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Times New Roman;} {\f6 Times New Roman;} {\f7 Times New Roman Italic;} {\f8 Times New Roman Italic;} {\f9 Times New Roman;} {\f1000000 Times New Roman;} }{\colortbl; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; }\viewkind1\viewscale100\margl0\margr0\margt0\margb0\deftab80\dntblnsbdb\expshrt n\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\qj \li1828\sb0\s l-340\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1828\sb0\sl-340\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1828\ri1002\ sb219\sl-340\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs28 At titudes, Values and Organizational Culture: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Disenta ngling the Concepts \par\pard\ql \li1838\sb151\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex119 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Geet Hofstede \par\pard\ql \li1838\sb0\sl -207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-2 07\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207 \slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\s lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb140\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Abstract\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw1 688\colsr160\colno2\colw7152\colsr160\ql \li278\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li278\sb55\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f s16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\ql \li278\ri328\sb2\sl-180\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Institute for \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex104 Research on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Intercultural \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Cooperation, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Maa stricht and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Tilburg, the \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex103 Netherlands\par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \l i283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2 83\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283 \sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\s b0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0 \sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\s l-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-17 2\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\ slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\sl mult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmu lt0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult 0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \p ar\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par \pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\p ard\qj \li283\ri467\sb117\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Organizati on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Studies\par\pard\qj \li283\ri611\sb7\sl-17 7\slmult0\fi23 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 1998. 19/3 \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex109 477-492\par\pard\ql \li283\ri228\sb6\sl-177\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex108 C 1998 EGOS \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 0170-8406/98 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 001-0019 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 $3.00\par\pa

rd\column \qj \li1848\sb0\sl-200\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri733\sb16\sl-200\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Sentiments collec ted through paper-and-pencil surveys are often arbitrarily classi-\line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex109 ied according to categories imposed by the researcher, such as attitudes, values, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 and manifestations of organizational culture. The question is, to what extent are \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex110 such classiications supported by the distinctions that respondent s make in their \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 own minds? In this paper, dis tinctions between categories of sentiments are sup-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex105 ported empirically from the results of an employee survey in a large Danis h insur-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ance company (n = 2,590). The 120 que stions used were classiied into attitudes, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 va lues, perceptions of organizational practices (for diagnosing organizational cul -\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tures), and demographics.\par\pard\qj \li20\ ri713\sb0\sl-201\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Perceptions of organiz ational cultures were measured using an approach developed \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex109 by the author and his colleagues in an earlier study across 20 Danish an d Dutch \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 organizational units. In the insurance comp any study, employee attitudes were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 found to be clea rly distinct from employee values. Perceptions of organizational \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex106 practices were unrelated to values, and only overlapped with attit udes' where both \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 dealt 'with communication. In the latter case, both can be seen as expressions of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 the organization's communication climate. Other perceptions of organizational \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 practices did not form recognizable clusters at the leve l of individuals, but only at \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 the level of organiza tional (sub)units.\par\pard\qj \li1857\sb0\sl-196\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li29\ri7 33\sb46\sl-196\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Descriptors: \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 attitudes, values, organizational cultu re, survey methods, organiza-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tional communica tion, insurance companies\par\pard\ql \li1862\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \l i1862\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li34\sb46\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex120 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Introduction: Researchers' and Responde nts' Minds\par\pard\qj \li1852\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li24\ri724\sb6\s l-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Survey research tries to collect information about what is on the respon-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 dents ' minds, their sentiments or 'mental programmes'. The social science \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex105 literature (anthropology, economics, political science, psycho logy, sociol-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ogy) offers many words for descr ibing mental programmes. A cursory \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 inventory yielde d the 51 terms listed on p. 478 (developed from an earlier \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex104 collection in Hofstede 1981).\par\pard\qj \li24\ri728\sb9\sl-236\slmult0 \fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 No two of these terms are exactly synonymous, and many overlap to some \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 extent. Some of the terms mean different things in different (sub)disciplines \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 (e.g. values) and for different authors (e.g. climate); and even if they are \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 meant to refer to the same thing, deinitions vary (e. g. culture).\par\pard\qj \li24\ri709\sb1\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x107 Among the ifty terms, some can be applied to the mental programmes of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 individuals (e.g. personality); some apply only to collectivities (e.g. climate \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and culture). A ll of them are \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 constructs. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs 20 A construct is 'not directly acces-\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paper h13680{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\li835\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\ li835\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li835\sb145\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2385 \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 478\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscal ex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\li2366\sb0\sl-230\slmu lt0\par\pard\li2366\sb193\sl-230\slmult0\fi14\tx4564\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 aspirations\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1 00 ideology\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 paradigms\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-2

30\slmult0\fi14\tx4569\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 attitudes\tab \up0 \e xpndtw-1\charscalex100 instinct\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex101 perceptions\par \pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi14\tx4564\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 beliefs\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 intentions\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscal ex100 personality\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi9\tx4569\tx6744 \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex100 cathexes\tab \dn2 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 interests\tab \d n2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 philosophies\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\ tx4560\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 climate\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex 102 life style\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex100 preferences\par\pard\li2366\sb14 \sl-230\slmult0\fi9\tx4564\tx6748 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 culture\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 models\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 purposes\par\p ard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4564\tx6748 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 de rivations\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 morale\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscale x100 residues\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4560\tx6744 \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex100 desires\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 morals\tab \up0 \expn dtw-1\charscalex100 rules\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4560\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 dispositions\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 more s\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 satisfaction\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmu lt0\fi4\tx4564\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 drives\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex100 motivation\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 sentiments\par\pard\li236 6\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4560\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 emotions\ta b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 motives\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 standard s\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4555\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x100 ethic\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 myths\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex 100 stereotypes\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4550\tx6739 \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex100 ethos\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 needs\tab \dn2 \expnd tw0\charscalex101 temperament\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4555\tx6 739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 expectancies\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 norms\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex125 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 traits\par\pa rd\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4550\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 goals\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex101 objectives\tab \ dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 utilities\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx 4545\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 habits\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex101 obligations\tab \dn2 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 valences\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl230\slmult0\fi0\tx4545\tx6734 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ideas\tab \dn2 \expnd tw0\charscalex102 opinions\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 values\par\pard\ql \ li2361\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2361\ri312\sb144\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Bible to observation but inferable from verbal stateme nts and other behav\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 iors and useful in predicting st il other observable and measurable verbal \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and nonve rbal behavior' (Levitin 1973: 492). Constructs do not 'exist' in \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex104 an absolute sense; we have deined them into existence. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The basic problem in interpreting survey results is brid ging the gap between \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the researcher's and the respo ndents' minds. If a researcher imposes on the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 data, she analyzes a framework that does not relect distinctions made by \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex104 respondents. Her conclusions are gratuitous: they tell us somet hing about \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the researcher, but not about the respon dents. \par\pard\ql \li2356\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2356\sb19\sl-230\s lmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Attitudes, Values, and Culture \par\pard\qj \li2356\sb0\sl-237\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2356\ri312\sb28\sl-237\slmult0 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex103 Three of the constructs most frequently covered by quesion naires are \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 atti\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tudes, v alues, \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 organizationa l culture. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 One deinition of an attitude is: 'a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an ob ject or situation pre\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 disposing one to respond in so me preferentialmannee (Rokeach 1972: 112). \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 One dein ition of a value is 'a broad tendency to prefer certain states of afairs \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex100 over others' (Hofstede 1980: 19). One deinition of an orga

nizational culture \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 is 'the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of one organization from another' (Hofstede 1991: 262). \par\pard\qj \li2351\ri313\sb1 \sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The main purpose of this articl e is to use empirical data for testing to what \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 exte nt the distinctions in respondents' minds warrant the use of attitudes, \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex100 values and organizational culture as separate constructs, a nd to what extent \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 these three can be considered to be independent of each other. Based on \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 earlier expe rience (e.g. Hofstede \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1994: Chapt. 3), I expected t o ind that \par\pard\qj \li2356\ri322\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex104 attitudes and values are diferent and independent constructs. With regard \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 to organizational culture I expected the relationsh ips to be more complex, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 as will be outlined below. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\p ar\pard\li1747\sb0\sl-241\slmult0\par\pard\li1747\sb179\sl-241\slmult0\fi0\tx778 0 \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 479\par\pard\qj \l i1761\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1761\ri845\sb100\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex107 Attitudes are the most common component of surveys; they in clude, but \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 are not limited to, components of job \u l0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 satisfaction. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Virtually al l surveys of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 employees in organizations cover attit udes; the 'objects or situations' (see \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 above) cover ed are different aspects of the job and the work situation, and \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex104 information about attitudes is relatively easy to translate into pr actical con\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 clusions. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri837\sb0 \sl-242\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 The study of values assumes a more basic interest; information about val-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ues doe s not as a rule lead to immediate practical conclusions. The differ-\line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex104 ence between values and attitudes is illustrated in the f ollowing example: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in an employee survey, 'how satis ied are you with your career opportuni-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ties?' is an attitude question, but 'how important is it to you to have career \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex105 opportunities?' is a value question. \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f 8\fs20 Motivation \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 is an assumed mental pro-\line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 gramme that is often associated with both attitudes an d values (in motiva-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tion theory terminology, with 'expectancies' and 'valences', e.g. Vroom \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 196 4). \par\pard\qj \li1780\ri826\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 W hereas attitudes and values can thus be conceptually distinguished in the \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex108 researcher's mind, we cannot be sure without further proo f that respon\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 dents' answers make the same distincti on. In the example mentioned, are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 we sure that opin ions on 'how satisied are you with your career opportu\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 02 nities?' do not inluence or are not inluenced by the value choice of whether \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 career opportunities are important (compared to oth er objectives)? Only if \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the two can be proven indep endent, does adding the second question offer \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 addit ional information. \par\pard\qj \li1790\ri816\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex104 Organizational, or corporate, culture has been a popular issue in the man-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 agement literature since the early 19 80s (e.g. Deal and Kennedy 1982). The \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 concept of 'o rganizational culture' as that aspect of the organization which \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex100 is managed was already used by Blake and Mouton (1964: 169), but it only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 became common parlance two decades later. Cul ture is a characteristic of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 the organization, \ul0\ nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 not of individuals, \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 but it is manifested in and measured \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 from the verbal and/or nonverbal behaviour of individuals \u8212? aggregated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1

