01 - Stability Fundamental-Libre PDF

1
Fundamentals of Power System Stability 1

Power System Stability
Seminar
DIgSILENT GmbH
General Definitions
2
Stability - general definition:
Ability of a system to return to a steady state after a disturbance.
Small disturbance effects
Large disturbance effects (nonlinear dynamics)
Power System Stability - definition according to CIGRE/IEEE:
Rotor angle stability (oscillatory, transient-stability)
Voltage stability (short-term, long-term, dynamic)
Frequency stability
Power System Stability
Frequency Stability
3
Ability of a power system to compensate for a power deficit:
1. Inertial reserve (network time constant)
Lost power is compensated by the energy stored in rotating masses of
all generators -> Frequency decreasing
2. Primary reserve:
Lost power is compensated by an increase in production of primary
controlled units. -> Frequency drop partly compensated
3. Secondary reserve:
Lost power is compensated by secondary controlled units. Frequency
and area exchange flows reestablished
4. Re-Dispatch of Generation
Frequency Stability
Frequency disturbance following to an unbalance in active power
Frequency Deviation according to UCTE design criterion
-0,9
-0,8
-0,7
-0,6
-0,5
-0,4
-0,3
-0,2
-0,1
0
0,1
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
dF in Hz
t in s
Rotor Inertia
Dynamic Governor Action Steady State Deviation
Frequency Stability
4
Mechanical Equation of each Generator:
P=T is power provided to the system by each generating unit.
Assuming synchronism:
Power shared according to generator inertia
n n
el m
el m
P P P
T T J

=
j
i
j
i
i n i
J
J
P
P
P J
=
=
Inertial Reserve
Steady State Property of Speed Governors:
Total frequency deviation:
Multiple Generators:
Power shared reciprocal to droop settings
( )

= =
i
tot
i tot
K
P
f f K P
i
j
j
i
j j i i
R
R
P
P
P R P R
=
=
P R P
K
f f K P
i i
i
i i
= = =
1
Primary Control
5
Turbine 1
Turbine 2
Turbine 3
Generator 1
Generator 2
Generator 3
Network
Secondary
Control
P
T
P
G
P
T
P
G
P
T
P
G
f
P
A
Set Value
Set Value
Set Value
Contribution
Bringing Back Frequency
Re-establishing area exchange flows
Active power shared according to participation factors
Secondary Control
Frequency drop depends on:
Primary Reserve
Speed of primary control
System inertia
Additionally to consider:
Frequency dependence of load
Frequency Stability
6
Dynamic Simulations
Steady state analysis sometimes possible (e.g. generators remain
in synchronism):
Inertial/Primary controlled load flow calculation
- Frequency deviation
Secondary controlled load flow calculation
- Generation redispatch
Frequency Stability - Analysis
20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 [s]
1.025
1.000
0.975
0.950
0.925
0.900
0.875
G 1: Turbine Power in p.u.
G2: Turbine Power in p.u.
G3: Turbine Power in p.u.
20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 [s]
0.125
0.000
-0.125
-0.250
-0.375
-0.500
-0.625
Bus 7: Deviation of the El. Frequency in Hz
DIgSILENT
Nine-bus system Mechanical
Sudden Load Increase
Date: 11/10/2004
Annex: 3-cycle-f. /3
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Frequency Stability
7
Frequency Stability - Analysis
Frequency stability improved by:
Increase of Primary
Reserve and System
Inertia
-Dispatching more generators
-Interruptible loads
-Power Frequency controllers of HVDC links
Improvement of
Primary Control action
-Tuning / replacing of governor controls.
Automatic Load
shedding
-Under-Frequency Load Shedding relays
adjusted according to system-wide criteria.
Frequency Stability
Typical methods to improve frequency stability:
- Increase of spinning reserve and system inertia (dispatching more
generators)
- Power-Frequency controllers on HVDC links
- Tuning / Replacing governor systems
- Under-Frequency load shedding relays adjusted according to system-
wide criteria
- Interruptible loads
8
Rotor Angle Stability
Two distinctive types of rotor angle stability:
- Small signal rotor angle stability (Oscillatory stability)
- Large signal rotor angle stability (Transient stability)
Rotor Angle Stability
9
Small signal rotor angle stability (Oscillatory stability)
Ability of a power system to maintain synchronism under small
disturbances
Damping torque
Synchronizing torque
Especially the following oscillatory phenomena are a concern:
Local modes
Inter-area modes
Control modes
(Torsional modes)
Oscillatory Stability
Small signal rotor angle stability is a system property
Small disturbance -> analysis using linearization around operating
point
Analysis using eigenvalues and eigenvectors
10
Typical methods to improve oscillatory stability:
- Power System Stabilizers
- Supplementary control of Static Var Compensators
- Supplementary control of HVDC links
- Reduction of transmission system impedance ( for inter-area
oscillations, by addition of lines, series capacitors, etc.)
Large signal rotor angle stability (Transient stability)
Ability of a power system to maintain synchronism during severe
disturbances
Critical fault clearing time
Large signal stability depends on system properties and the type
of disturbance (not only a system property)
Analysis using time domain simulations
Transient Stability
11
3.234 2.587 1.940 1.294 0.65 0.00 [s]
200.00
100.00
0.00
-100.00
-200.00
G1: Rotor angle with reference to reference machine angle in deg
DIgSILENT
Transient Stability Subplot/Diagramm

