WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH? Action research has an applied focus.

Similar to mixed methods research action research uses data collection !ased on either "uantitati#e or "ualitati#e methods or !oth. Ho$e#er it differs in that action research addresses a specific practical issue and see%s to o!tain solutions to a pro!lem. Thus action research desi&ns are s'stematic procedures done !' teachers (or other indi#iduals in an educational settin&) to &ather information a!out and su!se"uentl' impro#e the $a's their particular educational settin& operates their teachin& and their student learnin& (*ills +,,,). Educators aim to impro#e the practice of education !' stud'in& issues or pro!lems the' face. Educators reflect a!out these pro!lems collect and anal'-e data and implement chan&es !ased on their findin&s. In some cases the research sol#es a local practical pro!lem such as a classroom issue for a teacher. In other situations the researcher see%s to empo$er transform and emancipate indi#iduals from situations that constrain their self.de#elopment and self.determination. When /o 0ou 1se Action Research? 0ou use action research $hen 'ou ha#e a specific educational pro!lem to sol#e. This pro!lem ma' !e the difficulties facin& part.time facult' (Watters Christensen Arcodia R'an 2 Wee%s 3445) ascertainin& $hether pro!lem.!ased learnin& is superior to the traditional lecture (/ods 3446) or disco#erin& ho$ literac' in $ritin& emer&es for first.&rade students (Ceprano 2 7aran 3445). Action research pro#ides an opportunit' for educators to reflect on their o$n practices. Within the scope of a school action research offers a means for staff de#elopment for teachers8 de#elopment as professionals and for addressin& school$ide pro!lems (Allen 2 Calhoun 3445). In fact the scope of action research pro#ides a means for teachers or educators in the schools to impro#e their practices of ta%in& action and to do so !' participatin& in research. 3 What do $e %no$? The principles of action research Action research is a name &i#en to a particular $a' of researchin& 'our o$n learnin&. It is a practical $a' of loo%in& at 'our practice in order to chec% $hether it is as 'ou feel it should !e. If 'ou feel that 'our practice is satisfactor' 'ou $ill !e a!le to explain ho$ and $h' 'ou !elie#e this is the case9 'ou $ill !e a!le to produce e#idence to support 'our claims. If 'ou feel that 'our practice needs attention in some $a' 'ou $ill !e a!le to ta%e action to impro#e it and then produce e#idence to sho$ in $hat $a' the practice has impro#ed. :ecause action research is done !' 'ou the practitioner it is often referred to as practitioner research or a similar name such as practitioner.led or practitioner. !ased research. It is a form of research $hich can !e underta%en !' people in an' context re&ardless of their status or position. It in#ol#es 'ou thin%in& carefull' a!out $hat 'ou are doin& so it can also !e called a %ind of self.reflecti#e practice. The idea of self.reflection is central. In traditional (empirical) forms of research researchers do research on other people. In action research researchers do research on themsel#es in compan' $ith other people and those others are doin& the same. No distinction is made !et$een $ho is a researcher and $ho is a practitioner. ;ractitioners are potential researchers and researchers are practitioners (some people $ho li%e to maintain their status as <pure8 researchers do not al$a's see it this $a' thou&h). Traditional researchers en"uire into other people8s li#es and spea% a!out other people as data. Action researchers en"uire into their o$n li#es and spea% $ith other people

as collea&ues. Action research is an en"uir' !' the self into the self underta%en in compan' $ith others actin& as research participants and critical learnin& partners. Action research in#ol#es learnin& in and throu&h action and reflection and it is conducted in a #ariet' of contexts includin& the social and carin& sciences education or&anisation and administration studies and mana&ement. :ecause action research is al$a's to do $ith learnin& and learnin& is to do $ith education and &ro$th man' people re&ard it as a form of educational research. In one sense there is no such <thin&8 as action research. It is important al$a's to remem!er this. Sometimes people $rite a!out action research as if it $ere a self.contained o!=ect of en"uir' existin& separate from themsel#es. I am doin& so no$. On this #ie$ action research can !ecome an a!stract discipline a set of procedures $hich can !e applied to practice. It can then turn from !ein& a li#in& process to a lin&uistic a!straction and this tends to distort the #alues of=ustice and indi#idual autonom' $hich animate action research. It is important al$a's to locate WHAT ARE THE >E0 CHARACTERISTICS O? ACTION RESEARCH? /espite differences !et$een practical action research and ;AR !oth t'pes of desi&ns ha#e common characteristics found in action research. 1nderstandin& these characteristics $ill help 'ou !etter desi&n 'our o$n stud' or read e#aluate and use an action research stud' pu!lished in the literature. These characteristics are@ A A practical focus A The educatorBresearcher8s o$n practices A Colla!oration A A d'namic process A A plan of action A Sharin& research A ;ractical ?ocus The aim of action research is to address an actual pro!lem in an educational settin&. Thus action researchers stud' practical issues that $ill ha#e immediate !enefits for education. These issues ma' !e a concern of a sin&le teacher ma classroom ora pro!lem in#ol#in& man' educators in a !uildin& It ma' !e a school communit' issue an issue $ith a schoolpolic' or structure that constrains indi#idual freedom and action or a concern of indi#iduals in to$ns and cities. Action researchers do not underta%e this form of research to ad#ance %no$led&e for %no$led&e8s sa%e !ut to sol#e an immediate applied pro!lem. The TeacherBResearcher8s O$n ;ractices When action researchers en&a&e in a stud' the' are interested in examinin& their o$n practices rather than stud'in& someone else8s practices. In this sense action researchers en&a&e in participator' or seifreflecti#e research in $hich the' turn the lens on their o$n educational classroom school or practices. As the' stud' their o$n situation the' reflect on $hat the' ha#e learnedBa form of self.de#elopmentB.as $ell as $hat the' can do to impro#e their educational practices. Action researchers deli!eratel' experiment $ith their o$n practices monitor the actions and circumstances in $hich the' occur and then retrospecti#el' reconstruct an interpretation of the action as a !asis for future action. In this reflection action researchers $ei&h different solutions to their pro!lems and learn from testin& ideas. Action research has !een called Ca spiral of self.reflectionD (>emrnis 344E p. EF). Colla!oration

