. . .

~ JAMES FENIMORE COOPER

Civilizing the Red Man
J ames Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) is usually con-
sidered an ardent defender of Rousseau's concept of
the "noble savage." Some of Cooper's fictional In-
dians are good examples of "Nature's noblernen," yet
the author of the Leatherstocking tales was not blind
to some limitations of the American aborigines, as is
quite evident in the following letter from "An Amer-
ican Bachelor" to a British friendo
. As a rule, th.e x:edIllap disal2Pears before tbe superior moral
~nd..physical ipBue hite, ',ust as 1belieye 1be bl~pk a!,!
~l eventually do tbe same thin
g
, unless e s asee sbe1ter in
s"omeOIhtregion. -In nlnecases m ten, the tribes bave gradually
.removed west; and tbere is now a confused assemblage of nations
and languages collected on the immense hunting grounds of the
Prairies ....
The ordinary manner of the disappearance of the Indian, is by
a removal deeper into the forest. Still, many linger near the graves
of their fathers, to which their superstitions, no less than afine
natural .feeling, lend a deeper interest. The fate of the latter is
inevitable; they become victims to the abuses of civilization, with-
out ever attaining toany of its moral elevation. ~ ~ t\ ." OJ ... tA,..
As might be supposed, numberless divisions of these people, t,"v I\A \ 4. ,,1:1"'-
when the country waS@iscovered,)were found in possession of dis-
tricts along the coast, and deriving a principal means of support
from the ocean. They were fishermen rather than, hunters, though
From Notions 01 the AmericansPicked Up by a Traveling Bachelor (Phila-
delphia: Carey, Lea, and Carey, 1828), pp. 277-289 passim.
161
162 The American Indian
the savage state ordinarily infers a resort to both pursuits. Most
of these people, too, retired reluctantly from aview of "the great
salt lake,' but some were environed by the whites before they
were properly aware of the blighting nfluence of the communion;
and, ?e.tting gradually accustomed to their presence, they preferred
remammg near th places where they had first drawn breath.
. TriBing districts of Iterritory have been, in every instance in which
fhey were sufficlentIy numerous to make such a provision desr-
able, secured to them, and on these little tracts of land many of
them still remain. I have visited one or two of their establishments.
In point of civilization, comforts, and character, t.fu: Indans,
who remain near the coasts, are about on a level with the lowest
c~sses of Euro2ean Eeasant.ry..: Perhaps tl.!~y~aresomewhat, belgw
the English, but I think not below the lrish peasan~~:~~
much beIow the condition of the mass~of the slaves. It is but an-
o~proof of the wayward vanity af man, that die latter always
nold fhe Indlans In contempt, though lt ISsome proof {hat they
f~e1their own condlhon fo be physicalIy Eetter: morallJ iJ ! on~_
sense, it certainly is not~
Many of these AtIantic Indians go to sea. They are quite often
found in thewhalers, and, in some instances, in the vessels of
war. An officer in the navy has told me that he once knew a
Montauk Indian who was a captain of the main-top in a sloop of
war;and in another instance, a flagofficer had his gig manned by
Indians. They make active and very obedient seamen, but are
never remarkable for strength. The whole number of them who
now go to sea, does not, however, probably exceed a hundred or
two.*
,..The writer, while in America, heard an anecdote which may give some
idea of the. notions of retributive justice which linger so long in the philos-
ophy ofan Indian, and which is, probably, the basis of his desire for re-
venge, since he is well known to be as eminently grateful as he is vindictive.
The whalers always take their reward in a portion of the profits of the
voyage. An Indian made several voyages in succession, in the same ship; he
.found, at his return, that bad luck, advances, and tbe supplies of an ex-
travagant family at home, left him'always in debt. "What shall Ido?" was
the question put to his owner, as eacb unfortunate balance was exhibited.
