Personality and Individual Differences 36 (2004) 163172 www.elsevier.

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Emotional intelligence and academic success: examining the transition from high school to university
James D.A. Parker*, Laura J. Summerfeldt, Marjorie J. Hogan, Sarah A. Majeski
Department of Psychology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 7B8 Received 25 July 2002; received in revised form 31 October 2002; accepted 27 January 2003

Abstract The transition from high school to university was used as the context for examining the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement. During the rst month of classes 372 rst-year full-time students at a small Ontario university completed the short form of the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i:Short). At the end of the academic year the EQ-i:Short data was matched with the students academic record. Predicting academic success from emotional intelligence variables produced divergent results depending on how the former variable was operationalized. When EQ-i:Short variables were compared in groups who had achieved very dierent levels of academic success (highly successful students who achieved a rst-year university GPA of 80% or better versus relatively unsuccessful students who received a rst-year GPA of 59% or less) academic success was strongly associated with several dimensions of emotional intelligence. Results are discussed in the context of the importance of emotional and social competency during the transition from high school to university. # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Emotional intelligence; Academic success

The transition from high school to university is a particularly stressful situation for most individuals (Brooks & DuBois, 1995; Cantor, Norem, Niedenthal, Langston, & Brower, 1987; Cutrona, 1982; Gall, Evans, & Bellerose, 2000; Kanoy & Bruhn, 1996; McLaughlin, Brozovsky, & McLaughlin, 1998; Perry, Hladkyj, Pekrun, & Pelletier, 2001; Pratt et al., 2000; Ross, Niebling, & Heckert, 1999; Stewart & Healy, 1985). The majority of high school students who go on to post-secondary institutions withdraw before graduation (Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994; Pancer, Hunsberger, Pratt, & Alisat, 2000). First-year university students face a variety of stressors:
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-705-748-1011 x1283; fax: +1-705-748-1580. E-mail address: jparker@trentu.ca (J.D.A. Parker).
0191-8869/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00076-X

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making new relationships, modifying existing relationships with parents and family (e.g. living apart), and learning study habits for a new academic environment. In addition, they must learn to function as independent adults (e.g. budgeting time and money). Failure to master these types of tasks appears to be the most common reason for undergraduate students withdrawing from university (see, for example, Blanc, DeBuhr, & Martin, 1983; Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994). The study of academic success in university and college has generated a sizeable literature (for a detailed review of the early literature, see Tinto, 1993). Much of the early research on academic success in post-secondary education focused specically on the impact of previous school performance (i.e. high-school marks) and/or standardized measures of cognitive abilities. The predictive utility of this line of research proved to be quite limited, however, as these variables were found to account for relatively small amounts of variability in grade-point average (GPA) or student attrition (Berger & Milem, 1999; Johnson, 1997; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Murtaugh, Burns, & Schuster, 1999; Randsell, 2001). With so much of the variance left unexplained, it is not surprising that researchers have turned their attention to a broad range of other possible predictors for academic success. Each of the following variables, for example, have attracted considerable research interest: full- or part-time attendance, employment status, being a member of an ethnic minority, family obligations, distance from home town, nancial concerns, and gender (for reviews, see, Lichtman, 1989; Smith, 1982). A relatively small body of work has also sought to examine the relationship between academic success and emotional and social competencies. To date, this line of research has produced contradictory ndings. Wong, Day, Maxwell, and Meara (1995), for example, found that social perception (the ability to understand the emotional states of other people) was a moderate predictor of academic performance among university students (using GPA as an indicator of academic success). Sternberg, Wagner, and Okagaki (1993) report a modest association between practical intelligence and academic performance (also assessed using GPA) in students making the transition from high school to university. More recently, however, Newsome, Day, and Catano (2000) found little association between academic success and emotional and social competencies when they used the 133-item BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i; Bar-On, 1997). Participants were 180 volunteers from a rst-year psychology course attending an eastern Canadian university. Students ranged in age from 17 to 56 years; full and part-time students were grouped together, as were students at dierent years of study (e.g. rst-year students were grouped together with second, third and fourth-year students). The inconsistent ndings from previous research on emotional and social competency and academic success in post-secondary education may be the result of a number of methodological problems. Much of the previous research has focused on a narrow range of abilities (e.g. social perception or practical intelligence) or has assessed academic success over very narrow time-lines. Although Newsome et al. (2000) attempted to assess a broad range of emotional and social competencies, they may have compromised the interpretability of their data by combining into a common data-set full and part-time students, young adults and mature students, and students at dierent stages of the transition process (e.g. rst-year students versus students about to graduate from university). Full and part-time students experience unique challenges and stresses while coping with their academic careers. Students at dierent stages of their post-secondary programs (e.g. rst-year students vs. graduating students) also experience very dierent life demands. Archer and Lamnin (1985) report that younger students are more concerned with grades, studying, and peer