05 to the level of their organizational unit. Traditionally, organizational cul\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ture has mostly been studied by case-study de scription, often involving par-\line \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ticipant obser vation \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (e.g. Hofstede \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1994: Chapt. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 1). These methods can \par\pard\qj \li 1795\ri830\sb19\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 provide profound ins ight, but they are subjective and not reliable in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 04 sense of different researchers necessarily arriving at the same conclusions \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 (Hofstede 1991: 249-250). \par\pard\qj \li1795\ri816 \sb2\sl-238\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Questionnaires claiming to study organizational culture are sometimes little \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 m ore than employee attitude surveys. Ouchi and Wilkins (1988: 236) con\up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex100 clude that `... the use of survey methodology is seen by many current schol\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ars of culture as being too much the p roduct of the social scientist's rather \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 than the pa rticipant's point of view and therefore inappropriate as a method \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex105 for measuring culture'. However, Ouchi and Wilkins \ul0\nosupersu b\cf7\f8\fs20 (Op.Cit.: \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 244) also \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex102 give the opposite argument: Although rarely written in journal articl es, it is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 often said by those who are statistically inclined that organizational culture \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 has become th e refuge of the untrained and the incompetent ...' A prudent \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex105 middle way is to say that organizational culture should neither be stu died \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 solely \ul0\nosupe rsub\cf4\f5\fs20 by case studies nor solely by questionnaires. \par\pard\sect\se ctd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\li830\sb0 \sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li830\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li830\sb191\sl-207\sl mult0\fi0\tx2380 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 480\ta b \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pa rd\qj \li2380\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2380\ri314\sb69\sl-240\slmult0\f i9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 In order to relect t he respondents' points of view, questionnaire approaches \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex118 to the study of organizational culture should be clear about what they are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 supposed to measure. They should also be analyzed at the level of organi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 zational units and not of individuals. This is a dificulty for many psycho-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex113 logically (rather than sociologically) trained researchers; authors have often \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 tried to demonstrate the reliability of inst ruments for measuring culture on \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 the basis of corre lations between scores for individuals, whereas, in actual \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex123 fact, it can only be proven on the level of aggregate scores for cultura l \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 units. \par\pard\ql \li2376\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \p ar\pard\ql\li2376\sb201\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 National Cul tures and Dimensions of Values \par\pard\ql \li2366\ri309\sb126\sl-240\slmult0\f i14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 In the past decades I have been involved with t wo subsequent large research \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 projects on culture, o ne into cross-national differences in mental programmes \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x113 within the same multinational corporation and one into cross-organizational \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 diferences in mental programmes within the same co untries. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 The research into cross-national dif ferences used an existing data bank of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 employee sur veys in the IBM Corporation. The available questions, from \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex113 more than 100,000 questionnaires, dealt with attitudes and values. The l atter \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 included statements about general beliefs, su ch as 'competition between \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 employees usually does m ore harm than good, agree/disagree', which were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 sta tistically indistinguishable from values. Consistent differences between \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex117 matched groups of employees from diferent countries were f ound for the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 value scores, not for the attitude sco res. Correlation- and factor analyses \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 were performe

d on the country mean scores on 32 value questions from 40 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex112 countries. Analyses based on group mean scores are called \ul0\nosupersu b\cf6\f7\fs18 ecological analy\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 ses. \ul0\nosupersub\ cf5\f6\fs18 Ecological factor analyses are of necessity characterized by lat mat ri\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 ces, that is, few cases compared to the number of variables; often fewer cases \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 than variables. Textb ooks on factor analysis require that the number of cases \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex115 should be much larger than the number of variables, but for ecological fac \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 tor analysis this constraint does not apply. The st ability of the factor struc\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 ture for ecological matr ices does not depend on the number of aggregate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 cas es but on the number of independent individuals who contributed to the \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex114 cases: in the cross-national study, not 40 but over 40,000. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 The ecological correlation- and factor analys es showed four dimensions of \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex114 national value differe nces (Hofstede \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 1980): \par\pard\ql \li2404\sb48\sl207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 I. large vs. small power distance \par\ pard\ql \li2380\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 2. strong vs. w eak uncertainty avoidance \par\pard\ql \li2380\sb13\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex114 3. individualism vs. collectivism \par\pard\ql \li2371\sb33\sl-2 07\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 4. masculinity vs. femininity. \par\pard \qj \li2371\ri328\sb43\sl-220\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Subsequen t research by Bond et \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 al. (The Chinese Culture Conne ction, \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 1987) \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 on country mean scores of the answers of students from 23 countries on \par\pard\qj \li237 1\ri323\sb4\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 40 questions from a Chin ese Value Survey led to the addition of a ifth \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 dime nsion: \par\pard\ql \li2380\sb8\sl-207\slmult0\tx5337 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex1 13 5. long- vs. short-term orientation \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (Hofste de 1991: Chapt. 7). \par\pard\qj \li2376\ri328\sb26\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex117 This approach to the study of national cultures has been a true paradigm \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 shift from earlier approaches. Initial rea ctions varied from enthusiastic (e.g. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paper h13680{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\li1751\sb0\sl-241\slmult0\par\pard \li1751\sb139\sl-241\slmult0\fi0\tx7795 \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupe rsub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\no supersub\cf4\f5\fs20 481\par\pard\qj \li1766\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1 766\ri854\sb137\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Eysenck 1981; Triand is 1982; Sorge 1983) to condescending (e.g. Roberts \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and Boyacigiller 1984) or ridiculizing (e.g. Cooper \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 4 1982). The reactions \par\pard\qj \li1771\ri840\sb21\sl-243\slmult0 \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex105 followed strikingly closely the pattern described for paradig m shifts in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 physical sciences by Kuhn (1970). S ince the later 1980s the idea of dimen\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 sions of nati onal cultures has become part of what Kuhn called 'normal \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex105 science'; the four or ive dimensions I introduced have become part of mos t \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 international management textbooks, and the appro ach has also found its imi\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tators. An overview of st andard criticisms and my position on these is found \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 in Harzing and Hofstede (1996). The ive usual criticisms are: \par\pard\qj \li1 785\ri855\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi24 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1. Surveys are no t a suitable way to measure cultural diferences (answer: \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex106 they should not be the only way). \par\pard\qj \li1785\ri840\sb0\sl-240\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 2. Nations are not the proper units for study ing cultures (answer: they are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 usually the only kin d of units available for comparison). \par\pard\qj \li1790\ri835\sb0\sl-246\slmu lt0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 3. A study of the subsidiaries of one compa ny cannot provide information \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 about entire national cultures (answer: what was measured were \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 dferences \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 among \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 national cultures

