Law Related to Multimodal Transportation in India

Legal Aspects of Business Term V (PT-PGPM) Oct12

Amit umar (!") Amit Ma#ar (1!) Ans#ul Gautam (11) Ar$in% umar (1&) Pan'a( B#ar%)a( (*+) ,ac#it Mittal (&*)

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Acknowledgement
-e o)e man. t#an's to all )#o #elpe% in %e$eloping t#is pro(ect report/ 0irst an% t#e foremost is Prof/ 1 L Bansal )#o pro$i%e% continuous gui%ance in c#anneling t#e t#oug#ts into action/ Our sincere gratitu%e goes to all )#o participate% in t#is researc# 2. pro$i%ing t#eir $ie)s on 3uestionnaire an% ta'ing time out from t#eir $er. 2us. sc#e%ules/ Last 2ut not t#e least )e e4ten% our #eartfelt t#an's to all co-stu%ents )#o are super2/

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Table of Contents
Ac'no)le%gement//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2 Ta2le of contents////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////* General O$er$ie)///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////& Purpose of 5nactment of Multi Mo%al La)6///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////& Benefits of t#e Act//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////7 ,easons for enactment of t#e Act in 8n%ia /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////7 9ra) Bac's////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////+ MMTG A1T 1""*//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////+ 1onclusion////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////1&

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General Overview:
Multi Mo%al Transportation of Goo%s 6( Meaning) Multi Mo%al Transportation of goo%s means transportation of cargo from t#e premises of t#e s#ipper to t#ose of t#e consignee: 2. more t#an one mo%e of transportation: un%er a single contract )#ic# #as its e$i%ence in form of a single multimo%al transport contract/ T#us a multi mo%al transport s.stem in$ol$es t#e coor%ination of rail an% roa% net)or' so to ensure goo% connecti$it. 2et)een port an% #interlan%/ As general rule criteria suc# as ;pee%: ;afet.: ,elia2ilit.: A$aila2ilit. an% 0le4i2ilit. in an. transportation s.stem ensures an efficient %oor to %oor ser$ice < t#ere 2. %etermine t#e 3ualit. < success of an. mo%e of transportation/ 1onse3uentl. t#e enactment of a s.stem of multi mo%al transportation #a% its genesis in re%ucing costs: %ela.s an% impro$ing upon t#e 3ualit. of transportation of goo%s an% ser$ices/

urpose of !nactment of Multi Modal Law:

8n $ie) of $arious measures for li2erali=ing control an% simplif.ing proce%ure for facilitating smoot# flo) of international tra%e an% e4port promotion: t#ere arose an imme%iate nee% to regulate t#e multi mo%al transportation of goo%s 2. la)/ >ee% for t#e enactment of t#is legislation in 8n%ia )as all t#e more ine$ita2le: consi%ering t#e fact t#at interruption in continuous mo$ement of goo%s: from t#eir place of origin to t#at of t#eir %estination nee%e% attention for ser$ing t#e larger commercial interests :)#ic# are consi%erations 3uite often rele$ant to all %e$eloping countries suc# as 8n%ia/ T#us follo)ing consi%erations )ere rele$ant: )#ile enacting a la) for go$erning multi-mo%al transportation of goo%s/

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"enefits of t#e Act:

0or %etermining lia2ilities < responsi2ilities of multi-mo%al transport operator for loss or %amage to goo%s/ To re%uce an% eliminate interruption in continuous mo$ement of goo%s from t#eir place of origin to t#at of ultimate %estination/ Multi-Mo%al la) )as also necessar. to en#ance tra%e an% commerce

Reasons for !nactment of Multi$Modal Law In India:

( Multi-Mo%al Transport Act: 1""*) 8nternational Transportation of general cargo #as un%ergone structural c#anges: %ue to a%$ancement of tec#nolog.: especiall. )it# t#e a%$ent of container re$olution < containers #a$e populari=e% t#e use of more t#an one mo%e of transport an% no) carriers are 2eing glo2all. use% in 8nternational tra%e/ Multi- Mo%al transport #as 2ecome a stan%ar% practice in tra%e 2et)een %e$elope% countries an% is no) gra%uall. sprea%ing to %e$eloping countries/ Multi-Mo%al s.stem 2enefits 2ot# t#e consignor as )ell as t#e consignee/ 8n%ias o$erseas general cargo tra%e #as also starte% mo$ing in containers: no) containeri=e% cargo is mo$ing from #interlan% (inlan% container %epots set up in countries: connect #interlan% to t#e ports: to t#e ports:< t#ere 2. facilitate containeri=e% tra%e: no) containeri=e% #an%ling facilities are 2eing %e$elope% at all ma(or ports < rail)a. flat )agon inlan% container %epots are also 2eing a%e3uatel. %e$elope%/

