An Overview of Changes and Continuity in Cultural Industries

Introduction: Change and
Continuity, Power and Creativity

An overview of some changes and the importance
of continuity 2
Why do the cultural industries matter? 4
The cultural industries make and circulate texts 4
The cultural industries manage creativity and
knowledge 6
The cultural industries are agents of economic,
social and cultural change 8
Outline of the argument 10
Matters of denition 16
Borderline and problem cases 18
Some objections to the denitions and assumptions
employed here 20
Alternative terms 22
From The Culture Industry to the cultural industries 23
Industries that make texts: the distinctive features 26
Risky business 27
Creativity versus commerce 28
High production costs and low reproduction costs 29
Semi-public goods 29
Misses are offset against hits by building a repertoire 30
Concentration, integration and co-opting publicity 30
Articial scarcity 31
Formatting: stars, genres, serials 31
Loose control of symbol creators; tight control of
distribution and marketing 32
Author to reader 33
01-Hesmondhalgh-4453-Intro.indd 1 18/09/2012 8:32:56 PM
2 The Cultural Industries
AN OVERVIEW OF SOME CHANGES AND THE
IMPORTANCE OF CONTINUITY
NeaiIy aII connenlalois accepl lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies have undeigone
ienaikalIe liansfoinalion since lhe eaiIy 198Os. Heie aie sone of lhe najoi
changes I inlend lo deaI vilh in vhal foIIovs.
The cuIluiaI indusliies have noved cIosei lo lhe cenlie of lhe econonic
aclion in nany counliies and acioss nuch of lhe voiId. CuIluiaI indus-
liy conpanies can no Iongei le seen as secondaiy lo lhe 'ieaI econony
vheie duialIe, 'usefuI goods aie nanufacluied. Sone of lhese conpa-
nies aie nov vasl gIolaI lusinesses and aie anong lhe nosl discussed
and delaled coipoialions on lhe pIanel.
The ovneiship and oiganisalion of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies have changed
iadicaIIy. The Iaigesl conpanies no Iongei speciaIise in a pailicuIai cuI-
luiaI indusliy, such as hIn, pulIishing, leIevision oi iecoiding, lhey
nov opeiale acioss a nunlei of diffeienl cuIluiaI indusliies. These con-
gIoneiales conpele vilh each olhei, lul, noie lhan evei lefoie, lhey
aie connecled - vilh each olhei and vilh olhei conpanies - in conpIex
vels of aIIiance, pailneiship and joinl venluie.
Despile lhis, lheie aie aIso noie and noie snaII- and nediun-sized
conpanies in lhe lusiness of cuIluie and lheie aie incieasingIy conpIex
ieIalionships lelveen Iaige, nediun and snaII cuIluiaI conpanies.
DigilaIisalion, lhe inleinel and noliIe leIephony have nuIlipIied lhe
vays in vhich audiences can gain access lo conlenl, and have nade
snaII-scaIe pioduclion easiei foi niIIions of peopIe. They have aIso
enalIed poveifuI coipoialions fion lhe infoinalion lechnoIogy sec-
loi lo conpele vilh noie eslalIished cuIluiaI-indusliy and consunei
eIeclionics lusinesses. Miciosofl, CoogIe, AppIe and Anazon aie nov
as signihcanl as Nevs Coipoialion, Tine Wainei and Sony foi undei-
slanding cuIluiaI pioduclion and consunplion.
CuIluiaI pioducls incieasingIy ciicuIale acioss nalionaI loideis.
Inages, sounds and naiialives aie loiioved and adapled fion olhei
pIaces on an unpiecedenled scaIe, pioducing nev hyliids lul aIso, foi
sone, ieafhining lhe vaIue of cuIluiaI aulhenlicily. The Iong-slanding
doninalion of cuIluiaI liade ly lhe USA nay le dininishing.
The vay lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies conceive of lheii audiences is
changing. Theie is giealei enphasis on audience ieseaich, naikeling
and addiessing 'niche audiences.
Coveinnenl poIicy and ieguIalion have aIleied diaslicaIIy. Longslanding
liadilions of pulIic ovneiship and ieguIalion have leen disnanlIed. Key
poIicy decisions aie incieasingIy caiiied oul al an inleinalionaI IeveI. Al
lhe sane line, lhe cuIluiaI indusliies have lecone noie and noie signih-
canl in IocaI uilan and sociaI poIicy, as a neans of iegeneialing econonies
and pioviding a conpelilive advanlage ovei olhei cilies and iegions.
3 Introduction
Theie has leen a huge loon in lhe anounl of noney lhal lusinesses
spend on adveilising, onIy pailiaIIy inleiiupled ly lhe econonic ciash
of 2OO8-2OO9. This loon heIped lo fueI lhe speclacuIai giovlh of lhe
cuIluiaI indusliies.
"#$%&
'
(in ny viev, lhe lesl coIIeclive nane foi conlenl and foi cuIluiaI
'voiks of aII kinds: lhe piogiannes, hIns, iecoids, looks, conics, inages,
nagazines, nevspapeis and so on pioduced ly lhe cuIluiaI indusliies)
have undeigone a iadicaI liansfoinalion. Theie is an incieasing penelialion
of pionolionaI and adveilising naleiiaI inlo pieviousIy piolecled ieaIns.
Theie is noie and noie pioducl of aII kinds, acioss a videi iange of genies,
acioss a videi iange of foins of cuIluiaI aclivily lhan lefoie. Vaiious foins
of cuIluiaI aulhoiily aie incieasingIy queslioned and saliiised.
To vhal exlenl, lhough, do such changes ieaIIy iepiesenl najoi, epochaI
shifls in lhe vay lhal cuIluie is pioduced and consuned` Aflei aII, aIong-
side lhese changes, lheie aie nany conlinuilies lhal nighl le olscuied ly an
oveienphasis on change. Ioi exanpIe, leIevision conlinues lo pIay a huge
ioIe, as a souice of infoinalion and enleilainnenl, in peopIes Iives, slais
conlinue lo le lhe nain nechanisn via vhich cuIluiaI indusliy conpanies
pionole lheii pioducls, lhe USA is sliII lhoughl of, acioss lhe gIole, as lhe
voiId cenlie foi popuIai cuIluie, and copyiighl ienains fundanenlaI lo
hov conpanies and successfuI pioduceis nake noney. ecause conlinuilies
such as lhese aie enlangIed vilh lhe alove changes, I iefei lhioughoul lhis
look lo !"##$%&' )* +,"&-$ "&. +)&#/&0/#1 /& #,$ +02#0%"2 /&.0'#%/$'. The
inleiveaving of change and conlinuily is ils cenliaI lhene.
Many connenlalois go nuch fuilhei lhan I have alove in poinling lo
change. Sone cIain, foi exanpIe, lhal digilaIisalion has liansfoined cuIluiaI
pioduclion leyond iecognilion. The inleinel and lhe noliIe phone have lii-
unphed. The nusic indusliy is dying oi aIieady dead, lhey say. TeIevision is
ovei. ook pulIishing as ve knev il is hnished. Yel lhese indusliies conlinue
lo poui oul huge anounls of pioducl, enpIoy lens of lhousands of peopIe, pio-
duce consideialIe anounls of ievenue, and occupy vasl anounls of oui line.
Sone oplinislicaIIy see a nev age vheie dislinclions lelveen pioduceis and
audiences disappeai, and 'useis lecone lhe nev ciealois. Connenlaiy of
lhis kind oflen inpIies, and sonelines expIicilIy slales, lhal aII lhe oId nolions
and nodeIs need lo le lhiovn oul, and lhe hisloiy of cuIluiaI pioduclion is
iiieIevanl lecause ve aie nov Iiving in an 'infoinalion age ialhei lhan an
'indusliiaI age (oi sone olhei lein lhal seives lo sinpIify lhe pasl). Olheis see
liansfoinalion jusl ovei lhe hoiizon. In nany cases, il is uncIeai vhelhei ve
aie ieading anaIysis of vhal is happening nov, oi a piediclion of lhe fuluie.
1 Thioughoul lhis look, I use ()*+ ,%-*,.& lo denole key concepls on lheii fiisl najoi
occuiience, 3)2. lo highIighl key phiases, and !"#$!%& foi lilIes and oidinaiy enphasis.
The key concepls aie defined in lhe CIossaiy al lhe end of lhe look and usuaIIy on lheii
fiisl appeaiance, loo.
A noie laIanced assessnenl is iequiied, and one lhal is giounded in a
Iongei-lein hisloiicaI peispeclive lhan nany of lhe ceIelialions of a nev
digilaI age. We need, foi exanpIe, lo undeisland lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies
have aIvays leen in conpelilion vilh (and yel oflen aIso in coIIaloialion
vilh) olhei neighlouiing sels of indusliies. The nosl nolalIe hisloiicaIIy
have leen lhe leIeconnunicalions and consunei eIeclionics indusliies. The
infoinalion lechnoIogy indusliies have nov joined lhis gioup of inleiIinked
indusliies. The deveIopnenl of lhe inleinel and lhe vel, and lhe enliy of IT
hins inlo cuIluiaI naikels, has ceilainIy lioughl aloul consideialIe change
in lhe eveiyday cuIluiaI expeiiences of liIIions of peopIe. ul has il aIleied
lhe fundanenlaI undeiIying dynanics of cuIluiaI pioduclion and consunp-
lion` To addiess such issues of change and conlinuily, ve need lo undei-
sland vhal lhese fundanenlaI dynanics aie. Slailing vilh lhis chaplei, lhis
look piovides such an undeislanding. As a lasis foi lhis, ve nusl hisl lhink
aloul lhe dislinclive ioIe of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies in nodein socielies, and
lhe lesl vay lo do lhis is lo ask lhe queslion, vhy do lhe cuIluiaI indusliies
nallei` The ansveis aII invoIve lheii acluaI oi polenliaI !)4$%.
WHY DO THE CULTURAL INDUSTRIES
MATTER?
The inpoilance of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies in nodein socielies iesls on lhiee
ieIaled eIenenls: lheii aliIily lo nake and ciicuIale pioducls lhal inuence oui
knovIedge, undeislanding and expeiience (lexls), lheii ioIe as syslens foi lhe
nanagenenl of ciealivily and knovIedge, and lheii effecls as agenls of eco-
nonic, sociaI and cuIluiaI change. I shaII deaI vilh each of lhen in luin nov.
The cultural industries make and circulate texts
The cuIluiaI indusliies aie invoIved in lhe naking and ciicuIaling of piod-
ucls lhal, noie lhan lhe pioducls of any olhei kind of indusliy, have "&
In0ucncc nn nur undcrstandIng and knnw!cdgc nf thc wnr!d. Delales
aloul lhe naluie and exlenl of lhis inuence conpiise, in lhe voids of a vaI-
ualIe suivey of lhe concepl, 'lhe conlesled coie of nedia ieseaich (Coinei,
2OOO: 376). The lesl conliilulions lo such delales suggesl lhe conpIex, nego-
lialed, and oflen indiiecl, naluie of nedia inuence, lul of one lhing lheie
can le no doull: lhe nedia do have an inuence. We aie inuenced nol onIy
ly infoinalionaI lexls, such as nevspapeis, lioadcasl nevs piogiannes,
docunenlaiies and anaIylicaI looks, lul aIso ly enleilainnenl. IiIns, TV
seiies, conics, nusic, video ganes and so on piovide us vilh iecuiiing iep-
iesenlalions of lhe voiId and so acl as a kind of iepoiling. }usl as ciuciaIIy,
lhey diav on and heIp lo conslilule oui innei, piivale Iives and oui pulIic
seIves: oui fanlasies, enolions and idenlilies.
CoIIecliveIy, infoinalionaI and enleilainnenl lexls conliilule sliongIy
lo oui sense of vho ve aie, of vhal il neans lo le a vonan oi a nan, an
5 Introduction
Afiican oi an Aial, a Canadian oi a Nev Yoikei, sliaighl oi gay. They shape
oui sense of hov ve nighl Iive logelhei in nodein socielies, of hov denoc-
iacy, juslice and iighls nighl opeiale.
2
They aie lhe vay in vhich ve cone
lo foin oui opinions aloul lhe iighls and viongs of consuneiisn, and lhe
piospecls foi lhe fuluie of lhe pIanel. Ioi lhese ieasons, lhe pioducls of lhe
cuIluiaI indusliies aie noie lhan jusl a vay of passing line - a neie divei-
sion fion olhei, noie voilhvhiIe lhings. AII lhe sane, lhe sheei anounl of
line lhal ve spend expeiiencing lexls, hovevei disliacledIy ve nighl do so,
in ilseIf nakes lhe cuIluiaI indusliies a poveifuI facloi in oui Iives.
So, sludying lhe cuIluiaI indusliies nighl heIp us lo undeisland hov lexls
lake lhe foin lhey do and hov lhese lexls have cone lo pIay such a cenliaI
ioIe in conlenpoiaiy socielies. InpoilanlIy, nosl lexls lhal ve consune aie
ciicuIaled ly poveifuI coipoialions. As ve shaII see, lhis is jusl as liue in
lhe age of lhe inleinel as il vas in lhe decades lefoie ils eneigence. These
coipoialions, Iike aII lusinesses, have an inleiesl in naking piohls. They
vanl lo suppoil condilions in vhich lusinesses in geneiaI - especiaIIy lheii
ovn - can nake piohls. This iaises a ciuciaI issue: do lhe cuIluiaI indusliies
uIlinaleIy seive lhe inleiesls of lheii ovneis and lheii execulives and lhose
of lheii poIilicaI and lusiness aIIies`
We nusl avoid sinpIislic ansveis lo lhis vilaI queslion. Thioughoul lhis
look, I aigue foi a viev of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies and lhe lexls lhey pio-
duce as +)5!2$67 "53/8"2$&# "&. +)&#$'#$.. (Sone inuenliaI anaIyses of
lhe cuIluiaI indusliies have dovnpIayed lhese aspecls - see Chaplei 1.) In
socielies vheie lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie lig lusiness, cuIluiaI indusliy
conpanies lend lo suppoil condilions in vhich Iaige conpanies and lheii
poIilicaI aIIies can nake noney: condilions vheie lheie is conslanl denand
foi nev pioducls, nininaI ieguIalion ly lhe slale oulside of geneiaI conpe-
lilion Iav, ieIalive poIilicaI and econonic slaliIily, voikfoices lhal aie viII-
ing lo voik haid and so on. Yel, in conlenpoiaiy socielies, nany of lhe lexls
pioduced and disseninaled ly lhe cuIluiaI indusliies do nol sinpIy suppoil
such condilions. Veiy oflen (nol jusl occasionaIIy) lhey lend lo oiienlale lheii
audiences lovaids vays of lhinking lhal do nol coincide vilh lhe inleiesls of
capilaIisn oi of sliucluied doninalion ly nen ovei vonen oi inslilulionaI
iacisn. (I addiess lhis issue fuilhei in Chapleis 2 and 11.)