Action researchers colla!orate $ith others often in#ol#in& coparticipants in the research. These coparticipants ma' !e indi#iduals $ithin a school or outside personnel such as uni#ersit' researchers or professional association &roups. This does not mean that outsiders should co.opt practitioners !' &atherin& data that ser#e onl' their needs. So that this co.optin& $ill not occur outsiders need to ne&otiate their entr' to a site $ith participants and !e sensiti#e to the in#ol#ement of participants in the pro=ect (Strin&er 3444). It in#ol#es esta!lishin& accepta!le and cooperati#e relationships conirnunicatin& in a manner that is sincere and appropriate and includin& all indi#iduals &roups and issues. As sho$n in ?i&ure 35.F man' indi#iduals and &roups ma' participate in an action research pro=ect. Indi#iduals ma' re#ie$ results of findin&s $ith the researcher help collect data or assist in the presentation of the final report. *an' aspects of the research process are open to colla!oration in an action research pro=ect. /urin& this colla!oration roles ma' #ar' and !e ne&otiated !ut the concept of interactin& is central to understandin& one8s practices. Staff ;arents Administrators Students Teachers Communit' Sta%eholders CoiG!orati#e Team A /'namic ;rocess Action researchers en&a&e in a d'namic process in#ol#in& iterations of acti#ities such as a CspiralD of acti#ities. The %e' idea is that the researcher CspiralsD !ac% and forth !et$een reflection a!out a pro!lem data collection and action. A school.!ased team for example ma' tr' se#eral actions after reflectin& on the !est time for hi&h school classes to !e&in. Reflectin& collectin& data tr'in& a solution and spiralin& !ac% to reflection are all part of the process of action research. The process does not follo$ a linear pattern or a causal se"uence from pro!lem to action. A ;lan of Action The next step is to identif' a plan of action. At some point in the process the action researcher formulates an action plan in response to the pro!lem. This plan ma' !e simpl' presentin& the data to important sta%eholders esta!lishin& a pilot pro&ram startin& se#eral competin& pro&rams or implementin& an on&oin& research a&enda to explore ne$ practices (Strin&er 3444). It ma' !e a formal $ritten plan or an informal discussion a!out ho$ to proceed and it ma' en&a&e a fe$ indi#iduals (e.&. students in a classroom) or in#ol#e an entire communit' (e.&. in a participator' research stud'). Sharin& Research 1nli%e traditional research that in#esti&ators report in =ournal and !oo% pu!lications action researchers report their research to educators $ho can then immediatel' use the results. Action researchers often en&a&e in sharin& reports $ith local school communit' and educational personnel. Althou&h action researchers pu!lish in scholarl' =ournals the' are t'picall' more interested in sharin& the information locall' $ith indi#iduals $ho can promote chan&e or enact plans $ithin their classroom or !uildin&. Action researchers share results $ith teachers the !uildin& principal school district personnel and parent associations (e.&. Hu&hes 3444). In addition online =ournals (!oth $ith and $ithout standards for inclusion) We! sites and Histser#s (online computer discussion &roups t'picall' hosted !' a uni#ersit' computer s'stem)

pro#ide opportunities for action researchers to pu!lici-e their studies (see *ills +,,,). Inno#ati#e forums also exist for performance texts $here the researchers perform $hat the' ha#e learned throu&h action research (see /en-in 3446). These performances mi&ht !e a pla' a poem a readin& of text slides or music. Reasons cited toda' for the importance of action research@ A Encoura&es chan&e in the schools A ?osters a democratic (i.e. in#ol#ement of man' indi#iduals) approach to education A Empo$ers indi#iduals throu&h colla!oration on pro=ects A ;ositions teachers and other educators as learners $ho see% to narro$ the &ap !et$een practice and their #ision of education A Encoura&es educators to reflect on their practices A ;romotes a process of testin& ne$ ideas (*ills +,,,)