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Certain %raw$ "acks & Constraints Multi$Modal Transportation Laws

ertinent In Indian

Air freig#t operators are e4clu%e% from t#e applica2ilit. of t#is act/ Multi-mo%al transport operators license nee%s to 2e rene)e% on an annual 2asis/ 8n%ian Multi-Mo%al La) pro$i%es #ig#er lia2ilities for multi-mo%al transport operators

MMTG ACT '(()

8n 8n%ia Multi-Mo%al Transportation of Goo%s is regulate% 2.: Multi-mo%al transportation of Goo%s act of 1""*: )#ic# stan%s amen%e% 2.: t#e Multi-mo%al transportation of goo%s act of: 2!!!/ 5ac# an% e$er. person )illing to start t#e 2usiness of Multi-Mo%al Transport operation: #as to get #imself registere% as a multi-mo%al transport operator: suc# a re3uirement is man%ator.: t#us in a2sence of compliance )it# t#e re3uirements of registration: a non-registere% multi-mo%al transport operator )oul% not 2e permitte% to carr. on t#e 2usiness of multi-mo%al transportation / *ection$): Pro$i%es: t#at no person s#all carr. on t#e 2usiness of multi-mo%al transportation: unless #e is registere% as a certifie% multi-mo%al transport operator un%er t#e pro$isions of t#is act/ *ection$+: La.s %o)n t#e legal pro$isions )it# regar%s to t#e formalities re3uire% for t#e registration of multi-mo%al transportation: t#e la) on t#e su2(ect pro$i%es t#at an. person ma. appl. for registration to t#e competent aut#orit. to carr. on or commence 2usiness as a multimo%al transport operator/ An application for see'ing registration as a multi-mo%al transport operator s#all 2e in a form prescri2e% 2. t#is act/ 8n a%%ition an application for multi-mo%al transportation of goo%s s#all 2e accompanie% 2. a fee of ,s 1!:!!!/Once an application for

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multi-mo%al transportation #as 2een recei$e%: t#e competent aut#orit. #as to ensure t#at t#e applicant fulfills certain criteria/

T#e criteria to 2e fulfille% for 2eing registere% as a multi-mo%al transport operator are as follo)s T#e applicant s#oul% 2e a compan.: firm or proprietar. concern/ T#e applicant s#oul% 2e engage% eit#er in t#e 2usiness of s#ipping or freig#t for)ar%ing in 8n%ia or a2roa%/ 8n a%%ition suc# an applicant must #a$e a minimum annual turno$er of ,s 7!La'#: %uring t#e imme%iatel. prece%ing financial .ear or must #a$e an annual a$erage turno$er of ,s 7! La'#: %uring t#e prece%ing t#ree financial .ears/ -#ere t#e applicant is a compan.: firm or proprietar. concern ot#er t#an one engage% in t#e 2usiness of s#ipping or freig#t for)ar%ing in 8n%ia *ection ,-: La.s %o)n t#e gui%elines for cancelling t#e registration of erring Multi-Mo%al Transport Operators/ T#e competent aut#orit. )#ere$er satisfie% t#at6 An. ;tatement in or in relation to an. application for registration as a multi-mo%al transport operator or for t#e purpose of rene)al of t#e application for t#e registration of a multi-mo%al transport agreement: is incorrect or is false in an. material particulars or/ 8n instances )#ere an. pro$isions of T#e Multi-Mo%al Transport of Goo%s Act #a$e 2een contra$ene% 2. suc# an Multi-Mo%al Transport Operator or 8n 8nstances )#ere in t#e multi-mo%al transport operator #as not entere% in to an. multi-mo%al transport contract %uring t#e prece%ing t)o .ears after #is registration : T#en in case of t#e fulfillment of t#e aforesai% criteria t#e competent aut#orit. s#all 2e competent to pass an or%er to cancel t#e certificate of registration a)ar%e% to suc# an %efaulting multi-mo%al transport operator/ *ection$.: Pro$i%es for pro$ision of appeal against a refusal 2. t#e competent aut#orit. to
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Grant or rene) registration ?@s & On cancellation of registration un%er section 7/

