Ergonomics

Ergonomics is matching the job to the worker and product to the user. Ergonomics and human factors are often used interchangeably in workplaces. Both describe the interaction between the worker and the job demands. The difference between them is ergonomics focuses on how work affects workers, and human factors emphasizes designs that reduce the potential for human error. Ergonomic hazards refer to workplace conditions that pose the risk of injury to the musculoskeletal system of the worker. Examples of musculoskeletal injuries include tennis elbow (an inflammation of a tendon in the elbow and carpal tunnel syndrome (a condition affecting the hand and wrist . Ergonomic hazards include repetiti!e and forceful mo!ements, !ibration, temperature extremes, and awkward postures that arise from improper work methods and improperly designed workstations, tools, and e"uipment. This section also includes information on health and safety concerns when working shiftwork and extended work days.

#nti$fatigue %ats
What are anti-fatigue mats? The mats are designed to reduce fatigue that is caused by standing for long periods on hard surface (e.g.,. cement floors . &atigue$reducing mats can be made of !arious materials including rubber, carpeting materials, !inyl, and wood.

Why use anti-fatigue mats? #nti$fatigue mats are often used to decrease foot weariness for workers who stand in one position for long periods. 'owe!er, pro!iding a mat may not sol!e the entire problem. (iscomfort, tiredness, and sore feet after long hours of standing are the combined effect of se!eral factors, namely the design of the work, the workers) footwear, and the flooring material. #ccording to scientific data, standing for long periods of time is particularly stressful and fatiguing. *egardless of the "uality of shoes and "uality of the floor co!ering, standing itself can cause tiredness after an entire working day.

What should be considered first when a person stands all day at work? +hen considering the use of anti$fatigue mats, there are other factors that should be considered at the same time, such as allowing changes in working,standing position, footwear, and flooring. Changes in working/standing position- +ork should be organized so that the worker has some choice about his,her working position and an opportunity to change position fre"uently. # workplace that includes an optional seat (chair, sit,stand stool and some kind of footrest increases the !ariety of body positions and encourages fre"uent changes between them. Footwear- &ootwear is a factor which, if properly chosen, may further reduce the harmful effects of prolonged standing. There is no doubt that the choice of footwear is an important consideration for people who work on their feet. .hoes should ensure ade"uate arch and heel support and cushioning while pro!iding comfort to the wearer. Flooring- The type of flooring used in the workplace has an e"ually important influence on comfort, especially on tender feet. 'ard, unyielding floors, like concrete, are the least comfortable surface to work on. +alking on a hard floor is similar to the impact of a hammer pounding the heel at e!ery step. +ood, cork, carpeting, or rubber $ anything that pro!ides some elasticity $ is gentler on workers) feet. %ore than that, softer floor co!erings reduce fatigue and impro!e safety by reducing slips and falls on slippery floors.

When should anti-fatigue mats be used? There are two options to alle!iate foot discomfort where resilient floors are not practical. /ne is footwear with thick insulating soles and shock$absorbing insoles.

#nti$fatigue matting is the other option. #nti$fatigue mats absorb the shock due to walking and this cushioning effect reduces foot fatigue. 'owe!er, the use of matting re"uires caution because mats can lead to tripping and falling accidents when installed improperly. #nother type of floor co!ering, namely, anti$slip matting, is useful in increasing foot comfort and safety. 'owe!er, workers may find that their feet burn and feel sore, because the non$slip properties of anti$slip matting cause their shoes to grab suddenly on the flooring, making their feet slide forward inside the shoes. &riction inside the shoes produces heat which creates soreness. 0on$slip resilient insoles can reduce this discomfort. 1n summary, the use of anti$fatigue mats or placing carpeting on the floor does not eliminate sore feet by itself, but, when combined with proper work design and "uality footwear, it should impro!e working conditions.

Back Belts
What is a back belt? Back belts, also called 2back supports2 or 2abdominal belts2 were originally used in medical rehabilitation therapy. 3eather belts ha!e also been used by athletes during weight lifting. *ecently, the 2industrial back belt2 has become popular. +hile there are many types of belts on the market, the most common style is of a lightweight, elastic belt worn around the lower back which is sometimes held in place with suspenders.

Why are people using back belts? # back belt is a de!ice used, in theory, to reduce the forces on the spine, increase intra$abdominal pressure, stiffen the spine and reduce loads during lifting. 1t is also ad!ertised that by wearing a back belt, the worker will be reminded to a!oid awkward postures and hea!y loads, reduce bending motions and in the end, reduce injuries in certain workplaces.

Do back belts protect workers from back injury? 1n spite of anecdotal claims, no e!idence has so far been found to support the claim that wearing back belts impro!es one)s back safety. 1n response to the substantial increase in the number of workers who rely on back belts to pre!ent injury from lifting, the 0ational 1nstitute for /ccupational .afety and 'ealth (01/.' in the 4nited .tates formed the Back Belt +orking 5roup to re!iew and e!aluate the existing data related to back belts. Their final conclusions are back belts should not be considered as personal protecti!e e"uipment6 back belts should not be recommended for use in occupational situations.

The 01/.' groups) concerns which led to such conclusions were the use of back belts may produce some strain on the cardio!ascular system; the use of back belts limits mobility and may reduce the suppleness and elasticity of muscles and tendons, potentially contributing to back injury6 the use of back belts may create a false sense of security, increasing the risk of lifting excessi!e loads. +ith these recommendations in mind, the /ntario %inistry of 3abour issued 2'ealth and .afety 5uidelines $ +eight lifting or lumbar support belts in manual materials handling work2 that warns users and potential users of any kind of back belts about the potential health risks that could result from wearing these de!ices.

Back 1njury 7re!ention

What is the most likely kind of injury resulting from manual materials handling? 1t is probably fair to say that e!ery worker who lifts or does other manual handling tasks is at some risk for musculoskeletal injury. 3ow back injury is the most likely kind of injury. The complete elimination of this risk is not realistic because %%' usually in!ol!es awkward postures and repeated forceful mo!ements. 'owe!er, people can reduce the number and the se!erity of manual handling$related injuries substantially by using safe work practices.

ow can we pre!ent back injury resulting from "" ? To pre!ent occupational back injuries, it is essential to identify the factors of %%' that make the worker more susceptible to injury or that directly contribute to injury. +hen efforts to pre!ent injuries from %%' focus on only one risk factor, they do not significantly reduce the injury rate. # more successful approach such as the one offered by ergonomics combines knowledge of engineering, en!ironment, and human capabilities and limitations. The following aspects should be considered organization of work flow job design,redesign (including en!ironment pre$placement procedures, where necessary training

ow does organi#ation of the work flow reduce the risk for back injury due to "" ? /ften, poor planning of the work flow results in needless or repeated handling of the same object. +hen articles are temporarily stored in one place, mo!ed to another, stored again, and mo!ed again, a more efficient work flow can eliminate many potentially harmful %%' tasks.

ow does job design/redesign reduce the risk for back injury due to "" ? The design or redesign of jobs in!ol!ing %%' should be approached in the following stages eliminate hea!y %%' decrease %%' demands reduce stressful body mo!ements pace of work and rest breaks impro!e en!ironmental conditions

ow do you eliminate hea!y "" ? 8onsider using powered or mechanical handling systems if eliminating %%' tasks completely is not possible. %echanical aids lower the risk for back injury substantially by reducing the worker)s physical effort re"uired to handle hea!y objects. %anual handling such as lifting and carrying can be easier and safer if mechanized by using lift tables, con!eyors, yokes or trucks. 5ra!ity dumps and chutes can help in disposing of materials. %echanical aids also reduce the need to select workers for the task, but it is essential that the worker is properly trained in the safe use of the a!ailable e"uipment.

ow can we decrease ""

demands?

+here possible, use mechanical aids. The next step is to decrease the manual material handling demands. There are se!eral ways to achie!e this (ecrease the weight of handled objects to acceptable limits. *educe the weight by assigning two people to lift the load or by splitting the load into two or more containers. 4sing light plastic containers also decreases the weight of the load. 8hange the type of %%' mo!ement. 3owering objects causes less strain than lifting. 7ulling objects is easier than carrying. 7ushing is less demanding than pulling. 8hange work area layouts. *educing the horizontal and !ertical distances of lifting substantially lowers %%' demands. *educing the tra!el distances for carrying, pushing or pulling also decreases work demands. #ssign more time for repetiti!e handling tasks. This reduces the fre"uency of handling and allows for more work,rest periods. #lternate hea!y tasks with lighter ones to reduce the build$up of fatigue.

ow can we reduce stressful body mo!ements in "" ? 1t is important that the design of %%' allows the worker to do tasks without excessi!e bending and twisting. These body motions are particularly dangerous and can cause back injury e!en when not combined with handling loads.

 7ro!ide all materials at a work le!el that is adjusted to the worker)s body size. Eliminate deep shel!es to a!oid bending. Ensure sufficient space for the entire body to turn. 3ocate objects within easy reach. Ensure that there is a clear and easy access to the load. 4se slings and hooks to mo!e loads without handles. Balance contents of containers. 4se rigid containers. 8hange the shape of the load so the load can be handled close to the body.

ow do we set up a proper work pace$ and a beneficial ratio of work to rest breaks$ to reduce the risk for back pain due to "" ? 7ace of work, particularly when externally imposed, may significantly contribute to the worker discomfort, and conse"uently to the onset of musculoskeletal injuries, including low back injuries. #s a rule, pressure to work at a certain pace coming from management creates the mental need to work in a hurry. This in turn creates tension not only in the mind but also in the body. Tensed muscles are much more prone to injury, leading to +%.(. 9ery recent research on the causes of back injury shows that workers at high risk for back pain (for example, those who lift for a li!ing or where lifting is significant part of their job need more fre"uent and longer breaks. E!en a moderate pace of lifting (not necessarily at the maximum lifting limit if maintained for a prolonged time without breaks, rapidly decreases workers) lifting ability by speeding up their fatigue. 1t also means that in the second half of the working day, the risk for contracting low back injury (and, for that matter, any other musculoskeletal injury is higher. #nd because of this it would be wise to assign hea!ier tasks at the beginning of the working day rather than at the end (but after the worker is 2warmed up2 . 1t would be ideal if workers could work at their own pace and ha!e some freedom to take a rest break when they start feeling the effects of fatigue. 'owe!er, this might be impractical. 1t seems reasonable to incorporate two additional :;$ minute breaks, mid$morning and mid$afternoon, in addition to the <=$minute lunch break, 1f that schedule is still not feasible, shorter but more fre"uent breaks can do as well. 1t is also important that no!ices whose jobs in!ol!e lifting and %%' be gi!en time to adjust by allowing them more breaks.

ow can we impro!e the en!ironment to reduce the risk for injury due to "" ? The design of the work en!ironment is an important element of back injuries pre!ention. >eep the temperature of the working area between :?@8 and A:@8 when practical.

 1n extreme cases that re"uire hea!y %%' in temperatures abo!e <=@8, rest periods or light work load tasks may account for B; percent of the work time. +ear properly designed clothing to decrease the heat absorption by the body and to increase e!aporation. This is particularly important for people re"uired to work in high temperature en!ironment. Encourage using proper protecti!e clothing for people working in a cold en!ironment. This is essential to protect the worker from hypothermia and to preser!e dexterity needed for safe work. 1lluminate the work area for %%' tasks at the le!el of A== lux. 4se task lights or other additional light sources to impro!e the ability to see clearly where %%' re"uires fine !isual discrimination. 4se angular lighting and colour contrast to impro!e depth perception. This helps the worker where %%' in!ol!es climbing stairs or mo!ing in passageways. +hen the %%' tasks are done outdoors, the temperature conditions including the humidex (in hot weather or wind$chill factor (in cold weather ha!e to be monitored !ery closely. *educe %%' tasks by half when the temperature exceeds A?@8. .top %%' when the temperature exceeds C=@8. *estrict %%' to the minimum possible when wind$chill drops below $A;@8. .top %%' when wind$chill drops to $<;@8. %ore details about working and doing %%' acti!ities in hot and cold en!ironments are a!ailable in 88/'. publications 5roundskeepers .afety 5uide and 8old +eather +orker)s .afety 5uide.

ow effecti!e is pre-placement screening in back injury pre!ention? The objecti!e of pre$placement screening is to select indi!iduals less likely to be injured in work in!ol!ing %%'. D$rays, medical examination, physiological testing may be hazardous under certain circumstances or may not be specific enough to achie!e the intended objecti!e. They do not reduce the occurrence of occupational back injury among selected indi!iduals. +orse, the selection procedures can be abused when applied as a substitute for work design. The only situation where pre$placement screening may be justified as a pre!enti!e measure is where a job in!ol!es hea!y %%' in an unpredictable and uncontrollable en!ironment. Examples of these are firefighting, mine and water rescue, and police work. E!en here, the selected tests should closely reflect with the anticipated re"uirements of the job. By far the best pre$selection method, if one must be used, is performance of the actual task.

Does training reduce back injuries? There is little e!idence to indicate that training alone reduces the number of %%' injuries. +hen combined with work design, training is an important element in the pre!ention of injuries. 7roper training also shows the worker how to acti!ely contribute to the pre!ention of injuries. # good training program should-

make the worker aware of the hazards of %%' demonstrate ways of a!oiding unnecessary stress teach the worker to handle materials safely

1nstruction on how to lift 2properly2 is the most contro!ersial issue concerning training in %%'. There is no single correct way to lift because lifting can always be done in se!eral ways. Because of this, on$site, task specific training is essential. 1n fact, it is sometimes safer to allow the worker to use common sense ac"uired by experience rather than to force new biomechanically correct procedures. But there are some general lifting rules. safely. 7repare to lift by warming up the muscles. .tand close to the load, facing the way you intend to mo!e. 4se a wide stance to gain balance. Ensure a good grip on the load. >eep arms straight. Tighten abdominal muscles. Tuck chin into the chest. 1nitiate the lift with body weight. 3ift the load close to the body. 3ift smoothly without jerking. #!oid twisting and side bending while lifting. (o not lift if you are not con!inced that you can handle the load

1t is also important that workers take ad!antage of rest periods to relax tired muscles6 this pre!ents fatigue from building up report discomforts experienced during work6 this may help to identify hazards and correct working conditions. &inally, there is an aspect of training that cannot be o!erlooked if training is to be part of an effecti!e pre!ention program. +orkers should be educated that muscles, tendons and ligaments are not prepared to meet the physical stress of handling tasks when they are not 2warmed up.2 They are more likely to pull, tear or cramp when stretched or contracted suddenly under such conditions. This, painful enough by itself, can lead to more serious and permanent injury if physically stressful work is continued. +arming up and mental readiness for physically demanding tasks are important for any kind of %%', but particularly for occasional tasks where the worker is not accustomed to handling loads. +orkers are more likely to ha!e 2ready$to$go2 attitude for the task ahead when they understand that other pre!enti!e measures are also tried.

8on!eyors $ Ergonomics
ow are con!eyors used in industry? 8on!eyors are common e"uipment found in industry. They are used to mo!e products and supplies in and out of a work site, from one part of the plant to another, and between workstations. 1n all kinds of assembly operations, ranging from microelectronics to the automoti!e industry, con!eyors, whether powered or

unpowered, roller or belt, o!erhead or floor, are literally the backbone of the production system. The entire work process re!ol!es around the con!eyor. 1ts height, width, speed and position in relation to the worker all modify the o!erall workload and the way workers do their job. To lessen the likelihood for ad!erse effects of long hours spent at a con!eyor of any type, some ergonomic and design issues ha!e to be considered.

ow do we make work at a con!eyor safer? +here!er the tasks at the con!eyor re"uire wide$ranging bodily motion and,or physical exertion, then the work should be done from a standing position6 8on!eyor height should be determined by the degree of exertion re"uired and the dimensions of the objects being worked upon. # range of between E; cm and :A= cm can accommodate the majority of the workforce and a !ariety of tasks. %ore information on working in standing positions can be found in our /.' #nswers section undero +orking in a .tanding 7osition o +orking in .tanding,.itting 7ositions o &ish 7rocessing 8on!eyor height for precision work such as microelectronic assembly should be from F; cm to :A= cm, ideally ; cm abo!e one)s elbow height6 .eating such as that described in the following OSH Answers documents, plus elbow supports are highly recommended6 o +orking in a .itting 7osition $$ #lternati!e 8hairs o +orking in .tanding,.itting 7ositions 8on!eyor height for light work should be about ; to := cm below one)s elbow height. .eating is optional. 8on!eyor height for hea!y work should be about A= to C= cm below one)s elbow height. .eats for other than resting are not recommended6 *egardless of whether they work while sitting or standing, workers should ha!e ade"uate knee and leg clearance6 #isles should be wide enough so that the workers could perform their tasks without obstruction6 .mall racks or shel!es for containers should be within easy reach6 containers should be tilted to a!oid repetiti!e awkward mo!ements6 8onsider installing tool balancers where hea!y powered hand tools are used6 The pace of a con!eyor should be set between the capabilities of the most$ and least $skilled worker6 the highest speed should not exceed := m,min6 &or assembly work the workers should ha!e some control o!er the pacing their tasks6 8onsider installing anti$fatigue matting. 1t may alle!iate tiredness and feet problems might arise from working long hours on hard floors6 8on!eyors, e!en if the work is done from only one side, should be accessible from both sides. This is for maintenance, housekeeping, and emergency reasons6

 +here people need to mo!e o!er the con!eyor, a crosso!er (pedestrian bridge should be built, with appropriate guards installed.

(ri!ing and Ergonomics

%s sitting in a car seat the same as sitting in a chair? Can dri!ing cause discomfort or pain? What occupations are at risk? What causes these aches and pains? %n general what do % need to know to impro!e dri!ing comfort? "ore specifically$ what do % look for when selecting a !ehicle? ow do % adjust the dri!er&s seat to fit me?

%s sitting in a car seat the same as sitting in a chair? 0o, e!en though you are sitting, they are different acti!ities. +hen you use the steering wheel, your hands and arms are higher than when you are working at a desk. To operate the brake and accelerator pedals, you ha!e to extend your legs more forward than you would when sitting at a desk. /ne foot may be flat on the floor and the other at an angle to operate the accelerator and brake pedals. 1f your !ehicle has a standard (manual transmission, you must use the other foot on the clutch and one arm and hand to operate the gear shift. 1n addition, your body experiences up$and$down !ibrations from the car tra!elling on une!en or bumpy road surfaces and the body mo!es sideways when you turn on corners. (epending on how fast you accelerate or decelerate, you will feel a force on your body.

Can dri!ing cause discomfort or pain? Ges. (iscomfort and lower back pain are fre"uent complaints reported by dri!ers. 1n the 4nited >ingdom, the term 2repetiti!e dri!ing injury2 (*(1 has been used. These injuries include foot cramps, low back pain, stiff neck, and sore shoulders from poor posture, stress, tension, and staying in one posture or position for a extended period. *(1 is a form of a work$related musculoskeletal disorder (+%.( . .ee the /.' #nswers on musculoskeletal disorders for more information.

What occupations are at risk? #ny person who spends a lot of time in a !ehicle (car, truck, ambulance, etc. is likely to experience aches and pains. (ri!ers tend to experience pain more often as it is more difficult to shift body positions while dri!ing. 'owe!er, passengers can also feel the same effects if they are sitting in a !ehicle for prolonged periods without changing position or getting out of the !ehicle and stretching or taking a break e!ery hour or two.