;ractical issues Action research is practical. Here is some ad#ice on $hat to do and $hat not to do. SMALL, STAY FOCUSED There can !e a !i& difference !et$een the scope of 'our $or% and the scope of 'our action research pro=ect. E#en thou&h the area ma' not !e small the stud' itself should focus on one aspect of the o#erall picture so that it is al$a's clear $hat 'ou are researchin&. Althou&h in a $ide sense $or% and practice arc research and research is practice in a practical sense 'ou need to see 'our pro=ect as an extrapolation from 'our $ider $or% and %eep it in perspecti#e. 0ou are researchin& 'ou so one piece of 'our practice is pro!a!l' &oin& to !e s'mptomatic of the $hole. 0ou could find that researchin& one aspect $ill re#eal other interconnected aspects B 'ou and 'our $or% are s'nthesised and e#er'thin& is interconnected and mutuall' influential. /on8t tr' to research e#er'thin& at once thou&h. 0ou need to sta' focused on one issue and &et on the inside of it and understand it and put the others on hold. Concentratin& on onl' one part of 'our $or% helps 'ou to understand the nature and process of 'our o$n learnin&. Once 'ou ha#e come to a point $here 'ou feel 'ou ha#e made pro&ress in one aspect ('ou $ill pro!a!l' not !rin& an'thin& to closure !ut 'ou $ill mo#e to a ne$ place in 'our understandin&) 'ou can then pro&ress to other areas $hich themsel#es $ill !ecome ne$ research pro=ects. IDENTIFY A CLEAR RESEARCH QUESTION 0ou need to !e reasona!l' clear a!out $hat 'ou are researchin&. Action research as%s a "uestion of the %ind <Ho$ do I. . .?< ?or example <Ho$ do I impro#e the "ualit' of m' relationship $ith I?8<Ho$ do I help 0 to learn more effecti#el'?8<Ho$ do I mana&e m' time more efficientl'?8 These "uestions emphasise that 'ou are at the centre of the research. This does not mean that 'ou

are $or%in& in isolation9 'ou are al$a's in relation $ith others and 'ou $ill chec% $hether 'ou are ma%in& pro&ress !' see%in& feed!ac% from those others and also e#aluatin& $hether 'ou are influencin& them so that their o$n learnin& is ad#anced. As an action researcher 'ou $ould not as% "uestions of the %ind <Ho$ man' people ha#e achie#ed a specified le#el of expertise?8<What do other people sa'a!out this e#ent?8<Is there a relationship !et$een room temperature and de&ree of concentration?8 These %inds of "uestion !elon& to an empirical approach $here the aim is to esta!lish facts and fi&ures and chec% the #ia!ilit' of h'potheses. Action researchers reco&nise the #alidit' of these approaches and are interested in "uestions $hich produce ans$ers a!out "uantit' !ut the' are more interested in "ualit' and ho$ the' can ensure "ualit' !' stud'in& their o$n practice. The' see factual issues as em!edded $ithin $ider issues to do $ith the "ualit' of experience. :e a$are that the research "uestion mi&ht chan&e as 'ou de#elop the research. The "uestion <Ho$ do I help m' students concentrate?8 mi&ht transform into the "uestion <Ho$ do I ma%e m' lessons more interestin& so that m' students $ant to learn?8 As 'ou re#eal issues throu&h stud'in& 'our practice 'ou $ill come to ne$ understandin&s a!out 'ourself and the pro!lematics of 'our situation and !e&in as%in& ne$ "uestions. BE REALISTIC ABOUT WHAT YOU CAN DO; ALSO BE AWARE THAT WIDER CHANGE BEGINS WITH YOU Can 'ou do an'thin& a!out the unsatisfactor' superstructure of 'our or&anisation? ;ossi!l' not immediatel'. It is difficult to nurture sustaina!le chan&e from the outside more feasi!le from $ithin. 0ou can ho$e#er certainl' chan&e $ider s'stems !' focusin& on and impro#in& a smaller piece $ithin the s'stem as a participant. 0ou can understand and modif' the piece of the infrastructure $hich constitutes 'ou $or%in& $ith others and 'ou can influence others on an increasin&l' $ider scale !' producin& accounts of'our $or% and sho$in& ho$ that is !eneficial to others in other contexts. 0ou cannot chan&e the $orld immediatel' !ut 'ou can chan&e 'our piece of it and 'ou can influence others to chan&e theirs. This is a po$erful methodolo&' for social chan&e. It is a process of indi#iduals decidin& that the' $ant to chan&e their o$n li#es and then comin& to&ether as communities of li%e.minded practitioners $ho mo!ilise themsel#es for action. Chan&e !e&ins in indi#iduals8 minds9 it de#elops !' indi#iduals talldn& $ith one another and ta%in& action as a result of their collecti#e decisions. It is lon& term la!our intensi#e resilient to opposition and a po$erful force $hich should not !e underestimated. PLAN CAREFULLY This means ha#in& a !road outline of $here 'ou hope the research $ill lead !ut it does not mean settin& specific o!=ecti#es. Often the research $ill de#elop in $a's different to $hat 'ou had expected and 'ou mi&ht need to shift the focus and chan&e the research "uestion. ?rom the !e&innin& set 'ourself $or%in& criteria a!out ho$ 'ou are &oin& to =ud&e 'our effecti#eness. 0ou mi&ht need to modif' and refine 'our criteria as 'ou &o. If for example 'ou $ere tr'in& to help I impro#e their confidence 'ou mi&ht set a criterion such as </id I smile?8 or </id I challen&e someone8s opinion in a meetin&?8 In 'our records 'ou $ould ha#e noted instances $hen !efore 'ou !e&an $or%in& $ith I the' ne#er smiled or challen&ed an opinion. As 'ou $or%ed a$a' and monitored 'our practice 'ou $ould &ather data a photo&raph perhaps $here I smiled or ma%e a note in 'our =ournal that I challen&ed an opinion. Criteria are lin%ed to our #alues. If $e choose the criteria <I smiled8 or <I challen&ed an opinion8 to test $hether $e are !ein& effecti#e in our $or% $e hold #alues around the need for people to feel happ' and confident to exercise their freedom of mind and action. Our #alues