"You must go to sea." To sea he went, and, as stated, for four or five
years, always with the same resulto At length, good fortune, with a proper
amount of preventive castigation on his improvident wife, before he sailed,
Civilizing the Red Man 163
1accompanied Cadwa11aderon a visit to a connexion, who lives
within forty miles of New-York, on the adjacent island of Nassau
(Long Island). The unele of my friend was aman of extensive
hereditary estate, on which there might have been a reservation
of afewthousand acres of woods. While shooting over this forest,
oneday, the proprietor asked me if I felt any desire to see an
Indian king. Surprised at such a question, in such a place, an
explanation was requested. He told me that an Indian, who
elaimed to be a descendant of fhe ancient Sachems, tben held bis
court in his woods, and that awalk of fifteen. minutes would bring
us into the presence of King Peter. We went.
I found this Indian, dwelling .with his family, in a wigwamof a
most primitive construction. It was in the form of a bee-hive, or
rather o e a very high dome. The covering was made of a long,
tough grass, that grows near the sea, and the texture was fine and
even beautiful. A post in .the centre supported the fabric, which
was shaped by de1icatecurvng poles. A hole in the top admitted
the light, and allowed the smoke to pass out; and the fire was
near enough to the upright post to permt akettle to besuspended
from one. of its knots (or cut branches) near enough to feel the
inftuence of the heat. The door was a covering of mats, and the
furniture consisted of a few rude chairs, baskets, and a bed, that
was neither savage, nor yet such as rnarks the civilized mano The
attire .of the family was partly that of the one condition, and
partly that. of the other. The man himse1f was a full-blooded
Indian,but his manner had that species of su11endeportment that:
.betrays the disposition without the boldness of the savage. He
complained that"basket stuff" was getting scarce, and spoke of an
. intenton of removing his wigwamshortly to some other estate.
The manufacture of baskets and brooms is a common employ-
ment .af a11the Indians who reside near the settlements. They
feed on game, and, sometimes, like the gypsies, they make free
with poultry, though in common they -rCErigidly ._h0!lest;nearly
brougbt the balance on his side. The money was ofcourse tendered; but
for a long time he refused to receive it, insisting that justice required that
his owners should now go to sea, where it would seem he had not enjoyed
himself quite asmuch as he believed the other party to the contract had
done on shore.
"
164
The American Indian
a~~ unless corrupted by much intercourse with the whites.
With the proceeds of their labour they purchase olanfets, powder,
and such other indulgences as exceed their art to manufacture.
King Peter, I was told, claimed a right, in virtue of his royal
descent, to cut saplingsto supply his materials, on any estate in
the island. He was [permitted to enjoy this species of feudal
privilege in quiet, it! being we11understood that he was not to
exceed a certain discretion in its exercise.
In the more interior parts of the country, I frequently met
famlies of the Indians, either travelling, or proceeding to some
village, with their wares. They were a11alike, a stunted, dirty, and
degraded race. Sometimes they encamped in the forests, lighted
their 6res, and remained for weeks in a place; and atothers, they
kept roaming daily, until the time arrived when they should
return to their reservations. .
The reservations in the old States, and with tribes that cannot
aspire to the dgnity of nations, are managed on a sufficiently
humane principIe. The laws of the State, or of the United States,
have jurisdiction there,in a11matters between white men, or
between a white man and an Indian; but the Indians themselves
arecornmonly permitted to control the whole of their own internal
policy. Bargains, exceeding certain amounts, are not valid between
them and the whites, who cannot, for instance,purchase their
lands. Schools are usua11yprovided, in the more important tribes,
by tbe general government, and in the less, by charity. Religious
instruction is also furnished by tbe latter means.
I saw reservations in which no mean advances had been made
in civilization. Farms were imperfectly tilled, and cattle were seen
grazing in the fields. ~~).L~i!~zatign. ~d"2AG@S ~6 1 y am6flg .~
people who considerlabout a degradation, ina;iditiou to the
bodily dl~1ik' thaf'ill ~etihave to "itsbCCtlpfions. \,g. . 'L j
There are many of these tribs, however, who fi11a' far more
important, and altogether aremarkable positon. There is certainly
no portion of country within the admitted boundaries of the
Unted States, in which their laws are not paramount, if tbey
choose to exert them. Still, savage communities do exist witbin
these limits, with whom they make treaties, against whom they
wage open war, and witb whom they make solemn peace. As a
Civilizing the Red Man 165
treaty is, by the constitution, tbe paramount law of the land, the
several States are obliged to respect their legal provisions.