What causes these aches and pains? 8auses include 7oor posture $ from personal habit , or from an improperly adjusted or fitted seat

 3ow fre"uency whole$body !ibration in mo!ing cars and trucks can contribute to effects on the lower back The shape of the !ehicle seat itself may put pressure on selected parts of the legs, back and buttocks. This contact can lead to pain or discomfort at pressure points and may affect blood flow to the legs and feet.

%n general what do % need to know to impro!e dri!ing comfort? To be comfortable while dri!ing, look for features such as the interior of the !ehicle designed to pro!ide postural and thermal comfort, sufficient 2room2 or space, acceptable noise le!els, and adjustable features that allow the dri!er to fit the !ehicle to their needs. # !ehicle)s interior must be adjustable so dri!ers of different heights and shapes can reach the pedals and controls, ha!e sufficient headroom, sit high enough to see out the front and side windows and mirrors, reach the steering wheel without stretching the arms.

The dri!er should ha!e sufficient room (A; $ <= cm or := $:A in between the steering wheel and his or her chest (breast bone in order for the seat belt and air bag to pro!ide the maximum safety protection in case of a crash. The steering wheel column should not interfere with leg mo!ement or bump the knees when getting in and out of the !ehicle or while steering and operating the pedals.

"ore specifically$ what do % look for when selecting a !ehicle? 8onsider the following factors (oes it match re"uirements for the body size of the dri!er(s and any physical limitations the dri!er(s may ha!eH (o the layout and ergonomic features of the !ehicle (e.g., steering wheel, seat, pedals and other controls, displays meet your needsH 'ow much time per day does the dri!er use the !ehicle and what distance does he or she dri!e per yearH (oes it ha!e features that assist in the kind of work the dri!er does, e.g., an easy to load trunk for a salesperson who takes samples to clientsH 1f buying !ehicles for a specific group of workers, ensure that they are able to pro!ide input on the selection of !ehicles. Examine !arious aspects of a !ehicle, such as'etting in and out the !ehicle #re the door handles easy to grab and operate, including when the dri!er is wearing glo!esH (oes the open door pro!ide enough space to get in and out easily (without stooping or banging your head on the door frame6 and without

bumping their knees on the bottom of the dashboard , instrument panel and steering column H 1f the dri!er has to climb up and down to enter the !ehicle cab, are the steps and handholds (or ladder and grab handles located appropriately and designed to pre!ent slipping when if wet or snow$ co!ered. 1f the step height is high (e.g., .49s and pick$up trucks , does it ha!e or can you add a running boardH (itting in the cab 1s it comfortable and sufficiently spacious for the occupant to sit in and maintain a neutral posture (i.e., in a position that places the least strain on the body H (eats 1s the seat comfortable (if possible, dri!e for about an hour H 1s there enough headroom so you do not slouch or bump your head if the car hits ruts or potholesH (oes the seat support the full length of your thighs and all parts of your backH 8an you independently adjust theo seat height from the floor, o seat cushion angle, o seat back angle (tilt , and o distance between the seat back and the steering wheelH +hen properly adjusted , the dri!er should be able to reach the pedals, steering wheel and other controls without stretching the legs and arms and should ha!e a good !iew of the instruments, gauges, and all mirrors, and a good !ision through the front and side windows. 1s the length of the seat pan (seat cushion adjustableH There should be about A$< fingers width in the space between the front of the seat cushion and the back of the dri!er)s knee. 1f it is too long, it will exert pressure on the back of the knees, be uncomfortable, and may impede proper blood circulation in the legs and feet. 1s the seat pan (cushion contoured to better distribute the weight on the seat and pre!ent or minimize pressure points on the buttocksH 1s most of the seat upholstered in a breathable material (for thermal comfort H The edges of the seat pan and back can be finished in plastic or leather to minimize wear and to make it easier to slide in and out of the seat. 1s the seat pan material ribbedH 'orizontal ribbing on the seat cushion helps to pre!ent slipping forward and !ertical ribbing in the back helps to pre!ent sideways mo!ement. +ill the seat and seat belt accommodate dri!ers who are wearing hea!y winter coats or protecti!e clothingH (eat )ack *est and +umbar (upport 1s the seat back rest high and wide enough to support your shouldersH The back rest should be shoulder$height and not interfere with rear$!iew !ision.

 (oes the seat back rest ha!e adjustable lumbar (lower back supportH The back rest should be in contact along the full length of the dri!ers back. The lumbar adjustments (in and out, up and down will enable the dri!er to fit the back rest to his or her back and be more comfortable. (eat )elt (oes the !ehicle ha!e an adjustable shoulder belt anchorage on the B$pillar (the pillar between the front and back door that can be mo!ed up or downH This adjustment lets the person position the shoulder belt so that rests on the middle of the collar bone (cla!icle rather than on neck or off the shoulder. (oes the !ehicle ha!e an auditory signal if the seat belt is not buckledH ead *estraint , ead *est#lthough commonly called a head rest, it should be called a head restraint as it is designed to restrict head mo!ement when a !ehicle is hit from behind. The head restraint offers more protection when it is close to the head as the restraint will come in contact with the head faster and the contact lasts longer during a rear$ end collision. # well$designed head restraint will decrease the likelihood of the neck bending backwards and causing whiplash. 1s the head restraint adjustable for height and for the angle forward and backwardH 8an the head restraint be locked in positionH 1f not, the head restraint may mo!e during a collision and the dri!er (and passengers may experience whiplash. 1s the head restraint in the most effecti!e positionH o 'eight $ as high as the top of the occupant)s head, but it should not be lower than E cm (about A.; in from the top of the head (i.e., not lower than the height at the top of the ears o Backset $ the distance between the back of the occupant)s head and the front of the head restraint $ the head should be as close as possible to the head restraint- an acceptable distance is about B cm (A.B; in or less but it should not be greater than := cm (about C in . .ir )ags The air bag is an additional occupant restraint de!ice and should ne!er be considered asubstitute for a seat belt. # seat belt alone can protect dri!ers from injury in slow speedcollisions, without the air bag deploying. The air bag is designed to deploy in cases ofhigher speed, frontal impact. 1f an air bag is deployed while the occupant is not wearinga seat belt, injuries are likely to occur. #n air bag alone will not pre!ent an occupant frombeing ejected from the !ehicle. 'ow many air bags are presentH (oes the !ehicle ha!e side air bags that can offer protection for the side of the torso in the e!ent of impact from the sideH (oes the !ehicle ha!e curtain air bags that can protect the occupants) heads sideways impact and from broken glassH

(teering Wheel (oes the !ehicle ha!e power steering which re"uires less effort to useH +ill the steering wheel adjust up or down, and in or outH (oes the steering wheel ha!e tilt$away feature to make it easier for the dri!er to get in or out of the carH 8an the steering wheel be positioned so it does not obscure the display panelH 1s the steering wheel column collapsible in case of impactH /edals and 'ear (hift (oes the !ehicle ha!e fixed or adjustable accelerator, brake and clutch pedals to accommodate leg lengthH (o the adjustable pedals ha!e a retractor safety system that does not allow feet to be caught between the pedals and the floorH #re the pedals far apart enough to accommodate dri!ers with large footwear or winter bootsH 1f a manual transmission, is the gear shift in a comfortable position and is it easy to shift in all gearsH 0runk (oes the trunk lid open to gi!e you ade"uate head spaceH 1s the trunk floor a suitable height from the ground to enable the dri!er to load and unload the trunk without ha!ing to stoop or lean into itH (oes the sill (or lip of the trunk le!el with the floor of the truck so that a dri!er can load the trunk by sliding the item onto the trunk. 'ow close to the trunk interior can you get6 that is, how 2thick2 is the sill or bumperH .horter distances are easier for loading. 1s there a cargo net, anchor points, straps or other means for securing the load to the floor and pre!ent material from entering the passenger zone in case of a collision or roll$o!erH 1s the back seat a folding seat or a split seat (either or both parts of the seat fold forward . &olding seats may be weaker than fixed back seats and may not secure a hea!y load in the e!ent of a se!ere frontal collision. This difference is the reason for needing properly installed anchor points or tie$offs in the trunk floor. Car 1n!ironment (oes the !ehicle ha!e ade"uate temperature and humidity control systems (heating, air conditioning, !entilation, '9#8 to maintain comfortable conditions in both winter and summer seasons, and help maintain good !ision by keeping the windows clear of fog or frostH 1s the !ehicle interior sufficiently "uiet to enable easy communication with passengers in the front or back seat. 3ow noise le!els also make dri!ing more relaxing and less stressful.

ow do % adjust the dri!er&s seat to fit me?

*ead to !ehicle manual and understand all the adjustments that you can do (e.g., seatposition, backrest angle, headrest position, steering wheel height and tilt, seat belt,mirrors . 8ommon adjustments include:. (eat height $ raise the seat as high as you can but still be comfortable. This height will optimize your !ision through the windows. Gou should be able to see at least BE mm (< in o!er the top of the steering wheel. Ensure that you ha!e sufficient room between the roof and the top of your head. #djust the mirrors after you ha!e finished setting the other features. A. (eat cushion length, if possible $ adjust the seat length so that the back of your knees is about < $ E cm (about :$:,C to A$<,? in from the front on the seat. <. (eat forward/back position $ mo!e the seat forward until you can easily push the pedals through their full range with your whole foot, not just your toes. Gou may ha!e to readjust the seat height to get better control of the pedals. C. (eat cushion angle $ tilt the seat cushion until your thighs are supported along the full length of the cushion without there being pressure at the back of your knees. ;. (eat back rest $ adjust the back rest until it supports the full length of your back when you are stilling upright. 1f you are leaning too far back, you may end up bending your head and neck forward, which may cause muscle fatigue, neck or shoulder pain, tingling in the fingers, etc. E. +umbar support $ adjust the lumbar support up$and$down and in$and$out until you feel an e!en pressure along your back from the hips to shoulder height. #s this point, the seat back should feel comfortable and there should be no gaps or pressure points in the back support area. B. (teering wheel $ adjust the steering wheel for height or tilt and pull it back for easy reach. The centre of the steering wheel should be about A; $ <= cm (:= $ :A in from the dri!er)s breast bone. The closer you are to the air bag, the higher the possibility of injury if the air bag deploys, e!en if you are wearing a seat belt. 1f your steering wheel can be tilted up$and$down, tilt it so the air bag behind the centre of the steering wheel is pointing to your chest, not your head and neck or your stomach. 1n addition, your arms should be in a comfortable position (not too high or too low . ?. ead restraint ,head rest- $ while sitting, raise the head restraint until the top of it is le!el with top of your head. 1f the head restraint can be tilted, adjust the angle of the head restraint until is practically touching the back of your head when you are in your sitting posture. F. Fine tuning $ you may ha!e to go through steps : $ ? again if you need to optimize the way that !ehicle cab fits you. Gou should be able to reach and operate all of the controls, pedals, the steering wheel, etc., and ha!e good !isibility through the windows and mirrors.

Exercises for a 'ealthy Back

ow important is e2ercise in pre!enting low back injury? What kinds of e2ercises are most effecti!e for pre!enting low back injury?

ow do you start an e2ercise session? What kinds of e2ercises are recommended for back e2tensors? What kinds of e2ercises are recommended for abdominal muscles? What e2ercises are recommended for lateral and obli3ue abdominal$ and lumbar muscles? What is a final word to the wise?

ow important is e2ercise in pre!enting low back injury? The key to pre!enting lower back injury and pain (3B7 , whether work$related or not, is physical conditioning. 25etting into shape2 in!ol!es the o!erall conditioning of the body and the cardio!ascular system. #erobic exercise plus the exercising of the core muscles (those of the spine and the abdomen that are responsible for stabilizing the spine , are both critical for de!eloping healthy and pain$free backs.

What kinds of e2ercises are most effecti!e for pre!enting low back injury? Traditional beliefs among exercise practitioners and e!en rehabilitation professionals that strong back and abdominal muscles alone protect the back and reduce 3B7 episodes ha!e ne!er been !alidated by research or experience. 1t)s time to debunk that myth. %obility and flexibility of the lumbar region seems to be another fallacy. 'owe!er, that doesn)t mean that strong and supple back muscles, if you ha!e them, are a bad thing. 0e!ertheless, de!eloping them by using exercises that are con!entionally prescribed for a strong and flexible back sometimes inflicts injury. .o, if neither strength nor lumbar flexibility guarantees a healthy back, then what doesH &airly recent studies on the biomechanics of the back suggest that muscle endurance is more protecti!e than mere strength. .tuart %c5ill, a world$renowned lecturer and expert in spine function and injury pre!ention and rehabilitation at the 4ni!ersity of +aterloo, /ntario, suggests instead, in his book 3ow Back (isorder, E!idence$Based 7re!ention and *ehabilitation ('uman >inetics, A==A , that stabili#ing the spine seems to be the answer. The way to achie!e and maintain spinal stability is to exercise the spine)s major stabilizing muscleso back extensor o abdominal muscles (the so$called 2six pack2 o abdominal muscles (the lateral obli"ues exercise all these muscles in a special way $ by sparing the back

2.paring2 means exercising with the spine in a line with no additional load. The focus of this document is on selecting the most appropriate types of exercises and the best way to conduct them to make you fitter without injuring yourself. 1deally you should ha!e a set of exercises tailored to your indi!idual objecti!es and ability. Because we are unable to satisfy e!ery indi!idual)s needs, we can suggest only a rather generic set of exercises that we hope will suit the majority of working people.

The other objecti!e is to present exercises that e!eryone can do and e!entually benefit from doing regularly, regardless of how deconditioned one might be at the outset. #lways consult with a doctor or medical professional before beginning any type of exercise program.

ow do you start an e2ercise session? Commencing 12ercising E!ery session should begin with the 28at$8amel2 exercises (&igures :#, :B, and :8 .tart on your hands and knees with your thighs perpendicular to the floor (&igure :# . 1nhale deeply and slowly with the back straight but relaxed as much as possible.

Figure 4.

Figure 4)

Figure 4C Exhale and stretch your back by arching it upwards (arching cat position , while remaining relaxed6 do not hold your breath (&igure :B . 1nhale deeply and slowly and come back to the starting position (&igure :# . Exhale and stretch your back downwards into a swayback (camel position (&igure :8 .

 1nhale deeply and slowly and come back to the starting position (&igure :# . *epeat the whole se"uence (&igures :#, :B, and :8 < to B times.

What kinds of e2ercises are recommended for back e2tensors? The so$called 2Birddog2 exercise is suggested for impro!ing the back extensor muscles without o!erloading or straining them. The degree of difficulty of this exercise can be customized to the starting ability of the person attempting them. #. &or people with a seriously deconditioned back Begin with the 2all fours2 position (&igure :# . 3ift one hand off the floor and keep it up for a few seconds if you can do so. *epeat the same with the other hand. .till from an 2all fours2 position lift one knee off the floor and keep it up for a few seconds if you can do so. *epeat the same with the other knee. *epeat the whole se"uence- left and right hand and left and right knee a few times (up to three times if you can do so. B. &or the a!erage person(tep 5ne6 &rom the 2all fours2 position (&igure :# Breathe in6 ."ueeze your abdominal muscles6 +hile exhaling, raise one arm in front of you until it is parallel to the floor6 'old the arm extension while slowly exhaling o!er C to B seconds6 Breathing in, return arm to the starting position6 *epeat the same with the other arm6 #lternate arms, and repeat exercise se!eral times, up to ten (fi!e for each arm repetitions if you are able to do so.

Figure 7

+e suggest starting with the arm exercises because they are easier and less challenging for maintaining your balance. +hen you can do that easily, progress to the next step that in!ol!es raising a leg. (tep 0wo6 &rom the 2all fours2 position (&igure :# Breathe in6 ."ueeze your abdominal muscles6 +hile exhaling, push one leg backwards and upwards until it is parallel to the floor, with the ankle in a naturally relaxed position6 'old the leg extension while slowly exhaling o!er C to B seconds6 Breathing in, return your leg to the starting position6 Throughout this whole motion look toward the floor to keep the neck in line with the spine6 *epeat the same motion with your other leg6 #lternate legs and repeat this exercise se!eral times, up to ten (fi!e for each leg repetitions if you are able to do so.

Figure 8 #fter mastering the alternate leg raises add another motion #s you are pushing your leg backwards, raise the opposite arm in front of you, until it is also parallel to the floor, without losing your balance6 'old this position while slowly exhaling o!er C to B seconds.

Figure 9 1mportant points >eep your abdominal muscles mildly s"ueezed while raising and holding the extension of your limbs6 >eep your spine in a line to maintain neutral spine alignment6 do not raise either leg or arm abo!e the horizontal line.

What kinds of e2ercises are recommended for abdominal muscles? # common exercise for abdominal muscles is the curl$up. 'owe!er, there are many ways of performing this manoue!re and some of them can be harmful and injurious, especially those which in!ol!e excessi!e bending and twisting. /ne example is the exercise where additional weights are used in order to speed up the de!elopment of the impressi!e so$called 2six pack2. Based upon the concept of 2sparing the back2 endorsed by .tuart %c5ill we suggest the followingCurl-up .tarting position (&igure ;# 3ie on the floor with your hands placed under the lumbar area to preser!e a neutral spine position6 >eeping one leg flat on the floor, flex the other knee, and raise the foot off the floor until your lower leg is parallel to the floor6 *epeat C$B times, then switch to the other leg6 *epeat this exercise se!eral times, up to ten (fi!e for each leg repetitions if you are able to do so.

Figure :. Figure :) +ithout flattening or bending your lower back, curl up your upper body by raising your head and shoulders off the floor. 1f you feel any neck pain, try curling up without bending your neck. /therwise, you can make the curl$up more challengingo by raising elbows off the floor as well, and o by slightly s"ueezing your abdominal muscles before raising the torso.

Figure ;

What e2ercises are recommended for lateral and obli3ue abdominal$ and lumbar muscles? These muscles are also important in stabilizing the spine and thus pre!enting episodes of low back pain. 0he (ide )ridge - a !ersion for the deconditioned.tarting position (&igure B# . +hile pi!oting on the balls of your feet turn slowly toward the wall (&igure BB , and keep turning (&igure B8 , until you ac"uire a position that is the mirror image of the starting one (&igure B( .

Figure <.

Figure <)

Figure <C

Figure <D

&igure ?# and &igure ?B show more challenging !ersions of the side bridge.

Figure =. What is a final word to the wise?

Figure =)

Exercising e!ery day, e!en if only for :; $<= minutes, brings the most beneficial effects. >eep the effort and exertion within your own comfort zone. The phrase 2no pain, no gain2 does not apply $$ do not follow it> (o not exercise shortly after getting out of bed. #dd to your back exercises by doing a gentle cardio!ascular acti!ity such walking (the best , cycling or swimming. #!oid exercising with additional weights. 1nstead, if you want to increase the intensity, increase the number of repetitions. Be patient and stick with it. 1t takes time to feel the benefits of exercising.

Exercises for a 'ealthy Back $ #d!anced

Why do we need ad!anced e2ercises for the back? Why do you need to stretch before starting to e2ercise your back muscles? ow do you stretch the legs and hips? ow do you e2ercise your neck muscles? ow can you impro!e fitness and stability in the spine? ow do you e2ercise the abdominal muscles? .re there any ad!anced e2ercises for lateral and obli3ue abdominal and lumbar muscles?

