CHAPTER 22

Northern Eurasia, 15001800

I0. Japanese Reunification A0. Civil War and the Invasion of Korea and Manchuria, 15001 0! 10. In the t"elfth centur#, "ith i$perial unit# dissolved, Japan ca$e under the control of a nu$%er of re&ional "arlords called daimyo. '0. Warfare a$on& the dai$#o "as co$$on, and in 15(' the $ost po"erful of these "arlords, )ide#oshi, chose to lead an invasion of Korea. !0. Althou&h the Korean and Japanese lan&ua&es are closel# related, the do$inant influence on *i d#nast# Korea "as China. +0. ,espite the creative use of technolo&ical and $ilitar# s-ill, the Koreans and their Chinese allies "ere defeated %# the Japanese. 50. After )ide#oshi.s death in 15(/, the Japanese "ithdre" their forces and, in 1 0 , $ade peace "ith Korea. 0. 0he Japanese "ithdra"al left Korea in disarra# and the Manchu in a &reatl# stren&thened position. 10. 0he 0o-u&a"a 2ho&unate, 1 0!1/00 10. In the late 1500s Japan3s Ashi-a&a 2ho&unate had lost control and the countr# had fallen into a period of chaotic "ars %et"een local lords4 a ne" sho&un, 0o-u&a"a Ie#asu, %rou&ht all the local lords under the ad$inistration of his 0o-u&a"a 2ho&unate in 1 00. '0. 0he 0o-u&a"a 2ho&unate &ave lo#al re&ional lords rice lands close to the sho&unal capital in central Japan, "hile those lords "ho had not %een supporters of the 0o-u&a"a "ere &iven undeveloped lands at the northern and southern e5tre$es of the islands. 0he Japanese e$peror re$ained in K#oto %ut had no political po"er. 0his political structure had an i$portant influence on the su%se6uent develop$ent of the Japanese econo$#. !0. 0he decentrali7ed s#ste$ of re&ional lords $eant that Japan developed "ell8 spaced ur%an centers in all re&ions, "hile the sho&un3s re6uire$ent that the re&ional lords visit 9do fre6uentl# sti$ulated the develop$ent of the transportation infrastructure and the develop$ent of co$$erce, particularl# the develop$ent of "holesale rice e5chan&es. +0. 0he sa$urai %eca$e %ureaucrats and consu$ers of lu5ur# &oods, spurrin& the develop$ent of an increasin&l# independent $erchant class "hose $ost successful fa$ilies cultivated alliances "ith re&ional lords and "ith the sho&un hi$self. 1# the end of the 1:00s the "ealth# industrial fa$ilies "ere politicall# influential and held the -e# to $oderni7ation and the develop$ent of heav# industr#. C0. Japan and the 9uropeans 10. Jesuits ca$e to Japan in the late 1500s, and "hile the# had li$ited success in convertin& the re&ional lords, the# did $a-e a si&nificant nu$%er of converts a$on& the far$ers of southern and eastern Japan. A rural re%ellion in this area in the 1 !0s "as %la$ed on Christians4 the 0o-u&a"a 2ho&unate responded "ith persecutions, a %an on Christianit#, and, in 1 +(, the closin& of the countr#.