*ection $/: 9eals )it# t#e issuance of a Multi-Mo%al Transport 9ocument/ 8n instances )#ere 2ot# consignor of goo%s as )ell as t#e multi-mo%al transport operator #a$e entere% in to a contract for multi-mo%al transportation: an% )#ere suc# multi-mo%al transport operator #as ta'en c#arge of goo%s: t#en in suc# a case t#e Multi-mo%al transport operator s#all:(at t#e option of t#e consignor ) issue eit#er a negotia2le or a >on Anegotia2le multi-mo%al transport %ocument/ *ection$0: Pro$i%es t#at a Multi-Mo%al Transport 9ocument ;#all 2e regar%e% as a %ocument of title/ 5$er. 1onsignee name% in t#e negotia2le or nonAnegotia2le multi-mo%al transport %ocument or e$er. en%orsee of suc# %ocument (to )#om t#e propert. in t#e goo%s mentione% in suc# multi-mo%al transport %ocument s#all pass upon 2. reason of suc# consignment or en%orsement: s#all #a$e all t#e rig#ts an% t#e lia2ilities of t#e consignor/ *ection $(: ;pecifies t#e %etails of t#e necessar. particulars: re3uire% to 2e specifie% in e$er. multi-mo%al transport %ocument/ T#e Performa of a multi-mo%al transport %ocument s#all comprise of %etails of General >ature of Goo%s/ T#e %etails of general nature of goo%s s#all comprise of %etails suc# as6 (i) Lea%ing mar's meant for i%entification of goo%s/ (ii) 1#aracter of Goo%s (inclu%ing %angerous goo%s) (iii) >um2er of Pac'ages or units of goo%s/ (i$) Gross )eig#t an% 3uantit. of goo%s as %eclare% 2. 1onsignor/ 8nformation on apparent con%ition of t#e goo%s/ 9etails of t#e >ame an% Principal place of 2usiness of t#e Multi-Mo%al Transport operator/
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>ame of 1onsignor >ame of 1onsignee Place an% %ate of ta'ing c#arge of goo%s 2. t#e multi-mo%al transporter Place of 9eli$er. of Goo%s 9etails of t#e %ate or perio% of %eli$er. of goo%s 2. MTO: as #a$e 2een e4pressl. agree% upon 2et)een t#e consignor an% t#e multi-mo%al transport operator/

9etails: as to )#et#er it is a negotia2le or a >on Anegotia2le %ocument T#e place an% %ate of issue of %ocument Terms of s#ipment accompanie% )it# a statement t#at t#e multi mo%al transport %ocument #as 2een issue% su2(ect to or in accor%ance )it# t#e Multi-mo%al transportation of Goo%s act/

*ection$'1: 9eals )it# t#e concept of reser$ation in multi-mo%al transport %ocument/ T#e concept of reser$ation #as rele$ance in instances )#ere a multi-mo%al transports operator or a person acting on 2e#alf of suc# an operator6 Bas reasona2le groun%s to suspect: t#at t#e particulars furnis#e% 2. consignor in multimo%al transport %ocument %o not accuratel. represent t#e goo%s actuall. ta'en in c#arge/ Or in case )#ere #e #as no reasona2le means of c#ec'ing@matc#ing t#e particulars of t#e goo%s consigne%/ *ection $'': 9eals )it# t#e e$i%entiar. effect of a multi-mo%al transport %ocument/ 8n all cases e4cept t#ose in )#ic# a reser$ation #as 2een ma%e in multi-mo%al transport %ocument T#e Multi-Mo%al Transport 9ocument s#all 2e prima-facie e$i%ence of t#e fact t#at t#e multi-mo%al transport operator #as ta'en c#arge of goo%s as %escri2e% in t#e %ocument/