Why do we need ad!anced e2ercises for the back? 1f done regularly and supplemented by such aerobic acti!ity as walking (see the OSH Answers document 2+alking $ .till %an)s Best %edicine2 , the exercises described in the OSH Answers document 2Exercises for a 'ealthy Back2 should be sufficient to keep your back fit and pain$free. This is, of course, as long as no accident, traumatic injury, or any kind of mishap happens to you. 'owe!er, some people may want to enhance their fitness training, either because their jobs include greater physical demands, or simply because they want to push themsel!es to a higher le!el of physical conditioning. 1f this is the case, we suggest that you consult your physician and possibly a fitness expert before you establish your realistic objecti!es and ways of achie!ing them. 1n this document we will suggest more exercises, not only for the back but also for the hips, knees and neck, based on the concept of 2sparing the back2, as described by 2Exercising for a 'ealthy Back.2 The concept of exercising while sparing the back, as well as the exercises included in this document are taken from Low Back Disorder, Evidence-Based Prevention and Rehabilitation ('uman >inetics, A==A by .tuart %c5ill, a world$ renowned lecturer and expert in spine function and injury pre!ention and rehabilitation at the 4ni!ersity of +aterloo, /ntario. This document can be seen at- http !!www.back"itpro.co#!

Why do you need to stretch before starting to e2ercise your back muscles? .tretching relaxes your mind and tunes your body. 1f it is done properly stretching reduces muscle tension6 promotes cardiorespiratory function6 impro!es body awareness6 multiplies the good effect of the back exercises to follow.

The right way to stretch in!ol!es ha!ing relaxed, sustained mo!es with your attention focused on the muscle being stretched. +hile stretching, a!oid bouncing up and down, making jerky mo!ements, or pulling muscles to the point of pain.

ow do you stretch the legs and hips? 12ercise ? 4 -- (tretching the legs This exercise stretches the muscles of the thighs and lower legs as well as joints such as the hips, knees, and ankles. 0he *ight Way 0he Wrong Way

&igure :# 3unge with the left leg >eep your left foot flat on the ground and the spine perpendicular. >eep the back knee flexed. >eep the torso upright with the lumbar spine neutral. %aintain this position for about := seconds, while gently deepening the lunge and maintaining the torso upright. #lternate legs and repeat exercise. 12ercise ? 7 -- (tretching the thighs #!oid-

&igure :B

.traightening the back leg. *esting your hand on your knee to support the upper body. Bending or twisting back.

&igure A#

&igure AB

 .tand beside a solid chair or anything that you can hold onto to maintain your balance. Bend your knee on the opposite side and grab the ankle with your other hand.I 7ull up the ankle trying to touch your buttock on the same side. 'old this position for ; to := seconds. 5ently release your grasp and slowly lower your foot to the ground. (o not mo!e the knee throughout the whole stretch. 8hange sides and repeat the exercise with the other leg. I 1f you are unable to bend your knee high enough to grab the ankle without bending and twisting your whole body, then use an exercise strap or a strap made out of a belt or scarf $$ see &igure AB. #fter a few trials you should be able to do it without the exercise strap.

ow do you e2ercise your neck muscles? Exercises that can impro!e the endurance of your neck muscles will also make the curl$ups that build endurance in the abdominal muscles easier and more effecti!e. 12ercise ? 8 -- (tretching the neck Exercises should be done in a sitting position with your feet firmly planted on the floor. (o not mo!e neither your head nor neck throughout the whole exercise. 7lace the tongue on the roof of your mouth behind the front teeth.

&igure <# 7lace your hands on your forehead and push backwards while resisting any motion in the head and neck. 'old this isometric position for ; to B seconds, then relax. *epeat this exercise up to ; times.

&igure <B 7lace your hands on your temples and push sideways while resisting any motion in the head and neck. 'old this isometric position for ; to B seconds, then relax. *epeat this exercise up to ; times. 8hange hands and try to push your head to the other side while resisting this motion at the same time.

&igure <8 7lace your hands on the back of your head and push forwards while resisting any motion in the head and neck. 'old this isometric position for ; to B seconds, then relax. *epeat this exercise up to ; times.

ow can you impro!e fitness and stability in the spine? The way to impro!e and maintain spinal stability is to exercise the spine)s major stabilizing muscles Back extensors. #bdominal muscles (the so$called 2six pack2 .

#bdominal muscles (the lateral obli"ues .

Exercise all these muscles in a special way $ by 2sparing the back2 which means to perform all exercises with the spine in a line with no additional load. (tarting an e2ercise session E!ery session should begin with the 28at$8amel2 exercises $$ see &igures C#, CB, and C8. 12ercise ? 9 -- @Cat-Camel@ .tart on your hands and knees with your thighs perpendicular to the floor as in &igure C#. 1nhale deeply and slowly with the back straight but relaxed as much as possible. Exhale and stretch your back by arching it upwards (arching cat position , while remaining relaxed6 do not hold your breath as in &igure CB. 1nhale deeply and slowly and come back to the starting position, as in &igure C#. Exhale and stretch your back downwards into a swayback (camel position as in &igure C8. 1nhale deeply and slowly and come back to the starting position, as in &igure C#. *epeat the whole se"uence < to B times $$ see &igures C#, CB, and C8.

&igure C#

&igure CB

&igure C8

.d!anced e2ercises for the back e2tensors 12ercise ?: -- 0he waiter&s bow

&igure ; .tand straight and relaxed, but not rigid, with head up and shoulders back and relaxed. Breathe in and relax, then breathe out, and as you breathe out pull your stomach muscles in. +hile keeping your stomach in, lean forward from the hips at an angle of about A= degrees and stoop in a position like a 2waiters) bow26 keep your back straight for as long as you lean o!er. 'old this bowing position for up to := seconds. +hile keeping the stomach in and keeping your back straight, return to the starting position. *epeat this se"uence up to := times. 12ercise ?; -- .d!anced )ird-dog 1f you ha!e mastered the beginner and intermediate !ersions of the 2bird$dog2 exercise illustrated in the OSH Answers document 2Exercises for a 'ealthy Back2, you can attempt its ad!anced form. +hile on all fours, and without losing your balance, raise your leg by pushing it straight backwards, and raise the opposite arm in front of you, until it is also parallel to the floor and pointing ahead of you. 'old this position while slowly exhaling for A to < seconds $$ see &igure C. 1nhale while returning your arm and leg to the floor without putting weight on them, then extend them again $$ see &igures E#, EB, E8, E( and EE. *epeat this se"uence ; to B times. #lternate leg and arm and repeat the whole exercise.

&igure E#

&igure EB

&igure E8

&igure E(

&igure EE

ow do you e2ercise the abdominal muscles? 12ercise ? < -- .bdominal hollowing This exercise is fundamental for both conditioning abdominal muscles and for maintaining the stability of the spine.

&igure B# 3ie on your back with your knees bent. >eep your spine in neutral position, neither arched up nor flattened against the floor. 1nhale deeply and relax your stomach. Exhale slowly pulling your lower abdomen inwards toward the floor. 8ontinuing regular breathing and hold the tension for := seconds. *epeat this maneu!er up to := times. &or a greater challenge try raising your head and shoulders while pulling in your abdominal muscles. &or more !ariety you can try abdominal hollowing while in a standing or sitting position. 12ercise ? = -- Curl-up with bent knees

&igure ? 3ie on your back with your knees bent. >eep your spine in neutral position, neither arched up nor flattened against the floor. 1nhale deeply and relax your stomach. Exhale slowly pulling your lower abdomen inwards toward the floor. 8ontinuing regular breathing and hold the tension for := seconds while raising the head and shoulders $$ try to raise your head without bending the neck. *epeat this maneu!er up to := times. 12ercise ? A -- Curl-up with straight knees

&igure F This exercise is just a !ersion of exercise J? to be performed at your discretion, instead of or in addition to exercise J?. Curl-ups on unstable surfaces such as a fitness ball or balance disk Advisory! .ince exercising on unstable surfaces, especially on a gym ball, in!ol!es an increased risk fo falling and potential injury, we recommend that you practice them with the assistance of a spotter or exercise partner who can better ensure your safety. 8url$ups on unstable surfaces re"uire substantially greater effort and are recommended only for people of abo!e$a!erage fitness. .ince exercising while supporting your upper body on a gym ball or a balance disk does not gi!e you the opportunity to rest your head on the floor it is critical to make an extra effort to keep your spine le!el $$ do not allow your head to drop below an imaginary hori#ontal line at any time during these e2ercises. 12ercise ? 4B -- Curl-ups on a balance disk

&igure := 12ercise ? 44 -- Curl-ups on a gym ball % .tarting position $$ see &igure ::# &rom the starting position raise your head and shoulders without bending the neck $$ see &igure ::B.

&igure ::# 12ercise ? 47 -- Curl-ups on a gym ball %%

&igure ::B

.tarting position $$ see &igure :A#. &rom the starting position raise your head and shoulders without bending the neck $$ see &igure :AB.

&igure :A#

&igure :AB

.re there any ad!anced e2ercises for lateral and obli3ue abdominal and lumbar muscles? 12ercise ? 48 -- (ide-bridge ad!anced .tarting position $$ see &igure :<#. &rom the starting position roll o!er on your elbows $$ see &igures :<B, :<8 $$ until you ac"uire a position that is the mirror image of the starting one $$ see &igure :<(.

&igure :<#

&igure :<B

&igure :<8

&igure :<(

Extended +orkday- 'ealth K .afety 1ssues

What is meant by the e2tended work day? %n general$ what are some ad!antages and disad!antages of e2tended workdays? What should % know about @fatigue@? What are the issues surrounding @social life@? What are the issues surrounding @safety@? What are the issues surrounding @e2posure to physical and chemical ha#ards@? What types of jobs are suitable for an e2tended workday? What are some guidelines for using an e2tended workday?

What is meant by the e2tended work day? Extended workdays refer to work schedules ha!ing longer than normal workdays. 'owe!er, there is no clear consensus about the length of the extended workday. .ome sources consider it to be between ? to :A hours in length, while others insist that the term applies only when shifts are longer than :A hours. 4sually workers on extended workday schedules work fewer than fi!e days a week. +hen the traditional thirty$six to forty$hour workweek is s"ueezed into three or four days, the number of days worked in a row is decreased and the number of consecuti!e days off is increased. This is not always the case6 therefore, working on an extended workday schedule does not automatically mean the same as a compressed workweek.

%n general$ what are some ad!antages and disad!antages of e2tended workdays? +ork schedules are important for both the organization and the worker. They affect the worker)s health, safety, and family and social life. %any hospital, industrial, transportation, mining and office organizations are adopting the extended workday based on the assumption that it offers some ad!antages. 'owe!er, the decision to set up longer work shifts (up to :A hours or more should not be made lightly. .tudies on this subject do not pro!ide sufficient e!idence to decide categorically in fa!our or against the use of extended work shifts. The following columns list examples of the 2pros2 and 2cons2 of this issue.d!antages %ore days off and more consecuti!e days off %ore family and leisure time %ore rest days to reco!er from fatigue &ewer consecuti!e workdays 1mpro!ed morale 1ncreased job satisfaction *educed absenteeism *educed time of commuting What should % know about @fatigue@? &atigue is a message to the body to rest. 1t is not a problem if the person can and does rest. 'owe!er, if rest is not possible, fatigue can increase until it becomes distressing and e!entually o!erwhelming. The symptoms of fatigue !ary and do depend on the person and their degree of fatigue or sleep depri!ation6 some examples include weariness sleepiness irritability reduced alertness, concentration and memory lack of moti!ation increased susceptibility to illness depression headache giddiness loss of appetite and digesti!e problems Disad!antages %ore days off and more consecuti!e days off +orkers lose the touch with their operations 3ong tra!eling time or exhausting recreation may cause fatigue on return to work (ecline in safety and alertness .lower pace of work +orkers need more breaks

%any conditions can lead to fatigue. &or example, fatigue resulting from long hours of work and a shorter length of time between work shifts is an important concern for the health and safety of workers on extended workdays. .ome

researchers report that in many cases the extended workday is more tiring than the eight$hour day. They often argue that workers will be too tired by the end of ten or twel!e hours and jeopardize their own well$being, and also the safety of others on the job. /thers report that the eight$hour work schedule is tiring, particularly when many consecuti!e shifts must be worked with few consecuti!e days off. The ad!antage of properly designed extended workday schedules o!er eight$hour day schedules is that fewer consecuti!e shifts are re"uired and longer periods off between 2workweeks2 allow for better rest. The longer time off may compensate for longer workdays, if the worker maintains healthy and regular sleep patterns. #nother concern about the extended workday is that during the workweek, workers can only do their job, eat and sleep. This creates two problems. &irst, most workers need a certain amount of time to relax after work and before sleeping. +hen there are only twel!e or fourteen hours between shifts, this time is reduced. .econd, workers with other types of responsibilities such as child care may find the extended workday tiring because they still ha!e tasks to do when they return from work. %any workplace factors make physical and mental demands of the workers that affect health, mood, performance, safety and fatigue. Examples of such factors are job design, lighting, air "uality and workstations. *educing any source of fatigue helps workers deal with all of the demands of their work including the work schedule. &or example, a well$designed tool, an extra rest break or a better chair can help reduce the o!erall demands of a particular job.

What are the issues surrounding @social life@? # primary ad!antage of the extended workday is that it pro!ides more consecuti!e days off than most other types of schedules. This allows more free days for family and other acti!ities. 'owe!er, the disad!antage is that the long hours do not allow much free time on workdays. This can also affect family and social life. +hether the ad!antage of longer blocks of time off outweighs the disad!antage of little time off on workdays, or !ice !ersa, is not clear and may depend on the indi!idual. 1t appears that important factor for being able to adjust to an extended workday relates to characteristics such as age, marital status, parental status, hobbies, and personal interests. +orkers who ha!e major responsibilities outside work may ha!e more difficulty with conflicting demands for time on extended workdays particularly the twel!e$hour day. /n the other hand, unmarried workers may enjoy the longer time off and the opportunity for social and leisure acti!ities. Time spent tra!elling to and from work is often !iewed by workers as lost time. The extended workday means fewer commuting trips and, therefore, less wasted time and less cost.

What are the issues surrounding @safety@? #n issue often raised is the effect of fatigue on workplace accident and injury rates. The concern is that increased fatigue will contribute to accidents. +hile this concern seems logical, it cannot be supported clearly with e!idence. /f the few studies reporting accident rates, some show an increase whereas others found no

change in accident rates. 1t is clear that an accident occurs as part of a process in!ol!ing a combination of technical, personal, beha!ioural, en!ironmental and work process factors. The length of the workday, as it relates to worker fatigue le!els, is only one factor to consider when looking at what caused an accident. &atigue le!els are not easily measured or "uantified6 therefore, it is difficult to isolate the effect of extended workdays on any changes in accident and injury rates.

What are the issues surrounding @e2posure to physical and chemical ha#ards@? Exposure to physical and chemical hazards is always a health and safety concern. +hen the workday is lengthened, the amount of exposure needs to be ree!aluated to ensure that acceptable le!els are not exceeded. #reas of particular concern are exposures to chemicals, noise, !ibration and extreme temperatures. #ny method for determining exposure le!els for the extended workday should be used with caution and under super!ision. Expert ad!ice may be necessary to determine acceptable exposures for an extended workday. The proper and efficient use of personal protecti!e e"uipment during an extended workday should also be considered. &or example, uncomfortable hearing protectors cannot pro!ide protection if workers find them uncomfortable and do not wear them when they should. 8omfort o!er the whole work shift is important to usage.

What types of jobs are suitable for an e2tended workday? 7erhaps the most difficult decision with the extended workday is what type of work is suitable for this schedule. There is no easy answer because studies ha!e not been able to say a definite 2yes2 or 2no2 to any of the concerns. 1n most cases, ha!ing a trial period in the workplace to monitor the health and safety aspects of particular jobs and determine the le!el of worker acceptance would be beneficial. The physical and psychological effort re"uired by a job, en!ironmental conditions such as temperature and !ibration, and job characteristics such as boredom and repetiti!e work all contribute to the acceptability of the extended workday. +ith these points in mind, some general statements can be made. The sparse information that is a!ailable shows that jobs that do not re"uire a high degree of physical exertion or that ha!e natural resting periods may be most suitable for the extended workday schedule. &or example, a machinist who has cycle time between setups that allows reduced attention while the machine is running can probably work a longer day. /n the other hand, a data entry operator who must continually enter data while sitting in one position and concentrating for long periods would find the extended workday more difficult. 7eople whose work in!ol!es creati!e acti!ities may benefit from this type of schedule as it allows them to work intensi!ely on projects while pro!iding more time away to rest. +orkers on eight$hour rotational shiftwork schedules might prefer the extended workday because it re"uires fewer consecuti!e night shifts and allows more recuperati!e time. 1n spite of inconclusi!e studies and conflicting worker responses about the most suitable length of work shifts, it is probably fair to say that hea!y physical jobs

and,or jobs that demand sustained attention throughout the workday do not lend themsel!es well to extended workday schedules. %ore suitable jobs would be those that re"uire only light or intermittent work.

What are some guidelines for using an e2tended workday? &irst, find out if there is any legislation in your jurisdiction that re"uires go!ernment appro!al to schedule more than eight hours of work per day and to a!erage hours o!er longer periods. The legislation may re"uire the organization to show that workers are aware of and understand the implications of the extended workday, and that workers genuinely want to work such a schedule. .ome guidelines to consider when deciding whether to start or continue using an extended workday schedule are 8onsult workers about their desire to ha!e a change in the work schedule and specifically an extended workday. 8onsider the physical demands of jobs, occupational hazards such as chemicals or noise exposures, and aspects of job design such as rest schedules. 8hanges in the en!ironment or job design can sometimes make an extended workday more acceptable. 8onsider the mental and emotional demands of the job. +ork that re"uires constant attention or intense mental effort may be less acceptable for the extended workday. 4se additional rest breaks or !ariation of job tasks to help decrease the strain of the extended workday. 8onsider the workers and the other demands on their time. 7eople who ha!e other significant responsibilities each day may re"uire additional support such as child care facilities. .easonal demands may also ha!e to be considered. 1f the decision is made to try the extended workday, establish an experimental period. 1ntroduce the extended workday gradually to small groups to allow more flexibility and better analysis of the situation. E!aluate the success of the new schedule by doing the following %onitor health and safety. 3ook for any changes in accident rates, health le!els and especially fatigue. 3ook for any changes in absenteeism rates. #lthough absences are not always a good measure of health or ill health, an increase may suggest a problem. /n the other hand, a decrease may show that the extended workday is successful. #sk for workers) reactions and listen to their comments to find out how satisfied they are with the extended workday, and how well they ha!e accepted it and adapted to it.

