ORJANIC REE8 ENVIRONMENTS As ment$one# ) the outer shel" o"man r$mme# plat"orm $s character$=e# b nearl cont$nous carbonate ree"s that const$tue an e""ect$%e barr$er to (a%e

mo%ement across the shel"' Ree"s ma also be #e%elope# as "r$ng$ng masses along the shorel$ne or as $solate# patches ($th$n the $nner shel"' Ree"s const$tutes $n other parts o" the shel"' The ha%e been stu#$es $ntens$%el "or ears) ho(e%er #$scuss$on o" re"s has long been plague# b con"us$on o%er the prec$se mean$ng o" the term ree"' Carbonate (orkers ha%e been unable to agree on (hether to restr$ct use o" the trm ree" to carbonate bu$#upe or b$oherms that ha%e a r$g$# organ$c "rame(orkor core) bu$lt o" colon$al organ$sms or to e9ten# the #e"$n$t$on to $nclu#e carbonate bu$l#ups o" other t pes that #o not ha%e a r$g$# "rame(ork core' The (or# b$oher<m $s a nonspec$"$c term use# "or lens l$ke bo#$es or organ$c

or$g$n that are enclose# $n rocks o" #$""erent l$ttholog or character ) a b$otherm ma or ma not ha%e a r$g$# $nternal organ$c "rame(ork' The term carr$es no connotat$on o" the $nternal structure or compos$t$on o" the lens' B contrast a b$ostrome $s a tabular bo# o" carbonate rock such as t p$call "orms $n nonree" plat"orm en%$ronments :$lson *+12<, use# the term carbonate bu$l#up "oor a bo# o" locall "orme# later all restr$cte# carbonate se#$ment that possesses topograph$c rel$e") ($thout regar# to the $nternal makeup o" the bu$l#$ng 'In th$s book) I "ollo( the usage o" Gongman +15+) p +. (ho #e"$nes a re" as Ban b$olog$call $n"luence# bu$l#up o" carbonate se#$ment (h$ch a""ecte# #epost$t$on $n a#>acent areas *an# thus #$""ere# to some #egree "rom surroun#$ng se#$ments , an# stoo# topograph$call h$her than surroun#$ng se#$ments #ur$ng #epos$t$on' Lmost ree") #e"$ne# $n th$s (a )are bu$lt b large organ$sms that are capable o" thr$%$ng $n energet$c en%$ronment' Mo#er ree"s an# ree" en%$ronments Depos$t$onal sett$ng Most mo#ern ree"s "orm $n shallo( (ater' The most str$lk$ng are thhe l$near ree"s locate# along plat"orm marg$ns commonl calle# barr$er ree" 'These ree"s are more or less laternall cont$nous an# the ree" tren# ma e9ternal "or hun#re#so" k$lometers "or e9ample the Jreat Barr$er Ree" o" Austral$a (h$ch runs "or some +1.. km along the eastern shel" o" Austrl$a ' In a "e( mo#ern local$t$es (here shel%es are %er narro() l$near ree"s are calle# "r$ng$ng ree"s'Isolatte# #oughnut shape# re"s calle# atolls occure aroun# the tops o" some pac$"$c

seamounts that r$se out o" #eeper (ater 'these r"s "orm an outer (a%e res$stant barr$er tthat enclose# a shallo( lagoon' 8aro re"s are rr$ngl$ke atol$ l$ke structure that "orm ($th$n lagoons or on atoll marg$ns small $solate# ree" masses commonl re"erre# toas patch ree"s p$nnacle ree"s or table ree"s occur along some shel" marg$ns or scattere# on the m$##le shel" "lat tope# table ree"s ma also "orm $n #eeper (ater ' Moun#s are structures bu$lt b smaller) commonl #el$cate an# Aor sol$tar organ$=at$on poss$bl a$#e# b $norgan$c process) $n tran!u$l sett$ng *e'g 6ames an# Bour!ue +1134 Mont et al +11<, $n e$ther shallo( or #eeper (ater m$crob$al moun#s are bu$lt b stromatol$tes A thrombol$tes an# calc$mcrobes *m$crobes capable o" me#$at$ng carbonate prec$p$tat$on ' skeletal moun#s are compose# o" ree" bu$l#$ng orga$sma Msee belo( , plus calcareous algae br o=oans sponges ahermatp$c he9acoral an# some k$n#s o" brach$opo#s an# b$bal%es ' mu# moun#s are "orme# b l$me mu# *$norgan$c, accumulat$ons ($th %ar$ous amount o" "oss$ls ' Moun#s range $n s$=e "rom small structure *+/<m h$gh, to g$gant$c e#$"$ces that ma reach +.. m h$gh *e'g (en#t etal ') +112' Ree" Organ$sms :e ten# to th$nk o" all re"s as coral ree" ) ho(e%er man organ$sms $n a##$t$on tto corals can contr$bute to the "ormat$on o" ree" ' These organ$sms $nclu#e blue green algae c anobacter$a corall$ne re# algea green encrust$ng "oram$n$"era