'0. 0he closed countr# polic# "as intended to prevent the spread of forei&n influence, %ut not to e5clude -no"led&e of forei&n cultures. A s$all nu$%er of 9uropean traders, $ainl# ,utch, "ere allo"ed to reside on a s$all island near ;a&asa-i, and Japanese "ho "ere interested in the 9uropean -no"led&e that could %e &ained fro$ 9uropean %oo-s developed a field -no"n as <,utch studies.= !0. 2o$e of the <outer lords= at the northern and southern e5tre$es of Japan relied on overseas trade "ith Korea, >-ina"a, 0ai"an, China, and 2outheast Asia for their fortunes. 0hese lords i&nored the closed countr# polic#, and those in the south, in particular, %eca$e "ealth# fro$ their control of $ariti$e trade, &ivin& the$ an advanta&e over the sho&unate and the <inner= lords. ,0. 9lite ,ecline and 2ocial Crisis 10. ?atterns of population &ro"th and econo$ic &ro"th also contri%uted to the reversal of fortunes %et"een the <inner= and <outer= lords. ?opulation &ro"th in central Japan put a strain on the a&ricultural econo$#, %ut in the outer provinces, econo$ic &ro"th outstripped population &ro"th. '0. 0he 0o-u&a"a s#ste$ "as also under$ined %# chan&es in rice prices and in interest rates, "hich co$%ined to $a-e %oth the sa$urai and the re&ional lords dependent on the "illin&ness of the $erchants to &ive the$ credit. !0. 0he 0o-u&a"a sho&uns accepted the Confucian idea that a&riculture should %e the %asis of the state and that $erchants should occup# a lo" social position %ecause the# lac-ed $oral virtue, %ut the decentrali7ed political s#ste$ $ade it difficult for the sho&unate to re&ulate $erchant activities. In fact, the decentrali7ed s#ste$ sti$ulated co$$erce so that fro$ 1 00 to 1/00 the econo$# &re" faster than the population and $erchants developed relative freedo$, influence, and their o"n vi%rant culture. +0. 0he ideolo&ical and social crisis of 0o-u&a"a Japan3s transfor$ation fro$ a $ilitar# to a civil societ# is illustrated in the <@ort#8seven Ronin= incident of 1:0'. 0his incident de$onstrates the necessit# of $a-in& the difficult decision to force the $ilitar# to o%e# the civil la" in the interests of %uildin& a centrali7ed, standardi7ed s#ste$ of la" "ith "hich the state could protect the interests of the people. II0. 0he Aate Min& and 9arl# Bin& 9$pires A0. 0he Aater Min& 9$pire, to 1 ++ 10. 0he cultural %rilliance and econo$ic achieve$ents of the earl# Min& continued up to 1 00. 1ut at the sa$e ti$e, a nu$%er of factors had co$%ined to e5haust the Min& econo$#, "ea-en its &overn$ent, and cause technolo&ical sta&nation. '0. 2o$e of the pro%le$s of the late Min& $a# %e attri%uted to a drop in annual te$peratures %et"een 1 +5 and 1:00, "hich $a# have contri%uted to the a&ricultural distress, $i&ration, disease, and uprisin&s of this period. Cli$ate chan&e $a# also have driven the Mon&ols and the Manchus to protect their productive lands fro$ Min& control and to ta-e $ore land alon& the Min& %orders. !0. 0he flo" of ;e" World silver into China in the 1500s and earl# 1 00s caused inflation in prices and ta5es that hit the rural population particularl# hard. +0. In addition to these &lo%al causes of Min& decline, there "ere also internal factors particular to China. 0hese included disorder and inefficienc# in the ur%an industrial sector Csuch as the Jin&de7hen cera$ics factoriesD, no &ro"th in a&ricultural productivit#, and lo" population &ro"th. 10. Min& Collapse and the Rise of the Bin&

C0.

,0.

90.

@0.

10. 0he Min& also suffered fro$ increased threats on their %ordersE to the north and "est, there "as the threat posed %# a ne"l# reunified Mon&ol confederation, and in Korea the Min& incurred heav# financial losses "hen it helped the Koreans to defeat a Japanese invasion. Re%ellions of native peoples roc-ed the south"est, and Japanese pirates pla&ued the southeast coast. '0. Re%el forces led %# Ai Fichen& overthre" the Min& in 1 ++, and the Manchu Bin& 9$pire then entered 1eiGin&, restored order, and clai$ed China for its o"n. !0. A Manchu i$perial fa$il# ruled the Bin& 9$pire, %ut the Manchus "ere onl# a s$all proportion of the population, and thus depended on diverse people for assistance in rulin& the e$pire. Chinese $ade up the over"hel$in& $aGorit# of the people and the officials of the Bin& 9$pire. 0radin& Co$panies and Missionaries 10. 9uropeans "ere ea&er to trade "ith China, %ut enthusias$ for international trade developed slo"l# in China, particularl# in the i$perial court. '0. >ver the course of the si5teenth centur#, the ?ortu&uese, 2panish, and ,utch &ained li$ited access to Chinese trade. !0. 1# the seventeenth centur#, the ,utch 9ast India Co$pan# had %eco$e the $aGor 9uropean trader in the Indian >cean. +0. Catholic $issionaries acco$panied ?ortu&uese and 2panish traders, and the Jesuits had nota%le success convertin& Chinese elites. 0he Jesuit Matteo Ricci C155'1 10D used his $aster# of Chinese lan&ua&e and culture to &ain access to the i$perial court. 9$peror Kan&5i Cr. 1 '1:''D 10. Kan&5i Cr. 1 '1:''D too- for$al control over his &overn$ent in 1 ( Cat the a&e of si5teenD %# e5ecutin& his chief re&ent. Kan&5i "as an intellectual prodi&# and a successful $ilitar# co$$ander "ho e5panded his territor# and &ave it a hi&h de&ree of sta%ilit#. '0. ,urin& the Kan&5i period the Bin& "ere "illin& to incorporate ideas and technolo&# fro$ Mon&olian, 0i%etan, Korean, and Chinese sources. 0he Bin& also adapted 9uropean -no"led&e and technolo&#H$ap$a-in&, astrono$#, and anato$ical and phar$aceutical -no"led&eHtau&ht %# the Jesuits "ho fre6uented Kan&5i3s court. !0. 0he Jesuits "ere also affected %# their contact "ith China. 0he# revised their reli&ious teachin& in order to allo" Chinese converts to practice Confucian ancestor "orship and the# trans$itted to 9urope Chinese technolo&# includin& an earl# for$ of inoculation a&ainst s$allpo5 and the $ana&e$ent techni6ues of the hu&e i$perial porcelain factories. Chinese Influences on 9urope 10. 0he e5chan&e of ideas and infor$ation %et"een the Bin& and the Jesuits flo"ed in %oth directions. '0. 0he "ealth and po"er of the Bin& led to a tre$endous enthusias$ in 9urope for Chinese thin&s such as sil-, tea, porcelain, other decorative ite$s, and "allpaper. Jesuit descriptions of China also led 9uropeans such as Ioltaire to see the Bin& e$perors as %enevolent despots or philosopher8-in&s fro$ "ho$ the 9uropeans could learn. 0ea and ,iplo$ac# 10. 0he Bin& "ere ea&er to e5pand trade, %ut "anted to control it in order to %e a%le to ta5 it $ore efficientl# and to control pirac# and s$u&&lin&. In order to do so, the Bin& desi&nated a sin&le $ar-et point for each forei&n sectorE the $ar-et point for those co$in& fro$ the 2outh China 2ea Cincludin& the various