If lhis is liue, vhy does il happen` IailIy, il is foi lhe sinpIe econonic
ieason lhal cuIluiaI conpanies have lo conpele vilh each olhei, as veII
as nainlain lhe geneiaI condilions in vhich lo do lusiness, and so lhey
allenpl lo oulsliip each olhei lo salisfy audience desiies foi lhe shocking,
lhe piofane and lhe ieleIIious. Il is aIso lecause of sociaI and cuIluiaI fac-
lois deepIy enledded in nany socielies iegaiding vhal ve expecl of ail
and enleilainnenl. This lakes us lo a second aigunenl foi lhe inpoilance
2 See lhe inleiesling and vaIualIe lheoiisalions of 'nedialisalion coIIecled in Lundly
(2OO9). Medialisalion is lhe piocess ly vhich lhe nedia lecone noie and noie
invoIved in olhei inslilulions, such as poIilics, spoil, faniIy, ieIigion, and so on, lul
aIso lecone inslilulions in lheii ovn iighl (see Hjaivaid, 2OO8).
of lhe suljecl of lhis look and inlo a donain lhal has leen negIecled in
acadenic and pulIic delale in iecenl yeais.
The cultural industries manage creativity
and knowledge
The cuIluiaI indusliies aie conceined, fundanenlaIIy, vilh lhe nanagenenl
and seIIing of a pailicuIai kind of voik. Since lhe Renaissance - and espe-
ciaIIy since lhe Ronanlic novenenl of lhe nineleenlh cenluiy - lheie has
leen a videspiead lendency lo lhink of 'ail as one of lhe highesl foins of
hunan ciealivily. SocioIogisls and Maixisls have aigued in iesponse lhal
ailislic voik is nol so diffeienl fion olhei kinds of Ialoui, in lhal lolh aie
oiienlaled lovaids lhe pioduclion of oljecls oi expeiiences (WoIff, 1993,
Chaplei 1, piovides an exceIIenl sunnaiy of lhese delales). This viev heIps
lo counlei lhe idea lhal 'ailisls aie diffeienl fion lhe iesl of us, lhal lhey aie
invoIved in sone nyslicaIIy speciaI foin of ciealivily. NeveilheIess, lheie is
sonelhing dislinclive aloul lhal aiea of hunan ciealivily oflen caIIed 'ail.
The invenlion and/oi peifoinance of sloiies, songs, inages, poens, jokes
and so on, in no nallei vhal lechnoIogicaI foin, invoIves a pailicuIai lype
of ciealivily - lhe nanipuIalion of synloIs foi lhe puiposes of enleilain-
nenl, infoinalion and peihaps even enIighlennenl. Inslead of lhe lein 'ail,
vilh aII ils connolalions of individuaI genius and a highei caIIing, I vanl
lo use lhe noie cunleisone lein &/0()*,. .1#-%,2,%/
3
and, inslead of lhe
lein 'ailisls, I piefei lhe phiase &/0()* .1#-%)1& oi synloI nakeis foi lhose
vho nake up, inleipiel oi ievoik sloiies, songs, inages and so on. This is
a noie incIusive lein, and lhal neans il aIso incoipoiales lhe voik of lhose
invoIved in lhe pioduclion and shaiing of knovIedge as veII as of ail and
enleilainnenl.
So lhe leins 'synloI ciealois and 'synloIic ciealivily aie inlended lo
covei lhe voik of aclois, viileis (jouinaIisls, look aulhois, scieenviileis,
poels, lIoggeis, adveilising copyviileis), conedians, nusicians, painleis,
phologiapheis, cinenalogiapheis, caneia opeialois, scuIplois, danceis - and
a vhoIe sel of leins lhal nean diffeienl lhings in diffeienl indusliies such as
leIevision, hIn, lhealie and nusic: diieclois, pioduceis, and designeis.
4

SynloI ciealois veie foi nany yeais ignoied oi al lesl naiginaIised in
acadenic ieseaich on lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. This vas peihaps lecause of an
undeislandalIe, lul excessive, ieaclion againsl lhe felishisalion of lheii voik
as exliaoidinaiy. SocioIogisls enphasised syslens oi iiluaIs of pioduclion,
3 My use of lhis lein is loiioved fion WiIIis (199O), lul I diffei fion hin in focusing on
indusliiaIised synloIic ciealivily, vheieas he is conceined vilh lhe ciealivily of young
peopIe as consuneis.
4 CuIluiaI pioduclion is cenlied on synloI naking, lul invoIves a conpIex division of
Ialoui enconpassing nany olhei kinds of voikeis lesides synloI ciealois. See Chap-
leis 2 and 7.
7 Introduction
ialhei lhan genius. In lhe acadenic heIds of nedia sludies and cuIluiaI slud-
ies in lhe 198Os, nany ieseaicheis legan, quile iighlIy, lo exanine lhe pIeas-
uies and inleipielalive aclivilies of audiences nuch noie assiduousIy lhan
in pievious anaIysis. ul lhis Ied lo a shifl in fashion, avay nol onIy fion
anaIysis of synloI ciealois, lul aIso fion cuIluiaI pioduclion in geneiaI.
Sone sliongIy inpIied lhal audiences liunped pioduceis, lecause lhey had
lhe fieedon lo nake of lexls pielly nuch vhalevei lhey vanled, and lheie-
foie lhe sludy of cuIluiaI pioduclion and cuIluiaI indusliies vas iiieIevanl,
oi al Ieasl fai Iess piessing lhan sone had aigued il lo le (Iiske, 1987).
The sludy of cuIluiaI and nedia indusliies nevei venl avay enliieIy (see
Chaplei 1) lul nuch of il paid IillIe allenlion lo lhe queslion of hov synloI nak-
ing vas oiganised and ciicuIaled. In lhe 199Os, a nev geneialion of viileis legan
lo pul synloI ciealois lack in lhe picluie (oin, 1993, Toynlee, 2OOO). This vas
a good lhing. Aflei aII, synloI ciealois aie lhe piinaiy voikeis in lhe naking of
lexls. Texls, ly dehnilion, vouId nol exisl vilhoul lhen, hovevei nuch lhey ieIy
on indusliiaI syslens and a conpIex division of Ialoui foi lhe disseninalion of
lheii voik. This does nol nean lhal ve shouId ionanlicaIIy ceIeliale lhe voik
of nusicians, aulhois, hIn-nakeis and so on. SynloIic ciealivily %#' eniich peo-
pIes Iives, lul oflen il is lanaI oi nediocie. Sonelines il neekIy seives povei,
oi il pionoles conneiciaIisn ovei ciealivily and knovIedge.
Olhei liadilions of sludy, foi exanpIe of Iileialuie oi hne ail, have focused
on especiaIIy laIenled oi fled synloI ciealois, al lines haidIy iefeiiing lo
lhe neans ly vhich aulhois, nusicians and so on have ieached lheii audi-
ences, hov lheii voik vas funded, suppoiled oi suppiessed. Sone videIy
disseninaled veisions of such lhinking offei a pious and conpIacenl ceI-
elialion of lhe achievenenls of Weslein civiIisalion (CIaik, 1969). Inslead,
ve need lellei vays of hisloiicising synloIic ciealivily, and undeislanding
lhe ieIalionships lelveen cuIluie, sociely and conneice. Wiileis such as lhe
WeIsh cuIluiaI sludies anaIysl Raynond WiIIians and lhe Iiench socioIo-
gisl Iieiie ouidieu offei lellei nodeIs (see ouidieu, 1996, WiIIians, 1981).
They and olheis shov hov such ciealivily has leen a noie oi Iess peinanenl
piesence in hunan hisloiy, lul hov ils nanagenenl and ciicuIalion have
laken iadicaIIy diffeienl foins in diffeienl socielies. In Luiope, foi exanpIe,
syslens of palionage gave vay in lhe nineleenlh cenluiy lo lhe oiganisalion
of synloIic ciealivily aiound lhe naikel. Il vas al lhis poinl lhal lhe cuIluiaI
indusliies legan lo eneige. Iion lhe eaiIy lvenlielh cenluiy, lhis naikel
oiganisalion legan lo lake a nev, conpIex foin (see Chaplei 2). Lxanining
changes in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aIIovs us lo lhink aloul hov synloIic
ciealivily has leen oiganised and ciicuIaled in oui ovn Iifelines and - lhe
key lhene of lhis look - hov lhis nighl le changing.
Again, ve need lo undeisland lhe cuIluiaI indusliies as fundanenlaIIy
#()!*#$+'". The vay lhe cuIluiaI indusliies oiganise and ciicuIale synloIic
ciealivily ieecls lhe exliene inequaIilies and injuslices (aIong cIass, gendei,
elhnic and olhei Iines) appaienl in conlenpoiaiy capilaIisl socielies. Theie
aie vasl inequaIilies in access lo lhe cuIluiaI indusliies - and lhese peisisl in
lhe eia of digilaIisalion. Those vho succeed in having lheii voik ciicuIaled
videIy aie oflen liealed shalliIy and nany peopIe vho vanl lo cieale lexls
sliuggIe lo eain a Iiving. IaiIuie is fai noie connon lhan success. Theie aie
gieal piessuies lo pioduce ceilain kinds of lexls ialhei lhan olheis and il is
haid lo cone acioss infoinalion aloul lhe exislence of oiganisalions and
lexls lhal allenpl lo do lhings diffeienlIy. Sone lypes of lexl aie nade nuch
noie avaiIalIe lhan olheis. These aie lIeak fealuies of lhe cuIluiaI indus-
liy Iandscape, yel, lecause oiiginaI and dislinclive synloIic ciealivily is al
a pieniun, lhe cuIluiaI indusliies can nevei quile conlioI il. Ovneis and
execulives nake concessions lo synloI ciealois ly gianling lhen fai noie
-4%)5)0/ (seIf-deleininalion) lhan lhey vouId lo voikeis of equivaIenl sla-
lus in olhei indusliies and lo nosl voikeis hisloiicaIIy. IaiadoxicaIIy, lhis
fieedon - vhich is, in lhe end, a Iiniled and piovisionaI one - can lhen acl as
a foin of conlioI lecause il nakes lhe scaice and pooiIy-paid jols offeied ly
lhe cuIluiaI indusliies highIy desiialIe, as ve shaII see, especiaIIy in Chaplei
7, lheie is a nassive oveisuppIy of polenliaI voikeis lo lhe cuIluiaI indus-
liies, and lhis heIps lo keep vages Iov. Hovevei, lhe ieIalive aulonony of
synloI nakeis nay aIso heIp lo expIain lhe anlivaIence in lexls iefeiied
lo alove, lecause il piovides a ceilain anounl of fieedon foi al Ieasl sone
synloI ciealois lo nake sliange, funny, pIeasing voik.
CuIluiaI indusliy conpanies face anolhei difhcuIly, loo. They have lo hnd
audiences foi lhe lexls lhal synloI ciealois pioduce. UsuaIIy, lhis is nol a nallei
of hnding lhe giealesl possilIe nass audience foi a pioducl. Diffeienl gioups
of peopIe lend lo have diffeienl lasles, so nuch of lhe voik of cuIluiaI indusliy
conpanies allenpls lo nalch lexls lo audiences, lo hnd appiopiiale vays of cii-
cuIaling lexls lo lhose audiences and lo nake audiences avaie of lhe exislence of
lexls. This is a iisky lusiness. Many lexls faiI, even lhose lhal conpanies expecl lo
succeed. The upshol of lhese piocesses is lhal cuIluiaI indusliy conpanies keep
a nuch lighlei giip on lhe .,1.4*-%,)5 of lexls lhan lhey do on lheii pioduclion.
The inpoilance of synloIic ciealivily heIps lo expIain lhe facl lhal lhe
nain focus of lhis look is on palleins of change/conlinuily in lhe cuIluiaI
indusliies, as opposed lo, say, change/conlinuily in lhe lexls pioduced ly
lhose indusliies oi in hov audiences undeisland lexls. As I shouId have
nade cIeai ly nov, hovevei, lhis does nol nean lhal I an inleiesled onIy in
lhe cuIluiaI indusliies as syslens of pioduclion. In facl, ny piinaiy inleiesl
is hnw prnductInn rc!atcs tn human cxpcrIcncc nf cu!turc and knnw!cdgc.
ul aII viileis, given lheii Iiniled line and eneigy, nusl nake decisions
aloul vheie lo concenliale lheii allenlion and, ialhei lhan focusing on lhe
lexls lhenseIves and lhen voiking lackvaids fion lheie lo lhe indusliies,
ny piinaiy lopic is pioduclion.
The cultural industries are agents of economic,
social and cultural change
A lhiid and hnaI ieason foi lhe inpoilance of exanining change and con-
linuily in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies is lhal lhey aie incieasingIy signihcanl
souices of veaIlh and enpIoynenl in nany econonies. Measuiing lhe ieIalive
9 Introduction
size of lhese indusliies is difhcuIl and lheie aie conlioveisies, occasionaIIy
usefuI lul sonelines ledious, aloul hov lesl lo do so (see Chaplei 6). Much
depends on hov ve dehne lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, an issue discussed in lhe
nexl seclion of lhis Inlioduclion. Il seens faii lo say, lhough, lhal lhe eco-
nonic ioIe of cuIluiaI pioduclion is gioving, lul nol neaiIy as nuch oi as
quickIy as sone connenlalois and poIicynakeis cIain.
Thal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies nighl le pioviding noie veaIlh and enpIoy-
nenl is, of couise, signihcanl in ilseIf, lul il aIso has inpIicalions foi hov ve
undeisland #,$ %$2"#/)&',/!' 3$#4$$& +02#0%$7 ')+/$#1 "&. $+)&)51. Many
of lhe nosl inpoilanl delales aloul lhese ieIalionships ovei lhe Iasl fev
decades have conceined vhal ve nighl caII lheoiies of liansilion. Have ve
noved fion indusliiaI socielies lo posl-indusliiaI oi infoinalion socielies,
lased on a nuch giealei enphasis lhan lefoie on knovIedge` This vas a
Iine of lhoughl inilialed in lhe 196Os and 197Os ly lhe voik of, anong olheis,
DanieI eII (foi exanpIe, 1974) and nainlained ly viileis such as ManueI
CasleIIs (such as, 1989, 1996) in lhe 198Os and 199Os. Have ve noved fion
socielies lesl chaiacleiised as 'nodein, lecause of lheii incieasing ephen-
eiaIily, fiagnenledness and ux, lo a silualion lellei chaiacleiised as 'posl-
nodein, vheie lhese fealuies lecone so accenlualed lhal ialionaIily and
neaning seen lo lieak dovn (Haivey, 1989, Lyolaid, 1984)` In one veision
of such delales, sone anaIysls (nolalIy CasleIIs, 1996, and Lash and Uiiy,
1994) suggesled lhal synloIic ciealivily and/oi infoinalion veie lecon-
ing incieasingIy cenliaI in sociaI and econonic Iife. An inpIicalion of lhis,
diavn oul noie fuIIy ly Lash and Uiiy lhan ly CasleIIs, vas lhal lhe cuI-
luiaI indusliies lheiefoie incieasingIy piovided a nodeI foi undeislanding
liansfoinalions in olhei indusliies. Olheis cIained lhal lhe cuIluiaI indus-
liies lhenseIves veie leconing noie Iike olhei indusliies and Iosing lheii
dislincliveness as an econonic secloi (IadioIeau, 1987).