. Any set of functionally equivalent samples can \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 su pply information about such differences). \par\pard\qj \li1790\ri830\sb0\sl-240\ slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 4. The IBM data are old and therefore obsol ete (answer: the dimensions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 found are assumed to ha ve centuries-old roots; they have been validated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ag ainst all kinds of extenal measurements; recent replications show no loss \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex102 of validity). \par\pard\qj \li1804\ri826\sb0\sl-240\slmul t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 5. Four or ive dimensions are not enough (answer : additional dimensions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 should be statistically ind ependent of the dimensions deined earlier; they \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 sho uld be valid on the basis of correlations with external measures; candi\up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex103 dates are welcome to apply). \par\pard\ql \li1804\ri812\sb0\ sl-242\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Evaluations of the implications of the theory have recently been published \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 for psyc hology in Smith and Bond (1993); for organization sociology in \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex103 Hickson and Pugh (1995); for anthropology in Chapman (1997). \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 In a recent version of the research instrument (IRIC 1994), each of the ive \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 dimensions is measured by f our survey questions that are intercorrelated at \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 th e country level. Psychologists sometimes have dificulty in understanding \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex100 that these questions do not necessarily correlate at the i ndividual level. They \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 are meant to be a test of nat ional culture, not of individual personality; they \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 distinguish cultural groups or populations, not individuals. \par\pard\ql \li181 9\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1819\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1819\ sb22\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Organizational Cultures and Dim ensions of Practices \par\pard\qj \li1814\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1814 \ri806\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 The research project into cross-organizational differences within the same \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 c ountries (Hofstede et al. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1990) surveyed employees and managers from \par\pard\qj \li1819\ri801\sb4\sl-236\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex108 20 work units in Denmark and the Netherlands. It attempted to cover a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 wide range of different work organizations, maki ng it possible to assess \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 the relative weight of sim ilarities and differences within the range of cul-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x102 ture differences that can be found in practice. The 20 units to which acces s \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 was obtained were from three broad kinds of organ izations: (1) private com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 panies manufacturin g electronics, chemicals, or consumer goods (six total \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 103 divisions or production units, three head ofice or marketing units, and two \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend Pg6}\p ar\pard\li859\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li859\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li85 9\sb177\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2409 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\c f5\f6\fs18 482\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geer t Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2414\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2414\ri285\sb63 \sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 res earch and development units); (2) ive units from private service com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 panies (banking, transport, trade); and (3) four units f rom public institu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tions \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex117 (telecommunications, police). Unit sizes varied from \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex123 60 to 2,500 \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri290\sb0\sl-246\slmult0 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex114 persons. Twenty units was a small enough number to allow study ing each \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 unit in depth, qualitatively, as \ul0\nosu persub\cf4\f5\fs20 a \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 separate case study. At the sam e time, it \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 was large enough to permit the statistic al analysis of comparative quanti\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 tative data across all cases. \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex118 Extensive open interviews (nine per unit, a total of 180 interviews) con-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 tributed to (1) a qualitative picture of each unit's culture as a whole, and \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri290\sb0\sl-240\slmult

0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 (2) the design of a questionnaire for the qua ntitative phase of the project. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 This included the 3 2 values and beliefs questions for which cross-national \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x119 diferences had been found, plus about \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 100 new questions. Some of the \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri290\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex114 new questions also dealt with values; 54 new questions dealt w ith percep\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 tions of the practices in the respondents ' work unit. These were formulated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 in a format show n by the following examples: \par\pard\ql \li2423\sb143\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex113 'Where I work: \par\pard\li2409\sb47\sl-207\slmult0\fi4\tx62 15 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 * Meeting times are\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x115 Meeting times are\par\pard\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi115\tx4814\tx4958\t x6211 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 kept very punctually\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\char scalex100 1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 2 3 4 5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex115 only kept approximately\par\pard\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx6211 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 * Quanity prevails\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Qu ality prevails\par\pard\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi115\tx4819\tx4963\tx6215 \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 over quality\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 I\tab \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 2 3 4 5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 over quanti ty'\par\pard\qj \li2409\ri295\sb112\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Which statement was put on the left side and which on the right was deter\up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex113 mined at random, to avoid acquiescence bias. \par\pard\qj \li2400\ri289\sb20\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 The questionnaire s were answered by a strictly random sample from each \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 15 of the 20 organizational units, consisting of (about) 20 managers, 20 non\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 managerial professionals, and 20 non-professional emplo yees per unit. The \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 number 20 thus played an importa nt role in the design of the study; it is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 the minim um sample size that allows statistical conclusions of suficient \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex113 reliability. A total of 1,295 respondents provided answers to 131 q uestions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 each. The analysis, however, was based on \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 mean scores \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 (weighted ac ross \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 the three occupational groups) for the 20 orga nizational units, not on the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 1,295 individual score s. \par\pard\qj \li2400\ri275\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 Th e values questions that had diferentiated so much across countries, \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex116 showed much smaller score diferences across organizational unit s. What \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 did diferentiate the strongest across units were the practices questions. This \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 led to the conc lusion that cultural diferences between matched samples of \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex112 respondents from different countries are primarily a matter of values, w hile \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 cultural diferences between matched samples of respondents from difer\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 ent organizations within the same country are primarily a matter of \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 prac\up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex116 tices, \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 as perceived by the resp ondents. \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex118 Practices are relections of symbols, heroes and rituals that are speciic to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 one culture as opposed to others; they are the visible part of cultures, while \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 values represent th e invisible part. Practices are less basic than values, and \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex116 are amenable to planned change; values do change, but according to thei r \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 own logic, not according to anyone's plans. \par\ pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb17\sl-220\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 Our i ndings about the central role of practices in organizational culture \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex119 contrast with the common belief in the management literature ( e.g. Peters \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg7}{\bk mkend Pg7}\par\pard\li1747\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li1747\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\li1747\sb58\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx7785 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 483\par\pard\qj \li1761\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard

\qj\li1761\ri871\sb40\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 and Waterman 1 982) \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 that shared values \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 are the core of an organization's \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 culture. The disa greement can be understood from the fact that the man\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex12 2 agement literature nearly always draws its information about company \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex113 values from managers, even top managers. We surveyed samples of the total \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 populations, as we believe that an or ganization's culture is located in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 mental progr ammes of \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 all \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 members of the organization. There is little doubt \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 that practi ces are designed according to the values of the founders and, in \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex116 later phases, of signiicant top managers of the organization in qu estion, but \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 this does not mean that all members of the organization share these values. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 A work organiz ation is not a total institution. Members have to follow the \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex118 practices if they want to remain members, but they do not have to conf ess \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 to the values. Leaders' values become followers ' practices. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri875\sb0\sl-245\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex116 A cross-organizational factor analysis with orthogonal rotation (an ecolog\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 ical factor analysis, based on the mean score s for each question) produced \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 six clear and mutuall y independent dimensions of (perceived) practices \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 d istinguishing the twenty organizational units from each other. \ul0\nosupersub\c f4\f5\fs20 The \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 six \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 dime nsions were labelled: \par\pard\ql \li1795\sb23\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex116 1. process oriented vs. results oriented \par\pard\ql \li1776\sb33\s l-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 2. employee oriented vs. job oriented \par\pard\ql \li1780\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 3. paroch ial vs. professional \par\pard\ql \li1771\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex117 4. open system vs. closed system \par\pard\ql \li1776\sb33\sl-207\slm ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 5. loose vs. tight control \par\pard\ql \li177 6\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 6. normative vs. pragmatic \p ar\pard\ql \li1771\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\tldot\tx6753 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 For each of the six dimensions, three key 'where I work\expndtw0\charscalex100\ tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 ' questions were \par\pard\ql \li1776\ri865\sb 6\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 chosen, in order to calculate an i ndex value of each unit on each dimension. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 The key questions for each dimension were strongly intercorrelated at the \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex116 unit level, but not necessarily at the level of individual respon ses. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Dimension \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 1 explores the differences between a concen with means and \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex114 a concern with goals. The three key items show that, in the process-orien ted \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 cultures, people perceive themselves as avoidin g risks and spending only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 a limited effort on their jobs, while each day is pretty much the same. In \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 t he results-oriented cultures, people perceive themselves as being comfort\up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex122 able in unfamiliar situations and putting in a maximal efo rt, while each \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 day is felt to bring new challenges. \par\pard\qj \li1761\ri851\sb23\sl-237\slmult0\fi19 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex12 0 Dimension 2 explores the diferences between a concen for people and a \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex119 concern for getting the job done. The key items selected sh ow that, in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 employee-oriented cultures, people feel that their personal problems are taken \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 into ac count, that the organization takes a responsibility for employee wel\up0 \expndt w0\charscalex114 fare, and that important decisions tend to be made by groups or committees. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 In the job-oriented units, people expe rience a strong pressure for getting the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 job done. They perceive the organization as only being interested in the work \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex115 employees do, not in their personal and family welfare; and the y report that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 important decisions tend to be made b