inform our $or% and our $or% can !e =ud&ed in terms of $hether $e are li#in& our #alues in our practice. SET A REALISTIC TIMESCALE The $ider pro= ect that is 'our life$or% &oes on. The specific pro=ect 'ou are $orldn& on is !ounded. Aim to set time limits !ut realistic enou&h to cope $ith unpredicta!ilit'. It is useful to set t$o time limits@ first an ideal $hich 'ou mi&ht potentiall' achie#e9 and a second more &enerous limit $hich 'ou must achie#e. 0ou need to sho$ others that 'ou are mana&in& 'our pro=ect appropriatel'. If 'ou ha#e set deadlines perhaps for people to return an edited transcript ensure also that 'ou honour commitments. It is important to maintain credi!ilit' not onl' for 'ourself !ut for the %no$led&e !ase that 'ou stand for. INVOLVE OTHERS As a social !ein& 'ou are al$a's in compan' $ith others. The' mi&ht not !e present !ut 'ou and the' are still influencin& one another. Action research is al$a's research $ith not research on (Ro$an and Reason 3453). 0ou are ine#ita!l' in#ol#ed $ith others in doin& 'our research in the follo$in& $a's. As research ar!"c" a#!s 0ou $ill in#ite others $hose situation 'ou are tr'in& to impro#e or $hose learnin& 'ou are tr'in& to nurture to !e research participants. If 'ou are explorin& ho$ 'ou can increase the de&ree of $or%place participation in decision.ma%in& 'ou $ill monitor ho$ 'our actions impact on others. This in#ol#es 'ou &ettin& feed!ac% from them as to ho$ $ell 'ou are helpin& them to help themsel#es. While the research focus is 'ou and 'our learnin& 'ou are also understandin& ho$ 'our learnin& is influencin& the "ualit' of learnin& of others. As $%ser&ers :e pu!lic a!out 'our research so that it does not appear m'sterious. In#ite others to o!ser#e 'ou and as% for their feed!ac%. At a pu!lic relations le#el others $ill $arm to 'ou9 at a research le#el 'ou are sho$in& that 'our research is rooted in an ethic of respect for others8 opinions. As &a'"(a!$rs Su!mit 'our research and its findin&s for critical scrutin' to ensure that an' conclusions 'ou mi&ht come to are not =ust 'our o$n opinion !ut are a&reed !' others. It mi&ht !e that 'our ideas ha#e come in for criti"ue. Collea&ues mi&ht ha#e made su&&estions a!out ho$ 'ou should re#ise 'our research and 'our ideas. When 'ou produce 'our report aim to !uild in these factors and sho$ ho$ 'ou too% action on the ad#ice of others to help 'ou thin% or act more purposefull'. As $!e#!"a' researchers As a real.$orld researcher 'ou are ine#ita!l' in#ol#ed in $ider s'stemic chan&e. 0ou are part of a li#in& s'stem $ith others9 'ou are stud'in& ho$ 'ou can impro#e 'our o$n $or% $hich in#ol#es others9 'ou are in#esti&atin& ho$ 'ou can influence and encoura&e them to in#esti&ate ho$ the' can do the same. 0ou are encoura&in& them to re&ard their practice as research and 'ou are esta!lishin& communities of action researchers $ho are stud'in& ho$ the' can impro#e their learnin& for mutual !enefit. ENSURE GOOD ETHICAL PRACTICE :e a$are of 'our o$n potential a!use of position po$er. ;eople often !ecome enthused !' the idea that the' can create their o$n futures and there is a dan&er that people mi&ht use their enthusiasm to ser#e their o$n purposes. Ha#e 'ou heard the *arx :rothers8 =o%e that once 'ou &et the sincerit' ri&ht e#er'thin& else $ill follo$? It is difficult to =ud&e the authenticit' of someone else8s mission9 a lot of faith is in#ol#ed. Ha!ermas (3464) is pro!a!l' ri&ht $hen he