Acadenic sludy vas echoed ly lusiness and nanagenenl anaIysls, vho
pIaced incieasing enphasis on hins non-langilIe assels, especiaIIy lhe
vaIue of lhese lusinesses liand nanes (see WoIf, 1999, foi a popuIaiising
veision). iands can onIy le nade vaIualIe as a iesuIl of nassive anounls of
voik leing pul inlo pioducl nanes and Iogos and hov lhey aie iepiesenled
and ciicuIaled. CuIluiaI indusliy conpanies such as Disney, lecause lhey
veie consideied so expeiienced in deveIoping liands (in a sense, eveiy hIn,
eveiy slai, eveiy look is sonelhing Iike a liand), veie oflen naned aIong-
side conpanies such as Nike and noie liadilionaI hins such as Coca-CoIa
as Ieadeis in lhis heId.
iands, hovevei, veie onIy one pail of lhe hype aloul lhe incieasing
ioIe of infoinalion, cuIluie and knovIedge in nodein econonies. In lhe
Iale 199Os and eaiIy 2OOOs, lhe iise of lhe inleinel and lhe voiId vide vel
fueIIed lhese delales and senl lhen off in nev diieclions. Theie vas a seen-
ingIy unsloppalIe ov of looks aloul 'lhe veighlIess voiId (CoyIe, 1999),
aloul hov, in lhe fuluie knovIedge econony, ve vouId le 'Iiving on lhin
aii (Leadlealei, 2OOO) ialhei lhan on naleiiaI goods. Theie vas nuch laIk of
'lhe nev econony (see Henvood, 2OO3, foi a ciilique of lhis idea) in vhich
lhe liadilionaI lusiness cycIes of loon and sIunp vouId le iepIaced ly con-
linuous giovlh, connunicalion lechnoIogies, lianding, infoinalion and
cuIluie veie aII seen as cenliaI lo lhis nev conhguialion. Ioi a nunlei of
viileis, lhe concepl of ciealivily vas pailicuIaiIy signihcanl. In lhe 'ciealive
econony (Hovkins, 2OO1), econonic Iife vouId le lased on a nev cenliaIily
foi ciealivily and innovalion, of nany diffeienl kinds.
The luisling of lhe so-caIIed dol.con lullIe in 2OOO-2OO1 piovided onIy
a lenpoiaiy iespile. The hype look off vilh unpiecedenled povei in lhe
nid-2OOOs, piopeIIed ly a polenl nixluie of ciedil-lased econonic giovlh
and digilaI oplinisn. Sone cIained lhal ciealivily vouId 'le lhe diivei
of sociaI and econonic change duiing lhe nexl cenluiy (HailIey, 2OO5:
1). Leading US nevs nagazine ,+-&-++. devoled lhe 2OO6 veision of ils
annuaI speciaI issue pieviev of lhe foilhconing yeai lo 'The KnovIedge
RevoIulion, incIuding nuch discussion of lhe nagicaI nev luzzvoid
'ciealivily (see aIso IIoiida, 2OO2, 2OO5). In one of lhe nosl ovei-quoled
jouinaIislic evenls of lhe lvenly hisl cenluiy, caiiied avay ly ceIelialions
of 'usei-geneialed conlenl, /!(+ nagazine nade 'you ils annuaI 'peison
of lhe yeai foi 2OO6. The digilaIising cuIluiaI indusliies veie supposedIy
Ieading lhe vay inlo an econony lased on lhe piovision of goods and seiv-
ices lo niche naikels, ialhei lhan nass naikels, lhis vouId enalIe snaII
conpanies lo chaIIenge lig lusiness (Andeison, 2OO6). Moie seiious ana-
Iysls viole of a 'nelvoiked infoinalion econony (enkIei, 2OO6) and of a
cuIluie nov lased on a denocialisalion of pailicipalion enalIed ly 'con-
veigence cuIluie (}enkins, 2OO6).
If lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie pIaying a cenliaI pail in lhese supposed lian-
silions - lo lhe infoinalion oi knovIedge sociely, lo econonies lased on
liands, on signs and neanings, on ciealivily and cuIluie - il is suipiising
hov iaieIy syslenalic, hisloiicaIIy infoined anaIysis of changes in lhese
indusliies has leen caiiied oul ly lhose invoIved in such delales. This look
seeks lo offei such anaIysis. A key ain is lo casl Iighl on lhese vaiious nolions
and on vhelhei lhey exaggeiale change al lhe expense of conlinuily.
OUTLINE OF THE ARGUMENT
Tvo queslions seen lo ne lo le of pailicuIai inpoilance in ieIalion lo pal-
leins of change/conlinuily in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, lolh invoIving a sel
of sulsidiaiy queslions. Iiisl, ,)4 5/-,# 4$ #$6*-,5 #,$5` Whal veie lhe
foices diiving change and ensuiing conlinuily` Which gioups of peopIe
nade lhe key decisions in liinging aloul nev palleins of change and conli-
nuily` Whal inleiesls did lhey iepiesenl`
Second, ,)4 5/-,# 4$ -&&#&& +,"&-$ "&. +)&#/&0/#1` This invoIves lvo
fuilhei noves: consideiing lhe +0"+'" of change and +*#$1#"!'2 il. Which phe-
nonena iepiesenl fundanenlaI liansfoinalions in cuIluiaI pioduclion and
consunplion and vhich aie neieIy supeihciaI changes` Whal poIilicaI and
elhicaI piincipIes can ve diav on lo lhink aloul vhal is iighl and viong in
11 Introduction
lhe vay lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie sliucluied, goveined and oiganised
in lhe Iale lvenlielh cenluiy and al lhe leginning of lhe lvenly hisl`
The iesl of lhis inlioducloiy chaplei Iays oul lhe voiking dehnilion of lhe
cuIluiaI indusliies I an using in lhis look. Il expIains lhe elynoIogy of lhe
lein and ny ieasons foi piefeiiing il ovei olhei aIleinalives. Il oulIines
lhe dislinclive fealuies of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. These fealuies aie inpoi-
lanl foi lhe aigunenl in lhe iesl of lhe look lecause lhey heIp lo expIain
changes and conlinuilies in lhe vay lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie sliuc-
luied, oiganised and ieguIaled.
IoIIoving lhe Inlioduclion, Iail One consisls of lhiee chapleis lhal eslal-
Iish lhe anaIylicaI fianevoiks foi lhe iesl of lhe look and legin lhe sloiy of
change and conlinuily in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies since, ioughIy, 198O. Chaplei
1 piepaies lhe giound foi assessnenl and expIanalion ly consideiing #,$
maIn apprnachcs that scrInus ana!ysts havc takcn tn undcrstandIng thc
+02#0%"2 /&.0'#%/$' "&. #,$ +)&+$!# )* +02#0%$ 5)%$ -$&$%"221. Il aigues foi
an appioach lased on a fusion of vaiious appioaches, invoIving
an undeislanding of lhe conpIex inleineshing of econonic, poIilicaI
and cuIluiaI povei, vhich I nainIy diav fion a pailicuIai veision of
lhe ciilicaI poIilicaI econony of cuIluie, lul aIso fion lhe socioIogy of
cuIluie and connunicalion sludies,
a socioIogicaI anaIysis of lhe ieIalions lelveen cuIluiaI pioduclion
and lexls, of vhal acluaIIy happens 'inside cuIluie-pioducing oigani-
salions, and hov lhis nighl heIp shape lhe diffeienl kinds of cuIluiaI
expeiience lhal diffeienl gioups nighl have,
lhe undeislanding lhal sociaI lheoiy and sone veisions of cuIluiaI
sludies can piovide of lhe conpIexily and inpoilance of cuIluie ilseIf,
incIuding ils ieIalionship lo povei, inequaIily and sociaI juslice.
The nain puipose of lhe chaplei is lo expIain a nunlei of assunplions
lhal undeiIie lhe anaIysis and aigunenl in lhe iesl of lhe look, and lo Iay
oul hov ny appioach diffeis fion, lul aIso diavs upon, olhei peopIes
ieseaich.
Chaplei 2 deaIs vilh hov ve nighl "''$'' palleins of change/conlinu-
ily in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. In oidei lo do so, il piovides an oulIine of
lhe key aspecls of vhal, adapling Raynond WiIIians, I caII #,$ +)5!2$6
!%)*$''/)&"2 $%" )* +02#0%"2 !%).0+#/)&. The conpIex piofessionaI foin of
pioduclion look shape in advanced indusliiaI socielies in lhe eaiIy lven-
lielh cenluiy and, ly lhe niddIe of lhe lvenlielh cenluiy, had lecone lhe
doninanl foin. The key aspecls aie discussed in leins of lhe foIIoving
calegoiies:
Whal is lhe pIace of cuIluiaI pioduclion in nodein econonies and
socielies`
Who ovns cuIluiaI indusliy lusinesses and hov lhey aie sliucluied`
Hov is pioduclion oiganised` (This incIudes queslions conceining lhe
aulonony oi independence of ciealive voikeis fion conneiciaI and
slale conlioI, and lhe ieIalionships lelveen ciealivily and knovIedge,
on lhe one hand, and conneice on lhe olhei).
Whal is lhe naluie of cuIluiaI voik and vhal aie lhe ievaids foi il`
Which counliies and iegions doninale gIolaI and inleinalionaI cuIluiaI
pioduclion`
Which connunicalion lechnoIogies have leen used, and vilh vhal
effecls`
Hov nighl ve chaiacleiise lhe lexls pioduced ly lhe cuIluiaI indusliies`
This is nol jusl a sel of alsliacl aigunenls. The ain is acluaIIy lo piovide a
hisloiicaI oulIine of vhal indusliiaIised cuIluiaI pioduclion Iooked Iike up lo
lhe 197Os, )+345+ lhe changes discussed in lhis look legan lo lake pIace. This
hisloiicaI oulIine aIIovs us lo ask lvo lypes of queslions aloul change and
conlinuily, and lhese aie lhen Iaid oul in lhe iesl of lhe chaplei.
Iiisl, lheie aie queslions aloul lhe $6#$&# of changes since 198O, aloul
hov nuch lhings have changed. A key oljeclive of lhe look is lo assess
vhelhei changes since 198O have seen lhe eneigence of a conpIeleIy nev
eia of cuIluiaI pioduclion oi vhelhei lhese changes iepiesenl shifls -!"6!'
lhe conpIex piofessionaI eia and lheiefoie a ieIaliveIy Iiniled (lhough
sliII polenliaIIy signihcanl) sel of liansfoinalions. ul lhey ciuciaIIy iaise
fuilhei queslions aloul lhe $8"20"#/)& of changes and conlinuilies. Which
changes aie good foi peopIe, foi cuIluie, sociely and denociacy, and
vhich aie nol` A sel of piincipIes foi hov ve nighl evaIuale cuIluiaI pio-
duclion is Iaid oul, luiIding on lhe appioach advocaled in Chaplei 1 and
on ny sunnaiy, eaiIiei in lhis Inlioduclion, of vhy I lhink lhe cuIluiaI
indusliies nallei.
Chaplei 3 discusses hov ve nighl $6!2"/& change, assessing lhe iivaI
cIains of appioaches lhal enphasise econonic, poIilicaI, lechnoIogicaI and
sociocuIluiaI faclois. Again, aIlhough lheie is sone necessaiy alsliaclion heie,
as I discuss hov ve shouId undeisland lhese faclois, lhe chaplei aIso has a
sliongIy conciele dinension: il legins lhe sloiy of iecenl change/conlinuily
in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. Il does so, hisl of aII, ly exanining hov vaiious
econonic, poIilicaI, lechnoIogicaI and sociocuIluiaI faclois inleiacled lo pio-
duce a sel of inleilvined ciises in Weslein socielies in lhe Iale 196Os and 197Os.
These ciises inilialed nany of lhe key changes discussed in lhe look. Whal
sone viileis have caIIed The Long Dovnluin in advanced indusliiaI econo-
nies fion lhe Iale 196Os onvaids is a vilaI conlexl foi undeislanding lhe foui
decades lhal foIIoved. Ioi lhe ciises heIped liing aloul a huge change in hov
goveinnenls acioss lhe voiId lhoughl aloul hov lo govein nany aspecls of
socielies. Iion lhe 197Os onvaids, goveinnenls incieasingIy adopled pulIic
poIicies lased on a sel of ideas lhal can usefuIIy le giouped logelhei undei lhe
nane 5#)*,(#1-*,&0.
Linked lo lhis, lhis peiiod aIso sav lhe iise of a pailicuIai vay of
lhinking aloul lhe fuluie of knovIedge, cuIluie and econony, vhich had
13 Introduction
a consideialIe inuence on pulIic poIicy on lusiness, connunicalion
and cuIluie. I caII lhis vay of lhinking ,57)10-%,)5 &).,#%/ ./'+)0%'$.
Hovevei, neoIileiaIisn and infoinalion sociely discouise do nol expIain
eveiylhing lhal happened in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. The chaplei aIso dis-
cusses lhiee olhei foins of change lhal diove changes in cuIluiaI pio-
duclion and consunplion: changes in lusiness slialegy, sociocuIluiaI and
lexluaI changes, and lechnoIogicaI change. y sliessing lhese nuIlipIe
faclois, I avoid a piolIen lhal haunls sone accounls of change in lhe
cuIluiaI indusliies: ieduclionisn.
Chapleis 4 and 5 conslilule Iail Tvo of lhe look. The vaiious faclois dis-
cussed in Chaplei 3 piovide a lasis foi undeislanding a nunlei of poIicy
changes in ieIalion lo leIeconnunicalions, lioadcasling and conpuling lhal
veie fundanenlaI in liinging aloul nany of lhe changes exanined Ialei. I
shov hov goveinnenls aIleied lheii leIeconnunicalions and lioadcasling
poIicies in lhe 198Os and 199Os lo encouiage lhe deveIopnenl of lhe con-
neiciaI cuIluiaI indusliies ly piivalising pulIic coipoialions and 'Ioosen-
ing lhe ieguIalion of nedia and cuIluie. Coveinnenls aIso encouiaged
lhe giovlh of IT and leIeconnunicalions seclois in such a vay lhal vouId
evenluaIIy exaceilale lensions and conliadiclions lelveen lhese diffeienl
seclois. The sloiy of lhis piivalisalion and 'deieguIalion nay seen faniIiai
lo sone ieadeis in nedia and connunicalion sludies. My accounl is diffei-
enl fion exisling ones, lhough, lecause of ils inleinalionaI enphasis and ils
peiiodisalion of change. I oulIine foui oveiIapping vaves of change in lhe
connunicalions poIicies of nalionaI goveinnenls:
The hisl in lhe USA in lhe 198Os.
The second in olhei advanced indusliiaI counliies fion lhe nid-198Os
lo lhe nid-199Os.
The lhiid in liansilionaI and nixed socielies aflei 1989.
The fouilh, vhich conlinues loday, acioss aII lhese iegions/poIilies,
invoIving lhe incieasing conveigence of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies vilh leIe-
connunicalions and conpuleis seclois.
Chaplei 5 lhen exanines changes in lvo olhei key donains of poIicy, cuI-
luiaI poIicy and copyiighl Iav, lhal veie aIso ciuciaIIy affecled ly neoIil-
eiaIisn, infoinalion sociely discouise, and lhe olhei faclois discussed in
Chaplei 3. Again, lhese poIicy changes have leen a veiy inpoilanl lasis foi
olhei changes. They iepiesenl shifls in hov ciealivily and cuIluiaI pioduc-
lion aie conceived in ieIalion lo conneice and capilaI.
Iail Thiee lhen luiIds on lhe foundalions eslalIished in Iails One and
Tvo lo exanine changes and conlinuilies in lhe vaiious aspecls of cuIluiaI
pioduclion oulIined. To ieileiale, a key undeipinning idea is vhelhei lhe
fealuies of lhe conpIex piofessionaI eia of cuIluiaI pioduclion oulIined in
Chaplei 2 sliII hoId. In Iine vilh lhe fianevoik eslalIished in Iail One, each
chaplei nol onIy exanines lhe exlenl of change lul aIso addiesses hov ve
nighl evaIuale evenls.