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acceptance, while older students report more concerns about nancial stressors. Bar-On (1997, 2000) reports that EI-levels increase signicantly from early adulthood to middle age (thus suggesting that EI-levels might be quite dierent in students recently graduated from high school compared to older adults attending university as a mature student). The present study used the transition from high school to university as the context for examining the relationship between various emotional and social abilities and academic achievement. To aid in the interpretability of research ndings, the present study restricted its focus to full-time students making the immediate transition from high school to university. This study also examined a relatively broad range of emotional and social competencies, using a model of emotional intelligence developed by Bar-On (1997, 2000, 2002) that consists of several dimensions: intrapersonal (comprised of several related abilities like recognizing and understanding ones feelings), interpersonal (comprised of several related abilities like empathy), adaptability (consisting of abilities like being able to adjust ones emotions and behaviors to changing situations and conditions), and stress management (consisting of abilities like resisting or delaying an impulse). Although a number of distinct and overlapping conceptual models have been proposed for emotional intelligence (see Bar-On & Parker, 2000), most models include skills like the ability to accurately appraise and express emotion (or intrapersonal abilities), the ability to appraise emotions in others (or interpersonal abilities), the ability to eectively regulate emotion, and the ability to use feelings to guide behaviour (Parker, Taylor, & Bagby, 2001). Individuals who are described as low in emotional intelligence manifest diculties in the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion, in the eective regulation of emotional experiences, and in the ability to use feelings to guide behaviour (Taylor, Bagby, & Parker, 1997).

1. Method 1.1. Participants The sample consisted of 372 young adults (78 men and 294 women) attending a small Ontario university. All of the students had graduated from high school within the past 2 years and were in their rst-year of full-time study at the university. Full-time status was dened as completion of at least the equivalent of 3.5 full-year courses during the academic year (September to April). Part-time students, or students who were beyond their rst year of study at the university (dened as completion of more than 7.5 fulltime courses), were excluded from the sample. The mean age of participants was 19.34 years (S.D.=0.81).1 Ninety-one percent of the participants identied themselves as White, 1.1% as Black, 3.2% as Asian, 2.7% as Native American, and 3% did not indicate their race. 1.2. Measures and procedures Participants were recruited from a large psychology class and asked if they would volunteer to participate in a study on personality and academic success. In September, at the start of the
1

At the present time in Ontario students may graduate from high school after grade 12 or grade 13.