'and Tool Ergonomics

1ntroduction
.re hand tools ergonomically designed? The history of hand tools is as old as the history of mankind. 1n fact, the in!ention of hand tools by our ancestors marked the beginning of the de!elopment of human ci!ilization. /nce in!ented, hand tools grew and e!ol!ed along with us as an extension of our own hand. Basic hand tool design has not changed appreciably o!er the last se!eral centuries. Thanks to an 2adapti!e2 process, hand tools ha!e e!ol!ed to the

ergonomically satisfactory forms that we know today. .uch a satisfactory design of hand tools resulted from the fact that the users were also the producers who designed the tools for their specific needs. The mass production of hand tools brought about by the industrial re!olution has also changed our approach to the use of hand tools. The use of tools on an industrial scale made it apparent that using tool which does not fit the person or task can seriously affect a user)s health (see 'and Tool Ergonomics $ 'ealth 'azards . .electing the proper tool for the job and fitting it to the indi!idual has become !ery important for producti!ity and worker health. The ergonomic e!aluation of work where hand tools are used has helped people to understand that the layout of the workstation (see 'and Tool Ergonomics $ +orkspace (esign , the !ariety and scheduling of tasks, (see 'and Tool Ergonomics $ Lob (esign and the way tools are used, are all factors as important as tool design itself (see 'and Tool Ergonomics $ Tool (esign .

'ealth 'azards
What are the main health concerns in working with hand tools? What factors of working with hand tools cause discomfort$ fatigue and$ e!entually$ work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds-?

What are the main health concerns in working with hand tools? #long with common injuries such as cuts, lacerations, and bruises, the fre"uent and prolonged use of hand tools can cause soreness, aches, pains, and fatigue, which, when ignored, can lead to chronic musculoskeletal injuries (%.1s of !arious kinds. The most common examples of these work$related musculoskeletal disorders (+%.(s are tendonitis, tenosyno!itis, bursitis, epicondylitis (tennis elbow , carpal tunnel syndrome and de Muer!ain)s syndrome.

What factors of working with hand tools cause discomfort$ fatigue and$ e!entually$ work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds-? .e!eral work factors can affect the health and performance of hand tool users. %ajor ones include (tatic load Static load or e""ort occurs when muscles are kept tense and motionless. Examples of static effort include holding the arms ele!ated (&igure :a , or extended forwards or sideways (&igure :b . (Try holding your arm straight out in front of you for a few minutes and you will see what we mean. 7ut any object in your outstretched hand and its weight will add to the static effort exponentially. Bending and twisting the neck or the whole torso can also increase static load considerably. #dd the exertion of force re"uired by hand tools, and static load can increase still further (&igure :c . static load on arms and upper body muscles, awkward working positions and body postures, tissue compression, and !ibration.

&igure :a

&igure :b

&igure :c .tatic effort, that is holding any strained position for a period of time, is a particularly undesirable component in any work situation. .tatically loaded muscles are much more !ulnerable to fatigue and subse"uent injury than muscles which are performing dynamic work in!ol!ing mo!ement. &urthermore, muscles which are tired by static work take more than := times longer to reco!er from fatigue. .wkward working positions and body postures 'and tools are often (actually, more than often used where the space is limited and access is difficult6 see &igures Aa, Ab, Ac.

&igure Aa

&igure Ab

&igure Ac +hen the hand holds and uses a tool in an awkward position it has less strength and is conse"uently more susceptible to soreness and e!entual injury. 1f the arm is uncomfortable, the rest of the body is likely to be so as well, because it is natural to compensate for discomfort by trying to re$align the body by bending the back, rounding the shoulders, tilting the neck, and so on. #wkward positions of the upper body considerably increase the effort needed to complete the task. The resulting fatigue, discomfort, and pain add further to the risk for de!eloping injury. 0issue compression #s a rule, using a hand tool re"uires a firm grip. The resulting compression of soft tissue in the palm and fingers may obstruct blood circulation, resulting in numbness and tingling. Blisters are also common due to friction between the palm of the hand and the handle of the tool. Cibration 8ertain hea!y tools such as a chipping hammer can produce significant !ibration which is responsible for hand$arm !ibration syndrome ('#9. , more commonly known as white finger or *aynaud)s syndrome.

Lob (esign
ow can work organi#ation help pre!ent work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds- that can result from using hand tools?

ow can work organi#ation help pre!ent work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds- that can result from using hand tools?

7eople working at a correctly designed workstation and using the best a!ailable tools can still get injured. 1t happens where their work is poorly designed. +ork organization in!ol!es 0ask !ariety +here a job in!ol!es using only one kind of tool for one or a few tasks that !ary insignificantly, the same small group of muscles is used o!er and o!er again. The resulting o!erload on the same part of the body can cause pain and injury. # greater !ariety of tasks allow for changing body position to distribute the workload o!er different parts of the body, and to gi!e o!ertaxed muscles some relief and reco!ery time. *otate tasks among workers6 ha!e workers mo!e from one task to another according to a schedule. #dd more tasks to the job. #ssign a larger part of work to a team- workers form a team and each member of the team shares se!eral different tasks. Work pace # fast pace of work is a strong risk factor for +%.(s. 1f the pace is too fast, the muscles in!ol!ed do not ha!e enough time to reco!er from the effort and to restore sufficient energy to continue the work. 1f the pace of work is imposed externally $$ assembly line speed, for example $$ adjusts it to the speed that is acceptable for the slowest worker. 1ncenti!e systems that reward for the $%alit& of work naturally determine the 2right2 pace of work. 1ncenti!e systems that reward for the a#o%nt or $%antit& of work increase the risk for +%.(s and, in the long run, will compromise "uality as well. Work breaks The work break is a time period between tasks. E!en short periods of time, literally seconds, that allow one to relax muscles in!ol!ed in operating tools are important in pre!enting injuries. *est breaks The rest break is the period after work stops. Besides allowing for refreshment, rest breaks can be used to stretch and relax. .djustment period job content $$ task !ariety work pace work breaks rest breaks adjustment or acclimatization time training

#n adjustment or acclimatization period is the time needed to get 2in shape2 when returning to work after a long absence, or when starting a new job. 1t should allow one to refresh old work habits or get used to a new routine. #n adjustment period is a !ery important element of injury pre!ention. 1nexperienced and 2new2 workers, as well as 2old timers2 returning to work after a period of reco!ery and rehabilitation, are more prone than most workers to both injury and re$injury, so adjustment periods are a !itally important way to reintegrate them into the workflow. 0raining Training workers on the safe use of tools, and on the hazards in!ol!ed in working with them, has always been extremely important. Today, more than e!er, when new materials, new technologies and new e"uipment are replacing older ones faster then e!er before, the importance of such training is magnified. The introduction of a new tool or e"uipment, as well as any change in way the job has been done pre!iously should be preceded by refresher training that includes new information rele!ant to the changes being introduced. E!en the best$designed tool, or the most ergonomically correct workstation, or the most up$to$date work organization will fail to pre!ent injuries if the worker is not properly trained.

Tool (esign
ow can one reduce the risk for work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds- resulting from the use of hand tools? What are the major ergonomic concerns of a hand tool design? What should one remember when selecting and using hand tools? ow does hand tool maintenance reduce the risk for injuries?

ow can one reduce the risk for work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds- resulting from the use of hand tools? Tool design (weight, shape, fit to the user and the task , workstation design (size, shape and layout , and the way tasks are scheduled are all key factors in making hand tool use safe and risk$free. .ince, none of those three areas is more important then the other, an effecti!e pre!ention strategy must address all of them simultaneously.

What are the major ergonomic concerns of a hand tool design? Weight of the tool 1deally, a worker should be able to operate a tool with one hand. Therefore the weight of the tool, especially for repetiti!e use, should not exceed : kg (A.A lb. . 1t is also important that the centre of gra!ity be aligned with the centre of the gripping hand.

&igure : 1n other words, tools should feel 2easy2 to hold either in an upright position or in the position it will be used (ie. pointing down . &or example, drills that are 2front$ hea!y2 will re"uire effort (especially in the wrist and forearm to hold in a usable position and should be a!oided. The exception to this principle is a power hand tool, such as a grinder, that has to be hea!y in order to reduce the force that the worker has to exert while using it. Tools hea!ier than : kg or poorly balanced tools should be supported by counter$balancers. /ower +here possible, power tools should replace hand tools which normally re"uire the exertion of fre"uent and repetiti!e force to do the job, because the greater the force exerted with a hand tool, and the more the hand has to twist to use it, then the greater the risk for +%.(s. andles +ith the exception of tools for precision work (e.g., watchmaking, microsurgery, car!ing , the handles and grips of hand tools should be designed for a power grip. The belief that smaller tools should ha!e smaller handles while larger tools ha!e larger ones is debatable. Handle shape Tools with 2bent2 or angled handles or tools with pistol$grips are beneficial where the force is exerted in a straight line in the same direction as the straightened forearm and wrist, especially when the force must be applied horizontally (see &igures A, <, C .

&igure A

&igure <

&igure C Tools with straight handles are for tasks where the force is exerted perpendicular to the straightened forearm and wrist, for instance, when the force must be applied !ertically. .haped tools such as bent$handle tools are effecti!e where most of the tasks are done in the same plane and height as the arm and hand, and when only one or two other tools are used (see &igure ; .

&igure ; >nowing the tasks and the layout of the workplace where they will be used is !ital for selecting the right tools for any gi!en job. .elect tools that do 0/T re"uire wrist flexion, extension or de!iation. 1n other words, select tools that allow you to keep the wrist straight or in a neutral position. The crucial ergonomic principle in tool use and design $$ bend the tool$ not the wrists $$ howe!er correct and !aluable does not always pre!ent discomfort and injuries when bent$handle tools are used indiscriminately, regardless of the layout of the work situation. Dia#eter 'andles should be cylindrical or o!al in cross section, with a diameter of between <= mm and C; mm. &or precision work the recommended diameter for handles is between ; mm and :A mm. &or a greater tor"ue large screwdri!ers should ha!e a handle diameter up to ;=$E= mm. Len'th # handle that is too short can cause unnecessary compression in the middle of the palm. 1t should extend across the entire breadth of the palm. Tool handles longer than :== mm (preferably ::;$:A= mm will reduce the negati!e effects of any compression exerted. *ounded handles will minimize palm compression on the palm still further. >eep in mind that the use of glo!es re"uires longer tool handles. Separation between handles 8rushing, gripping or cutting tools such as pliers or tongs are e"uipped with two handles. The recommended distance separating handle is between ;= mm and E; mm. .uch a range will fit both male and female users. Tools with larger or smaller spans will reduce one)s maximum grip strength and may contribute to the onset of carpal tunnel syndrome. Power tool tri''ers &re"uent mo!ements of the index finger while operating the trigger of power tools (such as a power drill poses a considerable risk for both 2trigger finger2 and 2trigger thumb2 (tendonitis in the index finger and,or thumb . # longer trigger which allows the use of two or three fingers to acti!ate them reduces discomfort

and minimizes the risk for injury. The recommended minimum length of the trigger is ;= mm. (aterials and te)t%re o" handles To ensure a good grip on a handle, sufficient friction must exist between the hand and the handle. This is particularly important where a considerable force must be applied with a sweaty hand. 'and tools should be made of non$slip, non$ conducti!e and compressible materials. &or example, textured rubber handles pro!ide a good grip, reduce the effort needed to use the tool effecti!ely, and pre!ent the tool from slipping out of the hand. 5lossy coatings and highly polished handles should be a!oided. The electrical and heat insulation properties of the handles are important for power hand tools. 'andles made of plastics or compound rubber are recommended. .harp edges and contours can be co!ered with cushioned tape to minimize lacerations. Cibration The only effecti!e way to reduce !ibration in power tools is at the design stage. This fact makes tool selection most critical. The common practices of co!ering handles of !ibrating tools with a layer of !iscoelastic material or of using anti$ !ibration glo!es made of similar material are of dubious !alue. These 2anti$ !ibration2 materials will dampen !ibration abo!e certain fre"uencies that are characteristic for the kind of material, but most of the !ibration energy in a handle of a power tool is below those fre"uencies.

What should one remember when selecting and using hand tools? +hen selecting and using a hand tool it is important to 2bend2 the tool, not the wrist6 use tools with angled or 2bent2 handles, when appropriate to a!oid high contact forces and static loading (see 'and Tool Ergonomics $ 'ealth 'azards to reduce excessi!e gripping force or pressure to a!oid extreme and awkward joint positions to a!oid twisting hand and wrist motion by using power tools rather than hand tools. to a!oid repetiti!e finger mo!ements, or at least reduce their number to a!oid or limit !ibration to minimize the amount of force needed to acti!ate trigger de!ices on power tools.

ow does hand tool maintenance reduce the risk for injuries? The condition of tools is an important factor. Blunt or dull tools such as scissors, cutters, saws, screwdri!er tips, in fact any tools in a poor state of repair, not only compromise safety but also increase (sometimes by a factor of ten the effort needed to use them. Tools in poor condition should be discarded (with the exception of those few that can be restored to optimum condition, for example, a wood chisel or wood saw and replaced with new ones.

+orkspace (esign
ow can work space design help pre!ent work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Dsresulting from the improper use of hand tools? ow can you control a working body posture? ow should one design the workstation for precision work? ow should one design the workstation for assembly work?

ow can work space design help pre!ent work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds- resulting from the improper use of hand tools? Tool selection is of critical importance for user safety, comfort and health. 'owe!er e!en the best tool on the market will not transform a poorly designed workstation into a safe and comfortable one for the operator. %any work space components such as work surfaces, seats, flooring, tools, e"uipment, en!ironmental conditions, etc., determine whether or not the job is safe and healthy. 1f the workplace design does not meet your physical needs, it can create risk factors for discomfort, aches and pains, fatigue, and e!entually, +%.(s. /n the other hand, in a well$designed workplace, where you ha!e the opportunity to choose from a !ariety of well$balanced working positions and to change between them fre"uently, work can be carried out safely and injury$free. ow can you control a working body posture? #!oid bending o!er your work6 instead keep your back straight and, if possible, ele!ate the work area or task to a comfortable le!el. >eep your elbows close to the body, and reduce the need to stretch your arms o!erhead or out in front of you. Tool extensions can help where it is difficult to reach the object of work. 4sing a stepladder or step$stool can impro!e the working body position where the task re"uires ele!ating your arms abo!e the shoulder. #t the same time, fre"uent stretching breaks will relie!e any built$up muscle tension. 1f standing, distribute your weight e!enly between the feet. E!en better, use a foot stool or rail to rest your legs, and shift from one to the other periodically. 7roper chairs and sit,stand stools offer support during many hand tool tasks $$ read more about these in our /.' #nswers documents on +orking in a .itting 7osition, and +orking in a .tanding 7osition. 8onsider the use of anti$fatigue mats (also discussed in our /.' #nswers document #nti$fatigue %ats . ow should one design the workstation for precision work? 7ro!ide the worker with a height$adjustable workstation (&igure Ca &or a fixed$height workbenchpro!ide work platforms to accommodate shorter workers. raise the work surface for taller workers.

&igure Ca 7ro!ide sufficient leg clearance to allow the worker to get close to the work object, thereby reducing the need to bend the torso. 7ro!ide a foot rest as foot support that will impro!e body balance and minimize the static load on the workers back. #nti$fatigue matting reduces lower back and leg discomfort and minimizes fatigue.

&igure Cb 8onsider using chairs or stools to allow work in a sitting or standing position. 8onsider using arm slings. This reduces tension in the shoulder$ neck area (&igure Cb . +here feasible pro!ide the worker with a tilted workstation. This reduces static load on the back and upper body (&igure Cc .

&igure Cc 4se jigs or !ices to hold the work object steady and secure at the proper height and position for optimum comfort (&igure Cd .

&igure Cd 4se !ices to minimize pinching and gripping forces.

ow should one design the workstation for assembly work? 1n assembly work, static load, awkward postures and forceful mo!ements are major risk factors for +%.(s. 7rolonged standing and the fatigue resulting from it additionally contribute to +%.(s. 4se jigs and !ices to hold the work object steady at the right height and position for optimum comfort (&igure ;a .

&igure ;a 4se tool balancers to reduce the effort of holding and operating the tool (&igure ;b .

&igure ;b 1f possible use the lightest tool that can get the job done properly, preferably one weighing less than : kg (A lbs . #nti$fatigue matting reduces lower back and leg discomfort and minimizes fatigue.

3ighting Ergonomics $ 5eneral

Why is lighting important? What are other 5( .nswer documents about lighting? What are different sources of light? What are basic types of artificial lighting? What are different types of light fi2tures? Can electric lighting affect what we @see@ as the colours of an object?

Why is lighting important? +hether in industrial or office settings, proper lighting makes all work tasks easier. 7eople recei!e about ?; percent of their information through their sense of sight. #ppropriate lighting, without glare or shadows, can reduce eye fatigue and headaches. 1t highlights mo!ing machinery and other safety hazards. 1t also reduces the chance of accidents and injuries from 2momentary blindness2 while the eyes adjust to brighter or darker surroundings. The ability to 2see2 at work depends not only on lighting but also on the time to focus on an object. &ast mo!ing objects are hard to see. the size of an object. 9ery small objects are hard to see. brightness. Too much or too little reflected light makes objects hard to see. contrast between an object and its immediate background. Too little contrast makes it hard to distinguish an object from the background

What are other 5( 7lease also see-

.nswer documents about lighting?

Eye (iscomfort in the /ffice 3ighting Ergonomics $ .ur!ey and .olutions 3ighting Ergonomics $ 8hecklist

What are different sources of light? Daylight6 'ow much daylight reaches inside a building depends on the amount and direction of sunlight, cloud co!er, local terrain, and the season. #s well, the size, orientation and cleanliness of the windows is important. The amount of daylight entering the workplace can be controlled with tinted glass, window blinds, curtains, and awnings. (aylight is desirable in the workplace pro!iding it does not cause glare or make the work area too bright. *emember, not enough light can also be a problem so e!en in workplaces where daylight is a!ailable, it is essential to ha!e a good electric lighting system. 1lectric +ighting6 The amount of light, the colour of the light itself and the colour that objects appear !ary with the type of electric lighting. The lighting must match the workplace and the task. The following are common types of bulbs. 0able +ight )ulbsI 0ype 1ncandescent &luorescent %ercury 3ow pressure sodium 'igh pressure sodium %etal 'alide Common .pplication homes offices factories, offices roadway factories, commercial factories, commercial 1fficiency poor good fair good good good Colour *enderingII good fair to good fair to moderate poor fair to good good

I Bulbs are often referred to as lamps in many technical publications. II 8olour rendering is the effect of light on the colour of objects. What are basic types of artificial lighting? There are three basic types of lighting general, localized$general, and local (or task .

5eneral lighting pro!ides fairly uniform lighting. #n example would be ceiling fixtures that light up large areas.

3ocalized$general lighting uses o!erhead fixtures in addition to ceiling fixtures to increase lighting le!els for particular tasks.

3ocal (or task lighting increases light le!els o!er the work and immediate surroundings. 3ocal lighting often allows the user to adjust and control lighting and pro!ides flexibility for each user.

What are different types of light fi2tures? The complete lighting unit (also called the light fixture controls and distributes the light. (3ight fixtures are often referred to as 2luminaires2 in technical publications. 9arious types of light fixtures are designed to distribute light in different ways. These fixtures are known as direct, direct$indirect, indirect and shielded (!arious types .

0o single type of light fixture is appropriate in e!ery situation. The amount and "uality of lighting re"uired for a particular workstation or task will determine which light fixture is most suitable. Direct light fi2tures project F= to :== percent of their light downward toward the work area. (irect lighting tends to create shadows.

Direct-indirect light fi2tures distribute light e"ually upward and downward. They reflect light off the ceiling and other room surfaces. 3ittle light is emitted horizontally meaning direct glare is often reduced. They are usually used in 2clean2 manufacturing areas.