encust$ng br o=oa) sponges an# molluses ' In thhe geolog$c past ree" bu$l#$ng organ$sms also $nclu#e some no( e9t$nct groups such as the

archaeoc arth$#s)stomatoporo#$s ) "enestell$# br o=oans an# ru#$st$# clams ' Nonetheless)corals are certa$nl #om$nat const$tuents o" mo#ern re"s an# t(o out a s mb$ot$c

t pes o" corals are recogn$=e# ' The pr$nc$pal corals carr

relat$onsh$p ($th ser%eralk$n#s o" un$cellular organ$sms) ma$nl algae re"erre# to colect$el as =oo9anthellea 'These algae l$%e $n or bet(een thhe l$%$ng cells o" the corals an# a$# them $n ga$n$ng energ b pro#uc$ng photos nthet$c pro#ucts co(en +155 'the ma also "ac$l$tate the process o"secret$ng calc$um carbonate b remo%$ng Co3 "rom thhe t$ssue #ur$ng photos nthes$s' Becuses the

=oo9anthhe))ae re!u$re sunl$t (aters hermat p$c corcals arerestr$cte# to l$%$ng $n %er shal/lo( (ater' Ahermat p$c *a=oo9anthellea, coralls lack the s mb$ot$c

relat$onsh$p *or #o not re!u$re# $t, an# are not restr$cte# to shallo( (ater *mat$n ($ll$son et al 3..+, some coral spec$es can apparentl ha%e l$"e strateg$es rang$ng rom =oo9anthellate hermat p$cto a =oo9anthellate ahermat p$c *best 3..+), the are one o" the pr$nc$pal organ$sma to#a that "orm carbonate bu$l#ups $n #eeper (ater' The$r #$str$but$on ranges "rom shallo( (aterto(ater #epths e9cee#$ng 3..$n *Stanle an# ca$rns +155,'D$""erences $n the attr$butes o" shallo( an# #eep (ater corals are e9plore# b Hatcher *3..+,' Some ree" bu$l#$ng organ$sms such as corals an# stromatoporo$#s are $mportant "rame are $mportant "rame bu$l#ers (h$ch construct (a%e res$stant cores o" ree"s others such as cr$no$#s an# co#$c$an algae e'g halme#a (hose skeletal elements ma #$s$ntegrate $nto smaller "ragments are $mportant se#$ment contr$butors' Ba""lers are organ$sms such as sea grass that pro%$#e a protect$%e

ba""le aga$nst current an# accumulate ' B$n#ers such asc anobacter$a (h$ch "rom strmatol$t$es, trap an# b$n# se#$ment) an# prec$p$tators are pr$mar$l m$crobes such as c anobactera) that help me#$ate perc$pat$on o" carbonate mu#s' The relat$%e $mportance o" some common organ$sm as "ramebu$l#ers se#$ment contr$butors ba""lers b$n#ers an# prec$p$tators $s $llustrate# $n "$gure++'+<' Ree" #epos$ts :e cannot #$scuss all t pes o" mo#ern re"s "ac$es here ho(e%er (e ($ll e9am$ne the =on$ng an# "ac$es #e%elopment o" h$gh energ plat"orm marg$n ree" sasa general mo#el "or h$gh energ re"" en%$ronments' Illustrates schemat$call the pr$nc$pal "ac$es sub#$%$s$ons o" a plat"orm marg$n ree"'Note that thhe ree" cons$sts o" a central core)the ree" "rame(ork) (h$ch gra#es sea(ar#s $nto thhe ree" slope) an# a loose accumulat$on o" ree" #ebr$s calle#the "oreree" talus' The narl "lat) uppermost) shallo(est part o" the ree" $s calle# the ree" "lat (h$ch gra#es lan#(ar#$nto back ree" skeletal *coralagal, sna#s an# subt$#al lagoonal #epos$ts' Ree"s are #$%$#e# ph s$ograph$cal $nto "ore ree" "ront ree" crest ree" "latan# back re" =ones ' Also sho(s thhe t pes o" carbonate mater$als t p$cal "orme# $n stone $n "$g ++'+2 are terms use# b Embr an# @lo%an *+12+, as mo#$"$cat$on o" Dunham&s *+103, l$mestone class$"$cat$on *see Table 0'- ,' 8loastone an# ru#stone are unboun#carbonate gra$ns more than +. percent o" (h$ch are more than 3mm $n s$=e) "loatstones are mu# supporte# an# ru#stone are gra$n supporte# 'ba""le stones are carbonate components boun# together at the t$me o" #epos$t$on b