Date: 11/11/2004
Annex: 1 /3
DIgSILENT
4.990 3.992 2.994 1.996 1.00 0.00 [s]
25.00
12.50
0.00
-12.50
-25.00
-37.50
G1: Rotor angle with reference to reference machine angle in deg
DIgSILENT
Transient Stability Subplot/Diagramm

Date: 11/11/2004
Annex: 1 /3
DIgSILENT
Transient Stability
Transient Stability
Typical methods to improve transient stability:
- Reduction of transmission system impedance (additional lines, series
capacitors, etc.).
- High speed fault clearing.
- Single-pole breaker action.
- Voltage control ( SVS, reactor switching, etc.).
- Improved excitation systems ( high speed systems, transient excitation
boosters, etc.).
- Remote generator and load tripping.
- Controls on HVDC transmission links.
12
Voltage Stability
Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to
maintain steady voltages at all buses in the system after being
subjected to a disturbance.
Small disturbance voltage stability (Steady state stability)
Ability to maintain steady voltages when subjected to small
disturbances
Large disturbance voltage stability (Dynamic voltage stability)
Ability to maintain steady voltages after following large disturbances
Voltage Stability
13
Small-Signal:
- Small disturbance
Large-Signal
- System fault
- Loss of generation
Long-Term - P-V-Curves (load flows)
- dv/dQ-Sensitivities
- Long-term dynamic models
including tap-changers, var-
control, excitation limiters, etc.
- P-V-Curves (load flows)
of the faulted state.
- Long-term dynamic models
including tap-changers, var-
control, excitation limiters, etc.
Short-Term - Dynamic models (short-term),
special importance on dynamic
load modeling, stall effects etc.
Voltage Stability - Analysis
Long-Term vs. Short-Term Voltage Stability
Reactive power control:
Short-Term Long-Term
Q- contribution of
synchronous gen.
Large (thermal overload
capabilities)
Limited by
overexcitation limitors
Switchable shunts No contribution
(switching times too
high)
High contribution
SVC/TSC High contribution High contribution
14
Voltage Stability
Outage of large generator
All generators in service
20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 [s]
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
-0.25
APPLE_20: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
SUMMERTON_20: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
LILLI_20: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
BUFF_330: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
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Fault with loss of transmission line
Large-Signal Long-Term
Voltage Instability
15
Voltage Stability Q-V-Curves
1762.64 1462.64 1162.64 862.64 562.64 262.64
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
x-Achse: SC: Blindleistung in Mvar
SC: Voltage in p.u., P=1400MW
P=2000MW
P=1800MW
P=1600MW
P=1400MW
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const. P, variable Q
Dynamic voltage stability problems are resulting from sudden
increase in reactive power demand of induction machine loads.
-> Consequences: Undervoltage trip of one or several machines,
dynamic voltage collapse
Small synchronous generators consume increased amount of
reactive power after a heavy disturbance -> voltage recovery
problems.
-> Consequences: Slow voltage recovery can lead to undervoltage
trips of own supply -> loss of generation
Dynamic Voltage Stability
16
1.20 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.04 1.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00
x-Axis: GWT: Speed in p.u.
GWT: Electrical Torque in p.u.
1.20 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.04 1.00
0.00
-2.00
-4.00
-6.00
-8.00
GWT: Reactive Power in Mvar