y individuals. \par\pard\qj \li1776\ri856\sb27\sl-233\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex119 Dimension 3 compares and contrasts units whose employees derive t heir \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 identity largely from the organization with un its in which people identify \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 with their type of job . The key questions show that members of parochial \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 cultures feel that the organization's norms cover their behaviour at home \par\p ard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\par d\li888\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li888\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li888\sb97 \sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2438 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\f s20 484\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofst ede\par\pard\qj \li2438\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2438\ri251\sb74\sl-240 \slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 as well as on the job. They feel that in hiring employees, the company \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex116 takes their social and family background into account as much as their job \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 competence; and they do not look far into the future (they assume the orga\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 nization will do this f or them). Members of professional cultures, however. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex12 3 consider their private lives to be their own business. They feel that the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 organization hires on the basis of job competence only. and they do think \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 far ahead. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ ri256\sb0\sl-242\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 Dimension 4 looks at t he differences between open and closed systems. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 The key items show that in the open-system units members consider both \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex120 the organization and its people to be open to newcomers and out siders: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 almost anyone would it into the organizatio n. and new employees need \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 only a few days to feel a t home. In the closed-system units, the organiza\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 tio n and its people are felt to be closed and secretive, even in the opinion \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex124 of insiders. Only very special people it into the organiz ation, and new \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 employees need more than a year to f eel at home. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ri252\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex114 Dimension 5 looks at the amount of internal structuring in the organ ization. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 According to the key questions, people in 'loose control' units feel that no \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 one thinks of co st. meeting times are only kept approximately. and jokes \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex117 about the company and the job are frequent. People in 'tight control' unit s \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 describe their work environment as cost-conscious , meeting times are kept \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 punctually, and jokes abou t the company and/or the job are rare. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ri261\sb0\sl-242\slm ult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 Dimension 6, inally, deals with the popula r notion of 'customer orienta\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 tion'. Pragmatic units are market-driven; normative units perceive their task \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x119 towards the outside world as the implementation of inviolable rules. The \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 key items show that, in the normative units, the majo r emphasis is on cor\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 rectly following organizational procedures, which are more important than \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 results; in matters of business ethics and honesty, the unit's standards are \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex117 felt to be high. In the pragmatic units, there is a major emph asis on meet\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 ing the customer's needs, results are m ore important than correct proce\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 dures. and in matte rs of business ethics, a pragmatic rather than a dogmatic \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex114 attitude prevails. \par\pard\qj \li2438\ri261\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 In a later study, perceptions of practices were also an alyzed at the indi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 vidual level, after elimin ation of the unit differences. The individual dif-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x129 ferences in answers were shown to relect differences in individual \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex116 personality according to the 'big five' dimensions of perso nality (Hofstede \par\pard\li2433\sb39\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2956\tx3033 \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex110 et al.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1\tab \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex110 993).\par\pard\qj \li2433\ri261\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \ex

pndtw0\charscalex113 What had not yet been studied was: To what extent do percep tions of prac\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 tices also relect attitudes, and can a ttitudes and perceptions of practices \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 really \ul0\n osupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 be \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 handled as independent cons tructs? The present article will pro\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 vide empirical evidence on the relationships between measured attitudes. \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex120 values. and perceptions of practices in a large questionnaire survey. in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 which, exceptionally, all three types of questions were included. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ri256\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex115 As stated earlier, attitudes and values were expected to show up a s differ-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 ent and independent concepts. For co nceptual reasons, I \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 expected \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\ fs18 percep-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 tions of practices to be entirely different from values, and usually also \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 different from attitudes. This is because attitudes and practices are speciic \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex114 to actual situations. while values are abstract preferences. At titudes and \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg9}{\bk mkend Pg9}\par\pard\li1703\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1703\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\li1703\sb51\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7742 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 485\par\pard\qj \li1718\sb0\sl-245\slmult0 \par\pard \qj\li1718\ri898\sb11\sl-245\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 values are, by deinition, evaluative (they have a positive and a negative \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex110 pole), while perceptions of practices are supposed to be descriptive. A s \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 it is not always possible to suppress afect when describing something, I \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 was prepared to ind percept ions of practices showing some overlap with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 attitud es. \par\pard\ql \li1728\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1728\sb0\sl-230\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql\li1728\sb28\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Culture or Climate? \par\pard\qj \li1732\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1732\ri889\sb 2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Questionnaire approaches to the s tudy of organizational culture are often indis\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tingu ishable from studies of organizational \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 climate. \ul0 \nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Historically, the concept \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 o f climate preceded that of culture, with important publications on climate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 dating from the 1960s and 70s. In an authoritative monog raph, Litwin and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Stringer (1968:1) deined `organiza tional climate' as follows: \par\pard\qj \li1737\ri899\sb134\sl-200\slmult0\fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 '... the term organiza tional climate refers to a set of measurable properties of the \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex103 work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the people who live and work \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 in this environment and assumed to i nluence their motivation and behavior'. \par\pard\ql \li1742\sb175\sl-207\slmult 0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 And later (p. 5): \par\pard\qj \li1747\ri899\sb15 9\sl-200\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The concept of climate provide s a useful bridge between theories of individual moti\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 2 vation and behavior, on one hand, and organizational theories, on the other.' \par\pard\qj \li1742\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1742\ri869\sb27\sl-240\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 The concept of cl imate thus links the individual and the organizational \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 106 level. However, although climate studies, like culture studies, have been \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 criticized for being little else than studies of job satisfaction (Johannesson \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1973), Schneider and Snyd er (1975: 327) showed empirically that climate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 meas ures that are designed to relect organizational/descriptive rather \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex109 than individual/evaluative diferences difer from satisfaction me asures. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Nevertheless, the term climate does have an evaluative connotation. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Climates are better or wor se, wholesome or insalubrious, so it should be \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 no s urprise if climate measures are found to overlap with satisfaction \up0 \expndtw

-2\charscalex100 measures. \par\pard\ql \li1756\sb9\sl-230\slmult0\tx4560\tx5227 \tx6864 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 In a review essay, Schneider \tab \up0 \exp ndtw-3\charscalex100 (1975: \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 472) argues that \ tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 `organizational \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri860\sb0 \sl-244\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 climate' is too general a research area, and that any number of kinds \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 of climates may be identiied depending upon the criterion of interest. \up0 \expndtw-1\charscale x100 One of these that has retained the attention of researchers. even after the word \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 `culture' became popular, is the communicatio n \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 climate. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Poole (1985: 80) \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 found that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 factoranalytic studies of climate have consistently isolated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 100 independent dimensions directly related to communication processes'. \par\pa rd\qj \li1756\ri855\sb2\sl-236\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The question remains as to what, exactly, the difference is between the ear\up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex107 lier concept of climate and the later concept of culture. In some st udies, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 there is none. Gordon and Ditomaso (1992), f or example, relate organiza\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 tional culture to corpor ate inancial performance and measure the former \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 usi ng a `Survey of Management Climate' which was designed before the \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex106 term 'culture' became fashionable. \par\pard\qj \li1761\ri864\sb1 \sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 However, the literature cited a bove reveals a number of substantial \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 differences: \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg10}{\bkmkend Pg10} \par\pard\li864\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li864\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li 864\sb205\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2414 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 \ul0\nosupersub \cf5\f6\fs18 486\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Ge ert Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2419\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2419\ri280\sb 112\sl-220\slmult0\tx2616 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs 18 \u8226? Climate derives from sociology, culture from anthropology, and this \ line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 afects the methods by which they are studi ed; \par\pard\qj \li2419\ri270\sb24\sl-240\slmult0\tx2611 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex114 \u8226? Climate is more closely linked with individual motivation and beh aviour \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 than culture, which resides entire ly at the organizational level; \par\pard\qj \li2419\ri285\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx 2616\tx2611 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \u8226? Climate has an evaluative conno tation and partly overlaps with satisfac-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 tion; cultures can be diferent without one being objectively better than \line\ tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 the other. Peters and Waterman's (1982) claim t hat strong cultures are \par\pard\qj \li2606\ri280\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex112 better than others has been suficiently refuted (e.g. Soe ters 1986). Strong \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 cultures, in the sense of cohesi ve cultures which impose extensive and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 immutable me ntal programming, are, for that same reason, dificult to \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex115 change and are likely to adapt less well to changing circumstances than \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 weaker ones. \par\pard\ql \li2414\sb28\sl-207\slmult0 \tx7641\tx7708 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \u8226? Climate can fruitfully be se en as a sub-set of culture (Poole \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1 \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 985: 84). \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri285\sb3\sl-244\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Moran and Volkwein (1992), commenting on our Danis h\u8212?Dutch organiza\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 tional culture study, aptly c onclude that our focus on practices means an \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 overla p between the organizational culture and organizational climate con\up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex117 structs. The diference between practices and climate, as we see it, is that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 practices can be purely descriptive, wh ile climate, as argued above, has an \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 evaluative con notation. \par\pard\ql \li2414\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2414\sb0\sl-230 \slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2414\sb28\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \u l0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Research Method \par\pard\ql \li2404\ri281\sb239\sl-24 4\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Access was ob