%ndirect light fi2tures distribute F= to :== percent of the light upward. The ceiling and upper walls must be clean and highly reflecti!e to allow the light to reach the work area. They pro!ide the most e!en illumination of all the types of fixtures and the least direct glare. 1ndirect light fixtures are usually used in offices.

(hielded light fi2tures use diffusers, lenses and lou!ers to co!er bulbs from direct !iew6 therefore, helping to pre!ent glare and distribute light.

 (iffusers are translucent or semi$transparent (see$through co!ers made usually of glass or plastic. They are used on the bottom or sides of light fixtures to control brightness. 3enses are clear or transparent glass, or plastic co!ers. The lens design incorporates prisms and flutes to distribute light in specific ways.

3ou!ers are baffles that shield the bulb from !iew and reflect light. The baffles can be contoured to control light and decrease brightness. 7arabolic lou!ers are specially shaped grids that concentrate and distribute light.

Can electric lighting affect what we @see@ as the colours of an object? Ges. The 2colour2 of an object actually depends upon the colour composition of the light itself as well as the colours of the light that the object reflects and absorbs. 0atural sunlight is made up of all the colours of the rainbow (spectrum red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and !iolet. %ost electric lights do not 2make2 of all these colours e!en though the lights appear to be emitting 2white2 or 2normal2 light. 1n fact, different lights gi!e different colour rendering characteristics. #s a result, the true colour of an object can only be determined when !iewed under sunlight or under lighting, such as full spectrum lighting, that has the same spectral composition as sunlight. &or most work situations, colour rendering is not an issue. 'owe!er, full spectrum lighting may be needed when colour judgement is important6 for example, in a fabric manufacturing or sewing en!ironment.

3ighting Ergonomics $ 8hecklist

What is an e2ample of a lighting checklist?

What is an e2ample of a lighting checklist? 4se the checklist and answer yes or no to the following "uestions. &ollow up any 2no2 answers with correcti!e action. # complete lighting sur!ey may be necessary. 7lease see the other /.' #nswers documents on lighting for more information. Eye (iscomfort in the /ffice 3ighting Ergonomics $ 5eneral 3ighting Ergonomics $ .ur!ey and .olutions

'eneral Enough light for the task. 0o troublesome reflections. 0o glare along or near normal line of sight 0o fre"uent transitions between extremes of light and dark or near and far. 3amps co!ered to diffuse light e!enly. #de"uate lighting of upper walls and ceilings. .hadows eliminated. Bright shiny objects out of !iew. 5ffice 8lear and readable images on 9(T. +ell$placed local lighting. 9(Ts positioned parallel to windows. 9(Ts positioned parallel to fluorescent light fixtures. %atte finishes on furniture and e"uipment. Blinds or curtains on windows. Brightness and contrast controls properly adjusted on 9(Ts. #ppropriate size print, and good contrast on reading materials. %ndustry 9ery small objects magnified in addition to good lighting. %o!ing machinery parts painted a colour which contrasts with the background. #de"uate lighting in storage rooms, stairways and hallways. .imple background behind tasks.

"aintenance *egular replacement of bulbs. *egular cleaning of light fixtures. 4pper walls and ceilings clean.

3ighting Ergonomics $ 3ight &licker

What is light flicker? Can you actually see lights flicker? .re there any health effects associated with light flicker? What kind of things can cause light flicker or dimming? What kind of lighting is likely to cause a flicker problem? What can be done to reduce or eliminate light flicker?

What is light flicker? 3ight flicker refers to "uick, repeated changes in light intensity $ light that appears to flutter and be unsteady. 1t is caused when the !oltage supplied to a light source changes or when the power line !oltage itself fluctuates. The se!erity of the flicker depends on se!eral factors such as how often and regularly the !oltage fluctuates, how much of a !oltage change occurs, the kind of light (incandescent, fluorescent, or '1( $ high intensity discharge lighting systems , the gain factor of the lamp Ngain factor is a measure of how much the light intensity will change when the !oltage fluctuations $ (O relati!e change in light le!els di!ided by (O relati!e fluctuation in !oltage P the amount of light in the lighted area (ambient light le!els . 3amps operating on #8 electric systems (alternating current produce light flickering at a fre"uency of :A= 'ertz ('z, cycles per second , twice the power line fre"uency of E= 'z (;= 'z in many countries outside 0orth #merica . Essentially, the power is turning on and off :A= times a second (actually the !oltage !aries from Q:A= !olts to $:A= !olts, E= times or cycles a second and is at zero !olts twice in one cycle .

Can you actually see lights flicker? 1t depends on the fre"uency of the flicker. 7eople can see lights flashing on and off up to about ;= flashes per second (;= 'z $ they are most sensiti!e to time$ !arying illumination in the :=$A; 'z range. The actual critical flicker fre"uency increases as the light intensity increases up to a maximum !alue, after which it starts to decrease. +hen a light is flickering at a fre"uency greater than ;= or so

'ertz, most people can no longer distinguish between the indi!idual flickers. #t this fre"uency $ the critical flicker fre"uency or flicker fusion threshold $ the flashes appear to fuse into a steady, continuous source of light. This happens because the response to the light stimulus lasts longer than the flash itself. 7eople cannot notice the flicker in fluorescent lights that ha!e a flicker rate of :A= cycles per second (or :A= 'z . The light flicker may be detected by its stroboscopic effect. +hen objects mo!e or rotate rapidly, they may be lit at or about the same position during each cycle or rotation. This makes objects look as if they are mo!ing more slowly than their actual speeds $ they may e!en appear stationary if the object is mo!ing at the same rate as the flicker fre"uency (or a multiple of it . This fact is the principle behind a strobe light but it is not the desired effect in general lighting. 1n fact, it could be a safety hazard if someone mistakenly thought that some e"uipment was stationary or was mo!ing slowly.

.re there any health effects associated with light flicker? #lthough humans cannot see fluorescent lights flicker, the sensory system in some indi!iduals can somehow detect the flicker. E!er since fluorescent lighting was introduced in workplaces, there ha!e been complaints about headaches, eye strain and general eye discomfort. These complaints ha!e been associated with the light flicker from fluorescent lights. +hen compared to regular fluorescent lights with magnetic ballasts, the use of high fre"uency electronic ballasts (A=,=== 'z or higher in fluorescent lights resulted in more than a ;=O drop in complaints of eye strain and headaches. There tended to be fewer complaints of headaches among workers on higher floors compared to those closer to ground le!el6 that is, workers exposed to more natural light experienced fewer health effects. N+ilkins, #. L., 0immo$.mith, 1., .later, #. K Bedocs, 3. (:F?F . &luorescent lighting, headaches and eye$strain. 3ighting *esearch and Technology, !ol. A:, ::$:?P

What kind of things can cause light flicker or dimming? 9oltage changes can be caused by dimmer switches or when electrical e"uipment drawing hea!y currents are turned on or when being used (e.g., resistance welding machines6 motors in refrigerators, air conditioners6 arc furnaces6 medical imaging machines (x$ray, 8#T scan, %*1 6 motors subject to !ariable loads6 large capacity photocopiers . *esistance welding machines that repeats welding a rate of once or more per second can cause repetiti!e !oltage fluctuations and may result in a noticeable light flicker. 4sually !oltage fluctuations are small and do not ha!e ad!erse effects on electrical e"uipment. 'owe!er, in offices, for example, !oltage fluctuations of just a few tenths of one percent can produce !ery annoying flickers in the lighting, especially if they are regular and repetiti!e in the ;$:; 'z range.

What kind of lighting is likely to cause a flicker problem? &licker is usually a potential problem only with lighting that re"uire the use of ballasts, like fluorescent lights. 1ncandescent lights usually do not cause a flicker problem since the light filaments generally do not cool "uickly enough (and make

the light dimmer during the 2off2 time as the !oltage changes in the #8 power line. The type of ballast, which controls the electrical supply to fluorescent lights, affects the amount of flicker. 2%agnetic2 ballasts change the !oltage supplied to the fluorescent lamps but do not alter the fre"uency $ the power line fre"uency of E= 'z. The ultra!iolet (49 light produced inside the fluorescent light tube also fluctuates :A= times per second. The phosphorescence (the fluorescent light resulting from the 49 shining on the phosphor coatings inside the light tube is sufficiently stable (i.e., lasts long enough to e!en out the !ariations in the fluorescent light output.

What can be done to reduce or eliminate light flicker? .ome types of ballasts can reduce flicker considerably. 0ew, energy$efficient electronic ballasts take the E= 'z power and con!ert it to !oltages at a much higher fre"uency (A=,=== $ E=,=== 'z . The resulting flicker fre"uency (twice the supplied power fre"uency, C= $:A= k'z is so high that the human eye cannot detect any fluctuation in the light intensity $ essentially flicker$free. #n added benefit is that electronic ballasts produce less hum than that emitted by other kinds of ballasts. To correct flicker *eplace bulbs on a scheduled basis. /ld bulbs tend to flicker more and they are not as bright. Ensure that all parts of the light fixture, especially the ballast, are functioning properly. +hen replacements are needed, upgrade to fluorescent lighting that uses electronic ballasts.

3ighting Ergonomics $ .ur!ey and .olutions

What are some of the most common lighting problems? What are other 5( .nswer documents about lighting? What should you know about insufficient light? ow much light is needed for !arious situations or acti!ities? ow do you test and correct for insufficient light problems? What should you know about glare? ow do you detect glare? ow do you correct glare problems? ow can you detect if there is @improper contrast@? ow do you check and correct for poor contrast? What should you know about poorly distributed light? ow do you conduct a more detailed lighting sur!ey?

What are some of the most common lighting problems? 7oor lighting can cause se!eral problems such as insufficient light $ not enough (too little light for the need, glare $ too much light for the need, improper contrast, poorly distributed light, and flicker.

This document summarizes general ways to detect and sol!e some of the more common lighting problems. 1nformation on how to conduct a more detailed (or formal lighting sur!ey is located at the end of this document. What are other 5( .nswer documents about lighting? 7lease also see Eye (iscomfort in the /ffice 3ighting Ergonomics $ 5eneral 3ighting Ergonomics $ 8hecklist 3ighting Ergonomics $ 3ight &licker

What should you know about insufficient light? 7oor lighting can be a safety hazard $ misjudgement of the position, shape or speed of an object can lead to accidents and injury. 7oor lighting can affect the "uality of work, specifically in situation where precision is re"uired, and o!erall producti!ity. 7oor lighting can be a health hazard $ too much or too little light strains eyes and may cause eye discomfort (burning, etc. and headaches. ow much light is needed for !arious situations or acti!ities? The amount of light we need !aries and depends on the type of task being done (such as demands for speed and accuracy , type of surfaces (does it reflect or absorb light , the general work area, and the indi!idual)s !ision. The amount of light falling on a surface is measured in units called lux. (epending on the factors noted abo!e, ade"uate general lighting is usually between ;== and :=== lux when measured BE cm (<= inches abo!e the floor.I Examples of industrial and office tasks and the recommended light le!els are in the table below. 0able *ecommended %llumination +e!elsD 0ype of .cti!ity 7ublic spaces with dark surroundings .imple orientation for short temporary !isits +orking spaces where !isual tasks are only occasionally performed 7erformance of !isual tasks of high contrast or large scale *anges of %lluminations ,+u2-DD <= ;= :== <==

7erformance of !isual tasks of medium contrast or small size 7erformance of !isual tasks of low contrast or !ery small size 7erformance of !isual tasks near threshold of person)s ability to recognize an image

;== :=== <===$:====

I %odified from- 1E.0# 3ighting 'andbook. Fth ed. 1lluminating Engineering .ociety of 0orth #merica, A===. p. :=$:<. II3ux R 3umens ("uantity of light per s"uare metre. To reach proper light le!els, many light fixtures are designed to reflect light off walls, ceilings and objects. The amount of light reflected off a surface can be measured. .uggestions for the percent of light reflected off surfaces in a typical office include window blinds (C=$;=O , walls (;=O maximum , business machines (;=O maximum , ceiling (B=$?=O , floor (A=$C=O , and furniture (A;$C;O .

The percent !alue refers to the amount of light that a surface reflects relati!e to the amount that falls on the surface.

1n addition, light fixtures that are too widely spaced or wrongly positioned can create shadows. /bjects between the light fixture and work being done can block the light and cast shadows. 3ikewise, workers sitting with their backs to windows, with light fixtures directly o!erhead or to the rear, cast shadows on their own work surfaces. ow do you test and correct for insufficient light problems? To detect insufficient light, try the following +ipe light fixtures with a damp cloth to check for cleanliness. #n e!enly deposited film of dust is hard to detect by sight alone. %easure the a!erage illumination throughout the workplace. 8ompare this to the recommended le!els.

3ook for shadows, especially o!er work areas and on stairways. #sk workers if they suffer from eye strain or s"uint to see.

+orkers should sit in their normal working positions during measurement to gi!e you accurate results. To correct insufficient light *eplace bulbs on a regular schedule. /ld bulbs gi!e less light than new ones so replace them before they burn out. &ollow manufacturers) instructions. 8lean light fixtures regularly. (irt on light fixtures reduces the amount of light gi!en off. 3ight fixtures with open tops allow air currents to mo!e dust up through the fixture so dust and dirt do not accumulate on the fixture. #dd more light fixtures in appropriate places. 7aint walls and ceilings light colours so light can be reflected. 4se more reflected light and local lighting to eliminate shadows. &or example, a co!ered light mounted under a transparent guard on a grinding wheel pro!ides the added light needed to clearly see the task. (o not position work station with light fixture directly behind worker.

What should you know about glare? 5lare is a common lighting problem. 5lare is what happens when a bright light source or reflection interferes with how you are )seeing) an object. 1n most cases, your eyes will adapt to the brightest le!el of light. +hen this adaptation happens, it becomes harder to see the details in the duller or darker areas of the work space (e!en though they are actually sufficiently litS . 5lare can cause annoyance and discomfort, and can actually decrease a person)s ability to see. *eflected glare is caused by 3ight reflected from polished, shiny or glossy surfaces the glass on picture frames, or windows at night and 9(T screens.

(irect glare is caused by !ery bright light from poorly positioned light fixtures, or sunlight.

ow do you detect glare? There are se!eral ways to find sources of glare. +hen in your normal working position, look at a distant object at eye le!el. Block the light 2path2 from the fixtures with a book or cardboard. 1f the distant object is now easier to see, the light fixtures are probably producing glare.

To detect reflected glare, look at the task from your normal working position. Block the light falling on it from the front or abo!e. 1f details are now easier to see, reflections are a problem.

 7lace a small mirror face up on the work surface. The mirror reflects light from abo!e, the light fixture is responsible for glare. 3ook for shiny objects that reflect light. 5lass in picture frames, glossy table tops and 9(T screens are common examples. #sk workers if they experience sore or tired eyes, headaches or if they need to s"uint to see.

ow do you correct glare problems? To correct glare, try 4sing se!eral small low$intensity light fixtures rather than one large high$intensity light fixture. 4sing light fixtures that diffuse or concentrate light well. 1ndirect light fixtures or direct light fixtures with parabolic lou!res are two possibilities. 8o!ering bare bulbs with lou!ers, lenses or other de!ices to control light. 1ncreasing the brightness of the area around the glare source. 4sing adjustable local lighting with brightness controls. 7ositioning light fixtures to reduce reflected light that is directed toward the eyes.

 4sing low gloss paper or apply flat or semi$gloss paint and matte finishes on )offending) surfaces. *emo!e highly polished and shiny objects. >eeping general lighting le!els at recommended le!els. 7ositioning the work station so that windows and fluorescent light tubes are parallel to the worker)s line of sight. (o not position the work station so that light fixtures are to the front or directly o!erhead.

ow can you detect if there is @improper contrast@? There are two types of contrast problems $ the first occurs when there are !ery different light le!els from one area to another, and the other is contrast between the colours of objects. The immediate work area should be brighter than surrounding areas. 1f the surrounding area is brighter than the work area, your attention is distracted away from the work area. The contrast between colours of objects, such as between the print itself and paper or text and background on computer screens, can also cause problems. Too little contrast between print and the paper $ or characters on a 9(T screen and the background $ makes reading tasks difficult. 1n an industrial setting an

example would be that mo!ing and stationary machine parts are hard to distinguish if they are the same colour.

ow do you check and correct for poor contrast? 3ook for areas with great differences in light le!els. 3ook for objects that are hard to distinguish from the background. 3ook for reading materials and 9(Ts where it is hard to make out the print or characters from the background. To correct for poor contrast 1ncrease the contrast between objects and the background. 4se ink pens rather than pencils, and white paper rather than grey. #djust photocopier exposure, 9(T brightness and contrast controls. (ecrease reflected glare. 4se matte finishes on surfaces and mo!e shiny objects out of !iew. 4se contrasting colours for objects and the background. 7aint stationary and mo!ing machine parts in contrasting colours to impro!e !isibility and decrease the risk of accident.

What should you know about poorly distributed light? +hen light is poorly distributed, parts of the ceiling and general surroundings will seem dark and gloomy. .ubstantial differences in light le!els force your eyes to readjust when mo!ing from one light le!el to the other. +orkers may find it difficult or impossible to see properly. Gou can detect poorly distributed light by 3ooking for dark areas and une!en lighting. 4sing a light meter to check the illumination at !arious points throughout the workplace. +ith uniform general lighting, the minimum reading should not be less than two$thirds of the a!erage !alue. 8orrect for poorly distributed light by some .upplementing or replacing light fixtures with ones that distribute light upwards. 7ainting ceiling and walls in light colours that reflect light. 8leaning ceilings, walls and light fixtures.

ow do you conduct a more detailed lighting sur!ey? # complete lighting sur!ey may be needed to identify and sol!e more subtle or complicated problems. # complete lighting sur!ey re"uires complex e"uipment and practical experience. &ollow the manufacturer)s instructions for the proper handling, care and maintenance of instruments. %any different techni"ues and instruments are a!ailable. Each of them has its own ad!antages and disad!antages. # checklist is a!ailable in /.' #nswers under 23ighting Ergonomics2. # complete basic lighting sur!ey includes the following%lluminance 1lluminance is the amount of light falling on a surface. The unit of measurement is lux (or lumens per s"uare metre R :=.BE foot candles, fc . # light meter is used to measure it. *eadings are taken from se!eral angles and positions.

+uminance 3uminance is the amount of light reflected from a surface. The unit of measurement is candela per s"uare metre (e"uals =.AF foot$lamberts . #n illuminance meter is used to measure it. .e!eral measurements are made and a!eraged. 3uminance tables are consulted for reference !alues.

Contrast 8ontrast is the relationship between the brightness of an object and its background. # luminance meter is used to measure it. The following formula is used to calculate contrast and pro!ides a number between = and :. The a!erage contrast should be abo!e =.;8ontrastR 3uminance object $ 3uminance background 3uminance background

*eflectance *eflectance is the ratio of light falling on a surface to the light reflected from a surface, expressed as a percentage. # light meter is used to measure it. *eflectance can also be measured using a reflectometer or by comparing the surface of interest with colour chips of known reflectance.

To determine reflectance, the light meter probe is placed on the test surface to measure light falling on the surface. 0ext, place the probe ;$B cm away facing the surface to measure the light reflected from the surface. The following formula is used to calculate reflectance*eflectance (O R 3uminance x :== 1lluminance

7ushing K 7ulling $ 5eneral

Who uses pushing and pulling motions at work? .re there any statistics to show how common injuries are from pushing and pulling acti!ities? .re there any @limits@ for the amount of force one should e2ert? What are the force limits for hori#ontal pushing and pulling? What are the limits for !ertical pushing and pulling?