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Induction Generator (Motor)
1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00
GWT: Electrical Torque in p.u.
Constant Y = 1.000 p.u. 1.008 p.u.
1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00
0.00
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
-5.00
-6.00
GWT: Reactive Power in Mvar
Constant X = 1.008 p.u.
-1.044 Mvar
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2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 [s]
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
G\HV: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
MV: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 [s]
80.00
40.00
0.00
-40.00
-80.00
-120.00
Cub_0.1\PQ PCC: Active Power in p.u.
Cub_0.1\PQ PCC: Reactive Power in p.u.
2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 [s]
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.00
0.98
GWT: Speed
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3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 [s]
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
-20.00
-40.00
Cub_0.1\PQ RedSunset: Active Power in p.u.
Cub_0.1\PQ RedSunset: Reactive Power in p.u.
3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 [s]
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
-20.00
-40.00
Cub_0.2\PQ BlueMountain: Active Power in p.u.
Cub_0.2\PQ BlueMountain: Reactive Power in p.u.
3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 [s]
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
-20.00
-40.00
-60.00
Cub_1.1\PQ GreenField: Active Power in p.u.
Cub_1.1\PQ GreenField: Reactive Power in p.u.
3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 [s]
1.125
1.000
0.875
0.750
0.625
0.500
0.375
GLE\1: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
GLZ\2: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
WDH\1: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
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Dynamic Voltage Collapse
18
3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 [s]
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
HV: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
MV: Voltage, Magnitude in p.u.
3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 [s]
120.00
80.00
40.00
0.00
-40.00
-80.00
-120.00
Cub_1\PCC PQ: Active Power in p.u.
Cub_1\PCC PQ: Reactive Power in p.u.
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Voltage Recovery (Synchronous Generators)
Time-domain Analysis
19
Fast Transients/Network Transients:
Time frame: 10 mys..500ms
Lightening
Switching Overvoltages
Transformer Inrush/Ferro Resonance
Decaying DC-Components of short circuit currents
Transients in Power Systems
Medium Term Transients / Electromechanical Transients
Time frame: 400ms.10s
Transient Stability
Critical Fault Clearing Time
AVR and PSS
Turbine and governor
Motor starting
Load Shedding
20
Long Term Transients / Dynamic Phenomena
Time Frame: 10s.several min
Dynamic Stability
Turbine and governor
Power-Frequency Control
Secondary Voltage Control
Long Term Behavior of Power Stations
Stability/EMT
Different Network Models used:
Stability:
EMT:
I L j V = V C j I =
dt
di
L v =
dt
dv
C i =
21
Short Circuit Current EMT
0.50 0.38 0.25 0.12 0.00 [s]
800.0
600.0
400.0
200.0
0.00
-200.0
4x555 MVA: Phase Current B in kA
Short Circuit Current with complete model (EMT-model) Plots

Date: 4/25/2001
Annex: 1 /1
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Short Circuit Current RMS
0.50 0.38 0.25 0.12 0.00 [s]
300.0
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.00
0.00
4x555 MVA: Current, Magnitude in kA
Short Circuit Current with reduced model (Stability model) Plots