That neither the United States, nor any individual State, has
-ever taken possession of any land that, by usage or construction,
might be decreed the property of the Indians, without atreaty and
.a purchase, is, 1believe, certain. How far an equivalent is given,
is another question: though 1fancy that these bargains are quite
as just asany that areever driven between the weak and the strong,
the inte11igentand the ignorant.1t is not pretended that the value
-of the territory gained is paid for; but the purchase is rather a
-deference to general principIes of justice and humanity, than a
concession to a right in the Indans, which itself might admit of a
thousandlegal quibbles. The treaties are sufficiently humane, and,
.although certain borderers, who possessthe power of the white man
with the disposition of the savage, do sometimes violate their
-conditions, there is no just reason to distrust the intentions or the
-conduct of the government ....
There is a bureau of tbe war department that is ca11edthe
'''office of the Indian affars.' A bumane and discreet individual
.s at its head, and a good deal is endeavoured to be done in
mitigating the sufferings and in meliorating the condition of the
Indians, though, owing to the peculiar babits and opinions of tbese
people, but lttle, I fear, is effected. 1 see by the report of tbe
-current year, (1827) that, in nine months, requisitions towards the
.support of the objects of this bureau, were made to the amount
-of 759,116do11ars,or at the rate of a little more than a million of
dollars ayear. Ths, you will rernember, is one-tentbof tbe cur-
rent expenditure of the whole government,' and nearly as mucb as
is paid for tbesupport of the wbole civilIist, strictly speaking. : ..
The government, it would appear by the reports, puts tbe
utmost latitude on the construction of their constitutional powers,
'by even paying money for the support of missionaries among the
Indans. 1 believe, however, tbat tbe a11egedand legal object of
tbis charge, is for general instruction, though in point of fact, tbe
teacbers are missionaries. They are of a11sects, Protestant and
Catholic, tbe question of creed being never dscussed at a11.1see
bv tbe reports, that(in 1827) tbere were 1291 scbolars in the
.different schools that come under tbe superintendence of the
166 The American lndian
government. It is not probable that a11the Indians belonging to
the tribes that receive this instruction much exceed, if indeed they
reach, the total number of 30,000. I think it is therefore apparent,
that quite as good provision for elementary instruction is made in
behalf of the Indians, ~sis eommonly made for the people of any
country, except those of the United States themselves. There is no
reason to suppose that all the children who present themselves,
are not taught; and there is much reason for believing that efforts
are constantly making to induce all to come. The umber of
teachers is293, which is quite enough to instruct ten times the
number. You are not to suppose, 'however, that all these teachers
aremen hired expressly for that purpose. They arethe missionaries,
their wives and familes, and some of them are for thepurpose
of instructing in the arts of life, as well as in reading and writing.
Much of the expense is defrayed by charitable associations. The
sum actually paid by the government for the express object of
instruction, is 7,150 dollars, or enough to maintain rather more
than forty teachers of stipends of 150dollars each. Itis probable
that some receive more, and some less. It ssaid that the schools
are generally in a flourshing condition.
Where there is much intercourse .between the very strong and
veryweak, there isalwaysatendency in the human mind to suspect
abuses of power. I sha11not descend into the secret impulses that
give rise to these suspicions; but in this stage of the world, there
is o necessity for sus)ectin a nation like th.isof anyunpro,:ok!!d
wrongs'against a people like the savageS.The nroa o t le wrtes
of the mte a es. as xi " een mar "e se gross InJ us~.ce
~ IN>. \ oQci vJ Ovo a_ndbrutality. that. have d,istinguished similar: mroa s esewle~
\ -.J ...J ~ \ ~ The Indians have never been slain except in battle, unless by law-
~d..L- ~ . u. /less individuals; never hunted by blood-hounds, o~J !1..a!!Y..!!lann~r
-t~~"\ :; \ w>~~o..~~ aggrieved, except in the general, and, perhaps,in some degree,
, l' ~ \ _ . J . justifiable invasion of aterritory that they did not want, nor could
1~\ lll..~ """"""I.\ J <- -", .