In Chaplei 6, I exanine changes and conlinuilies in lusiness ovneiship
and sliucluie, and in lhe pIace of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies in nodein econonies.
I liace lhe nassive vave of neigeis and congIoneialion lhal occuiied
in lhe 199Os and 2OOOs. These pioduced a nev geneialion of veilicaIIy-
inlegialed, congIoneialed lilans, silling alove lvo Iessei lieis of lig
and snaIIei conpanies. I aIso nole a counlei-lendency, fion lhe nid-
2OOOs, lovaids de-congIoneialion as ovei-exlended coipoialions pai-
liaIIy vilhdiev fion sone aieas of lhe secloi. I exanine vhelhei cuIluiaI
pioduclion ieaIIy has lecone noie concenlialed in leins of ovneiship,
and lhe degiee lo vhich lhis nalleis. A najoi deveIopnenl has leen lhe
enliy of IT gianls such as Miciosofl and CoogIe inlo cuIluiaI-indusliy
leiiain. This iequiies an undeislanding of dynanics of conpelilion and
coIIaloialion lelveen cuIluiaI-indusliy conpanies, on lhe one hand, and
lhose in neighlouiing seclois, such as consunei eIeclionics, leIeconnu-
nicalions and infoinalion lechnoIogy, on lhe olhei. IinaIIy, I addiess lhe
queslion of lhe exlenl lo vhich lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie a key pail of
nalionaI econonies and gIolaI lusiness. I aigue lhal lhe sleadiIy giov-
ing signihcance of lhese indusliies needs lo le undeislood as a phase in
lhe Iong-lein connodihcalion of cuIluie and I oulIine lhe anlivaIenl
consequences of lhis.
Chaplei 7 deaIs vilh changes and conlinuilies in #,$ )%-"&/'"#/)& )* +029
#0%"2 !%).0+#/)& and in cu!tura! wnrk.
5
IeienniaI queslions aloul hov lo
conlioI iisk and nanage ciealivily veie leing ansveied in nev vays fion
lhe 198Os onvaids. NolalIy, lheie vas an incieasing focus on naikeling and
naikel ieseaich. I lhen anaIyse sone evidence aloul lhe degiee lo vhich
conlioI of ciealive oulpuls on lhe pail of cuIluiaI-indusliy lusinesses in pui-
suil of piohl nighl le leconing lighlei and noie iesliiclive, in jouinaIisn,
lhealie and adveilising, and vhelhei conneiciaIisalion nighl le affecling
ciealive aulonony. The hnaI seclion discusses changes in lhe leins and con-
dilions of cuIluiaI voik. Did such changes iepiesenl a fundanenlaI shifl
in lhe sociaI ieIalions of cuIluiaI pioduclion` Did lhe condilions of cuIluiaI
voikeis inpiove as lhe cuIluiaI indusliies expanded`
One of lhe nain vays in vhich fiins liied lo conpele in lhe nev lusi-
ness enviionnenl ciealed ly goveinnenlaI and lusiness iesponse lo The
Long Dovnluin and ly vaiious sociocuIluiaI changes of lhe peiiod vas
ly inleinalionaIising lheii opeialions. The consequences of lhis foi lhe
cuIluiaI indusliies aie assessed in Chaplei 8. 85%#15-%,)5-*,&-%,)5 in lhe
cuIluiaI indusliies has heIped Iead lo a nuch giealei conpIexily of inlei-
nalionaI fIovs of cuIluie lhan lefoie, lul il has aIso neanl lhe incieasing
gIolaI piesence of vasl coipoialions. So, lhe chaplei consideis vhelhei
5 These and olhei dinensions of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie sonelines IaleIIed 'nicio
faclois as opposed lo 'nacio ones such as ovneiship, congIoneialion and so on. The
nacio/nicio duaIisn can le used pooiIy, lul I lhink il is vaIualIe. I use il as shoilhand
fion line lo line in lhis look.
15 Introduction
oi nol ve shouId lhink of lhe nev slale of pIay in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies
inleinalionaIIy as a nev slage of cuIluiaI inpeiiaIisn oi as a sign of
a nev gIolaI inleiconnecledness vilh denocialising possiliIilies. The
chaplei aIso asks if lhis duaIily lelveen inpeiiaIisn and inleiconnecl-
edness is an adequale concepluaI lasis foi addiessing lhe key issues. Il
piovides assessnenls of changes in lhiee indusliies in pailicuIai: leIevi-
sion (Iooking al Lalin Aneiican and Aialic leIevision), fiIn (Iooking al
HoIIyvood povei, and al lhe Indian and Hong Kong indusliies), and
nusic.
Chaplei 9 focuses on vhal is geneiaIIy agieed lo le lhe key lechnoIogicaI
deveIopnenl of lhe Iasl 2O yeais - +,9,%-*,&-%,)5 - and, cIoseIy associaled
vilh il, lhe iise of lhe inleinel. I legin ly discussing lhe key lenels of +,9,:
%-* )6%,0,&0 in ieIalion lo cuIluiaI pioduclion and consunplion: lhal digi-
laIisalion and lhe inleinel aIIov foi sulslanliaIIy giealei IeveIs of conlioI,
ciealivily and pailicipalion on lhe pail of non-piofessionaI 'useis and/oi
audiences, and lhal, lecause of lhis, lhe povei of indusliiaI, piofessionaI and
inslilulionaIised cuIluiaI pioduclion is eioding, and a noie denocialic and
vigoious syslen of connunicalion has eilhei aiiived, oi is jusl ovei lhe hoii-
zon. I lhen oulIine sone najoi ciilicisns lhal have leen nade of lhis lype
of lhinking, vhich in luin geneiales a sel of piolIens aloul hov lo evaIu-
ale lhe effecls of digilaIisalion and lhe inleinel on cuIluiaI pioduclion, as
foIIovs. To vhal exlenl do inequaIilies in access and skiIIs undeinine cIains
aloul denocialisalion` Hov do nev cenliaIisalions of povei (foi exanpIe,
lhe conlioI of seaich engines ly veiy fev conpanies, and lhe use of pailicu-
Iai seaich piolocoIs) affecl cuIluiaI pioduclion` Hov nighl ve inleipiel lhe
piesence of inlensihed conneiciaIisn and suiveiIIance in digilaI nelvoiks`
WhiIe iecognising lhal lhe inleinel and digilaIisalion have lioughl cuIluiaI
and poIilicaI lenehls, I aigue lhal ve need lo le sceplicaI aloul lhe cIains of
even lhe nosl sophislicaled digilaI oplinisls - lul lhis does nol nean lhal
ve have lo le pessinislic.
Chaplei 1O lhen exanines lhe inpacl of digilaIisalion and lhe inleinel on
a nunlei of cuIluiaI indusliies, luiIding on lhe discussion in Chaplei 9. Il
anaIyses lhe najoi ciisis undeigone ly lhe iecoiding indusliy in lhe hisl
decade of lhe lvenly hisl cenluiy, and lhe incieasing conlioI of disliilulion
ly nev enlianls fion lhe infoinalion lechnoIogy indusliy, nolalIy AppIe
and Anazon. Il aIso asks vhelhei lhe digilaIisalion of leIevision in nany
counliies has ieaIIy Ied lo an inciease in neaningfuI consunei choice and
conlioI and exanines lhe inpacl so fai of digilaIisalion on nevspapeis,
nagazines and looks. I cIose lhe chaplei ly exanining hov video ganes
oi digilaI ganes eneiged as a nev nediun of cuIluie and connunicalion
in lhe 199Os and 2OOOs, and vhal lhe inpIicalions aie foi undeislanding
digilaIisalion.
Chaplei 11 deaIs vilh lhe effecls of aII lhese palleins of change/conlinuily
al lhe poinl vheie lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aigualIy have lheii nosl piofound
inpacls on sociaI and cuIluiaI Iife: #$6#'. In vhal signihcanl vays have cuI-
luiaI lexls and lheii consunplion ly audiences changed (oi nol) duiing lhe
peiiod coveied ly lhis look (essenliaIIy 198O lo 2O12)` And in vhal vays
has lhis lhen had iecipiocaI effecls on lhe inslilulions, oiganisalion and eco-
nonics of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies` I deaI vilh lhiee pailicuIaiIy inpoilanl lul
liicky issues in assessing lexls: diveisily, quaIily, and lhe exlenl lo vhich lexls
seive lhe inleiesls of cuIluiaI indusliy lusinesses and lheii poIilicaI aIIies.
IinaIIy, a concIuding chaplei sunnaiises lhe aigunenls of lhe look and
oulIines ils inpoilance foi undeislanding changing ieIalionships of povei
and sociaI juslice in ieIalion lo cuIluiaI pioduclion.
MATTERS OF DEFINITION
The cuIluiaI indusliies aie difhcuIl lo dehne, and nany ieseaicheis have
denonslialed gieal confusion in liying lo do so. One vilaI slep is lo lake lhe
concepl of cuIluie seiiousIy.
If ve dehne cuIluie, in lhe lioadesl anlhiopoIogicaI sense as a 'vhoIe
vay of Iife of a dislincl peopIe oi olhei sociaI gioup (WiIIians, 1981: 11),
il is possilIe lo aigue lhal aII indusliies aie cuIluiaI indusliies in lhal lhey
aie invoIved in lhe pioduclion and consunplion of cuIluie. Ioi ly lhis def-
inilion, lhe cIolhes ve veai, lhe fuiniluie in oui houses and voikpIaces,
lhe cais, luses and liains ve use foi lianspoil, lhe food and diink ve con-
sune aie aII pail of oui cuIluie and lhey aie neaiIy aII pioduced induslii-
aIIy, foi piohl.
The lein 'cuIluiaI indusliies has lended lo le used in a nuch noie
iesliicled vay lhan lhis, lased inpIicilIy on a dehnilion of cuIluie as 'lhe
&!2'!37!'2 &7&"+( lhiough vhich necessaiiIy (lhough anong olhei neans)
a sociaI oidei is connunicaled, iepioduced, expeiienced and expIoied
(WiIIians, 1981: 13, oiiginaI enphasis). To pul lhis a IillIe noie sinpIy, lhe
cuIluiaI indusliies have usuaIIy leen lhoughl of as lhose inslilulions (nainIy
piohl-naking conpanies, lul aIso slale oiganisalions and non-piohl oigani-
salions) lhal aie nosl diieclIy invoIved in #,$ !%).0+#/)& )* ')+/"2 5$"&/&-.
Theiefoie, neaiIy aII dehnilions of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies vouId incIude leIe-
vision (calIe and saleIIile, loo), iadio, lhe cinena, nevspapei, nagazine and
look pulIishing, lhe nusic iecoiding and pulIishing indusliies, adveilising
and lhe peifoining ails. These aie aII aclivilies lhe piinaiy ain of vhich is
lo connunicale lo an audience, lo cieale lexls.
AII cuIluiaI ailefacls aie lexls in lhe veiy lioad sense lhal lhey aie open
lo inleipielalion. Cais, foi exanpIe, signify: lhey have neanings. Lveiy cai
invoIves signihcanl design and naikeling inpuls. Hovevei, lhe 95!(#57 ain
of cais as a calegoiy is nol lo piovide a sel of neanings lo cusloneis, oi lo
Iook nice, lul lianspoil. Whal dehnes a lexl, lhen, is a nallei of degiee, a
queslion of laIance lelveen ils funclionaI and connunicalive aspecls (see
Hiisch, 199O/1972 foi a siniIai aigunenl). Texls (songs, naiialives, pei-
foinances) aie heavy on signihcalion and lend lo le Iighl on funclionaIily
and lhey aie ciealed vilh connunicalive goaIs piinaiiIy in nind. ox O.1
piesenls lhe coie cuIluiaI indusliies lhal aie lhe nain focus of lhis look.
They aie cuIluiaI indusliies lecause #,$1 .$"2 !%/5"%/21 4/#, #,$ /&.0'#%/"2
!%).0+#/)& "&. +/%+02"#/)& )* #$6#'.
17 Introduction
Box 0.1 The core cultural industries
The following industries are centrally concerned with the industrial production
and circulation of texts and they therefore constitute what I want to call the core
cultural industries for the purposes of this book:
Broadcasting: the radio and television industries, including their newer cable,
satellite and digital forms.
Film industries: this category includes the dissemination of films on video,
DVD and other formats and on television.
Music industries: recording (which, of course, includes the recording of
sounds other than music, but is for the most part centred on music) publish-
ing
6
and live performance.
Print and electronic publishing: including books, online databases, informa-
tion services, magazines and newspapers.
Video and computer games or digital games as many commentators now
prefer to call them.
Advertising, marketing and public relations: compared with other cultural indus-
tries, advertisements and marketing artefacts tend to have a greater functional ele-
ment as they are intended to sell and promote other products. Nevertheless, they
are centred on the creation of texts and require the work of symbol creators (see
Chapter 2 for a further discussion of how marketers fit into the cultural industries).
Web design: most internet industries involve high-functionality dynamics, but
the strong aesthetic element in web design arguably makes it part of the
cultural industries sector.
All of these core cultural industries have their own dynamics and I discuss these
at various points in the book, but one of the most salient contributions of work
on the cultural industries has been to see that these industries interact and
interconnect with each other in complex ways. Largely, this is because they
compete with each other for the same resources. The most signicant of these
resources are as follows (see Garnham, 1990: 158):
A limited pool of disposable consumer income.
A limited pool of advertising revenue.
A limited amount of consumption time.
Skilled creative and technical labour.
It is because of this competition for the same resources, as well as their shared charac-
teristics as producers of primarily symbolic artefacts, that the cultural industries can be
thought of as a sector or a linked production system (there are arguments in economic
and business analysis about which term might be better, but these need not concern
us here). This point is not always clearly understood, even by academic analysts.
6 WhiIe lhis lein nighl seen lo le aloul lhe piinling of sheel nusic, nusic pulIishing
conceins nuch noie lhan lhis as il invoIves lhe ovneiship and conlioI of lhe iighls lo
nusicaI conposilions.
Theie is anolhei sel of cuIluiaI indusliies lhal I shaII caII 'peiipheiaI. These
aie inpoilanl indusliies, and lhe lein 'peiipheiaI is in no vay inlended
lo naiginaIise lhe lenehls lhey can liing lo a sociely, oi lhe ciealivily of
lhose invoIved in such voik. Theie aie lvo anaIylicaI ieasons vhy I caII
lhen peiipheiaI, and so deaI vilh lhen sonevhal Iess lhan lhe coie indus-
liies. The hisl is lhal lhese indusliies ieach fevei peopIe in nodein socie-
lies and lheiefoie, olhei lhings leing equaI, aie of Iessei sociaI and cuIluiaI
inuence lhan lhe coie cuIluiaI indusliies. A ieason foi lhis Iessei ieach and
polenliaI inuence can le found in lhe second facloi foi ny calegoiisalion of
lhese indusliies as 'peiipheiaI. Like lhe coie cuIluiaI indusliies, lhese noie
peiipheiaI cuIluiaI indusliies aie cenliaIIy conceined vilh lhe pioduclion
of lexls. ul lhe iepioduclion of lhese synloIs is lased nainIy on seni-
indusliiaI oi non-indusliiaI nelhods. Thealie, foi exanpIe, has onIy iecenlIy
legun lo lake on vhal nighl le caIIed indusliiaI foins of pioduclion and
iepioduclion (see Chaplei 7). The naking, exhililion and saIe of voiks of ail
(painlings, inslaIIalions, scuIpluies) geneiale enoinous anounls of noney
and connenlaiy each yeai, lul iepioduclion is Iiniled, vheie il exisls al
aII. The ail piinls indusliy Iinils iepioduclion ailihciaIIy and uses Ialoiious
nelhods in oidei lo add vaIue lo lhe piinls.