Date: 4/25/2001
Annex: 1 /1
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Phenomena RMS-Simulation EMT-Simulation
Critical fault clearing time X (X)
Dynamic motor startup
Peak shaft-torque
X
0
(X)
X
Torsional oscillations
Subsynchronous resonance
X
0
X
X
Dynamic voltage stability
Self excitation of ASM
X
0
(X)
X
Oscillatory stability X ((X))
AVR and PSS dynamics X (X)
Transformer/Motor inrush 0 X
HVDC dynamics (X) X
Switching Over Voltages 0 X
RMS-EMT-Simulation
Frequency-domain analysis
23
Small signal stability analysis
Small signal stability is the ability of the power system to maintain
synchronism when subjected to small disturbances.
Disturbance is considered to be small when equation describing the response
can be linearized.
Instability may result as: steady increase in rotor angle (lack of synchronizing
torque) or rotor oscillations of increasing amplitude (lack of damping torque)
Linear model generated numerically by Power Factory.
Calculation of eigenvalues, eigenvectors and participation factors
Calculation of all modes using QR-algorithm -> limited to systems up to
500..1000 state variables
Calculation of selected modes using implicitly restarted Arnoldi method ->
application to large systems
24
Linear System Representation:
Transformation:
Transformed System
Diagonal System
b Ax x + =
x T x
~
=
Tb x TAT x + =
~ ~ 1
Tb x D x + =
~ ~
State Space Representation:
State of a system is the minimum information at any instant necessary
to determine its future behaviour. The linearly independent variables
describing the state of the system are called state variables x.
Output variables:
Initial Equilibrium :
Perturbation:
) ,..., , ; ,..., , (
2 1 2 1 r n i i
u u u x x x f x =
) ,..., , ; ,... , (
2 1 2 1 r n i i
u u u x x x g y =
i i i
i i i
i i i
x x x
u u u
x x x
+ =
+ =
+ =
0
0
0
0 ) ,..., , ; ,..., , (
0 20 10 0 20 10 0
= =
r n i i
u u u x x x f x
25
As perturbations are small, the nonlinear functions f and g can
be expanded using the Taylor series:
Using Vector-Matrix notation:
r
r
j j
n
n
j j
r n j j
r
r
i i
n
n
i i
r n i i
u
u
g
u
u
g
x
x
g
x
x
g
u u u x x x g y
u
u
f
u
u
f
x
x
f
x
x
f
u u u x x x f x
+ +
+ +
+ =
+ +
+ +
+ =
... ... ) ,... , ; ,..., , (
... ... ) ,..., , ; ,..., , (
1
1
1
1
0 20 10 0 20 10
1
1
1
1
0 20 10 0 20 10
] ][ [ ] ][ [ ] [
] ][ [ ] ][ [ ] [
u D x C y
u B x A x
+ =
+ =
Taking the Laplace transform of the previous equations:
Block Diagram of the state-space representation:
)] ( ][ [ )] ( ][ [ )] ( [
)] ( ][ [ )] ( ][ [ )] 0 ( [ )] ( [
s u D s x C s y
s u B s x A x s x s
+ =
+ =
26
Poles of [x(s)] and [y(s)] are the root of the characteristic equation of matrix
[A]:
Values of s which satisfy above equation are the eigenvalues of [A]
Real eigenvalues correspond to non oscillatory modes. Negative real
eigenvalues represent decaying modes.
Complex eigenvalues occur in conjugate pairs. Each pair correspond to an
oscillatory mode.
0 ]) [ ] [ det( = A I s
An oscillatory system mode is given by a pair of eigenvalues
The real component gives the damping. A negative real part represents a
damped (decreasing) oscillation.
The imaginary component gives the frequency of the oscillation in rad/s.
The damping ratio determine the rate of decay of the amplitude of the
oscillation and is given by:
j =
2 2