tained to the results of an employee survey held in a large \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex110 Danish insurance company (3,400 employees) in 1988. The insurance indus \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 try seems to be an attractive ield for climate and culture research. Other \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 studies of insurance compan ies were e.g. reported in Schneider and Snyder \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (197 5), Morgan (1986:121) and Gordon and Ditomaso (1992). \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex113 The Danish survey met three objectives: \par\pard\li2409\sb29\sl-207\sl mult0\fi23\tx2649 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex89 1.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 16 Periodic measurement of employee attitudes, following an earlier sur-\par\par d\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx3033 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 vey in\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 1983 and a sample mini survey in 1986;\par\pard\qj \li2409\ri295\sb4\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 2. A diagnosis of the corporate culture and its sub-cultures, allowing a corn\up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex121 parison with the results of the organizational culture study across nine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 (other) Danish and eleven Dutch organizational uni ts described above. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 which had just been inished; \p ar\pard\qj \li2409\ri275\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 3. A st udy of forces driving and restraining the access of women to higher \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex116 positions in the corporation. The share of female employees had recently \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 passed the 50 percent mark, but the top i fty management positions were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 only occupied by male s. A committee of female employees had pressed the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 management to address the issue of careers for women in the survey, and \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex116 had acted as a support group in the design of the questionn aire. \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb17\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex12 0 The survey was carried out by company staf with professional support \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex120 from the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 (IRIC) at \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri271\sb4\sl-240\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Maastricht, the Netherlands. Prior to the com position of the questionnaire, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Danish IRIC collabor ators held open-ended interviews with a selection of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 7 informants from all levels \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 (including the General Manager) and depart-\par\pard\ql \li2414\sb8\sl-207\slmult0\tx7646\tx8015\tx854 4\tx8625 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex120 ments of the company: a total of 24 interv iews were held \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (I I \tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex106 men. \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1 \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal ex100 3 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg11}{\bkmke nd Pg11}\par\pard\li1732\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1732\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\p ar\pard\li1732\sb3\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7771 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\n osupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 487\par\pard\qj \li1747\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1747\ri874\sb28\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 women). The inter view results were used for determining which issues were \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex102 relevant for inclusion in the survey questionnaire. \par\pard\qj \li1742\r i874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 The survey questionnaire, i n Danish, consisted of 120 questions, divided \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 as fo llows: \par\pard\qj \li1751\ri874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1953 \up0 \expndtw-2\char scalex100 \u8226? \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 50 questions about attitudes , for example: \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 'how satisied are you with \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 the use of your skills in your jo b?' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 (5-point scale from 'very dissatis-\par\pard\qj \li1953\ri874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 ied' to 'very sat isied'). Some of these were exact copies of questions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 04 used in the company's previous attitude survey rounds, in order to mea\up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex104 sure trends over time. \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri869\sb20\sl240\slmult0\tx1953 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8226? \tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex107 29 questions about values, for example \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 'h ow important is it to you \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 to \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex105 use your skills in your job?' (5-point scale from 'of utmost importance' \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 to 'not important'). Most of these had been used in

the earlier cross-\par\pard\qj \li1953\ri874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex100 national and cross-organizational research projects, but some v alue-laden \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 beliefs were added in view of the survey 's focus on careers for women, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 e.g. 'In general, wo men are not interested in taking a management role' \par\pard\ql \li1958\sb9\sl230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 (5-point scale from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree'). \par\pard\qj \li1761\ri869\sb2\sl-240\slmult0\tx1958 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8226? \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 31 questions about practices, in the 'where I work' format shown above. \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex105 These included the \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex90 18 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex109 (6 x 3) key questions used for scoring the six \par\pard\ql \li1756\ri8 63\sb0\sl-241\slmult0\fi196\tx1963\tx1963\tx1963 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 di mensions of organizational culture in IRIC's earlier cross-organiza-\line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex103 tional research project in Denmark and the Netherlands. \ line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8226? \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 10 quest ions about demographics (gender, married or living together vs. \line\tab \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex105 single, children under 15 at home, age group, education l evel, position \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 level in company, length o f service in company, same in present depart-\line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 103 ment, full time vs. part-time employment, gender of boss). \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex110 The questionnaire was completed during working hours and retur ned \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 anonymously by 2,590 employees, a 76 percent re sponse rate. In the 1983 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 survey, only a 70 percent response rate had been attained, in spite of a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 much shorter questionnaire (40 items). The reason for the better response \up0 \expn dtw-3\charscalex100 in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1988 was that the 1983 quest ionnaire had been composed from a man\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 agement point of view only, and many issues relevant to \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 employees \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 had \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 not been included a t all. \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri845\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 0 The answers on the organization culture (practices) questions were not only \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 studied for the total company, but also separately fo r 131 work groups of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 between 8 and 54 members. A cl uster analysis of the work group cultures \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 showed th ree large sub-cultures in the company: a professional, an admin\up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex112 istrative and a customer interface sub-culture. This analysis is bei ng \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 reported elsewhere (Hofstede 1998). \par\pard\ql \li1766\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1766\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\ li1766\sb29\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Results \par\pard\qj \li 1756\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1756\ri845\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex102 The total response matrix (120 variables, 2,590 cases) was fac tor analyzed, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 using a principal components programm e on SPSS. Thirty-three factors \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 produced eigenvalue s over 1.0, but a scree analysis showed that only seven \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x102 factors made a substantial contribution, together explaining 29.9 percent o f \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the total variance. The factor loadings are shown in Table 1. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg12}{\ bkmkend Pg12}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw4140\colsr160\colno2\ colw4700\colsr160\ql \li849\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl-230\sl mult0 \par\pard\ql \li854\sb107\sl-230\slmult0\tx2399 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 06 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 488\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosuper sub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\q l \li849\sb42\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Table I\par\pard\qj \l i854\ri309\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx2409\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Results of a\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Loading\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Type* \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Factor Analysis of\par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 an Employee\par\pard\ql \li854\sb1\sl-1 77\slmult0\tx2399\tx3364 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Survey in a\tab \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex111 -.55\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li854\s b0\sl-184\slmult0\tx2399\tx3364 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Danish Insurance\ta

b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.54\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard \ql \li849\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\tx2399\tx3364 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Company (120\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 -.53\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\ par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\tx2495\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 questions; 2.590\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 .47\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\char scalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li854\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\tx2495\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex102 respondents)\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 .47\tab \up0 \expndt w-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2500\sb0\sl-144\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2500\sb1\s l-179\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 .43\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex100 P\par\pard\ql \li2500\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscal ex100 .42\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-182\slmu lt0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .42\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\ par\pard\ql \li2400\sb4\sl-184\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 -.41\ tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-170\slmult0\tx335 9 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .40\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard \ql \li2496\sb7\sl-177\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .39\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb6\sl-184\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \e xpndtw-3\charscalex100 .38\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li249 6\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .38 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex100 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2404\sb5\sl-184 \slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 -.37\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 00 P\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb0\sl-177\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .37 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 P\par\pa rd\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .36\up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex102 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2496 \sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .36\tab \up0 \expndtw-5 \charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex113 -.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 P\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb1\sl-1 82\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscal ex96 P\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2491\sb170\sl-184\ slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .72\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex9 6 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 . 71\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx 3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .69\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\p ard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .64\tab \ up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up 0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .61\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \l i2491\sb2\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .61\tab \up0 \expnd tw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw7\charscalex90 .51\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl -177\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .48\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charsc alex91 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale x100 .45\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-175\slmu lt0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .42 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (2)\t ab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb3\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .41\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2491\sb170\sl-184\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .69\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \li 2491\sb3\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .65\tab \up0 \expnd tw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 .63\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\s l-171\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .59\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\chars calex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb2\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal ex100 .58\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb2\sl-182\slmu lt0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .54\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V \par\pard\ql \li2486\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .48 \tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx33 50 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .46\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard \ql \li2491\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .42 \up0 \ex

pndtw-2\charscalex100 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li249 1\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .41\tab \up0 \expndtw-2 \charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1 66\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .66\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\c harscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex109 -.62\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-178 \slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .55\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex 100 D\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .51\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\ tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .50\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\ pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-178\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .49\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3355 \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.48\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \ li2395\sb1\sl-171\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 -.46\tab \up0 \exp ndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb3\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndt w-1\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb 1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 -.43\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\ch arscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex103 -.41\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb1\sl-176 \slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex 100 P\par\pard\column \ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl -184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl -184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl -184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li30\sb58\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Question Content\par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li30\ri14 62\sb9\sl-180\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Factor 1: Communication C limate \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Attention paid to physical working con diions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Company and people open to outsiders \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 No competition between departments \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex104 Company customer oriented\par\pard\ql \li30\ri2202\sb3\sl-180\ slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Good cooperation between units \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex104 Good physical working conditions \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex104 Everybody supplies maximal effort \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Good cooperation between sectors\par\pard\qj \li30\ri1309\sb3\sl-180\slmult0 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Good cooperation head ofice vs other locations \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex105 Changes after consultation with those involved \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex105 Good cooperation inside own unit\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1237\sb1\ sl-182\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Enough information on other part s of company \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 No groups of employees looking down on others \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Organization changes suficiently prepared\p ar\pard\qj \li30\ri1587\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Aware of competition with other companies \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Employees told ab out good performance\par\pard\ql \li25\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex103 OVERALL SATISFACTION\par\pard\ql \li30\ri2845\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex106 Suficient information \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Ev erybody cost-conscious\par\pard\ql \li25\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex105 Meeting times kept very punctually\par\pard\qj \li4300\sb0\sl-177\slmul t0 \par\pard\qj \li30\ri1654\sb11\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Fa ctor 2: Attitudes about Work Content \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Right amount o f responsibility\par\pard\qj \li25\ri3421\sb2\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex106 Able to use skills \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Challenging task s\par\pard\ql \li30\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Right amount of inluence\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1631\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 Right amount of deinition of responsibility \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 R ight amount of freedom in job\par\pard\ql \li25\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex105 Work not boring\par\pard\ql \li20\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex103 OVERALL SATISFACTION\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1789\sb0\sl-180\slmul t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Enough opportunities for further learning \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex104 Enough job security\par\pard\ql \li25\sb2\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Enough opportunity to help others\par\pard\qj \li43