sa's that $e =ud&e o#er time $hether people are en&a&in& or onl' pretendin& to en&a&e in communicati#e action. There are other $idel' accepted aspects of doin& ethicall' informed research (see for example Ro!son 344J). The' include@ A ne&otiate access B $ith authorities B $ith participants B $ith parents &uardians and super#isors A promise confidentialit' of information B of identit' B of data A ensure participants8 ri&hts to $ithdra$ from the research A %eep others informed A maintain 'our o$n intellectual propert' ri&hts A %eep &ood faith CONCENTRATE ON LEARNING, NOT ON THE OUTCOMES OF ACTION It is temptin& to focus on acti#it' onl' and to produce a report that offers descriptions of the acti#it' B $hat 'ou did and ho$ 'ou did it. This descripti#e le#el is important !ut insufficient. It sta's at the le#el of E.theorisin&. To mo#e to 3.theorisin& aim to sho$ the process of learnin& that informed the acti#ities $h' 'ou did $hat 'ou did and $hat 'ou hoped to achie#e. In doin& the research and in producin& the report thin% in terms of t$o complementar' processes. One process is to do $ith 'our acti#it' $ith others. The other is to do $ith 'our learnin& $ith others. The $a' $e de#elop our learnin& $ith others influences the $a' $e de#elop our actions. Thin% a!out ho$ 'ou understand $hat 'ou are doin& ('our practice) and ho$ 'ou can de#elop it in ne$ !etter $a's. 0ou are considerin& the reasons and purposes of 'our research ho$ 'ou are reflectin& criticall' on 'our o$n learnin& and offerin& an explanation for 'our practice. Thin% a!out the actions 'ou too% to implement 'our ideas and to test their effecti#eness !' &atherin& presentin& and interpretin& data and ho$ those actions influenced and inspired the actions of others. The t$o processes of action and reflection are inextrica!l' lin%ed and mutuall' influential. The learnin& influences the action and the action influences the learnin&. Theor' and practice are interdependent. The theor' turns into practice and practice !ecomes theor'. Theor' is the li#ed practice inte&rated $ithin the life of the practitioner. THE FOCUS OF THE RESEARCH IS YOU, IN COMPANY WITH OTHERS In interpretati#e action research researchers o!ser#e others doin& their action research and offer accounts of acti#ities. Researchers spea% on !ehalf of others. In self.stud' researchers o!ser#e themsel#es. The' spea% on their o$n !ehalf and encoura&e others to do the same. The communities the' form are composed of autonomous people independent in mind and action $ho are committed to acceptin& the responsi!ilit' of their o$n actions and potential influence. In li#in& theor' approaches researchers focus on themsel#es and their o$n learnin&. The' reco&nise that the' are al$a's in compan' $ith others so reflectin& on one8s practice means reflectin& on ho$ one is $ith others. :ecause action research has educational intent reflectin& on one8s o$n practice $ith others means in#esti&atin& ho$ one can ensure that the practice is educational that is mutuall' !eneficial and life affirmin& to all parties. In underta%in& an action en"uir' a researcher is in#esti&atin& ho$ the' can impro#e their o$n learnin& so that the' are !etter placed to help others.