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>o proof furnis#e% 2. t#e multi-mo%al transport operator to t#e contrar. ()it# regar%s to goo%s actuall. ta'en in c#arge) s#all 2e a%missi2le if multimo%al transport %ocument is issue% in a negotia2le form an% #as 2een transmitte% or transferre% 2. a consignee to a t#ir% part. )#o #as acte% in goo% fait# rel.ing upon t#e %escription of t#e goo%s in t#e %ocument

*ection$ '2: 5numerates t#e responsi2ilities of a consignor/ T#e consignor s#all 2e %eeme% to #a$e guarantee% t#e multi-mo%al transport operator of 2ot# a%e3uac. as )ell as accurac. of t#e goo%s: )#ic# #e inten%s to transport t#roug# suc# a multi-mo%al transport operator/ *ection '): 9eals )it# t#e 2asis of lia2ilit. of a multi-mo%al transport operator/ A multi-mo%al transport operator s#all 2e lia2le for an. loss resulting from an. 9amage to t#e consignment/ An. %ela. in %eli$er. of consignment/ An. conse3uential loss or %amage arising from suc# %ela./ Bo)e$er a multi-mo%al transporter s#all 2e lia2le onl. in instances )#ere suc# loss: %amage or %ela. in %eli$er. of consignment too' place at a time )#en t#e consignment )as in t#e c#arge of suc# multi-mo%al transport operator/ *ection '+: 9eals )it# t#e limits of lia2ilit. of a multi-mo%al transport operator: )#en nature an% $alue of consignment #a$e not 2een %eclare% an% stage of transport )#ere loss or %amage occurre% is not 'no)n/ T#us in instances )#ere a multi-mo%al transport operator 2ecomes lia2le for an. loss or %amage to an. consignment: nature an% $alue of )#ic# #a$e not 2een %eclare% 2. consignor: )#ile entrusting it upon suc# multi-mo%al transport operator: or )#ere t#e stage of transport at )#ic# suc# loss or %amage occurre% is not 'no)n t#en in suc# a situation 6 CT#e lia2ilit. of t#e multi-mo%al transport operator to pa. compensation )ill in no case e4cee% a ma4imum of 2 ;9,@ g (;pecial 9ra)ing ,ig#ts per ilogram) of t#e gross )eig#t of t#e consignment lost or %amage%/ Or +++/+D: ;pecial 9ra)ing ,ig#ts Per Pac'age or unit lost or %amage% )#ic#e$er is #ig#er/E
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8nstances )#ere t#e multi-mo%al transport contract %oes not inclu%e carriage of goo%s 2. ;ea or 8nlan% )ater )a.s: t#en in suc# a scenario: lia2ilit. of a multi-mo%al transport operator s#all 2e limite% to an amount not e4cee%ing a ma4imum of F/** ;9, (;pecial 9ra)ing ,ig#ts per ilogram of gross )eig#t of goo%s lost or %amage%/

8n cases )#ere nature an% $alue of t#e consignment #a$e not 2een %eclare% or )#ere t#e stage of transport )#ere suc# loss or %amage occurre% is un'no)n :t#en t#e lia2ilit. of t#e multi-mo%al transport operator to pa. compensation: s#all in no case e4cee% 2;9,@ g(;pecial 9ra)ing ,ig#ts per ilogram of gross )eig#t of consignment) lost or %amage%/ Or +++/+D ;9, (;pecial 9ra)ing ,ig#ts per Pac'age of unit lost or %amage%: )#ic#e$er is #ig#er/

