MEL 241 TERM PAPER GAS TURBINES FOR POWER GENERATION AND PROPULSION.

BY AKSHAY SHARMA SHIVAM S. WANKHEDE RAHUL GAUR (2012ME10649) (2012ME10723) (2012ME10705)

INDEX: 1) INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY 2) BRAYTON CYCLE i) IDEAL BRAYTON CYCLE. ii) ACTUAL BRAYTON CYCLE. iii) TYPICAL MODIFICATIONS IMPLEMENTED. 3) GAS TURBINES i) MAJOR COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (a) COMPRESSORS (b) REGENERATORS (c) COMBUSTORS (d) TURBINES ii) GAS TURBINES IN PROPULSION iii) POWER GENERATION WITH GAS TURBINES

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The first gas turbines were invented in 1791 but were successfully used in 1923 in diesel engines as turbocharger to increase their efficiency. The worlds first gas turbine used in the field of power generation was in 1939 in Switzerland. The gas turbines work on the principle of Brayton Cycle. The basic components of the cycle are a compressor, a heat exchanger and a turbine which is connected to the compressor through a shaft. The working of an ideal Brayton Cycle is as follows: 1. ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION: The intake air which comes through the compressor is compressed such that the process is reversibly adiabatic quasi-statically. . The process is given by = ; where = ratio of specific heats = . The

work done during this process = = = 1 (1 1 2 2 ) 2. ISOBARIC HEAT ADDITION: The compressed air is then supplied an amount of heat Q at a constant pressure. The expression is given by = (3 2 ) where = 1 is the specific heat of the working fluid at constant pressure. ISENTROPIC EXPANSION: The heated compressed air is used to do work on the turbine and expands isentropically doing = 1 (4 4 3 3 ) . The efficiency of the ideal Brayton Cycle: = ( / ) = (1 1 2 2 ) + (4 4 3 3 ) / (3 2 ) If the gas is an ideal gas i.e. = the equation can be modified as: =
((3 2 )+ (4 1 )) 3 2

=1(

(4 1 ) 3 2

) = 1 (2 ) = 1 (1/
1

((1)/)

) Where rp= pressure

ratio which = 2 /1 . A suitable diagram indicating the process both on a P-V and T-S scale is shown below with a plot of the cycle efficiency of an ideal cycle with air as a working fluid. In reality such high efficiencies are not possible due to a number of losses in each part of the cycle some of which are inevitable.

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The actual cycle is shown in the figure 1.4 shows the power losses in the compressor and the turbine. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine are given by: =
2 1 2 1
3

(ratio of input work for isentropic compression to work (actual))

= 3 4 (ratio of actual work to work done for isentropic expansion).

4

For implementation of the Brayton Cycle in industry a number of modifications are made to it as discussed below: Intercooling of the working fluid b/w two different stages Reheat Heat exchange (Regenerative cycle modification) Injection of water

Intercooling: This operation is based on the fact that the viscosity of air decreases with a decrease in its temperature. When the compressed air is cooled(at constant pressure) at the output of a Low-Pressure Turbine the work required for further compression in the

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High-pressure turbine is reduced thus increasing the work output. Intercooling is described in the following T-S diagram in step 2-3:

Reheat: The process of supplying heat energy (at constant pressure) in intermediate stages of cycle to power different turbine stages i.e. the High-Pressure Turbine which powers the compressor and the Low-Pressure Turbine which produces the net output work. Reheat takes place between HP Turbine and LP Turbine.

Regenerative Cycle: This cycle is a modification to the original cycle, the only change being the fact that the energy of the high temperature exhaust gases is recovered to provide heat energy to the working gas. This increases the cycle efficiency. The diagram below explains the cycle.

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Injection of water: In some propulsion systems water spray is injected into the flow before the compressors such that the heat due to compression is absorbed by the water to convert it into steam reducing the temperature of the air. It is somewhat similar to the Intercooling process but the difference lies in the fact that the cooling fluid does not flow in the main air stream as in this process.