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academic year, participants completed the short-form of the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i; Bar-On, 1997). The EQ-i is a 133 item self-report measure developed to assess four broad dimensions described earlier: intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, and stress management. The 51-item short form (EQ-i:Short; Bar-On, 2002) assesses the same four dimensions. The instrument has a 10-item intrapersonal sub-scale, a 10-item interpersonal sub-scale, a 10-item stress management sub-scale, and a 7-item adaptability sub-scale. Along with a total EI scale (the sum of the four sub-scales), the EQ-i:Short also has an 8-item general mood scale and a 6-item positive impression validity scale. A high score on any individual ability sub-scale (or the total EQ-i score) reects a high level of social and emotional competency (BarOn, 2002). The subscales and scales on the short form (EQ-i:Short) correlate highly with their corresponding measures on the long form. Bar-On (2002) reports correlations between long and short versions of the scales and subscales ranging from 0.73 to 0.96 for men (n=1543) and from 0.75 to 0.97 for women (n=1631). Bar-On (2002) also presents preliminary construct validity data to suggest that the instrument assesses four moderately inter-correlated EI dimensions, as well as dimensions that are relatively distinct from basic personality dimensions. Concerns about possible overlap between basic personality and EI dimensions, especially when EI is assessed using self-report measures, has led some researchers to be concerned that instruments like the EQ-i and EQ-i:Short may simply reassess basic personality (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998; Roberts, Zeidner, & Matthews, 2001). Parker, Hogan, Majeski, and Bond (submitted for publication) have examined the overlap between the EQ-i:Short and the ve personality dimensions assessed by the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992) in a large sample of adults (N=615). In a series of standard multiple regression analyses with the ve NEO-FFI scales used to predict separate scales on the EQ-i:Short, Parker et al. (submitted for publication) found compelling evidence that these personality dimensions account only for relatively modest amounts of varability in EQ-i:Short scores: the adjusted R2 was 0.19 for the interpersonal scale, 0.29 for intrapersonal, 0.16 for adaptability, and 0.28 for stress management. Students who completed the EQ-i:Short were informed that the researchers would be tracking their academic progress at the university. In June, after nal marks for the entire academic year had been processed by the Universitys registrars oce, EQ-i:Short scores were matched with the students academic record (grade-point-average for the academic year). In order to compare levels of emotional and social competency in successful and less successful rst-year students, academic records from the registrars oce were used to identify two groups of students: academically successful students (dened as a grade-point-average for the academic year above 79%) and academically unsuccessful student (dened as a grade-point-average for the academic year below 60%). These are not arbitrary criteria. For the students who participated in the study, these GPA values have important institutional implications: students in the successful group make the Deans Honor roll, an achievement that is listed on their university transcript; students in the unsuccessful group are rusticated and will be asked to withdraw from the university if their GPA in the second year is not above 59%. There were 67 students (18% of the sample) in the successful group (13 men and 54 women) and 64 students (17% of the sample) in the non-successful group (20 men and 44 women). The two groups were not signicantly dierent with respect to high school grade-point-average (75.6% for the unsuccessful group and 78.8% for the successful group), age, course load (4.3 full year courses for the unsuccessful group and 4.5

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for the successful group), or general mood at the time of completing the EQ-i:Short (mean of 30.82 for the unsuccessful group and 29.23 for the successful group on the general mood scale from the EQ-i:Short).

2. Results 2.1. Total sample Table 1 presents correlations among EQ-i:Short variables (interpersonal abilities, intrapersonal abilities, stress management, adaptability, and total EI), high school grade-point-average (GPA), and rst-year university GPA for the total sample, as well as for men and women separately. With respect to the association between academic success (rst-year GPA) and the various EIrelated variables, the patterns of correlations were consistent for men and women. Low or nonsignicant correlations were found between rst-year GPA and total EI (r=0.19 for men; r=0.21 for women) and interpersonal abilities (r=0.00 for men; r=0.01 for women). Slightly higher
Table 1 Correlations among EQ-i:short variables, high-school GPA, and rst-year GPA Variables Total sample (N=372) 1. Interpersonal 2. Intrapersonal 3. Adaptability 4. Stress Management 5. Total EQ-i:Short 6. High School GPA 7. First-Year GPA Men (N=78) 1. Interpersonal 2. Intrapersonal 3. Adaptability 4. Stress Management 5. Total EQ-i:Short 6. High School GPA 7. First-Year GPA Women (N=294) 1. Interpersonal 2. Intrapersonal 3. Adaptability 4. Stress Management 5. Total EQ-i:Short 6. High School GPA 7. First-Year GPA * P < 0.05. 1 0.33* 0.14* 0.29* 0.61* 0.08 0.03 2 3 4 5 6