I iefei, in passing, lo sone of lhese indusliies, and I discuss lhealie in
Chaplei 7. ul in oidei lo nake lhis look ieadalIe - and viilalIe - I have
had lo focus on a Iiniled nunlei of indusliies: lhe coie cuIluiaI indusliies
Iisled in ox O.1. I iecognise lhal lhe coie and peiipheiaI indusliies inleiacl
vilh each olhei in vaiious signihcanl vays. Aclois and viileis nighl voik
in leIevision and lhealie, foi exanpIe, and ail schooIs pioduce ailisls vho
nighl nove in and oul of vaiious foins of conneiciaI pioduclion, incIud-
ing hIn diieclion, adveilising and nusic.
Borderline and problem cases
Whal kinds of indusliiaI and lusiness aclivily does ny dehnilion nol
incIude` As vilh aII dehnilions of conpIex phenonena, lheie aie seveiaI
signihcanl loideiIine cases.
:4'&1(+5 +$+%"54'!%&;%1$"15#$ !'<1&"57 6#5<-#5+ Making leIevision pio-
giannes is lased on an inlenlionaI acl of cuIluiaI connunicalion and
vouId le incIuded as a cuIluiaI indusliy in aII dehnilions. ul does lhe
naking of leIevision &+"& conslilule a cuIluiaI indusliy` The consunei
eIeclionics indusliies deveIop and nake lhe nachines lhiough vhich
ve can expeiience lexls. These indusliies aie exlieneIy inpoilanl foi
undeislanding change and conlinuily in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies lecause
lhey piovide lhe haidvaie on and lhiough vhich lexls aie iepioduced
oi liansnilled (hi-h, leIevision sels, MI3 and DVD pIayeis). These
goods and olheis (fiidges, niciovave ovens) ieIy on lhe ciuciaI inpul of
designeis and of oflen pooiIy paid assenlIy-Iine voikeis, lul lhey aie
nol cenlied on lhe pioduclion of piinaiiIy synloIic goods in lhe vay
19 Introduction
lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie and so lhey faII oulside vhal I considei
lo le a usefuI dehnilion.
='345(#"!4' "+%6'4$427 The soflvaie indusliy has sone nolalIe paiaIIeIs
vilh lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. Ciealive leans voik logelhei lo liy and
cieale dislinclive oulcones, lul lhe acluaI piesenlalion of lhe soflvaie
does nol lake lhe foin of a lexl as dehned alove. Ils funclionaI aspecls - lo
caiiy oul ceilain conpuleiised lasks - oulveigh lhe aeslhelic dinen-
sions of ils design. Lngineeis ialhei lhan ailisls and designeis doni-
nale. Conpulei haidvaie design and nanufacluie is noie akin lo lhe
consunei eIeclionics indusliy, and is excIuded fion ny dehnilion of
lhe cuIluiaI indusliies foi siniIai ieasons.
Sone of lhe nosl difhcuIl dehnilionaI issues suiiound "6+ !'"+5'+" !'<1&>
"5!+&. LIi Noan (2OO9: 274-89) diffeienliales seven sul-indusliies, sone
of vhich aie cIoseIy ieIaled lo lhe IT and leIeconnunicalions indusliies:
inleinel lacklone infiasliucluie, inleinel seivice piovideis, lioadland
seivice, navigalionaI soflvaie, seaich engines and vel diiecloiies, vel
poilaIs, inleinel leIephony appIicalions, and nedia pIayei soflvaie. I foI-
Iov Noan in liealing lhese as sepaiale fion lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. ul,
foi ieasons expIained alove, I lhink il is vaIid lo see vel design as a cuI-
luiaI indusliy.
Noan lieals nedia, infoinalion lechnoIogy (vhich foi hin incIudes con-
sunei eIeclionics, lhough I vouId caII lhis a sepaiale indusliy), leIecon-
nunicalions and inleinel indusliies as inlei-ieIaled pails of 'lhe infoinalion
secloi (Noan, 2OO9: 5). This is a sensilIe nove. Thioughoul lhis look, I shaII
considei lhe changing ieIalionships lelveen lhese gioups of indusliies, and
lheii conpIex dance of conpelilion and coIIaloialion.
To nake lhis discussion noie conciele, Iel ne discuss hov lhe IT and
inleinel gianls ieIale lo lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. Is CoogIe a cuIluiaI-indusliy
conpany` My ansvei is no, lecause il is nol ieaIIy invoIved in lhe pioduc-
lion of conlenl oi lexls. AII lhe sane, Iike olhei inslilulions, il is exlieneIy
inpoilanl foi undeislanding lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. CoogIe incieasingIy acls
as a ciuciaI galevay foi conlenl pioduced ly cuIluiaI lusinesses. Ils CoogIe
ooks piojecl nakes avaiIalIe enoinous anounls of cuIluiaI conlenl lhal
vouId olheivise le nuch noie difhcuIl lo hnd. Il is inpossilIe lo undei-
sland lhe conlenpoiaiy adveilising enviionnenl vilhoul knoving aloul
seaich engines (see Chaplei 9). ul none of lhis neans lhal il is a cuIluiaI
indusliy oiganisalion. Noi is AppIe. AppIe designs and naikels devices lhal
have affecled lhe cuIluiaI indusliies piofoundIy, lul il does nol pioduce lexls
in lhe usuaI sense of lhe lein discussed eaiIiei. Miciosofl is sIighlIy diffeienl,
lecause il connissions digilaI ganes - lul lhis is onIy a liny pail of vhal il
does. Anazon has lecone a ciuciaI ielaiIei foi cuIluiaI indusliy pioducls,
and so, lo a Iessei exlenl has AppIe (vilh ils i-Tunes sloie). ul Anazon is
nov a ielaiIei of nany pioducls lesides lhe cuIluiaI-indusliy pioducls vilh
vhich il luiIl ils liand.
Lel ne deaI vilh one oi lvo olhei loideiIine cases nov.
?#&6!4' Iashion is a fascinaling 'hyliid of a cuIluiaI indusliy, in lhe
sense lhal I use lhe lein heie, and a consunei goods indusliy. The high
degiee of laIance lelveen funclionaIily and signihcalion nakes lhis a
conpIex speciaI case, nade aII lhe noie inleiesling ly dislinclive foins
of oiganisalion (see McRollie, 1998, foi a vaIualIe sludy).
@945" Indusliies such as foollaII (soccei) and laselaII aiiange foi lhe
peifoinance of Iive speclacIes lhal aie, in nany iespecls, veiy Iike
lhe Iive enleilainnenl secloi of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. IeopIe pay lo
le enleilained in ieaI line in lhe co-piesence of laIenled oi nol-lhal-
laIenled peifoineis. ul lheie aie nolalIe diffeiences, even fion Iive
enleilainnenl in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. Spoil is fundanenlaIIy con-
pelilive, vheieas synloI naking isnl. Texls (in lhe sense in vhich I use
lhe lein in lhis look) lend lo le noie sciipled oi scoied lhan in spoils,
vhich aie essenliaIIy inpiovised aiound a sel of conpelilive iuIes.
I couId go on foi pages noie, deaIing vilh loideiIine cases, vhich shaie fea-
luies vilh lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, lul vhich aie, I lhink, sufhcienlIy diffei-
enl lo neiil sepaiale liealnenl. I vouId hope lhough lhal ly nov ny poinl
viII le cIeai enough: lhal I an focusing heie on indusliies lhal aie lased on
lhe indusliiaI pioduclion and ciicuIalion of lexls and cenliaIIy ieIianl on lhe
voik of synloI ciealois.
Some objections to the definitions and
assumptions employed here
In lhis seclion, I deaI vilh sone piolIens lhal have leen iaised vilh lhe deh-
nilion of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies lhal I and olhei anaIysls enpIoy. Ioi sone
anaIysls, lhe focus on synloIic ciealivily iepiesenls a piolIen. Keilh Negus
(2OO6: 2O1-2) has oljecled lo ny focus on synloIic ciealivily as lhe lasis
of a dehnilion of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies on lhe giounds lhal ciealivily and
lhe ciicuIalion of polenliaIIy inuenliaI neanings aie jusl as nuch a fealuie
of indusliies such as 'food, lanking, lolacco, insuiance as, say, nusic and
leIevision. Negus is iighl lo say lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie nol lhe onIy
pIace vheie synloIic ciealivily lakes pIace and I agiee lhal synloI nakeis
shouId nol le felishised as noie speciaI lhan lhe iesl of us. And il is ceilainIy
liue lhal cigaielles and lank accounls, Iike leIevision piogiannes and songs,
have cuIluiaI neaning.
7
Yel, if ve lIui lhe dislinclion, il seens lo ne lhal ve
niss sonelhing vilaI. In oidei lo undeisland cuIluiaI pioduclion adequaleIy,
ve need lo gel al lhe of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. This neans appieci-
aling lhe diffeience lelveen aclivilies %+'"5#$$7 invoIved vilh lhe pioduclion
of ailefacls lhal aie 95!(#5!$7 conposed of synloIs and olhei lypes of sociaI
7 See aIso Malo (2OO9) foi a pailicuIaiIy confused veision of lhe aigunenl lhal 'aII indus-
liies aie cuIluiaI.
21 Introduction
aclivily. ankeis, aflei aII, aie nol Iike nusicians, and lhe diffeiences seen lo
ne lo le vilaI (see 'Why do lhe cuIluiaI indusliies nallei`, alove).
Anolhei oljeclion lo lhe focus on synloI ciealois is lhal il naiginaI-
ises lhe inpoilance of olhei cuIluiaI voikeis. In ils accounling piaclices,
HoIIyvood liadilionaIIy diffeienlialed 'alove lhe Iine voikeis (synloI cie-
alois) fion 'leIov lhe Iine ciafl and lechnicaI voikeis. Sone have inpIied
lhal 'alove lhe Iine voikeis aie piiviIeged, peihaps even 'louigeois vhiIe
'leIov lhe Iine ciafl and lechnicaI voikeis suffei ly conpaiison, and lheie-
foie lo focus on synloI ciealois is lo iepioduce a veision of cIass inequaIily
(Mayei, 2O11). ul lhe silualion is noie conpIex lhan lhis. Many synloI cie-
alois aie undei-ievaided, undei-enpIoyed, oppiessed and expIoiled, and
nany un-naned lechnicaI voikeis face ieIaliveIy good condilions - pailIy
lecause lhey lend noie oflen lo le unionised. The ieason foi lhe focus on
synloIic ciealivily does nol deiive fion any desiie on ny pail lo highIighl
a panpeied ciealive eIile and ignoie oppiessed lechnicaI and unskiIIed
voikeis. Il is lased on lhe decision lo undeisland condilions of cuIluiaI voik
in ieIalion lo lhe pailicuIai naluie of lhal voik, as lhe pioduclion of %1$"15+.
In Raynond WiIIianss voids, a socioIogicaI undeislanding of cuIluie nusl
concein ilseIf vilh 'lhe sociaI ieIalions of ils specihc neans of pioduclion
and 'vilh lhe vays in vhich, vilhin sociaI Iife, cuIluie and cuIluiaI pio-
duclion aie sociaIIy idenlihed and dislinguished (WiIIians, 1981: 3O-1).
Oljeclions lo dehnilions of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies lased on synloI naking
need lo addiess delales aloul lhe dehnilion and inpoilance of cuIluie in
nodein socielies.
A Ieading cuIluiaI econonisl, David Thiosly, has iecenlIy offeied vhal he
caIIs a 'concenliic ciicIes nodeI of cuIluiaI indusliies. This diffeis in funda-
nenlaI vays fion ny nodeI and dehnilion, and I vanl lo expIain vhy I lhink
il does nol voik. In a sense, ny ovn dehnilion is lased on concenliic ciicIes
loo, vilh, al lhe cenlie, lhose indusliiaIised foins of pioduclion lhal accounl
foi nosl cuIluiaI aclivily in nodein socielies, and, oulside lhese, lhose seni-
indusliiaIised foins lhal accounl foi Iess cuIluiaI expeiience. Thiosly and
I diffei on vhal ve pul in lhe cenlie, and vhal ve pul on lhe peiipheiy.
Thiosly puls in lhe cenlie lhose aclivilies vhich, in his viev, have lhe gieal-
esl ialio of ciealive lo conneiciaI goaIs. These aie vhal he caIIs 'lhe coie ciea-
live ails (2O1O: 26): 'nusic, diana, dance, visuaI ail, Iileialuie (p. 91). These
aie lhen suiiounded ly anolhei iing: olhei 'coie indusliies such as hIn,
nuseuns and gaIIeiies. The nexl Iayei oul is 'lhe videi cuIluiaI indusliies
of lhe nedia, pulIishing and so on (p. 26), and lhen on lhe oulside aie cuI-
luiaI indusliies vheie lhe conneiciaI conlenl is highesl, such as fashion and
adveilising. The idea is lhal 'ciealive ideas and inuences in lhe coie diffuse
oulvaids lhiough lhe concenliic ciicIes (p. 26). This is lased on lhe assunp-
lion lhal pulling 'lhe puie ciealive ails al lhe cenlie piovides a diiecl neans
of iepiesenling lhe coie ioIe of lhe ails in nolivaling and suslaining lhe enliie
cuIluiaI secloi (p. 27). Thiosly gives lhe exanpIe of leIevision sciiplviileis,
vho aie Iocaled al lhe coie of lhe nodeI, and seII lheii voik lo lioadcasleis
Iocaled in lhe lioadei cuIluiaI indusliies ciicIe.
I hnd lhis nodeI, as piesenled in Thioslys look, socioIogicaIIy sliange. Il
is nol al aII cIeai lo ne vhy lhe 'puie ails nighl le lhoughl of as lhe piin-
cipaI souice of ciealivily foi lhe lioadei cuIluiaI indusliies. (Noi an I al
aII suie vhal lhe lein 'puie nighl nean in lhis conlexl). The ails aie one
polenliaI souice of ciealive ideas, aIongside nany olheis, incIuding nol onIy
synloI nakeis ovn Iife expeiiences, lul aIso exisling pioducls fion con-
neiciaI lexls. So leIevision sciiplviileis nay diav expeiiences fion lheii
chiIdhood, lheii piesenl Iife, and fion lhe diana and lhe visuaI ails lhal
aie al lhe coie of lhe nodeI. ul lhey aie suieIy jusl as IikeIy, in lhe conlen-
poiaiy voiId, lo diav on ideas fion indusliies and pioducls lhal Thiosly
dehnes as 'conneiciaI and vhich lheiefoie shouId le on lhe oulside of lhe
nodeI. This nighl incIude exisling leIevision piogiannes, iecenl hIns lhe
scieenviilei nay have seen, oi even songs lhal lhey heai on lhe iadio.