00\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li25\ri1847\sb10\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex113 Factor 3: Values about Work Context \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 4 Importance job security\par\pard\ql \li25\ri1875\sb4\sl-179\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex107 Importance clearly deined job \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex104 Importance physical working conditions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Impo rtance opportunity to help others \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Importance cooper ation\par\pard\qj \li25\ri2308\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 04 Importance relationship with boss \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance liv ing area\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1828\sb0\sl-183\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 4 Dislikes competition between employees \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Fema le\par\pard\ql \li25\sb1\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Lower educa tion\par\pard\qj \li20\ri2879\sb174\sl-182\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 113 Factor 4: Gender Issues \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Older\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1578\sb0\sl-175\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 In marriage. t he man's career should prevail \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Long service with co mpany\par\pard\ql \li20\ri1280\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 G enders are not equally suited for leadership \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Wants to spend rest of career with this company \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 00 Male\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1765\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Work is more important than leisure time \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Prefers t o work for a male boss\par\pard\ql \li25\ri1482\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex105 Long service in present department \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex105 Women generally not interested in mgmt role \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 P roud of working for this company \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 We are alway s correctly dressed \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg13}{\bkmkend Pg13}\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-230 \slmult0\par\pard\li196\sb27\sl-230\slmult0\fi1564\tx7804 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 489\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\ pard\li196\sb6\sl-184\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\c f2\f3\fs16 Table I\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi9\tx1776\tx2731\tx3696 \d n2 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Continued\tab \dn2 \expnd tw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Loading\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex102 Type*\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Question Content\par\pard\li196\sb 134\sl-184\slmult0\fi3499 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Factor 5: Attitudes about Direct Boss\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\tx3700 \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex113 -.75\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex107 Boss helps us ahead\par\pard\li196\sb4\sl-184\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\t x3700 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.73\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Boss creates conidence\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\sl mult0\fi1670\tx2736\tx3700 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .72\tab \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex101 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Satisied with boss' leadership s tyle\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex116 -.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 05 Boss gets results\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 -.66\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex105 Boss acts visibly\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\fi1579\tx 2740\tx3710 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.63\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Boss makes decisions\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-17 7\slmult0\fi1675\tx2740\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex93 .41\tab \up0 \expndt w-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 People are told when they h ave done a good job\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .36\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex107 My boss rates my performance as good\par\pard\li196\sb176\sl-1 84\slmult0\fi3508 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Factor 6: Attitudes towards Work Pressures\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex100 .60\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex105 Not under pressure\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .59\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex108 No conlicts between work and private life\par\pard\li196\

sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .55\tab \u p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Would like to hav e more work\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex100 A8\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex105 No interruptions disturbing work\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi167 5\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1 00 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Suficient time for private life\par\pard\l i196\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .44\ta b \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Not nervous o r tense\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1679\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\c harscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex105 Enough job security\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .39\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 No organization changes without preparation\par\pard\li1 96\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3710 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .38\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Employees' per sonal problems taken into account\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi1679\tx274 5\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .36\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 A\ta b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 No time wasted on correcting mistakes\par\pard\li 196\sb181\sl-184\slmult0\fi3513 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Factor 7: Values ab out Work Content\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \ex pndtw-1\charscalex100 .72\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex105 Importance variety and adventure\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult 0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .69\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\cha rscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance challenging work\par\pa rd\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 . 68\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Importan ce use of skills\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \ex pndtw-1\charscalex100 .67\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex104 Importance career opportunities\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .54\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\chars calex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Interested in training for career\pa r\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1 00 .45\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Impo rtance earnings\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \exp ndtw-1\charscalex100 .43\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex106 Importance freedom in job\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi1584 \tx2750\tx3710 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 -.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1 00 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Wants to be manager rather than specialist \par\pard\ql \li1790\sb165\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 All loadi ngs over .35 are shown. Signs of loadings depend on the wording of the \par\pard \ql \li1785\sb16\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 question. Question content has been worded taking the sign of the loading into account. \par\pard\q l \li1795\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 *Types of questions: A = attitudes; V = values; P = practices; D = demographics \par\pard\qj \li1785\ sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1785\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1785\ri 831\sb170\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs2 0 The seven factors, ater an orthogonal rotation, could be interpreted as \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex100 follows: \par\pard\qj \li1785\ri826\sb23\sl-237\slmult0\f i4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 Factor 1: Attitudes and practices related to communication and coopera\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 t ion. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for 20 items, 11 c lassiied as 'attitudes' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 and nine as 'practices'. An example of an attitude is: satisfaction with coop\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 e ration between work units within the same department. An example of a \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex105 practice is: company and people open and transparent to newco mers and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 outsiders, vs. closed and secretive, even among insiders. Included in the 20 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 items is a .36 l oading for 'overall satisfaction'. I have labelled this factor \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex101 `communication climate'. \par\pard\ql \li1785\sb29\sl-230\slmult0 \u

p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 Factor 2: Attitudes about work content. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for \par \pard\qj \li1785\ri831\sb6\sl-235\slmult0\fi28 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 11 i tems, all of them classiied as attitudes. An example is: satisfaction with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 the amount of responsibility delegated to the respondent . Included is a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 .48 loading for 'overall satisfacti on', which is thus primarily related to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 satisfactio n with work content, and secondarily to satisfaction with com\up0 \expndtw-1\cha rscalex100 munication. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmksta rt Pg14}{\bkmkend Pg14}\par\pard\li873\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li873\sb0\sl230\slmult0\par\pard\li873\sb131\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2423 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 490\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\no supersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\ql \li2428\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\ pard\ql\li2428\sb78\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\ cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 3: Values about work context. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loa dings over .35 were found for \par\pard\qj \li2423\ri255\sb2\sl-240\slmult0\fi28 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 10 items; the top seven were all 'how important' q uestions (security, clearly \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 deined job, physical wo rking conditions, opportunity to help others, co\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ope ration, relationship with boss, living area). Also included were \ul0\nosupersub \cf6\f7\fs18 a \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 .42 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 load ing for gender (being female) and a .41 loading for (lower) education, \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex100 showing that the work context was more important for women a nd for those \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in simple jobs (these two categories s howed considerable overlap in this \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 company). \par\ pard\qj \li2423\ri255\sb20\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosu persub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 4: Gender issues. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for 12 items, includ\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 ing all va lue questions about careers for women, e.g. 'In marriage or part\up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex103 nership, the man's career should prevail'. The more traditional vie ws were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 associated with the folowing demographics: being older (a .66 loading), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 having longer service, and being male (a .49 loading). \par\pard\qj \li2414\ri254\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\f i9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 5: Attitudes about the direct boss. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for eight items, seven of them attitudes explicitly related to the direct boss. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The large number of it ems on this subject was due to the carryover of ques\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex10 0 tions from the 1983 survey. \par\pard\qj \li2419\ri254\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 6: Attitudes towards work pressures. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex100 for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 10 attitude items, all o f them related to pressures and conlicts at \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 work. \par\pard\ql \li2414\ri255\sb0\sl-245\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\ nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 7: Values about work content. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\ f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 eight item s; six of them were 'how important' questions. No demographics \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex100 were associated with this factor, which shows that gender, for examp le, was \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 unrelated to values about the importance of the work content. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Not associated (over .35) with any of these factors were 46 questions: \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex93 14 \pa r\pard\qj \li2414\ri264\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 out of t he 50 attitudes, six out of the 29 values, 21 out of the 31 practices, \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex113 and ive out of the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 10 demograph ics. These would obviously have been \par\pard\qj \li2414\ri264\sb0\sl-240\slmul t0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 included in additional factors, had we decid ed to retain these; but they \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 would not have formed meaningful clusters. One of the unassociated ques\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ti ons is 'how satisied are you with your career opportuniies?': it shows \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex108 only a .26 loading on Factor 2. \par\pard\ql \li2419\sb0\sl-