=
27
-0.8000 -1.6000 -2.4000 -3.2000 -4.0000 Neg. Damping [1/s]
3.5000
2.9000
2.3000
1.7000
1.1000
0.5000
Damped Frequen
Stable Eigenvalues
Unstable Eigenvalues
Y = 1.500 Hz
Y = 2.000 Hz
Y = 3.000 Hz
-0.8000 -1.6000 -2.4000 -3.2000 -4.0000 Neg. Damping [1/s]
3.5000
2.9000
2.3000
1.7000
1.1000
0.5000
Damped Frequen
Stable Eigenvalues
Unstable Eigenvalues
Y = 0.800 Hz
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Eigenvalue Analysis without and with PSS
Without PSS
With PSS
Voltage Stability
Fundamental Concepts
28
0
E
e
Q X
'
G
E
( )
( ) ( )
G G
G
e
G
G
e
E E
X
E
Q
X
E E
P
cos
sin
0
'
'
'
0
=
=
Voltage Stability
Voltage stability: basic concepts
( ) ( )
2 2
s
LN LD LN LD
E
I
Z cos Z cos Z sin Z sin
=
+ + +
1
s
LN
E
I
Z F
= ( )
2
1 2
LD LD
LN LN
Z Z
F cos
Z Z

| | | |
= + +
| |
\ \
2
R LD
s LD
R R
LN
V Z I
E Z
P V I cos cos
F Z

=
| |
= =
|
\
con
29
Voltage stability: basic concepts
Voltage collapse depends on the load characteristics
Study case: Tap changer
30
1762.64 1462.64 1162.64 862.64 562.64 262.64
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
x-Achse: SC: Blindleistung in Mvar
P=2000MW
P=1800MW
P=1600MW
P=1400MW
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const. P, variable Q
Voltage Stability Q-V-Curves
1350.00 1100.00 850.00 600.00 350.00 100.00
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
x-Achse: U_P-Curve: Total Load of selected loads in MW
Klemmleiste(1): Voltage in p.u., pf=1
Klemmleiste(1): Voltage in p.u., pf=0.95
Klemmleiste(1): Voltage in p.u., pf=0.9
pf=1
pf=0.95
pf=0.9
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const. Power factor, variable P
Voltage Stability P-V-Curves
3
1
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
ls
o
f
P
o
w
e
r

S
y
s
t
e
m
S
t
a
b
ilit
y
6
1
R
o
t
o
r

A
n
g
l
e

S
t
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
ls
o
f
P
o
w
e
r

S
y
s
t
e
m
S
t
a
b
ilit
y
6
2
O
n
e

M
a
c
h
i
n
e

S
y
s
t
e
m
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P
o
w
e
rF
a
c
to
ry
1
2
.1
.1
7
8

E
x
a
m
p
le
P
o
w
e
r S
y
s
te
m
S
ta
b
ility
a
n
d
C
o
n
tro
l
O
n
e
M
a
c
h
in
e
P
ro
b
le
m

P
ro
je
c
t: T
ra
in
in
g

G
ra
p
h
ic
: G
rid
D
a
te
: 4
/1
9
/2
0
0
2

A
n
n
e
x
: 1

G
~
G1
Gen 2220MVA/24kV(1)
1998.000 MW
967.920 Mvar
53.408 kA
1.163 p.u.
-0.000 p.u.
T
rf
5
0
0
kV
/2
4
kV
/2
2
2
0
M
V
A
-1998.00 MW
-634.89 Mvar
2.56 kA
1998.00 MW
967.92 Mvar
53.41 kA
C
C
T
2
T
ype
C
C
T
1
8
6
.0
0
km
-698.60 MW
30.44 Mvar
0.90 kA
698.60 MW
221.99 Mvar
0.90 kA
C
C
T
1
T
ype
C
C
T
1
0
0
.0
0
km
-1299.40 MW
56.62 Mvar
1.67 kA
1299.40 MW
412.90 Mvar
1.67 kA
V
~
Infinite Source
-1998.00 MW
87.07 Mvar
2.56 kA
Infinite Bus
500.00 kV 450.41 kV
0.90 p.u.
0.00 deg
HT
500.00 kV 472.15 kV
0.94 p.u.
20.12 deg
LT
24.00 kV 24.00 kV
1.00 p.u.
28.34 deg
DIgSILENT
32
One Machine System
0
E
e
P
X
'
G
E
Equivalent circuit, transferred power:
One Machine System
Power transmission over reactance:
Mechanical Equations:
0
0