Who uses pushing and pulling motions at work? +orkers use !arious pushing and pulling techni"ues in a wide range of acti!ities, such as using manual carts and trucks sliding objects such as cartons on flat surfaces (tables, floors, etc. operating tools and controls opening and closing doors wrapping or enclosing objects in packaging materials

.re there any statistics to show how common injuries are from pushing and pulling acti!ities? Because these actions are among the most common work acti!ities, they are also the cause of many injuries. 'owe!er, there are no comprehensi!e injury statistics. #s well, the injuries resulting from these acti!ities are not always recorded !ery specifically. %ost common are o!erexertion injuries (e.g., back strain . 1njuries due to slips and falls are also often associated with pushing and pulling. #dditionally, injuries to fingers and hands can result when caught in, on, or between objects (e.g., between a cart and the wall and to lower legs when bumped by carts. Therefore, existing statistics do not reflect the importance of pushing and pulling as work factors causing injury because the injuries fall into different categories making them difficult to analyze.

.re there any @limits@ for the amount of force one should e2ert? Because of the complex nature of body motion during pushing and pulling, no numerical standard has yet been de!eloped that can be directly applied in industry. %any factors affect the amount of force that a worker can de!elop in a horizontal push and pull shoes body weight and strength height of force application direction of force application distance of force application from the body posture (bending forward or leaning backward friction coefficient (amount of friction or grip between floors and duration and distance of push or pull

Tables : and A contain the upper force limits for a !ariety of pushing and pulling tasks. They indicate the amount of force that a worker should exert. 1t is important to be aware that the forces in the tables are not the same as the weight of objects being pushed and pulled. This difference means that we cannot use these upper force limits as recommendations for weight limits that can be pushed or pulled in the workplace. /nly trained personnel using special e"uipment can measure the forces exerted by a worker.

What are the force limits for hori#ontal pushing and pulling? The !alues in Table : show the upper limits of forces for horizontal pushing and pulling. These limits should not be exceeded in work situations. 1n fact, it is better and safer if pushing and pulling tasks re"uire lower forces, particularly, where the task re"uires pushing or pulling an object when the hands must be abo!e the shoulder or below the waist le!el exerting a force for longer than ; seconds exerting a force at an angle not directly in front of the body, e.g.,. not 2straight on2

+here a worker can support his body (or feet against a firm structure higher forces (up to EB;0 or about :E; lbf or B; >gf can be de!eloped. 0able 4 *ecommended Epper Force +imits for ori#ontal /ushing and /ullingI Condition Forces that should not be e2ceeded$ in newtons ,lbf$ kgf-DD 12amples of .cti!ities

.> (tanding :.+hole body in!ol!ed A.7rimary arm and shoulder muscles, arms fully extended )> Fneeling AA; 0 (;= lbf or A< kgf ::= 0 (AC lbf or :: kgf Truck and cart handling. %o!ing e"uipment on wheels or casters. .liding rolls on shafts. 3eaning o!er an obstacle to mo!e an object. 7ushing an object at or abo!e shoulder height. *emo!ing or replacing a component from e"uipment as in maintenance work. 'andling in confined work areas such as tunnels or large conduits. /perating a !ertical le!er, such as a floor shift on hea!y e"uipment. %o!ing trays or a product on and off con!eyors.

:?? 0 (CA lbf or :F kgf

C> (eated

:<= 0 (AF lbf or :< kgf

I adopted from- Ergonomic design for people at work. 9ol. A, by Eastman >odak 8ompany, 9an 0ostrand *einhold, :F?E II 4nits of force are- newton (0 , kilogram force (kgf , pound force (lbf 6 :=0 is about the same as : >gf or A lbf. The !alues in each unit system $ newtons, kilogram force and pound force, respecti!ely $ are pro!ided in the table because all are used in the literature and on instruments, depending on the country of origin.

What are the limits for !ertical pushing and pulling? The !alues in Table A show the upper limits of forces for !ertical pushing and pulling. Examples of the use of !ertical force are operating controls and hand tools. .uch acti!ities tend to be of a repetiti!e nature and physically more demanding than occasional pushing or pulling. Therefore, these tasks should be designed for considerably lower force re"uirements than those shown in Table A. 0able 7 *ecommended Epper Force +imits for Certical /ushing and /ullingD

Conditions

Epper +imit of Force$ in newtons ,lbf$ kgf-DD ;C= 0 (:A= lbf or ;; kgf

12amples of .cti!ities

/ull down #bo!e head height /ull down .houlder le!el

#cti!ating a control, hook grip6 such as a safety shower handle or manual control. /perating a chain hoist, power grips6 less than ; cm (A in diameter grip surface. .tringing cable, threading up a paper machine, acti!itating a control. *aising a lid or access port. *aising a lid, palm up.

A== 0 (C; lbf or A= kgf

/ull up A; cm abo!e the floor /ull up Elbow height /ull up .houlder height )oost up .houlder height /ush down Elbow height

<:; 0 (B= lbf or <A kgf

:C? 0 (<< lbf or :; kgf B; 0 (:B lbf or B.; kgf

A== 0 (C; lbf or A= kgf

*aising a corner or end of an object, like a pipe6 boosting an object to a high shelf. +rapping, packing, and sealing cases.

AF= 0 (EC lbf or AF kgf

I adopted from- Ergonomic design for people at work. 9ol. A, by Eastman >odak 8ompany, 9an 0ostrand *einhold, :F?E II 4nits of force are- newton (0 , kilogram force (kgf , pound force (lbf 6 :=0 is about the same as : kgf or A lbf. The !alues in each unit system $ newtons, kilogram force and pound force, respecti!ely $ are pro!ided in the table because all are used in the literature and on instruments, depending on the country of origin.

*otational .hiftwork
What is the definition of @rotational shiftwork@? Why study the effects of shiftwork? .re there ad!erse health and safety effects to working shifts? What are the effects on circadian rhythms? What are the changes in sleep patterns? What are the gastrointestinal disorders associated with shiftwork? What are the cardio!ascular disorders associated with shiftworkers? Can shiftwork aggra!ate e2isting conditions? What are the effects on family and social life? What are the safety concerns associated with working shifts? What are some strategies for impro!ement? What are some organi#ational approaches? What can the indi!idual do to cope with shiftwork?

What is the definition of @rotational shiftwork@?

The term 2rotational shiftwork2 co!ers a wide !ariety of work schedules and implies that shifts rotate or change according to a set schedule. These shifts can be either continuous, running AC hours per day, B days per week, or semi$ continuous, running A or < shifts per day with or without weekends. +orkers take turns working on all shifts that are part of a particular system. The definition of rotational shiftwork in this document does not include fixed shifts like straight nights, straight afternoons or straight days and, generally, fixed shifts are not discussed here. 'owe!er, we should remember that workers on fixed night shifts and those on rotational shiftwork ha!e much in common due to the constantly changing schedules, night work and possible disruption to family and social li!es. #lso, the length of a shift can !ary between ? and :A hours. .pecific concerns about the extended workdays (:=$:A hour shifts is discussed in the Extended +orkday document. 1n this document, instead of 2rotational shiftwork2 we will use, for simplicity, the term 2shiftwork2.

Why study the effects of shiftwork? .hiftwork is a reality for about A; percent of the 0orth #merican working population. 1nterest in the effects of shiftwork on people has de!eloped because many experts ha!e blamed rotating shifts for the 2human error2 connected with nuclear power plant incidents, air crashes, and other catastrophic accidents. #lternating day, night and afternoon shifts are common in industrial work, mines, hospitals, as well as food, health, and transportation ser!ices. .hiftwork is also common in workplaces where technical processes cannot be interrupted without affecting the product and,or where expensi!e e"uipment is used more profitably when in constant operation. %any workers find that shiftwork disrupts their family and personal life and leads to health problems including chronic fatigue and gastrointestinal disorders. /n the other hand, some workers prefer shiftwork because it usually allows for more free time.

.re there ad!erse health and safety effects to working shifts? # shiftworker, particularly one who works nights, must function on a schedule that is not natural. 8onstantly changing schedules can upset one)s circadian rhythm (AC$hour body cycle , cause sleep depri!ation and disorders of the gastrointestinal and cardio!ascular systems, make existing disorders worse, and disrupt family and social life. .cientific studies throughout the world ha!e shown that shiftwork, by its !ery nature, is a major factor in the health and safety of workers.

What are the effects on circadian rhythms? %any human physical functions follow a daily rhythm or a AC$hour cycle. These cycles are called circadian rhythms. The word circadian comes from the 3atin 2circa dies2 which means 2about a day.2 .leeping, waking, digestion, secretion of adrenalin, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse and many other important aspects of body functions and human beha!iour are regulated by this AC$hour cycle. These rhythmical processes are coordinated to allow for high acti!ity during the day and low acti!ity at night. 0ormally, the body uses cues from its processes and from the en!ironment such as clock time, social acti!ities, the light,dark cycle, and meal times to keep the !arious rhythms on track. &or example, body temperature is highest during the afternoon and early e!ening (E-== p.m. and lowest in the early morning (C-== a.m. or just before sunrise . 'owe!er, if the person is working at night, the body temperature does not ha!e as much !ariation during a AC$hour period as it would normally. The temperature rhythm and other body rhythms get out of sync- these rhythms also get out of phase with the person)s acti!ity pattern. This disorientation can lead to feelings of fatigue and disorientation. 2Let lag2 is a term often used to describe these feelings. .ome rhythms adapt in two to three days while others change only after longer periods. 7eople adapt to new schedules at different rates as do the different rhythms. Total re!ersal of circadian rhythms may ne!er occur because on days off most people go back to a 2normal2 day schedule. &re"uent changes in schedule and disruption to circadian rhythms can lead to chronic fatigue and other health problems.

What are the changes in sleep patterns? (isruption of both the "uality and "uantity of the normal sleep is ine!itable in shiftwork particularly where night work is in!ol!ed. The daytime sleep is seldom as deep or as refreshing as sleep at night. The problem is greater if there is not a "uiet, dark, comfortable place to sleep. E!en when disturbances are remo!ed, a worker who returns home in the morning may still find sleep impossible or less refreshing. This difficulty occurs because the circadian rhythms are no longer synchronized. Being constantly tired is a typical complaint of shift workers.

What are the gastrointestinal disorders associated with shiftwork? 5astrointestinal and digesti!e problems such as indigestion, heartburn, stomachache and loss of appetite are more common among rotating shiftworkers and night workers than among day workers. 1t is less clear if more serious conditions such as peptic ulcers are more common in shiftworkers. 8ertainly the irregular work, sleep and eating schedules are not helpful for the proper care of ulcers. 5i!en the irregularity in type and timing of meals, it is not surprising that the night worker is more likely to ha!e a poorer diet. #t night, the loss of appetite often leads to increased snacking on 2junk2 food rather than eating a full, well$ balanced meal. &eelings of fatigue may encourage the consumption of be!erages with caffeine (coffee, cola to help the worker stay awake.

What are the cardio!ascular disorders associated with shiftworkers? .hiftwork is not absolutely associated with cardio!ascular disease. 'owe!er, heart rate and blood pressure ha!e been shown to follow a circadian rhythm. 3ife$ style can directly affect an indi!idual)s health. Therefore, it is !ery important that a shiftworker follows exercise programs to maintain an ade"uate le!el of fitness. 1t is also !ery important not to smoke, to ha!e good dietary habits and to participate in leisure acti!ities. # study of .wedish men with a history of heart attack showed they were significantly more likely to ha!e been shiftworkers than those men without a history of heart attack. #nother study showed that the modification of shift rotation schedules by changing the direction of rotation of shifts to a forward direction (for example, days $T afternoons $T nights can significantly decrease the le!els of se!eral coronary risk factors, e.g., triglycerides, glucose, and urinary excretion of catecholamines (chemicals like adrenalin that occur naturally in the body .

Can shiftwork aggra!ate e2isting conditions? +orkers who re"uire prescription drugs to control certain disorders should be aware that disruption of the circadian rhythm can interfere with the medical treatment of some diseases. 8heck with your family physician if you take medication while working shifts. Gour pharmacist may also be able to gi!e you some additional information. 1f you get all your prescription drugs from the same pharmacy, the pharmacists can also ad!ise you if one drug is likely to interact with another one you may be taking.

What are the effects on family and social life? 8ompared with people who work straight days, shiftworkers report more interference to their family li!es, especially the time a!ailable to spend with spouses and children. This fact is !ery important since the amount and "uality of social interaction is related to physical and mental health. 1ndi!iduals who cannot establish regular routines in their daily acti!ities ha!e difficulties planning for family responsibilities and coping with physical and mental fatigue as effecti!ely as non$shiftworkers. 7articipation in clubs, sports and other organized acti!ities is !ery difficult since they are usually geared to the normal day schedule. The lack of regular social contact can lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation. 1n addition, "uality child care facilities aimed at meeting the needs of shiftworkers is almost nonexistent.

What are the safety concerns associated with working shifts? The causes of accidents are !ery complicated. 4sually, no single factor can be identified as ha!ing 2caused2 an accident. The disturbance of circadian rhythms can affect concentration, moti!ation, and reaction time, particularly at night. This combination can result in an increased risk of accident and injury. 'owe!er, there is disagreement about whether shiftworkers ha!e a greater risk of injury. .tudies can be found to show that shiftworkers) accident rates are less, the same, or more than day workers. 7art of the difficulty with the research is

that work conditions are not always the same on different shifts. &or example, the amount of super!ision, the nature of the workload, the backup systems a!ailable, and so on all can !ary from shift to shift- these factors can make comparisons inaccurate. 0onetheless, lack of sleep heightens the decline in performance normally experienced at certain times of the day. +hen depri!ed of sleep, a worker is not fully aware that his or her performance has deteriorated. *esearch has shown that the optimum mental performance le!el for workers occurs between A and C p.m. and maximum general awareness is between : and B p.m. 7erformance le!els are lowest between <-<= and ;-<= a.m.

What are some strategies for impro!ement? The best solution to the problems of shiftwork would be to eliminate it but this is not often a practical possibility. .hiftwork is likely to continue to be a reality for a large percentage of 8anadian workers. There are two basic le!els where impro!ements can be made The organizational le!el $ primarily through the design of shift schedules, education and better facilities. The indi!idual le!el $ helping workers to get better sleep, a healthier diet, and the reduction of stress.

What are some organi#ational approaches? There are se!eral approaches the organization can take to help reduce the effects of shiftwork. There are also se!eral important considerations for organizations. (hift (chedule Design- /ptimizing the design of the shift schedule is the most effecti!e way of reducing the health and safety problems. .atisfaction with a particular shift system is the result of a complicated balancing act that is the best compromise for personal, psychological, social and medical concerns. 8onsider the length of the rotation period (the number of days on any one shift before switching to the next shift . The optimum length of the rotation period has been disputed. The most common system has a rotation period of one week, with fi!e to se!en consecuti!e night shifts. 'owe!er, since it generally takes at least se!en days for adjustment of the circadian rhythms, it is argued that just as adjustment starts to occur, it is time to rotate to the next shift. .ome schedule designers feel that a longer shift rotation should be arranged so that the worker spends from two weeks to one month on the same shift that would allow circadian rhythms to adjust. # problem occurs when the worker re!erts to a 2normal2 day,night schedule on days off, thus, possibly cancelling any adaptation. #lso, longer periods of social isolation may result. /thers suggest a rapid shift rotation where different shifts are worked e!ery two to three days. This system may reduce disruption to body rhythms because the readjustment of circadian rhythms is minimized. 1t also pro!ides time for some social interaction each week.

1ndi!idual differences and preferences, in the end, play the most important role. Based on scientific information, there is no way to determine which is the best length of rotation period. 8onsider the direction of rotation of shifts. 1t is recommended that shifts rotate forward from day to afternoon to night because circadian rhythms adjust better when mo!ing ahead than back. 8onsider the time at which a shift starts and finishes. Early morning shifts are associated with shorter sleep and greater fatigue. 1t is ad!isable to a!oid shift start times as early as ; or E a.m. The social customs and desires of the specific work force should be considered as well as the a!ailability of public transportation. The safety on the streets, in terms of crime and !iolence, is another consideration. 7ro!ide a rest period of at least AC hours after each set of night shifts. The more consecuti!e nights worked, the more rest time should be allowed before the next rotation occurs. 8onsider alternati!e forms of organizing work schedules. &or example, extended work days of ten or twel!e hours ha!e been used. 1t has the ad!antage of fewer consecuti!e night shifts and longer blocks of time off. 'owe!er, the additional fatigue from long work hours may also ha!e ad!erse effects. The physical and mental load of the task should be considered when selecting the length of a workshift. Exposure to chemical or physical agents should also be considered when selecting a shift system. 7ro!ide time off at 2socially ad!antageous2 times like weekends whene!er possible. .tart a special shift system if production demands result in extended periods of o!ertime work. 1nform shiftworkers of their work schedules well ahead of time so they and their families and friends can plan acti!ities. #llow as much flexibility as possible for shift changes. >eep schedules as simple and predictable as possible. Facilities- The pro!ision of certain facilities can help the shiftworker cope better. 5i!e attention to the work en!ironment. &or example, good lighting and !entilation are important on all shifts. (o not widely separate workstations so that workers at night can remain in contact with one another. 7ro!ide rest facilities where possible. +hene!er a person must remain at work after a night shift to attend a meeting or a training session, pro!iding rest facilities is ad!isable. +hen a night worker is 2on call2 and must remain in the building, it is ad!antageous for this person to be well rested rather than tired and bored. 7ro!ide good cafeteria ser!ices so a balanced diet can be maintained. The nutritional needs differ between day shifts and other shifts because of circadian rhythms. 8onsider offering facilities for social acti!ities with the needs of the shiftworker in mind. *ecreational opportunities are often minimal for workers on 2non$day2 shifts. 8onsider access to "uality day$care for shiftworkers) children. .ome strain on all family members would be alle!iated. 1ducation6 Educate employees on the potential health and safety effects of rotational shiftwork and what can be done to stop these effects. 1n particular, education in stress recognition and reduction techni"ues is helpful.