It is temptin& onl' to o!ser#e and descri!e $hat other people are doin&. This is the dominant #ie$ in the social sciences. To ensure that action research is an educati#e practice it is essential to remem!er that <I8 ha#e to remain at the centre of the en"uir' as a potential influence for &ood in the li#es of others. The I.theories that <I8 &enerate sho$ ho$ and $h' I am acceptin& responsi!ilit' for m' o$n thou&hts and actions. BEWARE OF HAPPY ENDINGS A $idespread m'tholo&' is that life episodes ha#e happ' endin&s. This is seldom the case. Hife is full of pro!lematics. 1topia exists oni' in the ima&ination (than%full' so !ecause the conformit' of harmon' $ould !e suffocatin& for man'). The stru&&le to create a &ood societ' ho$e#er is real. Throu&h our stru&&les $e each ta%e incremental steps $hich !rin& us closer to $here $e $ant to !e. :ell et al. (344,) explain the process $hen commentin& on the $or% of Horton and ?reire as creatin& the road !' $al%in& it. We also need to !e a$are that in the creati#e process $e are chan&in& our o$n present realities so that our #ision of $here $e $ant to !e is also chan&in&. Insofar as the future is in the present $e create the future as $e chan&e the present. We are not aimin& for happ' endin&s so much as &ood present situations. Action researchers do not aim for closure in $hich notionall' unsatisfactor' situations transform into satisfactor' ones. The' start from $here the' are al!eit $ith a sense that somethin& needs doin& e#en if that somethin& is thin%in& carefull' a!out $here the' are. The' ta%e action to e#aluate $hether $hat the' are doin& is the !est it can !e and ho$ the' can impro#e it $here necessar'. This often leads to some impro#ement !ut not perfection (see Sio!hKn NI *hurchL8 s idea in Chapter M that &ood $or% does not mean perfect $or%). It is important ho$e#er to monitor and explain the process of leamin&. Hearnin& from processes $here thin&s do not &o ri&ht is as #alua!le as $hen the' do. The stru&&le to ma%e sense is the research process. It does not matter that an external situation does not &o as one hopes. What is important is to !e a$are of the pro!lematics to use these as rich opportunities for learnin& and to explain the process so that others can learn from the account. In fact it is $ell to !e cautious $hen thin&s do seem to !e &oin& smoothl'. Are 'ou o#erloo%in& pro!lematics $hich $hile potentiall' distur!in& indicate that perhaps interestin& issues should !e explored? BE AWARE OF POLITICAL ISSUES Action research is al$a's political !ecause an aim is to influence people to chan&e their situations. *an' people feel comforta!le $ith the status "uo possi!l' !ecause it is familiar. The' mi&ht complain a!out $here the' are !ut familiarit' &i#es securit' and it is difficult for man' to !rea% the emotional !onds e#en if the' %no$ at a co&niti#e le#el that the' should. Other people are comforta!le $ith the status "uo !ecause it suits them particularl' if the' ha#e a position of po$er and are un$illin& to encoura&e pu!lic participation in decision. ma%in&. Action researchers are !eset !' these %inds of external circumstance as $ell as the accompan'in& pro!lematics of resources and support. The' are also !eset !' their o$n internal constraints of lac% of confidence or their capacit' to ta%e action or the possi!le challen&e from collea&ues. 1nderta%in& self.stud' to see ho$ one can recreate oneself in order to help others to recreate themsel#es is farfrom strai&htfor$ard and man' people sadl' !ut understanda!l' &i#e up the stru&&le as the pressures !e&in to !ite. We all ma%e our o$n decisions a!out $ho $e are and $ho $e $ant to !e and as far as $e are a!le $e ma%e our o$n decisions a!out $hat $e intend to do.

Stephen >emmis >emmis !ases his ideas on the ori&inal conceptualisation of action research !' He$in. His $or% is particularl' si&nificant in understandin& the sociall' and politicall' constructed nature of educational practices. To&ether $ith Wilf Carr he has encoura&ed the use of the term <educational action research8 (see Carr and >enimis 345F) a term that has made its $a' onto the co#er of the =ournal of the Colla!orati#e Action Research Net$or%.

>emmis8s model of the action research process (see >emmis and *cTa&&art 345+ and se#eral re#ised editions since) sho$s a self.reflecti#e spiral of plannin& actin& o!ser#in& reflectin& and re.plannin& as the !asis for understandin& ho$ to ta%e action to impro#e an educational situation (see ?i&ure J.J). The dia&ram sho$s the principles in action the mo#ement from one critical phase to another and the $a' in $hich pro&ress ma' !e made throu&h s'stematic steps. Here are some further examples (m' examples not >emmis8s) of mappin& the steps of an action en"uir' onto >enimis8s dia&ram. The' are ta%en from different contexts. Gohn Elliott Gohn Elliott is an acti#e supporter of educators across a #ariet' of professions. He is $ell %no$n for example for his support of police $or% and is currentl' acti#e in a $ide ran&e of international contexts in de#elopin& polic' to encoura&e participation in education in #arious contexts. 1ntil recentl' he $as the co.ordinator of the Colla!orati#e Action Research Net$or%. His $or% in curriculum theorisin& is hi&hl' influential (see for example Elliott 3445) and he continues the tradition esta!lished !' Stenhouse of mo#in& from an o!=ecti#es focus to a process focus in curriculum theorisin&. Hi%e >emmis Elliott a&rees $ith the !asic actionBreflection spiral of c'cles