~ ' not use. If the government of the United States was poor and
~\ : %J \ 1 -t- necessitous, one might suspect it of an unjust propensity; but not
W a . M . . n. \, only the facts, but the premises, would teach us to believe the
,."... reverse.
A great, humane,and, 1think, rational project, is now in opera-
tion to qI!!lg the Indians within the pale of civilizatio~. I sha11
Civlizing theRed Man 167
furnish you with its outline as it is detailed in a recent report of
the head of the Indian office.
Most, if not all of the Indians who reside east of the Mississippi,
live within the jurisdiction of some State or of some territory. In
most cases they are left to the quiet enjoyment of the scanty
rights which they retain, but the people of their vicinity commonly .
wish to get rid of neighbours that retard civilization, and who are
so often troublesome. The policy of States is sometimes adverse
to their continuance. Though there is no power, except that of
the United States, which can effect their removal without their
own consent, the State authorities can greatly embarrass the con-
trolof the general government. A question of policy, and, perhaps,
of jurisdiction, lately arose on this subject between Georgia and
the general government. In the course of its disposal, the United
States, in order to securethe rights of the Indans more effectually,
and to prevent anyfuture question of this sort, appear to have
hit on the following plan. "
West of the Mississippi they still hold large regions that belong
to no State or territory. They propose to several tribes (Choctaws,
Chickasaws, Cherokees, &c.) to sell theirpresent possessions,
improvements, houses, fences, stock, &c., and to receive, in return,
acre for acre, with the same amount ofstock, fences, and every
other auxiliary of civilizationthey -now possess. The inducements
to make ths exchange are as fo11ow:-Perpetuity to their estab-
lshments, since a pledge is given that no title shall ever be
granted that may raise a pretext for another removal; an organi-
zation of a republican, or, as it is termed, a territorial government
for them, such as now exist in Florida, Arkansas, and Michigan;
protecton, by the presence of troops; and a right to send delegates
to Congress, similar to that now enjoyed by the other territories.
If the lan can be effected there is reason to think that the
constant diminution in the numbers of ten ians wlI be
clecked, and that i!~ce,-';1:;o~t'-whom"Hiere-isso muClr--that is ~ ~-\ o -
p~~&~~ fine in recollection, wiJ I be preservect-frn:~~e of ~I ,b\NI
the southern tnbes have already endured the collsion with the tu\ ~f(. .
white man,and are still slowly on the increase, As one of these
tribes, at least, (the Chickasaws,) is inc1uded in this plan, there
is just ground to hope that the dangerous point of communication
168 The American Indian
has been passed, and that they may continue to advancein civiliza-
tion to maturity. The chief of the bUTeauon Indian affairs gives
it as his opinion that they (the Chickasaws) have increased a"Do1It
en per cent within SlX ears. Their hole numberis computed
a OUTt ousan sou s.
Should such a terri~ory be formed, a nucleus will be created,
around which all the savages of the west, who have any yeamings
for amore melio.rated state of.existence, can rally. Ast~U!..~~
~ao~e...to...IDl!1 lecJ he~w.blte and !e4 ~~~~J !.?th~E'xSlC~
J ~ren~is far J essthan in the case,of the blacks, ano die lndians
~.xe .never.been__ menial -sJ aveS,fI think an amalgam'"iitiori" O'ftlie
two races would in time occur. Those families of America who
are thought to have any of the Indian blood, are rather proud of
their descent, and i~_.a.._J !latterof boast among many of the-mast
considerable p-ersonsof Virginia, that they aredescended fram the
reIlO.W--.!led Pocahontas.
The character of the American Indian has been too often faith-
fully described to need any repetition here. The majority of them,
in or near the settlements, are an humbled and much degraded
race. As you recede from the Mississippi, the finer traits of savage
life become visible; and, although most of the natives of the
Prairies, even there, arefar frombeing the interestingand romantic
heroes that poets love to paint, thereare specimens of loftiness
of spirit, of bearing, and of savage heroism, to be found among
the chiefs, that might embarrass thefertility of the richest in-
vention to equal. 1met one of those heroes of the desert, and a
finer physical and moral man, allowing for peculiarity of condi-
tion, it has rarely been m)' good fortune to encounter.