What can the indi!idual do to cope with shiftwork? 7eople who work shifts face many problems that others do not recognize. The difficulties stem from the change in eating, sleeping, and working patterns. The following guidelines can help people cope better. 'uidelines for Diet and 1ating /atterns %aintain regular eating patterns as much as possible. Balanced, !aried meals are !ery important. >eep family meal times the same e!en though the work routine constantly changes. &amily meals may need to be altered in content to suit the shiftworker. Time meals carefully. #fternoon workers should ha!e the main meal in the middle of the day instead of the middle of the work shift. 0ight workers should eat lightly throughout the shift and ha!e a moderate breakfast. This way they should not get too hungry while sleeping during the day and digesti!e discomfort should be minimal. 7ay careful attention to the type of food eaten. (rink lots of water and eat the usual balance of !egetables, fruit, lean meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, grains and bread. Eat crackers and fruit instead of pop and candy bars during work breaks. *educe the intake of salt, caffeine, and alcohol. #!oid greasy foods, particularly at night. #!oid excessi!e use of antacids, tran"uilizers and sleeping pills. 1t is healthier to watch what and when you eat, and use relaxation techni"ues to aid sleep. *elax during meals and allow time for digestion. (leep .leep on a set schedule to help establish a routine and to make sleep during the day easier. .ome people may prefer to get a full period of rest just before the next work shift (as it is with 2normal day2 work . Try different patterns of work and sleep to see which is best for you. %ake sure that family and friends are aware of and considerate of the worker)s sleep hours and needs. Ensure that the shiftworker has a comfortable, dark, "uiet place to sleep during the day. #ir conditioning, a telephone answering machine, and good blinds on windows are recommended. %ake time for "uiet relaxation before bed to help get better sleep. 3earn how to relax using muscle relaxation, breathing techni"ues and so on. 4se mental imagery to block out unpleasant thoughts. 1f you still do not fall asleep after an hour, read a book or listen to "uiet music on the radio for a while. 1f sleep still does not come, reschedule sleeping hours for later in the day. 3imit commitments later in the day to allow for napping. 5ther %mportant Considerations 7ay attention to general physical fitness and good health habits. &ind out about and understand the potential health and safety effects of shiftwork. 3earn how to recognize and reduce stress through physical fitness, relaxation techni"ues and so on. Take leisure seriously.

.ho!elling
.re sho!els @ergonomically@ designed? What to consider when selecting a sho!el or spade? Why is the weight of the sho!el important? Why is the type and length of the handle important? Why is the si#e and shape of the blade important? What factors should % consider while designing sho!elling tasks? What is the recommended rate for sho!elling? What is the recommended weight of the load to be lifted? What is the recommended throw height and distance? What is the recommended workload for continuous sho!elling? What should you do before sho!elling? What are some other basic safety tips to know when sho!elling? What are guidelines for sho!elling? What are guidelines for digging?

.re sho!els @ergonomically@ designed? The design of sho!els and spades did not come from an ergonomist)s drawing board. They are basic tools that ha!e e!ol!ed o!er many centuries. Thousands of years of experience with such common tools has resulted in great !ariety of sho!els and spades being de!eloped to meet numerous particular needs. 1n general, a .ho!el is a tool used to dig as well as to mo!e loose, granular materials (like dirt, gra!el, grain, or snow from one spot to another. .pade is a tool used for digging straight$edged holes or trenches, slicing and lifting sod, and edging flower beds or lawns. 'owe!er, in 0orth #merica, the term sho!el tends to be used for both sho!els and spades. +hen selecting the right sho!el for the task, ergonomic considerations are essential.

What to consider when selecting a sho!el or spade? The most important features in the selection of a sho!el include weight, handle type, length, and blade size and shape.

Why is the weight of the sho!el important? The amount of muscular effort re"uired in sho!elling depends on the total weight of the sho!el, the weight of the load it carries, how far the load is from the sho!eler)s body, and where the hands are placed on the handle.

*educing the weight of the sho!el, which is unproducti!e weight, increases sho!elling efficiency.

The weight of the sho!el should range from :.; to < kg (< lb to E.; lb maximum. The weight depends in part on the type and weight of material (e.g., steel, aluminum, plastic that is suitable for the intended use. &or example, a light sho!el (e.g., :.; kg (< lb may be suitable for sho!elling snow but a hea!ier, sturdier sho!el (e.g., < kg (E.; lb may be needed to sho!el coal.

Why is the type and length of the handle important? There are two conflicting opinions regarding the length of a sho!el. 3onger sho!els (up to chest height ease the strain on back muscles by reducing the amount of bending re"uired. .horter lengths result in better efficiency when sho!elling. These two factors ha!e to be carefully balanced when deciding which sho!el to choose for the task. 1n general, when the blade is placed on the ground, the total length (blade plus handle should be approximately to elbow height (when arms are at your side . .pades used for digging holes or cutting turf are usually longer than sho!els. 'owe!er, there is a great !ariety of sho!el lengths and you should choose the length depending on the task garden spade should be between elbow and chest height a snow sho!el should come up to one)s chest height a coal sho!el can be as short as approximately E; cm (AE2 .

1n addition, sho!els with long handles pro!ide more le!erage but sho!els with shorter 2($handles2 allow you to apply more force from abo!e.

Why is the si#e and shape of the blade important? .election of blade size and shape should depend on the hardness and density (or weight of the materials being sho!elled. The less dense the material, the larger the blade size. 4se triangular or round blades with long handles for sand and dry earth. 4se s"uare blades with short handles for coarse$grained materials such as gra!el, coal, or ore. 4se a blade that has rolled step on the top (it can be triangular, round, or straight at the bottom for digging in hard earth. These sho!els,spades allow the users to apply foot pressure to push the blade into the earth. This action substantially reduces strain on upper body and lower back.

What factors should % consider while designing sho!elling tasks? The major components of sho!elling and digging tasks are sho!elling rates, sho!el loads, throw height, and throw distance.

What is the recommended rate for sho!elling? The most efficient sho!elling rate is about :?$A: scoops per minute. 'owe!er, fatigue builds up o!er a short time at this rate. Therefore, the recommended rate for continuous sho!elling tasks is usually considered to be around :; scoops per minute. Tasks in!ol!ing continuous sho!elling at this rate should not be carried on longer than fifteen minutes at a time. The sho!elling rate will also depend on how easily the sho!el can be inserted into the material being mo!ed (e.g., grain, snow, gra!el, compacted earth . The length of the rest break depends on many factors. .ince most sho!elling is done outdoors, consideration for the pre!ailing conditions is !ery important. 1n the more extreme conditions such as !ery hot and humid, or !ery cold and windy, :; minutes of sho!elling should be followed by :; minutes of rest.

What is the recommended weight of the load to be lifted? The load lifted should be adjusted according to the sho!elling rate. &or a high rate of sho!elling (about :; scoops per minute the total weight (weight of a sho!el plus a sho!el load should not exceed ; to B kg (about := to :; lb . &or a lower rate, the load can be increased to a maximum of :: kg (about AC lb . 1n addition, the need for precise placement of the load decreases the amount to be lifted because it takes more time and effort to aim the load at a selected location.

What is the recommended throw height and distance? Throw height should not exceed :.< meters (approximately C feet . The optimal throw distance is slightly o!er l metre (about < feet . The load should be reduced if the task re"uires a longer throw.

What is the recommended workload for continuous sho!elling? There are also guidelines for maximum workloads for continuous sho!elling. This table is an example of such suggested by the >odak 8ompany. "a2imum .mount of "aterial 0ransported$ Continuous Work Weight /er "inute >g ?=$F= 3b :B;$A== 0otal Weight /er 4: "inutes >g B;= 3b :,E;= 3ifts up to :== cm (C= in. abo!e the ground $ compact, non$critical load placement. :,:E; 3ift routinely abo!e :== cm (C= in. abo!e the ground ;<; 9ery precise load placement or shifting Conditions

;;$E; AA$<<

:A=$:C; ;=$B;

;<= AC;

load (reduces possible lifting fre"uency and weight per lift . What should you do before sho!elling? .ho!elling is strenuous work and hard on both the heart and the back. &or older people or persons with a history of back or heart problems it might be better to a!oid this job altogether. This is especially true under extreme weather conditions (cold winter, hot summer . E!en for the physically fit, some warm$up exercises before starting sho!elling is highly recommended. &lexing and stretching exercises warm and loosen the muscles and prepare them for the job ahead.

What are some other basic safety tips to know when sho!elling? %ake sure that the terrain you are digging is free of cables and pipes 1f you are not sure, contact utilities for location of cables and pipes prior to digging. +ear the proper protecti!e clothing6 safety footwear, glo!es, long pants if necessary #llow for safe distance between people if you are working with other people.

What are guidelines for sho!elling?

>eep feet wide apart. 7lace front foot close to sho!el.

7ut weight on front foot. 4se leg to push sho!el.

.hift weight to rear foot.

>eep load close to body.

Turn feet in direction of throw.

What are guidelines for digging?

7ush spade down using leg muscle.

.lide load close to body. Ensure load is loose from ground before lifting.

.ho!elling $ .now
Why is snow sho!elling an occupational ha#ard? What should you know before you start sho!elling? .ny sho!el will do$ right? ow should you sho!el? Where can you get more information about sho!elling?

Why is snow sho!elling an occupational ha#ard? #s 8anadians, we)!e been digging with that same snow sho!el just as we do e!ery year. But ha!e we e!er really gi!en this chore much thoughtH +hether you)re sho!elling at work or at home, there are some things you should consider. 0iming and attitude /ften the need for sho!elling snow arises unexpectedly and interferes with what we had originally planned to do. 8onse"uently we face this unwanted chore unprepared and, more important, in a hurry to get it o!er with as fast as possible. 1f we are not careful, we could experience cold exposure, fatigue, muscular strains and more serious injury, particularly to the lower back. /n the other hand, it is more practical to sho!el early and often. &resh dry snow is lighter and therefore more manageable than wet, hea!ily packed or partly melted snow.

What should you know before you start sho!elling? &irst of all, you should keep in mind that, while sho!elling snow may be an excellent workout for the physically fit, it in!ol!es strenuous effort. 3oad a sho!el (o!er : kg with ; kg of snow (just about the a!erage e!ery ; seconds, and you mo!e a load of o!er B= kg in one minute. *epeat for :; minutes and you will ha!e sho!elled :,=== kg of snow. .uch effort is ob!iously not for e!eryone. 1t is hard on the heart and back for those who are not used to it or not in good physical shape. 1f you are older, o!erweight, or ha!e a history of back or heart problems, or simply feel that it is too much for you, a!oid this job by delegating it to someone else. #nother option would be getting a snow blower.

#s with any exercise, talk to your doctor. 1f you are physically fit, do some warm$ ups before you start sho!elling. &lexing and stretching exercises will loosen up the muscles and prepare them for the job ahead. 0ext, check your clothing. #re you dressed appropriatelyH +ear se!eral layers of warm lightweight clothing that is hinder free and comfortable to mo!e in. The inner layer should be fishnet underwear or thermal underwear that allows perspiration to escape from the skin surface. %ake sure your head, (especially your ears , feet and hands are well co!ered. 'owe!er, do not let your hat or scarf block your !ision $ you ha!e to see what you are sho!elling. Boots should be water$resistant and high$cut, and should pro!ide good traction. 5lo!es should be light and flexible and gi!e you a good grip. 1f it is really cold, wear something o!er your mouth. #nd do not sho!el at all if the temperature drops below $C=@8, or below $A;@ to $<=@8 when it is windy. &or more information about working in the cold, you can !isit the 28old En!ironments2 publications elsewhere in /.' #nswers $ 5eneral 1nformation, 'ealth Effects and &irst #id, and +orking in the 8old.

.ny sho!el will do$ right? +hat about that sho!elH 1s it a snow sho!elH #ny other kind of sho!el will make the job much harder. # snow sho!el should be light$weight, about :.; kg or a little o!er < lbs, and the blade shouldn)t be too large. /therwise your load will be too hea!y, putting too much stress on your heart and back. The handle should be long enough so that you don)t ha!e to stoop to sho!el. The grip should be made of plastic or wood$$ metal gets too cold.

ow should you sho!el? Gou may want to get the job o!er with as fast as you can, but it is better to keep mobile and work at a steady pace. .ho!elling is going to make you sweat and, if you stop, you could get a chill. 7ush the snow rather than lift it. 1f you must throw it, take only as much snow as you can easily lift and turn your feet to the direction you)re throwing $ don)t twist at the waist. Throwing the snow o!er your shoulder or to the side is a no$noS #nd remember, the wetter the snow, the hea!ier it is. Gou might want to consider using a snow scoop which allows you to mo!e snow with less effort, by pushing instead of lifting. The scoop rides up o!er the snow to allow you to mo!e the snow without e!er ha!ing to lift it. 7ace yourself. .ho!elling snow is strenuous acti!ity comparable to weightlifting while walking on une!en and unstable ground and wearing hea!y$duty clothing. Take fre"uent breaks and drink some warm non$alcoholic fluids.

Where can you get more information about sho!elling?

&or more information about sho!elling in general including what to consider when selecting a sho!el, and the rate (how fast you should sho!el, please see the /.' #nswers document 2.ho!elling2.

+ork$related %usculoskeletal (isorders (+%.(s $ *isk &actors

What are the risk factors for work-related musculoskeletal disorders ,W"(Ds-? +ork$related musculoskeletal disorders (+%.(s are associated with these factors work postures and mo!ements, repetiti!eness and pace of work, force of mo!ements, !ibration, and temperature.

8ertain workplace conditions, for example, the layout of the workstation, the speed of work (especially in con!eyor$dri!en jobs , and the weight of the objects being handled influence these factors.

ow are work postures and mo!ements a risk for W"(Ds? #ny body position can cause discomfort and fatigue if it is maintained for long periods of time. .tanding, for example, is a natural body posture, and by itself poses no particular health hazards. 'owe!er, working for long periods in a standing position can cause sore feet, general muscular fatigue, and low back pain. 1n addition, improper layout of work areas, and certain tasks can make workers use unnatural standing positions.

&igure : $ Bending forward

&igure A $ *eaching abo!e shoulder le!el Two aspects of body position can contribute to injuries. The first relates to body position. &or example, working with the torso bent forward (&igure : , backward or twisted can place too much stress on the low back. /ther examples of stressful body positions include reaching abo!e shoulder le!el (&igure A , reaching behind the body (&igure < , rotating the arms (&igure C and bending the wrist forward, backward, or side to side (&igure ; .

&igure < $ *eaching behind the body +hen parts of the body are near the extremes of their range of mo!ements, stretching and compression of tendons and ner!es occur. The longer a fixed or awkward body position is used, the more likely we are to de!elop +%.(s. The second aspect that contributes to +%.(s is holding the neck and the shoulders in a fixed position. To perform any controlled mo!ement with the arm, muscles in the shoulder and the neck contract and stay contracted for as long as the task re"uires. The contracted muscles s"ueeze the blood !essels, which restricts the flow of blood all the way down to the working muscles of the hand.

&igure C $ *otating the arms

&igure ; $ Bending the wrist 'owe!er, this is where the blood is needed the most because of the intense muscular effort. Two things happen as a result. The neck,shoulder muscles become o!ertired e!en though there is little or no mo!ement. #t the same time, the reduced blood supply to the rest of the arm accelerates fatigue in the muscles that are mo!ing, making them more prone to injury.

ow does repetiti!eness and pace of work influence W"(Ds? *epetiti!e mo!ements are especially hazardous when they in!ol!e the same joints and muscle groups o!er and o!er and when we do the same motion too often, too "uickly and for too long. To analyze how repetiti!e a task is, we need to describe it in terms of steps or cycles. &or example, the bottle packing operation (&igure E re"uires workers to pack boxes with twenty$four bottles.

&igure E $ 7acking bottles /ne cycle can be described as follows reach for bottles grasp bottles mo!e bottles to box place bottles in box

1f a worker grasps four bottles each time, the same cycle would ha!e to be repeated six times to fill a box. #ssuming that one cycle lasts two seconds, it would take twel!e seconds to pack a box with twenty$four bottles. There are no rules to judge mo!ements as either high or low in repetition. .ome researchers classify a job as 2high repetiti!e2 if the time to complete such a job was less than <= seconds or 2low repetiti!e2 if the time to complete the job was more than <= seconds. #lthough no one really knows at what point +%.(s may de!elop, workers performing repetiti!e tasks are at risk for +%.(s +ork in!ol!ing mo!ement repeated o!er and o!er is !ery tiring because the worker can not fully reco!er in the short periods of time between mo!ements. E!entually, it takes more effort to perform the same repetiti!e mo!ements. +hen the work acti!ity continues in spite of the fatigue, injuries can occur.

What should % know about force of mo!ements? &orce is the amount of effort our bodies must do to lift objects, to use tools, or to mo!e. The amount of force we use to do a job depends on many factors such as the weight of the objects and their placement in relation to the body. 1t re"uires more force to lift and carry a box with arms outstretched and held away from the body (&igure B or to lift the same objects in a 2pinch2 position (&igure Ba than in a 2hook2 position (&igure ?, ?a .

&igure B $ 3ifting in a 2pinch2

&igure Ba $ 7inch position

&igure ? $ 3ifting in a 2hook2

&igure ?a $'ook position # force of more than four kilograms, or nine pounds, is considered significant. This is the force used to hammer a nail, for example. #lthough no one really knows when +%.(s will de!elop, workers performing forceful mo!ements are at risk. +ork in!ol!ing forceful mo!ements is !ery tiring again because there is not time for a full reco!ery between mo!ements. E!entually it takes effort to perform the same task. +hen the work acti!ity continues in spite of the de!eloping fatigue, injuries occur.

ow does !ibration encourage W"(Ds?

9ibration affects tendons, muscles, joints and ner!es. +orkers can be exposed to either whole body !ibration or localized !ibration. +hole body !ibration is experienced by truck and bus dri!ers for example. 3ocalized !ibration exposure can be caused by power tools. 1n addition the worker may use more force and awkward body positions because !ibration hand tools are harder to control. Exposure to too much !ibration can also cause us to lose the feeling in our hands and arms. #s a result, we may misjudge the amount of force we need to control the tools and use too much which increases fatigue.

ow does temperature affect W"(Ds? 1n general, when it is too cold, or when we touch cold materials, our hands can become numb. +ith numbed hands, we are more likely to misjudge the amount of force we need to do our work and use too much. # cold en!ironment also makes our bodies less flexible. E!ery mo!ement we make and e!ery position we hold takes a lot more work, and then +%.(s are more likely to de!elop. There is not enough knowledge in the literature to establish any link between heat and +%.(s.

+orking in a .itting 7osition #lternati!e 8hairs

What are e2amples of @alternati!e@ chairs? The forward sloping chair and the kneeling chair are alternati!es for workers who sit continuously. # saddle chair (sit$stand seat allows a worker to alternate between sitting and standing.

What is a forward sloping chair? # forward sloping chair has a mechanism that allows the user to adjust the tilt of the seat pan forward. The angle of tilt from the horizontal should not be greater than := degrees.

What are some ad!antages of a forward sloping chair? The use of a forward sloping chair 1ncreases the number of possible positions. 7ro!ides better alignment for spine. 1mpro!es !isual distance and angle to the task on a worktable. 1mpro!es head position. 1mpro!es return blood flow from the lower legs. (ecreases pressure on internal organs.

What are some disad!antages of a forward sloping chair? The use of a forward sloping chair 7laces more weight on legs to control forward tilt of the upper body, and may result in earlier de!elopment of tiredness. %ay cause the body to slide forward6 howe!er, if the seat pan of such a chair is cur!ed from front to back, it would allow you to sit without sliding. 0e!ertheless, you do ha!e do exert some muscular effort in your lower legs to remain seated. This effort is in fact beneficial (pro!iding the slope is not greater than :; degrees because it impro!es the return blood flow from your lower legs. %ay cause clothing to ride up legs.

What is a kneeling chair? # kneeling chair has a fixed seat sloping at <= degrees forward and padded support for knees.

What are some ad!antages of a kneeling chair? # kneeling chair 7ro!ides proper alignment for the spine. %ay be good for some people if fitted to the indi!idual. 7ro!ides considerable comfort for short periods of time.

What are some disad!antages of a kneeling chair? # kneeling chair 8auses shins to bear weight. /!er$flexes knees and ankles. 3imits the number of possible sitting positions. %ay cause fatigue to de!elop earlier. %ay cause clothing to ride up legs. %akes getting in and out of the chair difficult. *educes the range of reaches.