*ection '-: %eals )it# instances )#ere a multi-mo%al transport operator 2ecomes lia2le for an. loss or %amage to an. consignment: nature an% $alue )#ereof #a$e not 2een %eclare% 2. t#e consignor 2efore suc# consignment #as 2een ta'en in c#arge 2. multi-mo%al transport operator an% )#ere stage of transport at )#ic# suc# loss or %amage occurre% is 'no)n: t#en t#e limit of lia2ilit. of suc# a multi-mo%al transport operator for suc# loss or %amage s#all 2e %etermine% in accor%ance )it# pro$isions of rele$ant la) applica2le in relation to mo%e of transport: %uring course of )#ic# suc# loss or %amage occurre%/ An. stipulation in t#e multi-mo%al transport contract to t#e contrar. s#all 2e 2ot# $oi% an% unenforcea2le/ *ection '.: 9eals )it# t#e lia2ilit. of multi-mo%al transport operator in case of: %ela. in %eli$er. of goo%s un%er certain circumstances 1onsignment not #a$ing 2een %eli$ere% )it#in t#e time e4pressl. agree% upon or in a2sence of suc# agreement :)it#in suc# reasona2le time as is re3uire% 2. a %iligent multi-mo%al transport operator #a$ing regar% to t#e circumstances of t#e case: to effect t#e %eli$er. of t#e consignment or an. conse3uential loss or %amage t#at arises from suc# %ela.: t#en in suc# a situation lia2ilit. of suc# a multi-mo%al transport operator s#all 2e limite% to t#e freig#t pa.a2le for t#e consignment so %ela.e%/ -#ere t#ere is %ela. in %eli$er. t#e lia2ilit. of t#e multi-mo%al transport operator s#all 2e limite% to freig#t pa.a2le for t#e consignment so %ela.e%/
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*ection '/: 9eals )it# pro$ision for Assessment of 1ompensation for loss or %amage to 1onsignment: %eli$ere% ?n%er t#e Multi Mo%al Transport Agreement/ An assessment of compensation for loss or %amage to consignment s#all 2e ma%e :)it# reference to t#e pre$ailing $alue of suc# consignment :at t#e place an% time at )#ic#: suc# consignment is %eli$ere% or s#oul% #a$e 2een %eli$ere% to t#e consignee/ *ection '0: 9eals )it# loss Of ,ig#t of Multi-Mo%al Transport Operator to Limit Bis Lia2ilit./ Multi-Mo%al transport operator s#all not 2e entitle% to t#e 2enefit of limitation of #is lia2ilit. un%er an. of t#e pro$isions of t#e multi-mo%al transportation of goo%s act: if it is pro$e% t#at suc# loss: %amage or %ela. in %eli$er. of suc# consignment #a% in fact resulte% from An act or omission on part of multi-mo%al transport operator )it# an un%erl.ing intention to cause suc# loss: %amage or %ela. or -it# rec'lessness in utter %isregar% of #is 'no)le%ge a2out t#e fact t#at suc# loss: %amage or %ela. s#all in all pro2a2l. ensue *ection '(: 9eals )it# lia2ilit. of Multi-Mo%al Transport Operator for Total Loss of Goo%s/ T#e Multi-Mo%al Transport Operator s#all in no case 2e lia2le for an amount greater t#an t#e lia2ilit. for total loss of goo%s: for )#ic# a person s#all 2e entitle% to ma'e claims un%er an. of t#e pro$isions of t#e Multi-Mo%al Transport Act/ *ection $21: 5numerates t#e pro$ision of issuance of notice in case of loss or %amage to goo%s/ Generall. t#e %eli$er. of consignment to t#e consignee 2. multi-mo%al transport operator s#all 2e treate% as a prima Afacie e$i%ence of %eli$er. of goo%s of a %escription as #a$e 2een %escri2e% in a multi-mo%al transport %ocument/ On an. loss or %amage 2eing notice% in t#e consignment %eli$ere% 2. a multi-mo%al transport operator: it s#all 2e necessar. for suc# a consignee (recei$er of goo%s) to gi$e a )ritten notice of t#e general nature of loss or %amage to t#e goo%s/ *ection 2': 9eals )it# special pro$ision for %angerous goo%s/ -#ere t#e consignor #an%s o$er t#e prescri2e% %angerous goo%s to a multimo%al transport operator or an. person acting on 2e#alf of suc# operator: t#e consignor s#all
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inform #im of t#e nature of t#e %angerous goo%s an%: if necessar.: t#e precautions to 2e ta'en )#ile transporting suc# goo%s/ -#ere t#e consignor fails to inform t#e multimo%al transport operator or t#e ot#er person acting on 2e#alf of suc# operator of t#e nature of t#e %angerous goo%s an% suc# operator or person %oes not ot#er)ise #a$e 'no)le%ge of t#e %angerous goo%s/ t#e consignor s#all 2e lia2le to t#e multimo%al transport operator or t#e ot#er person acting on 2e#alf of suc# operator for all loss resulting from t#e multimo%al transportation of suc# goo%sG an% T#e goo%s ma. at an. time 2e unloa%e%: %estro.e% or ren%ere% innocuous: as t#e circumstances ma. re3uire: )it#out pa.ment of compensation/ *ection 22: Pro$i%es rig#t of multimo%al transport operator to #a$e lien on goo%s an% %ocuments/ T#e multimo%al transport operator )#o #as not 2een pai% t#e amount of consi%eration stipulate% in t#e multimo%al transport contract s#all #a$e a lien on t#e consignment an% on t#e %ocuments in #is possession/ >ot)it#stan%ing an.t#ing containe% in sections 1*: 1+ an% 1F: t#e perio% %uring )#ic# t#e goo%s are in possession of t#e multimo%al transport operator in e4ercise of #is rig#t of lien referre% to in su2- section (1) s#all not 2e inclu%e% for t#e purposes of calculating t#e time or %ela. un%er an. of t#ose sections *ection 2): >ot)it#stan%ing an.t#ing containe% in an. ot#er pro$ision of t#is Act: it s#all 2e la)ful for t#e parties to t#e multimo%al transport contract to inclu%e in t#e multimo%al transport %ocument an. pro$ision relating to general a$erage/ 54planation/- 0or t#e purposes of t#is section:H general a$erageH means loss: %amage or e4pense reasona2l. incurre% in or%er to a$ert %anger to propert. in common peril an% in t#e common interest in$ol$e% in t#e multimo%al transportation/