!ut presents his o$n criti"ue@ Althou&h I thin% He$in8s model is an excellent !asis for startin& to thin% a!out $hat action research in#ol#es it can. . . allo$ those $ho use it to assume that <the &eneral idea8 can !e fixed in ad#ance that <reconnaissance8 is merel'fact.findin& and that <implementation8 is a fairl' strai&htfor$ard process. :ut I $ould ar&ue that@ The &eneral idea should !e allo$ed to shift. Reconnaissance should in#ol#e anal'sis as $ell as fact.findin& and should constantl' recur in the spiral of acti#ities rather than occur onl' at the !e&innin&. Implementation of an action step is not al$a's eas' and one should not proceed to e#aluate the effects of an action until one has monitored the extent to $hich it has !een implemented. (Elliott 3443@ 6,) He &oes on to present a ne$ model (see ?i&ure J.E). The $or% of >emmis and Elliott has influenced others. Nota!le researchers include the follo$in&@ /a#id E!!utt /a#id E!!utt a&rees &enerall' $ith the ideas of >emmis and Elliott !ut disa&rees (345M) a!out some of Elliott8s interpretations of >emmis8s $or%. He claims that the spiral is not necessaril' the most useful $a' in $hich to descri!e the actionB reflection process. He also raises issues (as Tam doin&) a!out the lo&ic of action research. He points out the difference !et$een theorisin& a!out s'stems and puttin& those s'stems into operation in real life@ I had made the assumptions that Elliott8s lo&ic and >emmis8s maxims $ere !ein& used s'non'mousl' to descri!e the same thin&. :ut as I no$ understand it maxims are little more than rule of thum! or rules of the art. *axim... tells us somethin& a!out successfull' operationali-in& action research !ut it does not determine the practice of action research. *axim.. . has !een deri#ed empiricall' !' successful practitioners of action research $hereas the lo&ic of action research determines the practice upon $hich the' came to en&a&e. (E!!utt 345M@ 36+) /IAHECTICAH A;;ROACHES@ GAC> WHITEHEA/ AN/ HIS I/EA O? HWIN7 E/1CATIONAH THEORIES While Ha$rence Stenhouse $as $or%in& on the Humanities Curriculum ;ro=ect and Gohn Elliott and Clem Adelman $ere de#elopin& the ?ord Teachin& ;ro=ect Gac% Whitehead at the 1ni#ersit' of :ath $as $or%in& $ith teachers as part of the Schools Council *ixed A!ilit' Exercise in Science. He $as stud'in& his o$n practice of supportin& teachers in their science en"uiries. Throu&hout his pro=ect Whitehead has aimed to de#elop a form of theor' different from recei#ed propositional forms. Since the 3 46,s his aim has !een to ha#e the form of theor' le&itimated !' the Academ' and that has no$ !een accomplished $ith si&nificant num!ers of practitioners ha#in& recei#ed their masters and doctoral de&rees around the $orld throu&h stud'in& their o$n practices and sho$in& ho$ the' can ma%e claims to ha#e impro#ed the "ualit' of that practice for others8 !enefit. The focus ofhis $or% has no$ shifted from le&itimation for the form of theor' to findin& $a's of influencin& thin%in& at $orld le#el ($$$.actionresearch.net).

Gac%8s approach &oes !e'ond dominant E.approaches. He adopts rather an I.approach $hich encoura&es practitioners themsel#es to produce their o$n descriptions and explanations for their o$n learnin&. The' do this !' underta%in& their action en"uiries into their o$n practice producin& e#idence to sho$ that the' ha#e impro#ed practice and ha#in& that e#idence #alidated !' the critical scrutin' of others. This is a hi&hl' ri&orous process (as descri!ed in some detail in Chapter M). A focus of his o$n pro=ect is the &eneric "uestion <Ho$ do I impro#e m' practice?8 (Whitehead 3454 3445 +,,,). In attemptin& to respond to this "uestion Gac% is de#elopin& an epistemolo&' of practice that ta%es the idea of the <I8 as a li#in& contradiction in the sense that he !elie#es in certain #alues 'et finds himself sometimes li#in& in $a's $hich den' those #alues (see for example /8Arc' 34459 see also Homax et at. 3444). O#ercomin& the contradiction so that he can !e said to !e li#in& his #alues in practice is a %e' aspect of the en"uir' the su!stanti#e content of his o$n learnin& as he see%s to !ecome a !etter educator. Gac% re&ards educational en"uir' as distincti#el' different from present forms of social scientific en"uir'. <The inclusion ofDID as a li#in& contradiction in educational en"uiries can lead to the creation of research methodolo&ies $hich are distincti#el' CeducationalD and cannot !e reduced to social science methodolo&ies8 (Whitehead +,,,@ 4J). Social scientific en"uiries lead to %no$led&e a!out the $orld as the' are conducted from the perspecti#e of external researchers $ho are aimin& to understand and descri!e a situation as an o!=ect of stud' (and de#elop E. theones). Educational en"uiries (I.s'stems of %no$led&e) lead to %no$led&e of self $ithin a $orld $hich the researcher co.creates $ith others $ho are similarl' occupied (and de#elop I. theories of practice). The reflecti#e practice $hich characterises these efforts is a form ofpractical theorisin& $hich can lead to the e#olution of &ood social orders. Gean *cNiff In de#elopin& m' o$n theor' of the nature of action research I ha#e come to see it as a spontaneous self.recreatin& s'stem of en"uir'. I li%e the notion of a s'stematic process of o!ser#e descri!e plan act reflect e#aluate modif' !ut I do not see the process as se"uential or necessaril' rational. It is possi!le to !e&in at one place and end up some$here entirel' unexpected. The #isual metaphor I ha#e de#eloped is an iterati#e spiral of spirals an exponential de#elopmental process. I ha#e come to see the process as !e'ond $ords and $hile I can anal'se it in terms of an action research approach I do not thin% it should !e so confined. In m' dia&ram (?i&ure J.M) the spirals of action reflection unfold from themsel#es and fold !ac% a&ain into themsel#es. The' attempt to communicate the idea of a realit' $hich enfolds all its pre#ious manifestations 'et $hich is constantl' unfoldin& into ne$ #ersions of itself constantl' in a state of !alance $ithin dise"uili!rium. I am certain of uncertaint'9 I am !alanced $ithin m' o$n dise"uili!rium. In action research terms it is possi!le to address multiple issues $hile still maintainin& a focus on one a realisation of ;lato8s idea of holdin& to&ether the one and the man'. To sho$ the de#elopment in m' o$n thin%in& loo% at the 3455 #ersion of the model (?i&ure J.F). I felt then it $as important to put in the actionBreflection steps somethin& $hich man' people ha#e ri&htl' criticised o#er the 'ears sa'in& that this $as too prescripti#e. I no$ ha#e the coura&e of m' o$n comfort in insecurit' to present an ima&e of non.definiti#e fluidit'.