Noi is il cIeai lo ne vhy, in Thioslys chaiacleiisalion, scieenviileis aie
al lhe 'coie, vhich is supposed lo le occupied ly diana, dance, lhe visuaI
ails and Iileialuie. Aienl even fieeIance scieenviileis, in a key sense, pail of
lhe lioadcasling indusliy lhal Thiosly pIaces fuilhei oul` To conpound lhe
piolIen, nosl of lhe indusliies lhal he puls al his coie aie divided lelveen
seclois lhal enphasise conneiciaI goaIs and lhose vhich enphasise ciealive
goaIs. This is veII eslalIished in socioIogy of cuIluie (ouidieu, 1996, and
Thonpson, 2O1O, aie jusl lvo of hundieds of exanpIes). Sone scieenviileis
nighl le opeialing in a highIy sulsidised 'ails voiId, peihaps voiking on
an avanl-gaide hIn piojecl. Olheis nighl le enpIoyed ly a najoi connei-
ciaI inslilulion and couId le given a sloiy idea lo voik on. Thiosly seens lo
assune lhal ciealivily can onIy cone fion 'oulside conneiciaI indusliies -
suieIy an oveiIy poIaiised conceplion of ciealivily and conneice.
Thiosly nakes cIeai lhal his inlenlion is lo defend lhe ails againsl vhal
he sees as a naiginaIisalion of lhen in voik on lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. This
is undeislandalIe, and I vouId alsoIuleIy vanl lo defend pulIic funding
of lhe ails (see Chaplei 5). ul Thioslys nodeI, vhich has leen laken up
ly poIicynakeis in lhe UK, seens lo le lased on sone cuiious (nis)undei-
slandings of cuIluiaI pioduclion.
8

ALTERNATIVE TERMS
CIeaiIy, lhe lein 'cuIluiaI indusliies is a conlesled, difhcuIl one and, as I
have inpIied, ils piolIens deiive fion lhe difhcuIly of dehning 'cuIluie
8 Accoiding lo Thiosly, ny division of coie and peiipheiaI indusliies is lased on lhe
idea lhal lhe peiipheiaI indusliies aie seen 'as a iefIeclion of lhe lasles of a hegenonic
cuIluiaI eIile and hence aie of Iess poIicy concein (2O1O: 9O, 1O4). ul I sinpIy donl see
lhen in lhal vay, ny concepluaIisalion is nol lased on lhis popuIisl conceplion of lhe
ails as eIilisl. Il is lased on an undeislanding of lhe giealei size and ieach of lhe coie
cuIluiaI indusliies, nol of lheii poIilicaI, sociaI oi ailislic vaIue.
23 Introduction
(nol lo nenlion 'indusliy). Civen aII lhese piolIens of dehnilion, vhy nol
alandon lhe lein 'cuIluiaI indusliies aIlogelhei in favoui of an aIleinalive`
A nunlei of aIleinalive possiliIilies can le discussed heie:
The cuIluiaI indusliies aie oflen iefeiied lo inleichangealIy vilh lhe
'nedia indusliies, and ny focus in lhis look is piinaiiIy (lul ly no
neans excIusiveIy) vilh vhal nighl vaIidIy le caIIed nedia indusliies.
ul lhe concepl of nedia is nol vilhoul ils piolIens of dehnilion eilhei.
Sone anaIysls have used lhe lein 'infoinalion indusliies lul in ils nosl
deveIoped foin, in a iecenl gioundlieaking look ly LIi Noan (2OO9),
lhis concepl of lhe infoinalion secloi has leen used lo iefei nol onIy lo
lhe nedia indusliies (cIose lo vhal I an dehning as lhe cuIluiaI indus-
liies heie) lul aIso lo lhe leIeconnunicalions, inleinel, and infoinalion
and connunicalion lechnoIogy (ICT) seclois. In lhe vay in vhich Noan
deveIops lhe concepl, lhis is a vaIualIe nove, lecause his anaIysis deIin-
eales lhe vaiious indusliies lhal shouId le incIuded in lhese calegoiies,
and oulIines hov lhe foui seclois aie ieIaled (lhough sliII sepaiale).
An infoinalive look on /6+ A+!&15+ ='<1&"5!+& (Roleils, 2OO4) deaIs vilh
spoil and louiisn aIongside vhal I an caIIing lhe cuIluiaI indusliies heie.
usiness anaIysls oflen use lhe lein 'enleilainnenl indusliies - espe-
ciaIIy in lhe USA.
Wilhoul doull, lhough, lhe nosl oflen piefeiied aIleinalive lo 'cuI-
luiaI indusliies is .1#-%,2# ,5+4&%1,#&. Many poIicynakeis and sone
acadenic anaIysls nov use lhis lein. Chaplei 5 piovides an accounl
of sone of lhe piolIens associaled vilh il. This incIudes a discussion
of lhe vays in vhich poIicy IaleIIed 'ciealive indusliies has geneiaIIy
diffeied fion poIicy IaleIIed 'cuIluiaI indusliies.
Leisuie, infoinalion, enleilainnenl, nedia and ciealivily aie aII addiessed
in lhis look, lul I piefei lo use lhe lein 'cuIluiaI indusliies lhan lhe aIleina-
lives. The use of lhe lein 'cuIluie diavs allenlion lo lhe hisloiicaI inpoi-
lance of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies in affecling ieIalions lelveen cuIluie and
econonics, lexls and indusliy, neaning and funclion. Whals noie, 'cuIluiaI
indusliies nol onIy iefeis lo a lype of indusliiaI aclivily, il aIso invokes a
ceilain liadilion of lhinking aloul lhis aclivily. As ny ovn appioach diavs
on lhal liadilion of lhoughl (aIong vilh olheis) I oulIine il in lhe nexl seclion.
FROM THE CULTURE INDUSTRY TO THE
CULTURAL INDUSTRIES
The concepl of cuIluiaI indusliies has ils oiigins in a chaplei ly lvo Ceinan-}evish
phiIosopheis associaled vilh lhe Iiankfuil SchooI of CiilicaI Theoiy, Theodoi
Adoino and Max Hoikheinei (1977|1944j). AIlhough lhe lein nay have leen
used lefoie, 'The CuIluie Indusliy vas pail of lhe lilIe of a chaplei in lheii look
B!#$+."!. <+5 C13.$D51'2 (B!#$+%"!% 43 E'$!26"+'(+'"), vhich lhey viole in lhe USA in
lhe 194Os vhiIe in exiIe fion Nazi Ceinany. The look vas loin oul of a convic-
lion lhal Iife in lhe capilaIisl denociacy of lhe USA vas, in ils ovn vay, as enply
and supeihciaI, if nol quile as liulaI and hoiiihc, as Iife in lhe Ceinany lhey had
ed. 'CuIluie Indusliy vas a concepl inlended lo shock. Adoino and Hoikheinei,
Iike nany olhei useis of lhe lein 'cuIluie in lhe nineleenlh and lvenlielh cenlu-
iies, equaled cuIluie in ils ideaI slale vilh ail, vilh speciaI, exceplionaI foins of
hunan ciealivily. Ioi lhen, and foi lhe liadilion of HegeIian phiIosophy of vhich
lhey veie a pail, ail couId acl as a foin of ciilique of lhe iesl of Iife and piovide a
ulopian vision of hov a lellei Iife nighl le possilIe. In Adoino and Hoikheineis
viev, hovevei, cuIluie had aInosl enliieIy Iosl lhis capacily lo acl as ulopian cii-
lique lecause il had lecone connodihed - a lhing lo le loughl and soId. CuIluie
and Indusliy veie supposed, in lheii viev, lo le opposiles lul, in nodein capilaI-
isl denociacy, lhe lvo had coIIapsed logelhei. Hence, CuIluie Indusliy.
9
y lhe Iale 196Os, il vas cIeai lhal cuIluie, sociely and lusiness veie lecon-
ing noie inleilvined lhan evei as liansnalionaI coipoialions invesled in hIn,
leIevision and iecoid conpanies and lhese foins look on evei giealei sociaI and
poIilicaI signihcance. Adoino, Hoikheinei and olhei piesenl and foinei nen-
leis of lhe Iiankfuil SchooI lecane inleinalionaIIy pioninenl as Iefl-ving slu-
denls and inleIIecluaIs luined lo lheii ideas lo nake sense of lhese changes. The
lein 'CuIluie Indusliy lecane videIy used in poIenics againsl lhe peiceived
Iinilalions of nodein cuIluiaI Iife and vas picked up ly Iiench socioIogisls
(nosl nolalIy Huel el aI., 1978, Mige, 1979, Moiin, 1962), as veII as ly aclivisls
and poIicynakeis
1O
, and conveiled inlo lhe lein 'cuIluiaI indusliies.
So vhy piefei lhe pIuiaI lo lhe singuIai foin` The dislinclion is ieveaI-
ing and noie signihcanl lhan nay al hisl appeai lo le lhe case. The Iiench
'cuIluiaI indusliies socioIogisls iejecled Adoino and Hoikheineis use
of lhe singuIai lein 'The CuIluie Indusliy lecause il suggesled a 'uni-
hed heId vheie aII lhe diffeienl foins of cuIluiaI pioduclion lhal coexisl
in nodein Iife aie assuned lo oley lhe sane Iogic. They veie conceined,
inslead, lo shov hov %4(9$+0 lhe cuIluiaI indusliies aie and lo iden-
lify lhe diffeienl Iogics al voik in vaiious lypes of cuIluiaI pioduclion -
hov, foi exanpIe, lhe lioadcasling indusliies opeialed in a veiy diffeienl
vay fion lhe piess oi fion indusliies ieIianl on 'ediloiiaI oi pulIishing
nodeIs of pioduclion, such as look pulIishing oi lhe iecoiding indusliy
9 Sleineil (2OO3: 9) cIaiifies lhal Adoino and Hoikheinei used lhe lein in lvo diffeienl
senses: 'CuIluie Indusliy lo iefei lo 'connodily pioduclion as lhe piincipIe of a spe-
cific foin of cuIluiaI pioduclion and lhe cuIluie indusliy lo iefei lo a specific lianch
of pioduclion.
1O InleinalionaIIy, lhe lein vas disseninaled in poIicy ciicIes lhiough lhe Uniled Nalions
LducalionaI, Scienlific and CuIluiaI Oiganizalion (UNLSCO), lased in Iaiis. UNLSCO
sponsoied a Iaige-scaIe conpaialive inleinalionaI piogianne on lhe cuIluiaI indus-
liies in 1979 and 198O, vhich cuIninaled in a confeience in MonlieaI in }une 198O, lhe
pioceedings of vhich veie pulIished in LngIish as UNLSCO (1982).
25 Introduction
(see Mige, 1987). As a iesuIl, lhey piefeiied lhe pIuiaI lein 'indusliies
cuIluieIIes.
11
The cuIluiaI indusliies socioIogisls iejecled lhe appioach of Adoino and
Hoikheinei on olhei giounds, loo, as lhe Ieading viilei in lhis liadilion,
einaid Mige (1989: 9-12), nade cIeai in lhe foievoid lo a liansIaled coIIeclion
of his voik.
12
Iiisl, lhey iejecled Adoino and Hoikheineis allachnenl lo pie-
indusliiaI foins of cuIluiaI pioduclion. IoIIoving olhei ciilics of lhe Iiankfuil
SchooI, incIuding Adoinos fiiend and conlenpoiaiy WaIlei enjanin, Mige
aigued lhal lhe inlioduclion of indusliiaIisalion and nev lechnoIogies inlo cuI-
luiaI pioduclion did indeed Iead lo incieasing connodihcalion, lul lhal il aIso
Ied lo exciling nev diieclions and innovalions. The connodihcalion of cuIluie,
lhen, vas a nuch noie #()!*#$+'" piocess lhan vas aIIoved foi ly Adoino and
Hoikheineis cuIluiaI pessinisn. (As ve shaII see in lhe nexl chaplei, lhis is
an insighl shaied ly sone cuIluiaI sludies appioaches.) Second, ialhei lhan
assuning lhal lhe piocess of connodihcalion of cuIluie has leen a snoolh,
uniesisled one, lhe cuIluiaI indusliies socioIogisls veie conceined vilh lhe
Iiniled and inconpIele naluie of allenpls lo exlend capilaIisn inlo lhe ieaIn
of cuIluie. They sav lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, in olhei voids, as %4'"+&"+< F a
zone of conlinuing sliuggIe - vheieas lheie is a conslanl sense in Adoino and
Hoikheinei lhal lhe lallIe has aIieady leen Iosl, lhal cuIluie has leen aIieady
sulsuned lolh ly capilaI and ly an alsliacl syslen of 'insliunenlaI ieason.
These nodihcalions of Adoino and Hoikheineis CuIluie Indusliy lhesis
aie ieaI advances. The poinl heie is nol sinpIy lo shov lhal lvo Ceinan inleI-
IecluaIs viiling in lhe niddIe of lhe lvenlielh cenluiy gol il viong. Adoino
and Hoikheinei aie inleiesling, anongsl olhei ieasons, lecause lhey pio-
vided a highIy sophislicaled veision of a node of lhinking aloul cuIluie lhal is
sliII connon loday. Nevspapei connenlalois can oflen le iead oi heaid dis-
nissing indusliiaIised cuIluie as delased. Wiileis, leacheis and sludenls oflen
Iapse inlo a pessinisn siniIai lo lhal of lhe CuIluie Indusliy chaplei, even
vhiIe lhey enjoy and feeI eniiched ly nany of lhe pioducls of lhe cuIluiaI
indusliies. Adoino and Hoikheinei piovide lhe fuIIesl and nosl inleIIigenl
veision of lhe exliene, pessinislic viev of lhe indusliiaIisalion of cuIluie. Ioi
Mige and olheis, hovevei, even lhis inleIIigenl veision of cuIluiaI pessinisn
is Iacking. Alandoning exliene pessinisn is nol lhe sane lhing as conpIacenlIy
ceIelialing lhe cuIluiaI indusliies as lhey aie. The key voids, lo iepeal, aie
%4(9$+0G #()!*#$+'" and %4'"+&"+<. These leins diive ny effoils lo expIain and
assess lhe cuIluiaI indusliies in vhal foIIovs. Using lhe lein 'cuIluiaI indus-
liies signaIs nol onIy an avaieness of lhe piolIens of lhe indusliiaIisalion of
cuIluie, lul aIso a iefusaI lo sinpIify assessnenl and expIanalion.
11 Many viileis (such as Lash and Uiiy, 1994, and Cainhan, 2OOO - lhough nol Cainhan,
199O) use lhe lein 'cuIluie indusliies. The diffeience is liiviaI, lul I piefei 'cuIluiaI
indusliies lecause il synloIises lhe nove leyond lhe Iiankfuil SchooI appioach.
12 This pooiIy ediled liansIalion foins lhe nosl inpoilanl souice in LngIish of Iiancophone
socioIogicaI voik on lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, lul see aIso Lacioix and TienlIay (1997).
INDUSTRIES THAT MAKE TEXTS: THE
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
In Iighl of lhe voik ly Mige and olheis - incIuding, nosl nolalIy, Cainhan
(199O) - il is possilIe lo oulIine lhe dislinclive fealuies of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies,
as conpaied vilh olhei foins of capilaIisl pioduclion. These aie sunnaiised
in ox O.2.
13
The hisl foui fealuies aie lhe dislinclive 954)$+(& faced ly lhe cuI-
luiaI indusliies and lhe nexl hve fealuies aie lhe nosl connon 5+&94'&+&, oi
allenpled soIulions, undeilaken ly cuIluiaI indusliy lusinesses. These dislinc-
live fealuies have key inpIicalions foi lhe iesl of lhe look. They heIp lo expIain
iecuiiing slialegies of cuIluiaI indusliy conpanies in leins of hov lhey nan-
age and oiganise cuIluiaI pioduclion. They indicale polenliaI causes of change.