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*ection 2+: 8t %eals )it# Limitation on action/ T#e multimo%al transport operator s#all not 2e lia2le un%er an. of t#e pro$isions of t#is Act unless action against #im is 2roug#t )it#in nine mont#s of T#e %ate of %eli$er. of t#e goo%s: or T#e %ate )#en t#e goo%s s#oul% #a$e 2een %eli$ere%: or T#e %ate on an% from )#ic# t#e part. entitle% to recei$e %eli$er. of t#e goo%s #as t#e rig#t to treat t#e goo%s as lost un%er su2- section (2) of section 1*/ *ection$2-: 5numerates pro$ision for Ar2itration in case in$ol$ing multi-mo%al transport %isputes/ Parties entering in to a multi-mo%al transport contract are free to agree to refer all multi-mo%al transportation relate% %isputes to ar2itrationG t#ese procee%ings ma. 2e institute%at suc# place < in accor%ance )it# suc# proce%ure as ma. #a$e 2een specifie% 2. suc#multimo%al transport %ocument/ Venue for 8nternational Ar2itration 8nternational Ar2itration s#all: at t#e option of t#e claimant 2e #el% at an. of t#e follo)ing places 8n a ;tate )it# in )#ose territor. claimant is situate%/ Ba2itual ,esi%ence or Principal Place of 2usiness of t#e %efen%ant/ Place )#ere multi-mo%al transport contract )as ma%e: pro$i%e% t#e %efen%ant #as at suc# a place a 2usiness or agenc. t#roug# )#ic# suc# contract )as ma%e/ Place of ta'ing c#arge or %eli$er. of goo%s: un%er multi-mo%al transport agreement/ An. ot#er place %esignate% in t#e ar2itration clause or in an ar2itration agreement 2et)een t#e parties

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Conclusion:
T#is report attempts to pro$i%e an o$er$ie) of t#e la)s an% regulations on multimo%al transport enacte% at t#e regional: su2 regional an% national le$el/ As it appears from t#e stu%.: some (uris%ictions #a$e a%opte% t#e net)or' lia2ilit. s.stem ma'ing t#e lia2ilit. of t#e MTO: in case of locali=e% %amage: su2(ect to t#e pro$isions of man%ator. international con$ention or national la) applica2le to t#e particular stage of transport %uring )#ic# t#e loss or %amage occurre%/ T#us: t#e lia2ilit. of t#e MTO c#anges %epen%ing on )#ere t#e loss or %amage ta'es place/ 8n case of non-locali=e% %amage t#e MTOs lia2ilit. is often ma%e su2(ect to general pro$isions of t#e la): )#ic# ma. not 2e easil. %etermine% in e$er. case/

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