Am I !ein& prescripti#e no$? Or am I perhaps meetin& :ourdieu8s idea of a simple &enerati#e model $hich preser#es the fluidit' of practical lo&ic? I !elie#e this is so. I hope I am mo#in& !e'ond the s'noptic illusion !' de#elopin& a metaphor of en"uir' in action $hich mirrors the li!eratin& experience of an action en"uir' process.

of action research as a spiral of steps in#ol#in& plannin& fact.findin& (or reconnaissance) and execution (He$in 34EF) and $hich later came &enerall' to !e understood as an actionB reflection c'cle of plannin& actin& o!ser#in& and reflectin& (see ?i&ure J.3). This model mi&ht !e understood in the follo$in& terms (m' example not He$in8 s). *' context I am a communications mana&er in a firm. *' concern is to ma%e communications more effecti#e. What do I do? ;lannin& I need to ma%e communications more effecti#e. ;erhaps I could dra$ up and issue $ee%l' information sheets to the staff. Actin& I dra$ up and issue the information sheets. O!ser#in& I tal% $ith staff $ho sa' the' are no$ more a$are of issues. Reflectin&

/o I %no$ $hat the' reall' thin%? Ho$ can I &et feed!ac%? This c'cle $ould then &o on to the next c'cle of replannin& actin& o!ser#in& and reflectin& and perhaps produce a ne$ c'cle (?i&ure J.+)@

1SE?1H IN?OR*ATION ?OR ;RO/1CERS O? RESEARCH A /esi&n an action research pro=ect that matches 'our time and resources A Reco&ni-e that the process of conductin& an action research stud' is li%e a spiral $ith phases that repeat such as loo%in& thin%in& and actin& as in the Strin&er (3444) model. A Remem!er that in action research 'ou $ill !e the participant in 'our o$n research pro=ect. 0ou are not stud'in& someone else9 instead 'ou are examinin& 'our o$n practices. A Iris useful to colla!orate $ith others in action research. Consider uni#ersit' personnel other collea&ues or indi#iduals familiar $ith action research. The' ma' ha#e insi&ht or !e a!le to dra$ conclusions that 'ou cannot. A Collect data and anal'-e it so that it $ill !e understanda!le to the applied audience for action research studies in 'our school district or other educational unit. N Consider the full arra' of data.collection t'pes for 'our action research such as "uantitati#e and "ualitati#e data. A /ecide on the point of entr' into 'our stud' that !est fits 'our present understandin& of the pro!lem. This point ma' !e at se#eral phases in a research pro=ect. A Construct a plan of action that 'ou can realisticall' carr' out in 'our school or educational settin&. 1SE?1H IN?OR*ATION ?OR CONS1*ERS O? RESEARCH A Reco&ni-e the differences !et$een practical action research and ;AR. The former has the intent of addressin& a practical pro!lem in education $hereas the latter has a social or communit' orientation and emphasi-es emancipation or chan&e in our societ'. A Action researchers stud' their o$n situation and attempt to de#elop solutions to practical (or communit') pro!lems. When 'ou re#ie$ a stud' identif' the intent of the researcher and loo% for ho$ the stud' addresses some issue in $hich the researcher is in#ol#ed. A Action research studies are applied and the results should !e action oriented and eas' to understand. A E#aluate $hether the action research stud' made a difference or chan&ed the situation presented in the research pro!lem.