9uropean tradersD "as the cit# of Canton. 0his s#ste$ "or-ed fairl# "ell until the late 1:00s. '0. In the late 1:00s the 1ritish 9ast India Co$pan# and other 9n&lish traders %elieved that China3s vast $ar-et held the potential for unli$ited profit and thou&ht that the Bin& trade s#ste$ Cthe <Canton 2#ste$=D stood in the "a# of openin& up ne" paths for co$$erce. At the sa$e ti$e, the 1ritish ?arlia$ent "as at once "orried a%out the flo" of 1ritish silver into China and convinced that openin& the China $ar-et "ould help to %rin& $ore 9n&lish $erchants into the trade and %rin& a%out the end of the out$oded and nearl# %an-rupt 9IC. !0. In 1:(!1:(+ the 1ritish sent a diplo$atic $ission led %# Aord Macartne# to open diplo$atic relations "ith China and revise the trade s#ste$. 0he Macartne# $ission "as a failure, as "ere si$ilar diplo$atic e$%assies sent %# the ,utch, the @rench, and the Russians. J0. ?opulation and 2ocial 2tress 10. 0he peace enforced %# the Bin& 9$pire and the te$porar# revival of a&ricultural productivit# due to the introduction of A$erican and African crops contri%uted to a population e5plosion that %rou&ht China3s total population to %et"een !50 $illion and +00 $illion %# the late 1:00s. '0. ?opulation &ro"th "as acco$panied %# increased environ$ental stressE deforestation, erosion, siltin& up of river channels and canals, and floodin&. 0he result "as locali7ed $iser#, $i&ration, increased cri$e, and local re%ellions. !0. While the territor# and the population of the Bin& 9$pire &re", the nu$%er of officials re$ained a%out the sa$e. 0he Bin& depended on local elites to $aintain local order, %ut "as una%le to enforce ta5 re&ulations, control standards for entr# into &overn$ent service, or prevent the declinin& revenue, increased corruption, and increased %anditr# in the late 1:00s. III0. 0he Russian 9$pire A0. 0he ,rive Across ;orthern Asia 10. @ollo"in& the dissolution of Mon&ol po"er in Russia, the cit# of Mosco" %eca$e the foundation for a ne" state, Muscov#, "hich a%sor%ed the territor# of the for$er Kievan state and ;ov&orod in the "est and con6uered the -hanates of Ka7an, and Astra-han and the northern Caucasus re&ion in the east. 0he Muscovite ruler Ivan II too- the title of <tsar= in 15+:. '0. 0he natural direction for Russian e5pansion "as the east4 e5pansion in 2i%eria "as led %# &roups of Cossac-s "ho defeated the onl# political po"er in the re&ion, the Khanate of 2i%ir, and too- land fro$ the s$all huntin& and fishin& &roups of native people. 2i%eria "as valued first for its furs and ti$%er, after 1:00 for &old, coal, and iron, and as a penal colon#. !0. In the 1 50s the e5pandin& Russian 9$pire $et the e5pandin& Bin& 9$pire in Mon&olia, Central Asia, and alon& the A$ur. 0reaties %et"een the t"o po"ers in 1 /( and 1:': had the effect of "ea-enin& the Mon&ols and of focusin& Russian e5pansion east"ard to"ard the ?acific coast and across to ;orth A$erica 10. Russian 2ociet# and ?olitics to 1:'5 10. As the e$pire e5panded it incorporated a diverse set of peoples, cultures, and reli&ions. 0his often produced internal tensions. '0. 0he Cossac-s %elon&ed to close8-nit %ands and $ade te$porar# alliances "ith "hoever could pa# for their $ilitar# services. !0. ,espite the fact that the Cossac-s often perfor$ed i$portant services for the Russian 9$pire, the# $ana&ed to $aintain a hi&h de&ree of autono$#. +0. 0hreats and invasions %# 2"eden and ?oland and internal disputes a$on& the Russian aristocrac# CboyarsD in the seventeenth centur# led to the overthro" of