Major Components of Gas Turbines Compressors Axial flow compressors and centrifugal compressors are the two types of compressors used in gas turbines. Axial Flow Compressors The incoming air is compressed by first accelerating it using rotating blades and then diffusing it to increase pressure using stationary blades. It has alternating rows of stationary blades and rotating blades, and one compressor stage is a pair of these two blades. The pressure ratio across a modern

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compressor is between 20:1 and 40:1. These compressors are used in larger turbines since they are smaller, also they are efficient compared to centrifugal compressors. Centrifugal Compressors Air comes from the centre of the compressor and is accelerated radially outward by the blades moving at high speeds. It is then diffused by a diffuser to increase its pressure and reducing velocity. One stage of a centrifugal compressor comprises of an impeller and a diffuser. The pressure ratio across a stage of this compressor is between 1.5:1 and 12:1. These compressors are generally preferred because they are simple, strong and shorter despite of their low efficiency. Using a two stage compression process in which we remove the heat after one stage of compression improves the efficiency of the turbine. This is achieved by using an intercooler in-between. Regenerators The exhaust gases of the gas turbines usually have very high temperatures ranging from 482C to 638C. Which means that it has very high energy which can be utilized again in the turbine to increase efficiency. In the gas turbines some heat of the exhaust gases is given to the air just before it enters the combustor by using the regenerator which acts as a heat exchanger. It is shell and tube type heat exchanger. After the heat exchange the exhaust gases leave at a reduced temperature of 260C and the temperature of the compressed air from the turbine is elevated from 200C to 370C recovering up to 75% of energy. They minimize the fuel consumption by nearly 30% meaning an increase in efficiency. The reason why regenerators are widely used are: the increase in efficiency decreases over time, turbines with large pressure increase will benefit less, they are costly, need space and maintenance. Combustors Combustors increase the temperature of the pressurized air by burning fuel before it goes to turbine. Here the air undergoes a small pressure drop. The types of combustors are Tubular (Side Combustors) These combustors are mainly favored for their (1) Simplicity (2) Maintainability and (3) Good Durability. They are of straight-through and reverse-flow types. In reverse-flow the air enters between housing and combustor.

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Can-Annular and annular Can-annular and annular combustors are mostly used in aircraft engines. This is due their circumferential and radial design which is good for using more number of nozzles. Can-annular combustors are also of reverse-flow (used in industrial applications) and straight-through (used aircraft engines) type. There are only straight-through type annular combustors. Some of the air from the compressors flows through the different flame tubes which have fuel supply and some igniters. Once the fuel is ignited it is taken for combustion of the rest. Engine starting requires external power source until the combustion system starts producing enough energy to overcome compressor and turbine losses and make the engine self-sustaining.

Turbines Of the radial-inflow and the axial-flow turbines, axial flow turbines are most commonly used. Axial-Flow Turbines As in axial-flow compressors the air flow in an axial-flow turbines enters and exits axially. These turbines are of impulse type or reaction type. In the impulse turbine the energy contained in pressure and temperature is converted to speed in the nozzle. In a reaction turbine the reduction in enthalpy occurs at the nozzles and the blades. Radial-Inflow Turbines Inward-flow radial turbine or radial-inflow turbine, can be considered as the opposite of a centrifugal pump. These turbines are preferred for smaller loads and smaller operating range than the axial turbine. Even though the axial-flow turbines are more widely used in most applications, they are very long and hence their application is limited. Turbochargers is one of the few applications of radial turbines. Heat Recovery Steam Generators The heat of the exhaust gases can be recaptured by heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) for a variety of applications. The applications of the steam captured are Driving of a steam turbine in a combined cycle power plant Heating in a cogeneration plant Process in an industry such as a petrochemical plant

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HRSG is heat exchanger and uses convection to generate steam. Its important components are Superheater After the exhaust gases leave the turbine they are exposed to the superheater which superheats the saturated steam from the boiler. Boiler Exhaust gases leaving the superheater are exposed to boiler which provides latent heat for vaporizing water from economizer. Economizer Gases leaving boiler are exposed to economizer for providing heat required to subcooled water entering HRSG.

GAS TURBINES IN PROPULSION

Forward thrust is provided by gas turbine aircraft engines by giving a rearward acceleration to the passing flow. For this, we can use a propeller or pass a high pressure jet through a nozzle. In jet-propulsion engines, combustors receive compressed gases from compressor. After combustion, the gases have sufficient energy to power the turbine and leave as a high velocity jet. The turbine consumes very less energy, just sufficient enough to run the compressor. The remaining energy leaves with the jet. In propeller-jet engine or pro jet, the turbine extracts more energy to power a propeller along with compressor through reduction gearing. The energy used by propeller is just 15 to 30 percent and the rest is used by the compressor. This is unlike the reciprocating engine where most energy is used to drive the crankshaft rather than using it on self-sustenance. Types of gas turbine engines used in propulsion are: Turbojet- High pressure gas is accelerated through a nozzle to provide jet propulsion. At exhaust the speed of jet can easily exceed speed of sound. Turbojet engines are efficient only above Mach 2. Turbojet engine is used mostly in mid-range cruise missiles.