They heIp us lo undeisland lhe consliainls facing lhose vho vanl lo voik
as synloI ciealois oi sel up lheii ovn independenl and/oi aIleinalive cuI-
luiaI oiganisalions. They aIso piovide a vay of undeislanding lhe diffeiences
)+"-++' cuIluiaI indusliies, in lhal ceilain fealuies aie noie appaienl in sone
indusliies lhan in olheis, oi lhe sane fealuies lake sonevhal diffeienl foins.
Box 0.2 Summary of distinctive features of the
cultural industries
Problems:
Risky business.
Creativity versus commerce.
High production costs and low reproduction costs.
Semi-public goods; the need to create scarcity.
Responses:
Misses are offset against hits by building a repertoire.
Concentration, integration and co-opting publicity.
Artificial scarcity.
Formatting: stars, genres and serials.
Loose control of symbol creators; tight control of distribution and marketing.
13 A nunlei of olhei viileis have allenpled lo define lhe chaiacleiislics of lhose indus-
liies lhal aie invoIved piinaiiIy in lhe pioduclion and ciicuIalion of synloIic goods,
even if lhey do nol use lhe lein 'cuIluiaI indusliies. Many of lhese aie uIlinaleIy
consislenl vilh lhe leins used ly Cainhan in his cIassic oulIine of lhe leiiain (akei,
2OO2, Caves, 2OOO, and Cianl and Wood, 2OO4, aie nolalIe exanpIes). My ovn oulIine
heie is dislinclive in piesenling lhese chaiacleiislics as a sel of piolIens and allenpled
soIulions oi iesponses.
27 Introduction
Risky business
AII lusiness is iisky, lul lhe cuIluiaI indusliies conslilule a pailicuIaiIy iisky
lusiness (lhe lilIe of a look on lhe hIn indusliy ly IiindIe, 1993 - piesunalIy
naned in honage lo lhe enjoyalIe 1983 hIn slaiiing Ton Ciuise) lecause lhey
aie cenlied on lhe pioduclion of lexls lhal can le loughl and soId. Ioi Cainhan,
inuenced ly ouidieu (1984), lhis 1,&; deiives fion lhe facl lhal audiences use
cuIluiaI connodilies in highIy voIaliIe and unpiediclalIe vays, oflen in oidei lo
expiess lhe viev lhal lhey aie diffeienl fion olhei peopIe (Cainhan, 199O: 161).
14

As a iesuIl, fashionalIe peifoineis oi slyIes, even if heaviIy naikeled, can sud-
denIy cone lo le peiceived as oulnoded and, equaIIy, olhei lexls can lecone
unexpecledIy successfuI. These iisks, vhich slen fion consunplion, fion lhe
vays in vhich audiences lend lo use lexls, aie nade voise ly lvo fuilhei faclois
ieIaled lo pioduclion. Iiisl, as ve sav eaiIiei, conpanies gianl synloI ciealois
a Iiniled aulonony in lhe hope lhal lhe ciealois viII cone up vilh sonelhing
oiiginaI and dislinclive enough lo le a hil. ul lhis neans lhal cuIluiaI conpanies
aie engaged in a conslanl piocess of sliuggIe lo conlioI vhal synloI ciealois
aie IikeIy lo cone up vilh. Second, any pailicuIai cuIluiaI indusliy conpany
(Conpany A) is ieIianl on olhei cuIluiaI indusliy conpanies (, C, D, and so on)
lo nake audiences avaie of lhe exislence of a nev pioducl oi of lhe uses and
pIeasuies lhal lhey nighl gel fion expeiiencing lhe pioducl. Lven if Conpany A
acluaIIy ovns Conpany oi I, lhey canl quile conlioI lhe kind of pulIicily lhe
lexl is IikeIy lo gel lecause il is difhcuIl lo piedicl hov ciilics, jouinaIisls, iadio
and leIevision pioduceis, piesenleis, and so on aie IikeIy lo evaIuale lexls.
AII lhese faclois nean lhal cuIluiaI indusliy conpanies face speciaI piol-
Iens of iisk and unpiediclaliIily. Heie aie sone slalislics:
NeaiIy 3O,OOO aIluns veie ieIeased in lhe USA in 1998, of vhich fevei
lhan 2 pei cenl soId noie lhan 5O,OOO copies (WoIf, 1999: 89).
Lighly eighl hils in 1999 - O.O3 pei cenl of ieIeases - accounled foi a
quailei of US iecoid saIes (AIdeinan, 2OO1).
Neunan (1991: 139) quoles a iuIe of lhunl in pulIishing lhal 8O pei
cenl of lhe incone deiives fion 2O pei cenl of lhe pulIished pioducl.
ellig (1996: 1O2) cIains lhal, of lhe 35O oi so hIns ieIeased each yeai
in lhe USA al lhe line of his sludy, onIy 1O oi so viII le lox ofhce hils.
Diivei and CiIIespie (1993: 191) iepoil lhal onIy one-lhiid lo one-haIf of
UK nagazines lieak even and onIy 25 pei cenl nake a piohl.
Accoiding lo hguies ciled ly Moian (1997: 444), aloul 8O pei cenl of lhe
5O,OOO look lilIes pulIished in lhe USA each yeai in lhe nid-198Os veie
hnanciaI faiIuies.
NeveilheIess, acioss lhe cuIluiaI indusliies as a vhoIe, lhis iisk is success-
fuIIy negolialed ly lhe Iaigei conpanies:
14 Lven if ve do nol lhink of lhe piolIen in lhis vay, il is cIeai lhal lhe consunplion of
lexls is IikeIy lo le highIy suljeclive and aialionaI.
TeIevision piohls have liadilionaIIy iun al a iale of 2O pei cenl of saIes,
accoiding lo Neunan (1991: 136).
Conpaine (1982: 34, ciled ly Neunan, 1991: 136) cIains lhal piohls fion
nolion picluies lend lo iun al 33 lo 1OO pei cenl highei lhan lhe US aveiage.
Iiohls, lhough, aie highIy vaiialIe, depending on lhe degiee of conpelilion
vilhin and acioss indusliies:
DaIe (1997: 2O) sanpIes hguies fion 1992 shoving lhe foIIoving piohl
naigins (opeialing incone divided ly saIes) in diffeienl indusliies:
calIe, 2O pei cenl,
lioadcasl leIevision, neaiIy 17.5 pei cenl,
lhe piess and looks, aiound 12 pei cenl,
nusic, nelvoik leIevision and nagazines, jusl undei 1O pei cenl,
hIn and adveilising agencies, in lhe high singIe digils.
IiIn indusliy piohls feII fion an aveiage of 15 pei cenl in lhe 197Os lo
aloul 1O pei cenl in lhe eaiIy 198Os, lhen lo aiound 5-6 pei cenl in lhe
Iale 198Os, lefoie naking a iecoveiy in lhe eaiIy 199Os (DaIe, 1997: 2O).
In lhe eaiIy 2OOOs, lhe najois lhal doninale lhe cuIluiaI indusliies
shoved eilhei veiy high lenpoiaiy Iosses, ieecling lhe huge cosls of
neigeis oi inveslnenl, oi pooi piohl iales: Iess lhan 5 pei cenl al Disney
and Iess lhan 3 pei cenl al Viacon in 2OO2 (Cianl and Wood, 2OO4: 1OO).
The cuIluiaI indusliies, lhen, can le highIy piohlalIe in spile of lhe pai-
licuIaiIy high IeveIs of iisk nany lusinesses face, lul il nay le difhcuIl lo
achieve high IeveIs of piohl foi individuaI conpanies.
Creativity versus commerce
The accounl in lhe pievious seclion nay have nade il sound as lhough syn-
loI ciealois voik undei ieIaliveIy aulononous condilions in lhe cuIluiaI
indusliies lecause lhis ieIalive aulonony is geneiousIy gianled lo lhen ly
conpanies. The ieaIily, hovevei, is noie conpIicaled. Such aulonony is aIso
a pioducl of hisloiicaI undeislandings of lhe naluie of synloIic ciealivily
and knovIedge, in pailicuIai, lhe viev lhal lhey aie nol ieadiIy conpalilIe
vilh lhe puisuil of conneice. Ronanlic conceplions of ail in 'Weslein socie-
lies eslalIished lhe idea lhal ail is al ils nosl speciaI vhen il iepiesenls lhe
oiiginaI seIf-expiession of a pailicuIai aulhoi. Al one IeveI lhis is a nyslihca-
lion, so lo sel ciealivily loo sliongIy againsl conneice - as a gieal deaI of
ionanlic and nodeinisl lhoughl aloul ail did - is viong. Ciealois need lo
le paid and sone of lhe nosl eye-opening, lhoughl-piovoking, funny and
IoveIy voiks have leen pioduced as pail of a conneiciaI syslen. Hovevei
dulious lhe ionanlic conceplion of opposing ciealivily and knovIedge lo
conneice nay le, il has had lhe Iong-lein effecl of geneialing a sel of len-
sions vhich aie vilaI lo undeislanding lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. The ciealivily/
conneice diaIeclic heIps lo geneiale lhe ieIalive and piovisionaI aulonony
29 Introduction
lhal nany synloI nakeis allain. Il aIso adds lo lhe unceilainly and difhcuIly
of lhe enviionnenl in vhich cuIluiaI lusinesses voik. IaiaIIeIs exisl in olhei
heIds. Theie aie lensions in science and engineeiing, foi exanpIe, lelveen lhe
goaI of naking knovIedge pulIicIy avaiIalIe and gaining hnanciaI advanlage
fion lhal knovIedge. ul il is inpossilIe lo undeisland lhe dislinclive naluie
of cuIluiaI pioduclion vilhoul an undeislanding of lhe conneice/ciealivily
diaIeclic. I expIoie lhese issues fuilhei in Chapleis 2 and 7.
High production costs and low reproduction costs
Mosl cuIluiaI connodilies have high hxed cosls and Iov vaiialIe cosls: a iecoid
can cosl a Iol lo nake lecause of aII lhe line and effoil lhal has lo go inlo con-
posilion, iecoiding, nixing and ediling lo gel lhe iighl sound foi ils nakeis and
lheii inlended audience, lul once 'lhe hisl copy is nade, aII sulsequenl cop-
ies aie ieIaliveIy cheap lo iepioduce. DigilaIisalion has onIy anpIihed lhis fea-
luie. The key poinl heie is lhe 5#"!4 lelveen pioduclion and iepioduclion cosls:
naiIs, foi exanpIe, have a Iov design inpul, naking lhe hisl copy cheapish lo
pioduce and each fuilhei copy cosling nol nuch Iess. This pioduces a veiy dif-
feienl kind of naikel fion lhal vhich pievaiIs in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies. Cais
aie noie Iike lhe lexls lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies pioduce, lul aie sliII sulslan-
liaIIy diffeienl. The piololype of a cai is exlieneIy expensive, vilh enoinous
anounls of design and engineeiing inpul, and lhe cosls of each nev cai luiIl
fion lhe piololype aie veiy expensive, loo, lecause of lhe naleiiaIs and safely
checks iequiied. So, even lhough lhe hxed cosls aie high, lhe ialio of hxed cosls
lo vaiialIe cosls is ieIaliveIy Iov. The nuch highei ialio of hxed cosls lo vaii-
alIe cosls in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies neans lhal lig hils aie exlieneIy piohlalIe.
This is lecause, leyond lhe lieak-even poinl, lhe piohl nade fion lhe saIe of
eveiy exlia unil can le consideialIe,
15
conpensaling foi lhe inevilalIy Iaige
nunlei of nisses lhal cone aloul as a iesuIl of lhe voIaliIe and unpiediclalIe
naluie of denand. This Ieads lo a veiy sliong oiienlalion lovaids 'audience
naxinisalion in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies (Cainhan, 199O: 16O).
Semi-public goods
CuIluiaI connodilies aie iaieIy deslioyed ly use. They lend lo acl Iike vhal
econonisls caII 'pulIic goods - goods vheie lhe acl of consunplion ly one
individuaI does nol ieduce lhe possiliIily of consunplion ly olheis. If I Iis-
len lo a CD, foi exanpIe, lhal doesnl in any vay aIlei youi expeiience of il
if I pass il on lo you. The sane couId ceilainIy nol le said of ny ealing a pie.
Using a cai dininishes ils vaIue foi anolhei usei nuch noie lhan valching
15 Those cuIluiaI indusliies lhal do nol seII goods diieclIy lo cusloneis, nosl nolalIy
lioadcasling and, incieasingIy, inleinel conlenl, voik in diffeienl lul ieIaled vays.
In lhen, lhe exlia unil is lhal of audiences, vhich aie lhen 'soId on lo adveiliseis. See
Chaplei 9 foi a discussion of sone of lhe inpIicalions of lhis foi digilaI nedia.
a DVD does lhe DVD. Whal is noie, lhe neans of indusliiaI iepioduclion
of cuIluiaI goods aie ieIaliveIy Iov in cosl. This neans lhal hins have lo
achieve lhe scaicily lhal gives vaIue lo goods ly Iiniling access lo cuIluiaI
goods and seivices ly ailihciaI neans (see leIov).
Hov, lhen, do cuIluiaI indusliy lusinesses allenpl lo iespond lo lhe pai-
licuIai sel of issues facing lhen as lhey allenpl lo nake piohl and geneiale
capilaI fion lhe pioduclion of cuIluie`
Misses are offset against hits by building a repertoire
This exlia enphasis on audience naxinisalion neans lhal, in lhe cuIluiaI
indusliies, conpanies lend lo offsel nisses againsl hils ly neans of 'ovei-
pioduclion (Hiisch, 199O|1972j), allenpling lo pul logelhei a Iaige cala-
Iogue oi 'cuIluiaI iepeiloiie (Cainhan, 199O: 161) oi, lo pul il anolhei vay,
'lhioving nud - oi olhei siniIai sulslances - 'againsl lhe vaII lo see vhal
slicks (Laing, 1985: 9, Negus, 1999: 34). If, as Cainhan suggesls, one iecoid
in eveiy nine is a hil and lhe olhei eighl aie nisses, lhen a conpany issuing
hve iecoids is Iess IikeIy lo have sufhcienl hils lo keep il aoal lhan anolhei
conpany vilh a iepeiloiie oi calaIogue of 5O iecoid ieIeases. This is one of
lhe piessuies lovaids achieving giealei size foi cuIluiaI conpanies, lhough
lheie aie counleivaiIing lendencies lhal favoui snaIIei conpanies. Much has
leen nade in iecenl yeais of lhe idea of %<# =*)59 %-,*> %<#&,& (Andeison,
2OO6): lhe idea lhal conneice viII le incieasingIy oiienled lovaids pio-
viding goods foi niche pioducls vilh a ieIaliveIy snaII denand, lul vhich
coIIecliveIy suslain lusinesses, lecause digilaIisalion aIIovs foi Iovei dis-
liilulion cosls. In facl, as ve shaII see in Chaplei 9, lheie is evidence lhal
lhe 'Iong laiI lhesis is fauIly. Allenlion and ievenue sliII lend lo le heaviIy
concenlialed in hils, oi lhe nosl successfuI and popuIai cuIluiaI pioducls.
Concentration, integration and co-opting publicity
CuIluiaI indusliy conpanies deaI vilh iisk and lhe need lo ensuie audience
naxinisalion ly using slialegies lhal aie aIso appaienl in olhei seclois.
?)1,@)5%-* ,5%#91-%,)5 They luy up olhei conpanies in lhe sane secloi
lo ieduce lhe conpelilion foi audiences and audience line.