the old line of Muscovite rulers and the enthrone$ent of Mi-hail Ro$anov in 1 1!. 0he Ro$anov rulers co$%ined consolidation of their authorit# "ith territorial e5pansion to the east. 50. As the po"er of the Ro$anov rose, the freedo$ of Russian peasants fell. 0. In 1 +( Russian peasants "ere le&all# transfor$ed into serfs. C0. ?eter the Jreat Cr. 1 /(1:'5D 10. ?eter the Jreat fou&ht the >tto$ans in an atte$pt to &ain a "ar$8"ater port on the 1lac- 2ea and to li%erate Constantinople CIstan%ulD fro$ Musli$ rule, %ut did not achieve either &oal. ?eter "as $ore successful in the Jreat ;orthern War, in "hich he %ro-e 2"edish control over the 1altic and esta%lished direct contacts %et"een Russia and 9urope. '0. @ollo"in& his victor# in the Jreat ;orthern War, ?eter %uilt a ne" capital, 2t. ?eters%ur&, "hich "as to contri%ute the Westerni7ation of the Russian elites and de$onstrate to 9uropeans the sophistication of Russia. 0he ne" capital "as also intended to help %rea- the po"er of the %o#ars %# reducin& their traditional roles in the &overn$ent and in the ar$#. !0. ?eter "anted to use 9uropean technolo&# and culture in order to stren&then Russia and to stren&then the autocratic po"er of his &overn$ent4 he "as not interested in political li%erali7ation. As an autocratic ruler, ?eter %rou&ht the Russian >rthodo5 Church under his control, %uilt industrial plants to serve the $ilitar#, and increased the %urdens of ta5es and la%or on the serfs, "ho$ the Russian 9$pire depended upon for the production of %asic foodstuffs. ,0. Consolidation of the 9$pire 10. Russian e5pansion in Alas-a and the A$erican north"est "as driven %# the search for furs, "hich 1ritish and A$erican entrepreneurs had also %een interested in. Control of the natural resources of 2i%eria put the Russians in a position to do$inate the fur and shippin& industries of the ;orth ?acific. '0. ,urin& the rei&n of Catherine the Jreat Cr. 1: '1:( D, Russia "as the "orld3s lar&est land e$pire, %uilt on an econo$ic %asis of lar&e territor#, a&riculture, lo&&in&, fishin&, and furs. II0. Co$parative ?erspectives A0. ?olitical Co$parisons 10. 1et"een 1500 and 1/00, China and Russia &re" dra$aticall#, %oth in territor# controlled and population. '0. In co$parison to Russia and China, the sea%orne tradin& e$pires of the ?ortu&uese, ,utch, @rench, and 9n&lish had less territor#, ti&hter ad$inistrations, and $uch $ore &lo%al s"eep. !0. ,espite %ein& headed %# an e$peror, Japan.s si7e, ho$o&eneit#, and failure to add colonies dis6ualif# it fro$ %ein& called a true e$pire. +0. Japan and Russia $ade &reater pro&ress in i$provin& their $ilitar# than did the Chinese. 50. >f Japan, Russia, and China, Russia did the $ost to %uild up its i$perial nav#. 10. Cultural, 2ocial, and 9cono$ic Co$parisons 10. As the# e5panded, %oth China and Russia pursued policies that tolerated diversit#, "hile pro$otin& cultural assi$ilation. '0. While %oth Russian and Chinese leaders "ere "illin& to use forei&n ideas and technolo&ies, the# tended to see their o"n culture as superior. !0. 1oth China and Russia had hierarchical and oppressive social s#ste$s. +0. Merchants occupied a precarious position in %oth China and Japan.