=
G
e m e m
P P P P
J
( )
( ) ( )
G G
G
e
G
G
e
E E
X
E
Q
X
E E
P
cos
sin
0
'
'
'
0
=
=
33
One Machine System
Differential Equation of a one-machine infinite bus bar system:
Eigenvalues (Characteristic Frequency):
Stable Equilibrium points (SEP) exist for:
G G G
m
G
m
G
P P P P P
J

|
|
\
|
=
0
0
max
0
0
max
0 0
max
0
cos sin sin
0
0
max
2 / 1
cos
G
J
P
=
0 cos
0
>
G

One-machine System
180.0 144.0 108.0 72.00 36.00 0.00
4000.
3000.
2000.
1000.
0.00
-1000...
x-Axis: Plot Power Curve: Generator Angle in deg
Plot Power Curve: Power 1 in MW
Pini y=1998.000 MW
DIgSILENT
Single Machine Problem P-phi

Date: 4/19/2002
Annex: 1 /4
D
Ig
S
IL
E
N
T
SEP UEP
stable unstable
34
Large disturbances (Transient Stability)
Energy Function:
At Maximum Angle:
( ) 0
) (
2
1
0
2
= + =
pot kin
e m
G
E E d
P P
J
G
0
max
=
G
0
) (
max
0
=
d
P P
E
G
e m
pot
( ) 0 =
kin
E
Large disturbances : Equal Area Criterion
180.0 144.0 108.0 72.00 36.00 0.00
4000.
3000.
2000.
1000.
0.00
-1000...
x-Axis: Plot Power Curve: Generator Angle in deg
DIgSILENT
Single Machine Problem P-phi Date: 4/19/2002
Annex: 1 /4
D
Ig
S
IL
E
N
T
E1
E2
0
max
SEP UEP
crit
Pm
35
Large disturbances: Equal Area Criterion
2 1
E E =
=
c
d P E
m
0
1
1
( )
=
max
) sin(
1
max 2
c
d P P E
m
Stable operation if:
Large disturbances: Equal Area Criterion
) (
1
0 1

=
c m
P E
) cos (cos ) (
max
max
max 2 c c
m
P P
E
+ =
0 0 0
cos sin ) 2 ( cos =
c
Setting and equating E1 and -E2:
0
=
crit
36
Large-disturbances: Critical Fault Clearing Time
During Short Circuit:
Differential Equation:
Critical Fault Clearing Time:
0
2
0
2
+ =
c
m
c
t
J
P
0 =
e
P
0
m
G
P
J =
Small disturbances (Oscillatory Stability)
G ~
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
rX
V
~
I
n
f
i
n
i
t
e

b
u
s
Assumptions:
1. Constant excitation
2. Constant damping from synchronous machine, K
e
3. Simplified generator model, P
e
= T
e
(in per unit)
4. Constant mechanical torque
'
g
E
o
E
37
Small disturbances
( )
( )
=
= =
o
o
e
e
g
e e
P
T
T
X
E E
T P
cos
sin
max
'
0
Equation of electrical circuit
Equation of motion
0 ) ( 2
) ( 2
) ( 2
) (
2
2
2
= + + +
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
e e m
e m e m
e m e m
e m e m
T K K s Hs
K K s Hs T T
K K s Hs T T
K K J T T

Combined
0 cos
2 2
max 2
= +
(
+
+
o
e m
H
P
H
K K
s s
H
P
o
n
2
cos
max

=
Small disturbances:
Structure of linearised generator model
* K
0
e
T
* K
Damping torque: a torque in phase with
Synchronising torque: a torque in phase with

Exciter Generator Shaft
s
1
m
T

e
T

t
u
0 =
ref
u
s
1
m
T

t
u
0 =
ref
u
38
Linear model of generator + AVR + PSS
PSS
u
s
1

t
u
PSS
u
s
1
0 =
m
T

e
T

t
u
PSS
o PSS e
T
angle Want 0
) (
=
(
Phase lag
Phase lead compensation

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Fundamentals of Power System Stability 1

Fundamentals of Power System Stability 66

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