230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2419\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2419\sb45\sl-2 30\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Discussion \par\pard\qj \li2409\sb0\sl-2 36\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2409\ri264\sb10\sl-236\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex104 The factor analysis showed that questions about attitudes and those about \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 values loaded systematically on diferent factors. F or attitudes, we ind \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Factors 1, 2, 5 and 6 (communi cation, work content, the direct boss, and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 work pre ssures); for values, Factors 3, 4 and 7 (work context, gender issues \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex104 and work content). Attitudes (how one feels about a situation) and values \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 (what state of affairs one would prefer ) are diferent constructs, not only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 in the minds of researchers but also in those of respondents. \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri250\sb5\sl -235\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 The practices questions did not behave well in the factor analysis. Out of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the 31 questio ns, nine loaded on Factor 1, together with questions express-\line \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex104 ing attitudes about communication and cooperation, and overall s atisfac-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tion. In the analysis at the level of organizational units, the nine practices \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 questions that showed up here related to diferent organizational culture \par\pard\sect\s ectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg15}{\bkmkend Pg15}\par\pard\li1728 \sb0\sl-195\slmult0\par\pard\li1728\sb0\sl-195\slmult0\par\pard\li1728\sb68\sl-1 95\slmult0\fi0\tx7771 \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 A ttitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 491\par\pard\qj \li1737\sb 0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1737\ri874\sb108\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 dimensions (cf. Hofstede et al. 1990: 3 03). The irst two items labelled `P' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 in Table 1, Fa ctor 1, relect an open communication climate; the 3rd and \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex107 6th a professional organization; the 4th and 7th a results-oriented organ i\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 zation; the 5th an employee-oriented organization, while the 6th and 7th \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 marginally relect a tight or ganization. \par\pard\qj \li1747\ri869\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex107 One practice question loaded marginally on Factor 4 (gender issues); the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 rest did not relate to the seven factors in Table 1 . Most practices questions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 therefore did not difere ntiate in a meaningful way at the level of individ\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 u al respondents. It must be remembered that these questions were selected \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex106 because of their ability to discriminate at the level of o rganizational units, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 not at the level of individual s. \par\pard\qj \li1747\ri864\sb20\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 T hus, most organizational practices that the respondents perceived did not \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex106 systematically associate with positive or negative attitu des; not even with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 attitudes about the direct boss, or about work pressures. This shows that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 organizat ional cultures contain many elements that to the members of the \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex114 organization are afect-neutral. They represent 'the way we do thing s \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 around here', but these are not necessarily good or bad in the employees' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and managers' minds. \par\ pard\qj \li1756\ri860\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 A limited number of perceived practices had afective connotations, rela\up0 \expndtw0\char scalex102 ting to attitudes about communication and cooperation. The secondary a sso\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 ciation of the 'communication climate' factor wi th 'overall satisfaction' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 shows that at least in th is company, good communication and cooperation \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 was one of the essential conditions for being a satisied employee. Practices \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex104 which were associated with the 'communication climate' fac tor were: atten\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tion to physical working conditions, openness to outsiders, competition with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 other comp anies but not between departments, everybody supplying max\up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex110 imal efort, changes after consultation only, good performance noticed, \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 cost-consciousness and punctuality. \par\pard\qj \li1

766\ri854\sb0\sl-244\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Although nobody has fo und \u8212? or is likely to ind \u8212? a simple one-to-one \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex100 relationship of any aspect of organizational culture with organizationa l per\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 formance, there is little doubt that organizat ional culture affects perfor\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 mance; in the long run, it may be the one decisive inluence for the survival \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 11 or fall of the organization \u8212? although this is dificult to prove, if on ly \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 because the necessary longitudinal analyses are hardly feasible. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri840\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex105 What the present study showed is that in many respects, what is good for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 the organization and what is good for its memb ers are two independent \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 things. Circumstances and/o r management actions can afect the organiza-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 t ional culture without negatively or positively inluencing employee atti-\line \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tudes. Circumstances and/or management actions can af fect employee \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 attitudes without changing the organi zational culture. It is only in the area \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 of communi cation and cooperation where management actions afecting the \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex110 culture also afect employee attitudes negatively or positively. In oth er \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 areas, those responsible for leading organizatio ns have an option to choose \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the best for both organ ization \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 members; the y may also choose the worst \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for both. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri835\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 The ethical implic ation of this is that satisfying a moral responsibility for \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex104 the success of the organization and satisfying a moral reponsibility fo r the \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg16}{\bkmkend Pg16}\par\pard\li883\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li883\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\p ard\li883\sb121\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2438 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosu persub\cf4\f5\fs20 492\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\f s16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2438\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2438\ri 235\sb70\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\ fs20 well-being of its members are two separate goals. This has great implica\up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tions at a time when top managers and shareholders in some countries and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 companies seem to believe that r uthless exploitation of 'human resources' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 is an ess ential condition for maximum shareholder value. \par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmu lt0\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pa rd\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li2534\sb59\sl-184\slmult0\fi23\tx5803 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Blake, Robert R. and Jane S. Mouton\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hofstede. Geert\par\pard\li2534\sb1\s l-176\slmult0\fi43\tx5817\tx6287 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1964 \ul0\nosupers ub\cf1\f2\fs16 The managerial grid. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Houston: Gulf.\t ab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1981\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 'Culture a nd organizations'. \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Inter-\par\pard\li2534\sb10\sl-18 4\slmult0\fi3739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 national Studies ofManagement and\ par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-164\slmult0\fi14\tx6278\tx7526 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 07 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Chapman. Malcolm\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Organization 10:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 15-41.\par\pard\li2534\sb7\sl-184\slmult0\fi43 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex107 1997 Preface to 'Social anthropology.\par\pard\li2534\sb1 \sl-176\slmult0\fi494\tx5803 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 business studies, and cultural issues'.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hofstede. Geert\par\pard\li25 34\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi494\tx5822\tx6278 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosu persub\cf1\f2\fs16 International Studies ofManagement\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1991\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\no supersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Cultures and organizations: soft-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-17 6\slmult0\fi484\tx6278 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and Organization \ul0\nosupe rsub\cf2\f3\fs16 26/4: 3-29.\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf 1\f2\fs16 ware of the mind. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 London: McGraw-\par\pard

\li2534\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\fi3744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hill UK.\par\pard \li2534\sb1\sl-170\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Cooper, Cary L.\par\ pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi33\tx5803 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1982 Boo k Review of Hofstede: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture's\tab \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofstede, Geet\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-1 81\slmult0\fi484\tx5817 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 consequences. Journal of Occupa-\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupers ub\cf2\f3\fs16 1994 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Uncommon sense about organiza-\p ar\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi489\tx4579\tx6268 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 03 tional Behaviour \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 3/2:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 123.\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 tions: C ases, studies andfield obser-\par\pard\li2534\sb10\sl-184\slmult0\fi3744 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex107 vations. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Thousand Oaks. CA: Sa ge.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-170\slmult0\fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Deal, T errence E. and Allan A. Kennedy\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi28\tx5793 \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1982 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Corporate cultures: The rites and\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofs tede, Geert\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi489\tx5812 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 rituals of corporate life. \ul0\nosupersub\ cf2\f3\fs16 Reading\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1998 'Identifying organizat ional subcul-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi489\tx6264\tx6835 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex107 MA: Addison-Wesley.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 tures:\ta b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 an empirical approach'.\par\pard\li2534\sb5\sl-18 4\slmult0\fi3724 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Journa l of Management Studies \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 35/\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-1 70\slmult0\fi4\tx6287\tx6475 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Eysenck, Hans J.\tab \ up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 I:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1-12.\par\pard\ li2534\sb2\sl-184\slmult0\fi28\tx3028 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1981\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 'The four dimensions'. Book Review\par\pard\li2534\sb1\ sl-181\slmult0\fi480\tx5793 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of Hofstede: \ul0\nosup ersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture's consequences.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\ nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofstede. Geert, Bram Neuijen. Denise D.\par\pard\li2534\ sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi480\tx5784 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1 \f2\fs16 New Society. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 16 April.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex107 Ohayv. and Geert Sanders\par\pard\li2534\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\fi3273 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1990 'Measuring organizational cultures'.\par\pard\ li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi0\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Gordon, George G., and Nancy Ditomaso\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\ fs16 Administrative Science Quarterly\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-178\slmult0\fi28\tx 6264 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1992 'Predicting c orporate performance\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs1 6 35: \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 286-316.\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi 484 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 from organizational culture'. \ul0\nosupersub\c f1\f2\fs16 Journal\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi475\tx5270\tx5793 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex107 of Management Studies\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \u l0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 29:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hofstede. Geert, Michael H. Bond, and\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi480\tx5784 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex107 783-798.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Chung-Leung Luk\par\ pard\li2534\sb4\sl-184\slmult0\fi3278 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1993 'Individ ual perceptions of organiza-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi0\tx6259 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Harzing, Anne-Wil, and Geert Hofstede\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex107 tional \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 cultues'. Organization Studies \par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi23\tx6283 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1996 'Planned change in organizations:\tab \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex107 1414: 483-503.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi480 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex107 the inluence of national culture'in\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl -184\slmult0\fi470\tx5788 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs 16 Research in the sociology of orga-\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosu persub\cf2\f3\fs16 IRIC\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi475\tx5807\tx6273 \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 nizations. \ul0\nosupers