A#1%,.-* ,5%#91-%,)5 They luy up olhei conpanies invoIved in diffei-
enl slages of lhe piocess of pioduclion and ciicuIalion. Conpanies
nighl luy 'dovnsliean, such as vhen a conpany invoIved in naking
hIns luys a DVD disliiluloi, oi 'upsliean, vhich is vhen a conpany
invoIved in disliilulion oi liansnission (such as a calIe leIevision con-
pany) luys a piogianne-nakei.
85%#15-%,)5-*,&-%,)5 y luying and pailneiing olhei conpanies alioad,
coipoialions can seII nassive anounls of exlia copies of a pioducl lhey
have aIieady paid lo pioduce (lhough lhey viII have lo pay nev naikel-
ing cosls, of couise).
31 Introduction
B4*%,&#.%)1 -5+ 04*%,0#+,- ,5%#91-%,)5 They luy inlo olhei ieIaled
aieas of cuIluiaI indusliy pioduclion lo ensuie cioss-pionolion.
AIso inpoilanl is lhe allenpl lo 'co-opl (Hiisch, 199O|1972j) ciilics, D}s
and vaiious olhei peopIe iesponsilIe foi pulIicising lexls, ly sociaIising
vilh lhen and sending lhen gifls, piess ieIeases, and so on.
Such foins of inlegialion have Ied lo lhe foinalion of liggei and noie povei-
fuI conpanies. NeaiIy aII najoi indusliies - fion aIuniniun lo liochenicaIs
lo cIolhing - aie doninaled ly Iaige conpanies. Theie is onIy Iiniled evidence
lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies have highei degiees of indusliy .)5.#5%1-%,)5
lhan olhei indusliies. AigualIy, lhough, lhe consequences of nol succeeding
in giovlh and inlegialion aie giealei in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies lhan in nany
olhei indusliies lecause lheie is a veiy high faiIuie iale foi snaIIei conpanies.
This, in luin, is expIained ly lhe facl lhal snaII cuIluiaI conpanies aie unalIe
lo spiead iisk acioss a iepeiloiie. CiuciaIIy, lhe consequences of lhis size and
povei aie unique lo lhe cuIluiaI indusliies lecause of lhe aliIily of lhe goods
lhey pioduce - lexls - lo have an inuence on oui lhinking aloul lheii opeia-
lions, aloul aII olhei indusliies and, indeed, polenliaIIy, aloul aII aspecls of Iife.
Artificial scarcity
Cainhan (199O: 38-9, 161) idenlihed a nunlei of vays in vhich scaicily
is achieved foi cuIluiaI goods (vhich, as ve sav alove, lecause lhey oflen
shov pulIic good fealuies, lend nol lo le scaice). Iiinaiy anong lhen is
veilicaI inlegialion. The ovneiship of disliilulion and ielaiI channeIs aIIovs
conpanies lo conlioI ieIease scheduIes and ensuie lhe adequale avaiIaliIily
of goods. }usl as cenliaI, hovevei, aie:
adveilising, vhich Iinils lhe ieIalive inpoilance foi piohls of lhe &#$+
of cuIluiaI goods,
copyiighl, vhich ains lo pievenl peopIe fion fieeIy copying lexls,
Iiniling access lo lhe neans of iepioduclion, so lhal copying is nol easy.
Formatting: stars, genres, serials
Anolhei vay foi cuIluiaI indusliy conpanies lo cope vilh lhe high IeveIs
of iisk in lhe secloi is lo nininise lhe dangei of nisses ly 7)10-%%,59 lheii
cuIluiaI pioducls (Ryan, 1992).
16
One najoi neans of foinalling is #,$ '#"%
16 The lein 'foinal is videIy used in lhe leIevision indusliy lo iefei lo lhe concepl of a
pailicuIai piogianne, such as H64 H#'"& "4 )+ # I!$$!4'#!5+JG K!2 K54"6+5 oi L+49#5<7.
This is oflen deveIoped in an iniliaI naikel and lhen soId as a copyiighled idea (ialhei
lhan as a piogianne) in oveiseas naikels (see Moian and Keane, 2OO4). Thal is nol
lhe sense in vhich Ryan uses lhe lein, lul lhis slialegy can le undeislood as a vay of
allenpling lo spiead lhe high fixed cosls associaled vilh deveIoping a piogianne
idea and ieaping lhe ievaid fion lhe ieIaliveIy Iov vaiialIe cosls.
'1'#$5 - associaling lhe nanes of slai viileis, peifoineis and so on vilh
lexls. This invoIves consideialIe naikeling effoils, in oidei lo lieak a viilei
oi peifoinei as a nev slai oi ensuie lhe conlinualion of a slais auia. This
lype of foinalling is ieseived foi piiviIeged lexls lhal cuIluiaI indusliy
conpanies hope viII lecone lig hils. The inpoilance of lhe slai syslen can
le indicaled ly lhe foIIoving slalislic: of lhe 126 novies lhal nade noie lhan
US$1OO niIIion al US lox ofhces in lhe 199Os, 41 slaiied one oi noie of jusl
seven aclois: Ton Hanks, }uIia Roleils, Rolin WiIIians, }in Caiiey, Ton
Ciuise, AinoId Schvaizeneggei and iuce WiIIis (Slandaid & Ioois I4*!+&
#'< M4(+ E'"+5"#!'(+'" ='<1&"57 @15*+7, 11 May 2OOO: 14).
Anolhei ciuciaI neans of foinalling is lhe use of -$&%$, such as 'hoiioi
hIn, 'hip hop aIlun, 'Iileiaiy noveI. Cenie leins opeiale as IaleIs, nol
unIike liand nanes, lhal suggesl lo audiences lhe kinds of salisfaclion and
ievaid lhey nighl allain ly expeiiencing lhe pioducl. The leins nighl nol
le univeisaIIy undeislood and aIso nighl nol even le expIicilIy used, lul lhe
key lhing heie is lhal a lype of cuIluiaI pioducl is suggesled and associaled
vilh pailicuIai uses and pIeasuies. Many cuIluiaI pioducls pionoled and
pulIicised piinaiiIy via lhe use of genie aIso caiiy aulhoi nanes, lul unliI
lhe aulhoi lecones a slai, genie is paianounl.
IinaIIy, lhe '$%/"2 ienains a najoi lype of foinalling, especiaIIy vheie
aulhoiship and genie aie Iess signihcanl. This has leen an inpoilanl aspecl
of pulIishing - popuIai hclion, conics, and so on. HoIIyvood ieIies noie
lhan evei on sequeIs and piequeIs: 27 sequeIs and piequeIs veie Iisled in lhe
US cinena ieIease scheduIe foi 2O11 as il slood in }anuaiy of lhal yeai - noie
lhan in any pievious yeai (Ciay, 2O11).
Loose control of symbol creators; tight control of
distribution and marketing
In discussing synloI ciealois eaiIiei, I poinled oul lhal synloI ciealois aie
gianled consideialIe aulonony vilhin lhe piocess of pioduclion - fai noie,
in facl, lhan nosl voikeis in olhei foins of indusliy. Theie aie cuIluiaI iea-
sons foi lhis (naneIy, Iong-slanding assunplions aloul lhe elhicaI desii-
aliIily of ciealive aulonony, vhich deiive fion lhe ionanlic conceplion of
synloIic ciealivily, and liadilions of fiee speech) as veII as econonic and
oiganisalionaI ones. Manageis assune lhal najoi hils and lhe ciealion of
nev genie, slai and seiies liands iequiie oiiginaIily. SynloI ciealois aie
usuaIIy oveiseen fion a ceilain dislance ly 'ciealive nanageis (Ryan, 1992),
such as edilois oi leIevision pioduceis, vho acl as inleinediaiies lelveen
lhe ciealois and lhe conneiciaI inpeialives of lhe conpany. Those synloI
ciealois vho lecone slais - lheii nanes pionising ceilain expeiiences - aie
ievaided enoinousIy, lul nosl ciealive voikeis exisl in a vasl ieseivoii
of undeiused and undei-iesouiced laIenl, picking up voik heie and lheie.
In nany cases, pioduclion viII acluaIIy lake pIace undei lhe auspices of a
sepaiale, independenl conpany. Such 'independenls - oflen, in facl, lied
lo Iaigei conpanies ly hnancing, Iicensing and disliilulion deaIs - aie lo
33 Introduction
le found in alundance in lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, nainIy lecause synloI
ciealois and sone audiences aie suspicious of lhe luieaucialic conlioI of
ciealivily, again ieecling ingiained cuIluiaI assunplions aloul ail and
knovIedge. In oidei lo conlioI lhe iisks associaled vilh nanaging ciealivily,
senioi nanageis exeil nuch lighlei conlioI ovei iepioduclion, disliilulion
and naikeling - vhal I viII caII +/%+02"#/)& - lhan lhey do ovei pioduclion.
In nany cases lhis is achieved ly neans of veilicaI inlegialion.
An oljeclion nighl le nade lo a chaiacleiisalion of lhe dislinclive fealuies
of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, such as lhe one alove, lhal sone of lhese fealuies
viII le shaied vilh olhei indusliies. Such an oljeclion enliieIy nisses lhe
poinl: il is lhe %4$$+%"!*+ naluie of lhese chaiacleiislics lhal nalleis.
17
Noi, as
I sliessed eaiIiei, does lhe facl lhal cuIluiaI indusliy lusinesses aie Iinked
lo olhei sels of indusliies and olhei lusinesses invaIidale lhe idea lhal lheie
aie usefuI if piovisionaI and poious loundaiies lo le diavn aiound lhe
secloi. AnaIysing lhese dislinclive fealuies coIIecliveIy heIps us lo undei-
sland lhe pioduclion and consunplion of cuIluie. The key poinl, hovevei,
is lhal vhelhei lhey do so successfuIIy oi nol, +02#0%"2 /&.0'#%1 +)5!"&/$'
rcspnnd In partIcu!ar (thnugh varIab!c) ways tn pcrccIvcd dIfcu!tIcs nf
makIng prnts and lhese dislinclive dynanics pIay an inpoilanl ioIe in lhe
accounl of change and conlinuily in lhis look.
AUTHOR TO READER
I oulIined al lhe leginning of lhis Inlioduclion vhy I lhink lhe cuIluiaI indus-
liies nallei: lhe povei lhey have lo inuence peopIe, lhe vaiied vays in vhich
lhey nanage lhe voik of synloI ciealois and lheii ioIe in liinging aloul
noie geneiaI indusliiaI, sociaI and cuIluiaI change. ReIaling lhe fundanen-
laI conceins of lhe look lo ny ovn peisonaI lackgiound nay heIp lo nake
lhen noie conciele. I hope lhis viII piovide sone conlexl foi lhe pailicuIai
appioach I lake lo lhe cuIluiaI indusliies, lhe appioach deveIoped in lhis look.
As a leenagei, I vas infuiialed ly vhal I peiceived as lhe Iies and dis-
loilions of leIevision, and of lhe uIliaconseivalive nevspapeis ny paienls
iead (lypicaIIy foi a ceilain seclion of lhe Noilhein LngIish, voiking cIass/
Iovei niddIe cIass). /6+ B#!$7 I#!$ and @1'<#7 E095+&& seened conslanlIy
lo le allacking anyone vho vas liying lo achieve sociaI juslice in iilain in
lhe Iale 197Os - liade unions, feninisls, anli-iacisl aclivisls. They viole as if
lhe iilish ioIe in Noilhein IieIand vas one of naking peace lelveen liilaI
17 Olhei indusliies have leen anaIysed foi lheii dislinclive chaiacleiislics and Caves
(2OOO: 1) usefuIIy sunnaiises sone exanpIes, such as lhe phainaceulicaIs indusliy,
vhich is naiked ly lhe pailicuIai inlensily of conpelilion ovei innovalion, chenicaI
piocess indusliies, ly iivaIiy ovei lhe inslaIIalion of nev capacily, and food piocess-
ing, ly pioducl diffeienlialion and lhe iise of doninanl liands.
faclions. Lven al 15, I knev enough aloul Iiish hisloiy lo hnd lhis difhcuIl lo
accepl. These nevspapeis veie aIso decidedIy Iukevain in lheii condenna-
lion of fai-iighl neo-Nazi gioups, vhose giafhli vas aII ovei lhe lovn vheie
I giev up, diiecled al lhe iilish Soulh Asian connunily lheie. Il seened lo
ne, iighl fion ny leens, lhal lhe cuIluiaI indusliies had a ioIe in nainlain-
ing povei ieIalions and disloiling peopIes undeislanding of lhen.
My olhei nain ieIalionship lo lhe nedia and popuIai cuIluie vas as a fan,
and a fan I ienain. Lven if sone nedia seened lo lake a slance againsl nosl
of lhe peopIe and poIilicaI posilions I iespecled, lheie vas pIenly of exciling,
inleiesling and funny popuIai cuIluie aiound. I sliII hnd lhis lo le lhe case
loday, so I cannol accepl lhe viev of lhe cuIluiaI indusliies lo le found in
sone viiling on lhe suljecl - lhal lhey aie sinpIy a nonslious syslen foi
lhe nainlenance of confoinily. In lhe Iale 197Os and eaiIy 198Os, lhe nusicaI
genie of punk seened lo ne lo enlody lhe nosl ienaikalIe ciealive eneigy.
SuddenIy, lhe enolionaI iange of ny snaII iecoid coIIeclion vas nassiveIy
expanded: nusic couId le shocking oi cooIIy delached, inleIIigenl oi leIIig-
eienl, hiIaiious oi deadIy seiious. Iunk nusicians veie aIvays laIking aloul
lhe nusic indusliy and veie oflen aiguing lhal il couId le changed, lo nake
ciealivily noie videspiead and lo nake suie lhal noie of lhe noney venl
lo lhose ciealing lhe nusic.
My sense of lhe inpoilance (and anlivaIence) of nedia and popuIai cuI-
luie evenluaIIy Ied ne lo a caieei in leaching, vheie I vas foilunale enough
lo neel dozens of sludenls vho veie piepaied lo shaie lheii peispeclives
vilh ne. My Iove of US popuIai cuIluie (pailicuIaiIy cIassicaI and Movie
ial HoIIyvood cinena, lIack nusic and }evish conedy) and ny fascinaled
Ioalhing foi lhe US goveinnenls ioIe in gIolaI geopoIilics look ne lo lhe
oulskiils of Chicago foi a poslgiaduale degiee. Teaching and Ieaining pio-
vided lhe inpuIse lo viile lhis look, lul ils aIso infoined ly ny expeiience,
ovei lhe Iasl fev yeais, of ieseaiching and viiling aloul lhe cuIluiaI indus-
liies. Theie is an assunplion anong nany acadenics lhal lhe nosl pieslig-
ious looks viII necessaiiIy le noie oi Iess inconpiehensilIe lo sludenls.
Ive voiked haid lo nake lhis look inleiesling and usefuI foi olhei leacheis
and ieseaicheis, lul Ive aIso endeavouied lo nake il accessilIe foi sludenls,
ly expIaining difhcuIl concepls as lhey aiise and liying lo gel acioss vhy I
lhink lhe issues In deaIing vilh nallei. Ive had lo assune sone knovIedge
of and inleiesl in lhe lopic, lul Ive aIso liied nol lo assune loo nuch.

An Overview of Changes and Continuity in Cultural Industries

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An Overview of Changes and Continuity in Cultural Industries

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Introduction: Change and

Continuity, Power and Creativity

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