When would you use a saddle chair or a sit-stand seat? # saddle chair can be used where the worker can alternate between sitting and standing in his or her work. # saddle chair reduces fatigue by decreasing muscular effort impro!es alignment of the spine

8ombining the saddle chair with a tilted worktable, where possible, is beneficial because it impro!es the head position and reduces stress on shoulders and neck.

#lternate sitting and standing fre"uently.

.re there some other things % should know about alternati!e seating? There are situations when rest chairs and sitting,kneeling support should be made a!ailable. *est Chair 1t is desirable to ha!e a chair for resting e!en when work can only be done standing. 1f space is limited, then chair that can be folded up and stored out of the way can be used.

(itting/Fneeling (upport %aking hip support a!ailable where the work re"uires kneeling reduces tension in the thigh muscles, by widening the angle of the knees reduces compression on the knees, ankles and lumbar region (middle to lower back impro!es blood circulation

(o not maintain kneeling,sitting position for extended periods. #!oid bending. .tand up and walk whene!er possible.

Basic *e"uirements

What are the basic re3uirements for sitting comfort? The basic re"uirements are to ha!e a workstation and job tasks designed to allow a person to remain in a balanced position or neutral posture, regardless of the work being done. Workstation # workstation should allow the worker to sit in a balanced body position. 4se a workstation that ensures that the alignment of the spine is the same whether the worker sits or stands. 4se a workstation that allows the worker to mo!e the spine freely. 4se a workstation that can be adjusted to the needs of the worker. Gob design # job design should allow the worker to work in a !ariety of balanced positions. (esign tasks so they re"uire mo!ement of the spine and encourage the worker to alternate positions fre"uently. #!oid an excessi!e range of mo!ement byo pro!iding all materials at working le!el. o positioning tasks within easy reach. o a!oid lifting and transferring loads while sitting. #!oid static positions. 7osition !isual tasks that maintain the !ertical alignment of the head and spine (esign the lighting system too pro!ide good general lighting. o pro!ide task lighting where necessary. o a!oid glare.

What is meant by a neutral posture or balanced position? 5ra!ity constantly exerts a downward force on our bodies. 7arts of your body in contact with a supporting structure (the seat of chairs, armrests, floors, etc. will feel pressure from the structure to balance this force. 7arts of our bodies that are not in contact with a supporting structure will use muscles, tendons, and ligaments to balance the force of gra!ity with an upward force of their own. The body position that has the highest strength to handle the pressure felt by the supporting structure, while causing the least amount of strain on the muscles, tendons, and ligaments, is called the neutral or balanced body position. The following recommendations outline how to maintain a neutral body position while sitting 'ands, wrists, and forearms are straight, in$line and roughly parallel to the floor. 'ead is le!el or bent slightly forward, forward facing, and balanced. 5enerally it is in$line with the torso.

 Erect or upright spine. .houlders are relaxed and upper arms hang normally at the side of the body. Elbows stay close to the body and are bent between F= and :A= degrees. &eet are fully supported by the floor, or a footrest may be used if the desk height is not adjustable. Back is fully supported with appropriate lumbar support when sitting !ertical or leaning back slightly. Thighs and hips are supported by a well$padded seat and generally parallel to the floor. >nees are about the same height as the hips with the feet slightly forward. 0o twisting of the upper torso. The in$line sight is between the horizontal and <;= below the horizontal. Hote6 0o one seating position can remain comfortable o!er a long period of time. &or this reason, multiple positions in which the body can be in the neutral position are recommended. #s mentioned abo!e, the workstation should allow the worker to adjust and mo!e between these positions. The first diagram below outlines the most common position used to design workstations for indi!iduals. The second figure pro!ides guidance on alternati!e seating positions that also allow the body to be positioned in a neutral position. (&igures below ha!e been taken from the 8anadian .tandards #ssociation, 8.# UC:A.==

&igure : (esign reference posture for sitting

&igure A (ynamic sitting posture

ow should manual tasks be designed? .eated manual tasks should be designed to maintain !ertical alignment of the spine, and a!oid constant stress on the shoulder region. This can be done by 7ro!ide materials at or slightly below elbow height. 7ro!ide arm rests where appropriate. 7ro!ide tool balancers and a!oid hea!y hand tools. #!oid tasks that re"uire the shoulder or arms to be excessi!ely high (keep below :; cm abo!e the surface of the work surface #!oid tasks that re"uire excessi!e reach $$ The example below pro!ides some general reach guidelines. (#dapted from 8.#C:A$== . Hote6 this guideline should be used with caution as the posture of each indi!idual should be obser!ed to ensure the body maintains its neutral position during the cycle of work.

&igure < (%etric 5eneral guidelines for work reaches

What should be considered when a foot task is necessary? 7osition foot tasks so that they can be done without twisting hips. (esign foot tasks to a!oid mo!ement and exertion by only one leg. 7ro!ide the appropriate support for both working and non$working leg. (esign a sitting task that encourages the worker to alternate positions fre"uently.

5ood Body 7osition

What is a @good@ sitting body position? There is no one or single body position that is recommended for sitting. E!ery worker can sit comfortably by adjusting the angles of their hips, knees, ankles and elbows. The following are general recommendations. /ccasional changes beyond gi!en ranges are acceptable and sometimes beneficial. >eep the joints such as hips, knees and ankles open slightly (more than F=@ .

>eep the upper body within <=@ of an upright position.

#lways keep the head aligned with the spine. >eep upper arms between !ertical and A=@ forward. >eep elbows at an angle between F=@ and :A=@. >eep forearms between horizontal and A=@ up. .upport the forearms.

 >eep the wrists straight and aligned with the forearms. 7lace the working object so that it can be seen at !iewing angle of :=@ to <=@ below the line of sight.

>eep shoulders low and relaxed. >eep elbows tucked in. Tuck chin in and do not bend forward when looking down and forward. 8hange positions fre"uently but remain within recommended ranges. #lternate crossed legs. #!oid bending to the side. #!oid bending forward. (o not slouch. (o not sit for more than ;= minutes at a time.

/!er!iew
Why is there so much fuss being made about @sitting@?

+idespread mechanization and automation ha!e affected !irtually e!ery sector of the 8anadian economy. &rom offices to industry, new technologies ha!e changed the way people do their jobs. %achines are now doing work pre!iously done manually. %ore and more people work in a sitting position to operate these machines. .itting jobs re"uire less muscular effort, but that does not exempt people from the injury risks usually associated with more physically demanding tasks. &or example, clerks, electronic assembly$line employees, and data entry operators who work in a sitting position also suffer back pain, muscle tenderness and aches. 1n fact, reports of !aricose !eins, stiff necks, and numbness in the legs are more common among seated employees than among those doing hea!ier tasks. 1njuries resulting from sitting for long periods are a serious occupational health and safety problem. This problem will likely become more common in the future because the trend toward work in a sitting position is still increasing.

Can work in a sitting position affect your health? +hen the employee can alternate sitting with other body positions, sitting at work is not a risk for injury or discomfort. &or those who ha!e no choice and must sit for long periods, the situation is different. #lthough sitting in!ol!es less muscular effort than such physically demanding jobs as gardening or floor mopping, it still causes fatigue. .itting re"uires the muscles to hold the trunk, neck and shoulders in a fixed position. # fixed working position s"ueezes the blood !essels in the muscles reducing the blood supply to the working muscles just when they need it the most. #n insufficient blood supply accelerates fatigue and makes the muscles prone to injury. .edentary employees may also face a gradual deterioration in health (if they do not exercise or do not lead a physically acti!e life . 7rolonged sitting drops the employee)s physical acti!ity to the lower limit needed for healthy$body functioning. The most common health problems that employees suffer are disorders in blood circulation and injuries affecting their ability to mo!e.

ow does the work in a sitting position affect blood circulation? There is less demand on the circulatory system due to the limited mobility while sitting. #s a result the heart acti!ity and the blood flow slow down. %aintaining a steady upright body position while sitting further decreases blood circulation. #n insufficient blood flow, specifically blood that is returning to the heart from the lower legs, causes blood to pool. 7ressure on the underside of the thighs from a seat that is too high can further aggra!ate this. The result can be swollen or numb legs and e!entually !aricose !eins. #lso, a reduced blood supply to the muscles accelerates fatigue. This is why an employee who sits all day long doing little physical work often feels tired at the end of a work shift.

Can work in a sitting position cause injuries that affect mo!ements?

3imited mobility contributes to injuries in the parts of the body responsible for mo!ement- the muscles, bones, tendons and ligaments. #nother factor is the steady, localized tension on certain regions of the body. The neck and lower back are the regions usually most affected. +hyH 7rolonged sitting reduces body mo!ement making muscles more likely to pull, cramp or strain when stretched suddenly, causes fatigue in the back and neck muscles by slowing the blood supply and puts high tension on the spine, especially in the low back or neck, and causes a steady compression on the spinal discs that hinders their nutrition and can contribute to their premature degeneration.

.re there any other ad!erse effects of working in a sitting position? Employees, who for years spend most of their working time seated, also experience other, less specific ad!erse health effects. (ecreased fitness, reduced heart and lung efficiency, and digesti!e problems are common. #lthough these conditions are not diseases or injuries themsel!es, they do predispose the employee to other diseases.

What aspect of working in a sitting position is responsible its ill effects? # poor body position is largely responsible for the ill effects of prolonged sitting. 7oor body positions can also originate from an unsuitable job design that re"uires employees to sit uninterrupted for longer than one hour. The duration of sitting, along with the shape of the body in a sitting position, is the most critical risk factor in work in a sitting position. #n unsuitable work space that pre!ents employees from sitting in a balanced position can cause poor body positions. The physical arrangement of work space elements such as work surfaces, tools and e"uipment may not correspond with the reaches and clearances of seated employees. The workstation may also be unsuitable because the chairs are too high or low for an employee)s body size and shape. 1mproper or inade"uate training can also lead to poor body positions. Employees may be unaware of the health hazards of sitting jobs because they are not as ob!ious as those of strenuous jobs. #s a result, employees may not know which practices to a!oid and which ones to adopt.

%s there a @good@ sitting position? &or each major joint such as the hips, knees, and elbows, there are ranges within which e!ery healthy person can find comfortable positions. These positions should not impede a person)s breathing or circulation, interfere with muscular actions or hinder the normal functions of the internal organs. 9arying these positions is the essence of good sitting work. .o, a good sitting position is one that allows employees to change their body positions fre"uently and naturally when they want without being restricted by the work station or job design.

7erhaps the best description of a 2good2 position is a set of naturally chosen body positions that fall within an acceptable range. # workstation that allows fre"uent changes and more mobility allows an employee to ha!e a more natural and healthier work pattern.

ow can you reduce harmful effects of prolonged sitting? *ecommendations on how to sit properly are not compulsory. .ometimes, it is acceptable to de!iate with outstretched or cramped positions to relie!e muscle tension. # 2good2 sitting position at work can be achie!ed only by focusing efforts on the three areas that are identified as potentially hazardous workplace design (including tasks, workstation, and chair design job design, and training.

0one of these areas is more important than the other, and none of them alone can bring about substantial impro!ement.

What elements of a workplace are important for comfort of the seated employee? The workplace design should enable the employees to carry out work in comfort and safety while allowing them to make !oluntary changes in the working posture. To achie!e this, the design should include the following elements:. A. <. tasks work station chair

ow can @task design@ impro!e work in sitting position? Before considering the re"uirements for the design of a workstation and a chair, take into account the anticipated tasks. The work may re"uire !isual, manual, or foot tasks, or combinations of these. Each of these types of tasks re"uires different modifications in work station design. 9isual tasks place tension on the neck, trunk and pel!is so that the eyes can achie!e and maintain the re"uired !ision for a needed duration of time. 1t is important that the design of the work station reduces the strain on the neck. 1n some work situations it is possible to do this by properly positioning the !isual tasks. +here this is not possible, work schedules should shorten the amount of time employees spend on each task. Both the mo!ement and the forces in!ol!ed in manual tasks affect body position. &or light manipulating tasks, wrist and arm support may help. &or hea!ier tasks, it might help to arrange the work surface below the employee)s elbow height. The arrangement of the work station should allow the employee to keep the spine !ertically aligned while exerting force. The employees should not ha!e to lift and transfer loads horizontally.

Employees doing foot tasks should ha!e pedals located directly in front of them to pre!ent their hips from twisting. 1t is important that employees are able to support their body e!enly.

Why is the design of workstations important? The chair should always be considered as an integral component of the workstation and not in isolation. The other workstation components, such as the desk and 9(T (computer , workbench or panel in a control room all affect the employee)s body position. They, together with a chair, make it possible to work in a balanced body position. # work station should also allow for fre"uent changes between a !ariety of body positions.

ow do % select the proper chair? # basic rule of ergonomics is that there is no such thing as the 2a!erage2 person6 howe!er, pro!iding an indi!idually designed chair for e!ery employee is not practical. The only solution is to pro!ide the employee with a fully adjustable chair that can accommodate the maximum range of people (typically F= to F; percent of the population . The chair must ha!e controls to allow easy adjustment of the seat height and tilt, as well as the backrest height and angle. 1t is important that the employee can operate these controls from a sitting position. The chair)s design must match the tasks. # trial period is essential to the process of selecting a chair. Employees should try out the chair in the real work situation and ensure it meets the needs of the job before the final selection is made. The 2ergonomic2 chairs now a!ailable are designed for a range of people, but not always for one person in particular. 0or are they designed for any specific tasks or arrangement of the work station. Therefore, purchasing a chair because it is labeled 2ergonomic2 can be a mistake. The chair becomes ergonomic only when selected to suit the employee)s or a group of employees) body dimensions, particular workstation, and tasks.

ow can you design a job that re3uires prolonged sitting? 0o matter how well the workplace is designed, an employee who sits for long periods will suffer discomfort. The main objecti!e of a job design for a seated employee is to reduce the amount of time the person spends 2just2 sitting. &re"uent changes in the sitting position are not enough to protect against blood pooling in the employee)s legs. &i!e minutes of a more !igorous acti!ity, such as walking for e!ery C= to ;= minutes of sitting, can protect an employee from swollen legs. These breaks are also beneficial because they gi!e the heart, lungs and muscles some exercise to help counterbalance the effects of sitting for prolonged periods in a relati!ely fixed position. +here practical, jobs should incorporate 2acti!ity breaks2 such as work$related tasks away from the desk or simple exercises which employees can carry out on the worksite.

#nother important aspect of job design is feedback from employees. 0o matter how good the workplace and the job designs, there is always need for indi!idual tailoring. 8onsultation with employees can secure their acti!e participation and personalize their work.

What elements of a training program are important for employees who work in a sitting position? 1ndi!idual work practices, including sitting habits, are shaped by proper training. Training should encourage employers and employees to adopt methods that reduce fatigue from too little and too much a workload. 1t is important to acknowledge that some traditional ideas, such as 2sitting work is light work2 or 2people work harder standing,2 are mistaken. Training should also explain the health hazards of prolonged sitting and gi!e recommendations on what a worker in a gi!en workplace can do to impro!e the working position. Employees need to know how to adjust the workstation to fit their indi!idual needs for specific tasks. They also must know how to readjust the workstation throughout the day to relie!e muscular tension. Training should also emphasize the importance of rest periods for the employees) health and explain how acti!e rest can do more for keeping employees healthy than passi!e rest. The effect of such training can reach far beyond occupational situations because the employees can apply this knowledge also in their off$job life.

+hat to #!oid while .itting

Why is body position or posture important while sitting? 7oor arrangement of the workstation encourages an awkward body position. # poor body position or posture can hinder breathing and blood circulation and contribute to injuries affecting people)s ability to mo!e.

What should % a!oid while sitting? .itting on a chair that is too high. Tilting the head forward. This helps pre!ent neck injury. .itting without lumbar support. This helps pre!ent back pain. +orking with arms raised. This helps pre!ent neck and shoulder pain. Bending wrists. This helps pre!ent muscle cramps. +orking with unsupported forearms. This helps pre!ent shoulder and back pain.

 8ramming thighs under a worktable. This reduces blood circulation. +orking with legs dangling. This destabilizes the body causing tiredness. 7ressure on an underside of thighs. This reduces back flow of blood and can cause swelling in the legs. .itting on a chair that has poor support. 1t can o!erturn and cause injuries.

ow does sitting on a chair that is too low affect your body? 1t disrupts blood circulation in lower legs, causing swelling. 1t puts pressure on internal organs. 1t creates too much pressure on buttocks and causes discomfort.

ow does work at a worktable that is too high affect your health? injury. 1t pre!ents use of proper lumbar support and can cause back 1t 1t 1t 1t o!er$stretches spine and can cause back injury. forces the head to tilt forward and can cause neck injury. stresses shoulders and causes pain. tires the whole body.

+ork 8hairs
What is the basic re3uirement of a work chair? # good work chair can support the body in a dynamic posture, while also being appropriate to the task or acti!ity performed. This means it is easily adjustable into positions that support the spine and keep the body in a neutral position.

What should % consider when selecting an office chair? 8heck that the adjustability range can accommodate the workers) body sizes. .elect a chair that allows the worker to adjust the height and depth of the seat as well as the height and tilt of the backrest. #n adjustable seat tilt is also desirable. .elect a chair witho a backrest that is shaped to support the lower back and does not gi!e way6 o a seat height that does not compress the underside of the thighs6 o a front edge cur!ed downwards6 o non$slip, breathable fabric on the seat6 o stable base (; legs 6 o with arm rests (where practical . 4se a footrest when feet cannot rest on the floor.

What else should % consider when choosing a chair if my work in!ol!es both sitting and standing? Ensure that the chair has a wheel locking mechanism. 4se a swi!el chair with an adjustable seat height. #djust workstation to the proper height. #djust the chair seat height between A; to <; cm (about := to :C in. below the work surface.

4se a footrest with a height of C= to ;= cm (about :E to A= in.

Example of a chair for sitting and standing

Example of a sitting and standing workstation

+orking in .tanding,.itting 7ositions

What is an e2ample of a workstation for sitting/standing? 8ontinuous standing or sitting while working is a common source of discomfort and fatigue. &re"uent changes of body positions, including alternating between sitting and standing, helps to a!oid fatigue. #djust the workstation to the proper height. *efer to the document +orking in a .tanding 7osition for more information. 4se a swi!el chair with an adjustable seat height. #djust the chair seat height to A;$<; cm (about := $ :C in. below the work surface. 4se a footrest with a height of C=$;= cm (about :E $ A= in. .

What is an e2ample of a semi-circular workstation? #rrange work in a semi$circle. 4se a swi!el chair to reduce body twisting, to allow easy mo!ements, and to reduce side$to$side motions. 4se sloping work tables whene!er possible to reduce bending, and to encourage an upright position while sitting or standing.

What are e2amples of a chair for sitting/standing workstations? +hene!er possible, a worker should be able to work sitting or standing at will. Ensure that the seat has a minimum width of C= cm (about :E in. . 8hoose back rests that are contoured !ertically and horizontally. 4se a seat co!ering of non$slip, breathable fabric. .elect seat padding that is about A$< cm (: in. thick.

 7ro!ide a chair that can fold up and be stored out of the way where space is limited. Ensure that chairs ha!e a back support. 7ro!ide a chair for resting purposes e!en when work can only be done standing.