0.42* 0.46* 0.80* 0.01 0.27*

0.39* 0.60* 0.06 0.37*

0.74* 0.09 0.32*

0.05 0.20*

0.21*

0.43* 0.13 0.32* 0.69* 0.04 0.01

0.46* 0.44* 0.80* 0.07 0.33*

0.40* 0.60* 0.11 0.35*

0.71* 0.12 0.32*

0.01 0.19

0.21

0.33* 0.17* 0.31* 0.61* 0.12* 0.00

0.41* 0.46* 0.81* 0.01 0.26*

0.39* 0.60* 0.05 0.39*

0.75* 0.08 0.32*

0.06 0.21*

0.21*

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correlations were found between rst-year GPA and intrapersonal abilities (r=0.33 for men; r=0.26 for women), stress management (r=0.32 for men; r=0.32 for women), and adaptability (r=0.35 for men; r=0.39 for women). High school GPA was not found to be associated with any of the EI-related measures (r was 0.120.11 in men and 0.120.05 in women.). High school GPA was also found to be a weak predictor of GPA in the rst-year of university (r=0.21 for men and women). 2.2. Successful vs. unsuccessful students To further examine the relationship between academic success in the transition from high school to university and emotional intelligence, a gender by group (successful vs. unsuccessful) by type of emotional and social competencies (interpersonal, intrapersonal, stress management, vs. adaptability) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted with EI level as the dependent variable. Because of an unequal number of items on EQ-i:Short subscales, the ANOVA compared mean-item scores rather than scale scores. The main eect for gender was not signicant, nor was the interaction of gender and group, gender and type, and the 3-way interaction of gender, group and type. The main eect for group was signicant, with the successful group scoring higher than the unsuccessful group on overall EI level [F(1,127)=64.86, P < 0.001, eta2=0.34]. Table 2 presents the means and standard deviations for the EQ-i:Short measure by group. The main eect for type was also signicant [F(3,381)=55.51, P < 0.000, eta2=0.30]. Multiple comparisons (Student NewmanKeuls procedure) found that students scored signicantly higher on interpersonal abilities compared to the other abilities assessed by the EQ-i:Short. Students also scored signicantly higher on adaptability compared to intrapersonal and stress management. The interaction of group and type was also found to be signicant [F(3,381)=18.22, P < 0.001, eta2=0.13]. To understand the main eect for group and the interaction of group and type, separate univariate F-tests were conducted comparing successful and unsuccessful students on each of the four EQ-i:Short scales. The successful students scored signicantly higher than the unsuccessful students on intrapersonal ability [F(1,127)=30.43, P < 0.001, eta2=0.19], stress management [F(1,127)=32.44, P < 0.001, eta2=0.20], and adaptability [F(1,127)=89.45, P < 0.001, eta2=0.41]. The two groups did not score signicantly dierent on interpersonal ability. To further explore the predictive validity of the EQ-i:Short for academic success, a direct discriminant function analysis was performed using emotional intelligence scores as predictors of
Table 2 Means and standard deviations on the EQ-i:Short variables for successful and unsuccessful students Scales Successful Mean Interpersonal Intrapersonal Adaptability Stress management Total 4.30 3.77 3.88 3.96 3.98 SD 0.50 0.75 0.60 0.53 0.42 Unsuccessful Mean 4.22 3.06 2.75 3.31 3.34 SD 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.58 0.33 Combined Mean 4.25 3.43 3.33 3.64 3.66 SD 0.52 0.75 0.80 0.64 0.50

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Table 3 Classication results from a discriminant function analysis (successful vs. unsuccessful students) with EQ-i:Short variables Actual status n Predicted status Unsuccessful Unsuccessful Successful Total 64 67 131 58 12 70 Successful 6 55 61 91 (Sensitivity) 82 (Specicity) 86 (Overall rate) % Correct

membership in two groups (successful vs. unsuccessful). Discriminant function scores were subsequently used to classify the 131 students into successful and unsuccessful groups. Classication rates are presented in Table 3. Following the denitions and procedures outlined by Kessel and Zimmerman (1993), several diagnostic eciency statistics were calculated from these classication results: sensitivity was 82%, specicity was 91%, kappa was 0.73, and the overall correct classication rate was 86%.