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Turboprop- In turboprop engine, the turbine powers a propeller through a reduction gear mechanism attached to the turbine shaft. In turboprop engines, exhaust generates negligible energy and is not used to provide thrust. Rather than that, propeller reaction provides majority thrust. Propellers are very efficient below 725 km/hr and hence are mostly used for small subsonic aircrafts.

Turbofan- In turbofan engines, shaft work is used to power a fan and increase the amount of air intake. Some part of this air is used to power the jet engine while the rest is compressed and directed through a nozzle without combustion (bypass flow). This makes the turbofan, less noisy and it provides more thrust.

In gas turbine engine, thrust varies with altitude, being high at low altitudes where drag is high and low at high altitude where drag is low. This make it suitable for all altitudes. Its net thrust falls very slightly with speed which makes it suitable for obtaining high aircraft speeds. It also has a very high power to weight ratio. It also has a longer life and is more reliable. These reasons make gas turbines one of the most appropriate means for propulsion.

POWER GENERATION WITH GAS TURBINES

Turbo-shaft engines are the best for powering an alternator. It is generally provided combined with the electrical equipment and known as the turbo generator set. Many types of gas turbines engines are used for power generation. Some are: Turbo-shaft- In turbo-shaft engines, the turbine extracts extra energy, permitting it to drive an external load as well as the compressor. These are used mostly in power generation to power the generator.

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Two-shaft engine- It is a variation of turbojet engine, in which a independent turbine is placed in the exhaust stream. The core engine itself is the gas generator while the second turbine is the free power turbine, coupled to a load and running at different speed from that of the core engine.

Land based gas turbines engines can also be classified as:1. Heavy frame and 2. Aero-derivative Heavy frame engines are physically large and have lower pressure ratio (below 20). Aero derivative engines are similar to jet engines and have high compression ratio (above 30). Aero-derivative engines are compact and hence used for small scale power generation. Heavy frame engines can deliver larger power output, but also lead to more emissions and they must be designed to meet the NOx emission standards.

These sets are used by the national authorities for electricity distribution. Such units are advantageous because they can be supplied across the country without much work as they do not need cooling water supplies. Mostly turbo-generators are used locally and by companies for peak lopping. Peak lopping is a technique in which the local power generator is turned on at the time peak load. Combined Cycles and Cogeneration Cogeneration gives efficiency higher than gas turbines and steam turbines give individually. Generally the efficiency of gas turbines is between 0.2 and 0.3, and the efficiency of steam turbines used in electricity generation reaches 0.35 to 0.38. The efficiency of cogeneration plant in unfired mode (when no extra fuel is burned in boiler) reaches up to 0.4 to 0.5. In fired mode the input of gas turbine is negligible as

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compared to steam turbine input, hence the efficiency of plant tends to efficiency of steam turbine. This situation is called as energy topping. In energy topping the efficiency of the plant is improved over steam turbine. In this method, a small gas turbine uses the air intake flow to the boiler of the steam turbine before the air enters the boiler. Now if more fuel is burnt in the gas turbine, less fuel will be burnt in the boiler. If the engine run idle (without any load), all of the turbine input will be converted to exhaust gases heat. Let us now say that some of the power is drawn off from the shaft such that 30% of input fuel energy is used. Total heat required for the boiler remaining same, the total input fuel will now increase, say by 8 to 10 percent. The output at the shaft is also 8 to 10 percent, thus showing the incremental efficiency of 1. The most efficient of the combined cycle power plant is the total energy package. The steam exhaust from the turbine is used heating or working. Exhaust gases heat can also be used, but it is expensive, prohibiting it from frequent use. The combustion chamber of the Brown, Boveri Velox boiler developed in the 1930s was flame tube of the boiler and it was more compact than a boiler having combustion at atmospheric pressure.

REFERENCES: I. II. III. IV. V. Applied thermodynamics- T.D. Eastop and A. McConkey Gas turbine engineering (Applications ,cycles and Characteristics) - Richard T.C. HARMAN Gas turbine analysis and practice Jennings , Rogers. Gas Turbine Handbook Boyce Wikipedia.

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