stalke# organ$sms that trappe# se#$ment b act$ng as ba""les ' B$n#stones (ere boun# #ur$ng #epost$t$on b encrust$ng an# b$n#$ng organ$sm a such as encrust$ng "oram$n$"ers an# br o=oans an# "ramestones (ere boun# b organ$sms such as corals (h$ch bu$l# a r$g$# "rame(ork structure' These #$""erent carbonate "ac$es represent %ar$at$ons $n (ater energ )

#om$nant se#$mentat$on process an# t pes o" organ$sm $n each =one o" the ree" (ater energ $s h$ghest on the ree" crest)' :h$ch also conta$ns the h$ghest

percentage o" "rame(ork const$tuents *"ramestone, ' As (ater energ #ecreases to(ar# both the "ore ree" an# the back ree") the percentage o" "rame(ork const$tuents also #ecreases o" non "rame(ork const$tuent that cons$st pr$nc$pall o" re" #er$%e# b$oclasts Relat$%el "e( organ$sms l$%e $n these =ones' ANCIENT REE8S Ree" #epos$ts Ree"s as the $n the "oss$l recor# #$""er $n some $mportant respects "orm mo#ern ree"s '8$rst) (e commonl see anc$ent onl $n %ert$cal e9posures' :e obser%e a t(o #$mens$onal l$mestone bo# compose# o" #$""erent components "rom at #$""erent t$me *6ame +15-, thus) (e ma nature o" the "lank an# $nter/ree" "ac$es e9pose# $n outcrop ob%$ousl ma #$""er #epen#$ng upon (hether the

%ert$cal e9posure cuts through the ree" to e9pose across sect$on runn$ng parallel to the ree" crest 'In man cases) onl thhe mass$%e ree" core$sclearl e9pose# as $n "$gure++'+5 'the ree" structure an# nature o" ree" "arc$es also #epen#e# upon the k$n#o" ree" *eg barr$er ree")"r$ng$ng ree" patch ree", ' An a##$tt$onal"actor

thatcan"urther compl$cate recogn$t$on o" anc$ent re" "ac$es $s#$agenes$s) (h$chma cause select$%e #olom$t$=at$on or solut$on that can obl$terate or#estro parts o" the ree" comple9' Depen#$ng upon the$r age) anc$ent ree"s an# moun#s ma re" also #$""ere marke#l "rom mo#ern ree"s an# moun#s $n term o" the #om$nate mo#ern coral ree"s "$rst appeare# $n the Meso=o$c ann#thus are to component such as tublph tes *probllem$cm$cro structure o" poss$ble algal or$g$n,)spongesbr o=oans an# m$crobes *e'g c anbacter$a * see "agerstrom +152 stanle an# "agerstrom

*+155* an# k$ssl$ng "lugleann# Jolonka *+111) 3..., "or a##$t$onal $n"ormat$on about ree" organ$sms an# the e%olut$on o" ree" ecos stems through t$me ' Occurrence oo" Anc$ent ree"s Ree"s o" some t pe are present $n Phanero=o$c *postprecambr$an, carbonate o" mostages *e)g see thecompen#$um %olume e#$te# b @$ssl$ng "lugel an#

Jolonka 3..3,' Although carbonate secret$ng organ$sms (ere not present #ur$ng thhe precambr$an) Precambr$an carbonate bu$l#$ng compose# o" stromatol$tes ha%e been reporte# "rom %ar$ous local$t$es $n North Amer$ca) Europe) A"r$ca)an# Austr$al$a 'Phanero=o$c rocks conta$n ree"s compose# o" calc$um carbonate secret$ng organ$sm' Man o" these ree"s (ere bu$lt b "rame(ork construct$ng or encrust$ng organ$sm ' ree" #e%elopment (as not un$"orm throughout geolog$c t$me) ho(e%er an# ree" are much more abun#ant $n some parts o" the rock recor# than $n organ$sms'man o"these ree"s (ere bu$lts o" thhe rock recor#s than $n other "$g ++'+1 graph$call #ep$cts the#$str$but$on o"ree"san#moun#s through t$me an#

also sho(s thhema>or k$n#s o" orga$sms that (ere respons$ble "or ree" bu$l#$ng at #$""erent t$mes as pre%$ousl ment$one# "$g ++'+1 $s base# on a #atabaseo" 372. ree"s compl$e#b k$ssl$ng "luge