3. Discussion Predicting academic success from emotional intelligence variables produced divergent results depending on how the former variable was operationalized. When the relationship between academic success and emotional intelligence was examined using the total sample (n=372), the pattern of correlations was similar to those reported by Newsome et al. (2000). In both studies total EQ-i:Short scores were found to be poor predictors of academic success, although the present study found several subscales (intrapersonal, stress management, and adaptability) to be signicant predictors of academic success (predicting 810% of the variability in rst-year GPA). Although these EQ-i:Short subscales were only modest predictors, it is worth noting that these variables were better predictors of rst-year university GPA than high school GPA. Quite a dierent level of prediction was produced when EQ-i:Short variables were compared in groups who had achieved very dierent levels of academic success: highly successful students who achieved a rst-year university GPA of 80% or better versus relatively unsuccessful students who received a rst-year GPA of 59% or less. Academic success was strongly associated with several dimensions of emotional intelligence (intrapersonal, adaptability, and stress management abilities) assessed at the start of the academic year. Collectively, these variables were found to be strong predictors in identifying both academically successful (82% of successful students were identied) and unsuccessful (91% of unsuccessful students were correctly identied) rst-year students. Results with the successful and unsuccessful groups are at odds with the ndings of Newsome et al. (2000), who found little association between academic success and emotional intelligence. This discrepancy is likely due to major methodological dierences between the two studies. Newsome et al. (2000) examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic success using a very heterogeneous group of students: full-time and part-time students were combined; rst-year

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students and students in more advanced years of study were combined; young adults starting the transition from high-school to university were also combined with mature students who had completed high school decades earlier. The present study, on the other hand, focused exclusively on young adults making the transition from high school to full-time study at university. There is reason to believe that a more extreme age range, like the one used in the Newsome et al. (2000) study would be a potential confound in any attempt to disentangle the impact of emotional intelligence on the transition from high-school to university. For example, Bar-On (1997, 2000) and Derksen, Kramer, and Katzko (2002) have reported that EQ-i scores typically increase across the life span from young adulthood to middle age. Results of the present study suggest quite strongly that intrapersonal, adaptability, and stress management abilities are important factors in the successful transition from high school to university. The intrapersonal dimension involves the ability to distinguish among and label feelings, as well as the ability to use information about feelings to understand and guide behavior (Bar-On, 1997, 2000, 2002; Taylor et al., 1997). The adaptability dimension involves skills related to change management. Managing change involves the ability to identify potential problems, as well as the use of realistic and exible coping strategies (Bar-On, 1997, 2000, 2002). The stress management dimension involves the ability to manage stressful situations in a relatively calm and proactive manner. Individuals who score high on this dimension are rarely impulsive and work well under pressure (Bar-On, 1997, 2000, 2002). The association between academic success and these emotional and social competencies is not surprising, given the type of issues involved in the transition from high school. Graduating from high school and going on to university is a major life transition (Brooks & DuBois, 1995; Cantor et al., 1987; Cutrona, 1982; Gall et al., 2000; Kanoy & Bruhn, 1996; McLaughlin et al., 1998; Pancer et al., 2000; Perry et al., 2001; Pratt et al., 2000; Ross et al., 1999; Stewart & Healy, 1985). First-year students are confronted with a variety of new personal and interpersonal challenges. Along with the need to make new relationships (especially if the student attends a university or college outside of their hometown), they must also modify existing relationships with parents and friends (e.g. learn to be more independent). They also need to learn study habits for a relatively new academic environment (one that typically involves more independence than was experienced in high school). Not surprisingly, the transition from high school to university is perceived by most students as a particularly stressful situation (Cantor et al., 1987; Cutrona, 1982; Stewart & Healy, 1985). Students typically report that stress levels in their rst-year of study are higher than in subsequent years (Ross et al., 1999). One limitation of the present study is that academic success (operationalized as GPA) was assessed for only a single academic year. Future research needs to examine the long-term eects of emotional and social competency on academic success. It would also be useful to examine the incremental predictive power of these variables above the prediction achieved by basic personality dimensions assessed by measures like the NEO-FFI. Additional research might also want to investigate a broader range of indicators for academic success than just GPA. Other indicators might include variables like the number of courses completed, the number of courses dropped or not completed, and whether a student persists or withdraws from an institution (either to transfer to another institution or to dropout entirely). Future research on the long-term eects of emotional and social competency may also want to re-assess these abilities in subsequent stages of an academic program. Whether implicit or explicit,

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most post-secondary institutions have, as a primary goal, the desire to foster a variety of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills in their students (Berger & Milem, 1999; Tinto, 1993). Thus, one might expect emotional and social competencies to change over the course of a students postsecondary career. Students who persevere in university are likely to have dierent levels of emotional intelligence at the end of their program when compared to levels at the start of their program.

Acknowledgements This study was supported by research grants to the rst author from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and the Ontario Governments Premiers Research Excellence Award program. References
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