ub\cf2\f3\fs16 Vol. 14: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Cross-cultural\tab \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1994\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 VSM 94: Values survey module 1994.\par\pard\li 2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi470\tx6264 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 analysis of or ganizations. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 P.A.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 M aastricht: Institute for Research on\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi480\tx 6264 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Bamberger. M. Erez and S.B.\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex107 Intercultural Cooperation.\par\pard\li2534\sb6\sl-184\slmult0\fi4 80\tx4075\tx4852 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Bacharach\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex107 (eds.),\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 297-340.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\s l-175\slmult0\fi475\tx5779 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Greenwich. CN: JAI Press .\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Johannesson, Russell E.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\s l-184\slmult0\fi3273 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1973 'Some problems in the mea surement\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-169\slmult0\fi0\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 107 Hickson, David J., and Derek S. Pugh\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of org anizational climate'. \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Organ-\par\pard\li2534\sb2\sl184\slmult0\fi19\tx6259 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1995 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Management worldwide: The impact\tab \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex107 izational Behavior and Human\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmu lt0\fi470\tx6264\tx7492\tx7574 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of societal culture on organizations\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Performance \ul0\nosupersub\cf 2\f3\fs16 10:\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 07 18-144.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-178\slmult0\fi470 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 around the globe. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Harmo ndswoth:\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-178\slmult0\fi480\tx5788 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 Penguin.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Kuhn, Thomas S.\par\pard\li2534\ sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi3268 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs 16 1970 The structure of scientific revolu-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\f i0\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofstede. Gee n\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 tions, \ul0\nosup ersub\cf2\f3\fs16 2nd ed. Chicago: University of\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-177\slmu lt0\fi19\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1980 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Cu lture's consequences: interna-\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\ cf2\f3\fs16 Chicago Press.\par\pard\qj \li3004\ri3527\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 tional diferences in work-rela ted \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 values. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Beverly Hil ls: Sage. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg17}{\bkm kend Pg17}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5004\colsr160\colno2\col w3836\colsr160\ql \li1742\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1742\sb0\sl-184\slm ult0 \par\pard\ql \li1742\sb127\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0 \nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\par\pard\ql \li1881\sb0\sl-184\slm ult0 \par\pard\ql \li1881\sb174\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Levi tin, Teresa\par\pard\qj \li1900\ri102\sb4\sl-177\slmult0\tx2356 \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex111 1973 'Values' in \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Measures of social psy -\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 chological attitudes. \ul0\nosupersub\c f2\f3\fs16 J.P. Robinson\par\pard\qj \li2361\ri102\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex116 and P.R. Shaver \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (eds.), \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex108 489-502. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Ann Arbor, Ml : Survey Research \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Center, !SR.\par\pard\qj \l i1881\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1881\ri102\sb6\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex105 Litwin, George H.. and Robert A. Stringer. \line \up0 \expnd tw-1\charscalex100 Jr.\par\pard\qj \li1905\ri98\sb10\sl-177\slmult0\tx2366 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 1968 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Motivation and organiza tional cli-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 mate. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\ fs16 Boston: Division of Research,\par\pard\qj \li2361\ri98\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex132 Graduate School of Business \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex104 Administration, Harvard University.\par\pard\qj \li1891\sb0\sl-177\sl mult0 \par\pard\qj \li1891\ri92\sb10\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 Moran, E. Thomas. and J. Fredericks \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Volkwein \par\pard\qj \li1905\ri98\sb5\sl-177\slmult0\tx2371 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116

1992 'The cultural approach to the for-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 mation of organizational climate'.\par\pard\ql \li2366\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Human Relations \ul0\nosupers ub\cf2\f3\fs16 45: 19-47.\par\pard\ql \li1891\sb177\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex104 Morgan, Gareth\par\pard\qj \li1910\ri97\sb0\sl-186\slmult0\tx237 6 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 1986 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Images of organi zation. Beverly \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs 16 Hills: Sage.\par\pard\ql \li1891\ri92\sb172\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex106 Ouchi, William G.,and Alan L. Wilkins \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 113 1988 'Organizational culture' in \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture\par\par d\qj \li2366\ri93\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and power in e ducational organiza-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 tions. \ul0\nosupersub\cf 2\f3\fs16 A. Westoby \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (ed.). \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex106 223-252. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Milton Keynes: Open University \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Press.\par\pard\qj \li1891\ri97\sb180\sl-182 \slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex138 Peters, Thomas J.. and Robert H. \line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Waterman, Jr.\par\pard\qj \li1915\ri92\sb0\sl-180\slmu lt0\tx2361 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1982 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 In sear ch of excellence: lessonsfrom \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 America's h est-run companies. New\par\pard\ql \li2376\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 York: Harper & Row.\par\pard\ql \li1891\s b177\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Poole. Marshall Scott\par\pard\ qj \li1915\ri92\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx2366 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 1985 'Com munication and organizational \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 climates: r eview, critique, and a new\par\pard\qj \li2371\ri92\sb2\sl-180\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 perspective' \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 in Organization al com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 munication. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs1 6 R.D. McPhee and P.K. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Tompkins (eds.), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 79-108. Beverly \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Hills : Sage.\par\pard\qj \li1891\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1891\ri97\sb1\sl177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex127 Roberts, Karlene H., and Nakiye A. \lin e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Boyacigiller\par\pard\qj \li1915\ri92\sb6\sl-182\ slmult0\tx2371 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 1984 'Cross-national organizational re-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 search: the grasp of the blind men'\p ar\pard\qj \li2371\ri87\sb0\sl-178\slmult0\fi4\tx2692 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex 100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 in\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 Research in organizational \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex127 behavior. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\ f3\fs16 B.M. Staw and L.1.\par\pard\qj \li2371\ri97\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx3455\tx 4218 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Cummings\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (eds .).\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 423-475. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Green wich. CT: JAI.\par\pard\column \ql \li7800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li26 56\sb212\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 493\par\pard\ql \li5164\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb171\sl-184\slmu lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Rolteach, Milton\pa r\pard\qj \li40\ri809\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx505 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 1972 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Beliefs, attitudes, and values. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2 \f3\fs16 San \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Francisco: Jossey-Bass.\par\ pard\ql \li20\sb182\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Schneider, Benja min\par\pard\qj \li40\ri809\sb4\sl-177\slmult0\tx505 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 0 1975 'Organizational climates: an essay'. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 06 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Personnel Psychology \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 28: 447-479.\par\pard\qj \li5164\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri800\sb2 \sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Schneider. Benjamin, and Robert A. Snyder \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 1975 'Some relationships between job\p ar\pard\ql \li505\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx1532 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 satisfa ction\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 and organizational\par\pard\qj \li496\ri7 90\sb0\sl-177\slmult0\tx1331 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 climate'.\tab \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Journal of Applied \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex106 Psychology \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 60: 318-328.\par\p ard\ql \li20\sb183\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Smith, Peter B.,

and Michael Harris Bond\par\pard\qj \li40\ri804\sb4\sl-177\slmult0\tx501 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 1993 Social psychology across cultures: \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 Analysis and perspectives. \ul0 \nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 New\par\pard\ql \li505\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex104 York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.\par\pard\ql \li25\sb182\sl-184\slmult 0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Soeters, Joseph L.\par\pard\qj \li44\ri805\sb0\sl -180\slmult0\tx515 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex125 1986 'Excellent companies as soc ial \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 movements'. \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f s16 Journal of Manage-\par\pard\ql \li500\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex107 ment Studies \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 23: 299-312.\par\pard\ql \li2 5\sb177\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Sorge. Amdt\par\pard\qj \li4 4\ri800\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx510 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1983 Book Review o f Hofstede: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture's \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex100 consequences. Administrative Science\par\pard\ql \li510\sb0\sl-182\slmu lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Quarterly \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 28: 625-6 29.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb182\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 The Chin ese Culture Connection (a team of\par\pard\qj \li25\ri810\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 24 researchers coordinated by Michael H. \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex100 Bond)\par\pard\qj \li49\ri791\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx515 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 1987 'Chinese values and the search for \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 culture-free dimensions of culture'.\par\pard\qj \li496 \ri805\sb5\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs 16 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psy-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 chology \ul0 \nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 18: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 143-164.\par\pard\ql \l i20\sb178\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Triandis, Harry C.\par\par d\qj \li49\ri795\sb5\sl-182\slmult0\tx520 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 1982 Book Review of Hofstede: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Cultue's \line\tab \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex102 Consequences. Human Organization\par\pard\ql \li500\sb0\sl-172\ slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 41: \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex107 86-90.\par\pard\ql \li30\sb179\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex105 Vroom. Victor H.\par\pard\qj \li49\ri810\sb5\sl-177\slmult0\tx515 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 1964 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Work and motivatio n. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 New York: \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Wiley. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\bkmkstart Pg18}{\bkmke nd Pg18}\par\pard\ql \li1142\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1142\sb0\sl-299\s lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1142\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1142\sb35\sl-299\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs26 Copyright of Orga nization Studies (Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG.) is the \par\pard\ql \li1128\ ri608\sb0\sl-320\slmult0\fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 property of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG.. The copyright in an individual article \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex114 may be maintained by the author in certain cases. Content may not b e copied or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 emailed to multiple sites or post ed to a listsery without the copyright holder's express \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x110 written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles f or individual \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 use. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24}