Temperature sensors Pressure sensors Speed transducers Flow sensors Force sensors Displacement and Level Sensors Strain Gauge and Measurement 2 A basic instrument system consists of; 1. Input device sensor 2. Signal Processor 3. Receiver Output device 3 Sensors may operate as simple ON/OFF switch to detect either the following - objects ( proximity switch) - empty or full ( level switch) - Hot or cold ( thermostat) - Pressure high or low ( pressure switch) 4 5 Variables that we commonly measures; - Temperature - Density - Speed - Acidity / Alkalinity - Force - Level / Depth - Mass - Velocity / Acceleration - Stress and strain - Temperature - Volume When 2 wires with dissimilar electrical properties at both end and one junction is made hot and the other one end cold, a small electric current is produced. The electric current produced are proportional to the difference in temperature. This is called Seebeck Effect. 6 a) Temperature Transducer 7 A typical industrial temperature probe with flexible extension And plug. 8 a) Temperature Transducer Most temperature transducer have linear relationship over certain operating temperature, mostly given by this; Where; e = emf voltage = temperature , = constant The actual characteristics and suitable operating temperature depend upon the metals used in the wires 9 10 Resistance Type Sensor - Thermistor This instrument work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor changes with temperature. The resistivity of the conductor change with temperature. It means the resistance get bigger as the conductor gets hotter. This equation relates the law of resistance and temperature; Where; R = resistance R 0 = resistance at 0 o C = temperature 11 A basic temperature sensor is made by winding a thin resistance wire into a small sensor head. This has an advantage over a thermocouple coz it is unaffected by temperature at the gauge end. Range of measurement 200 to 500 o C. 12 Worked Example 1 13 Vapour Pressure Sensors These are thermometers filled with either a liquid such as mercury or an evaporating fluid such as being used in refrigerator. Any rise in temperature produces expansion or evaporation of the liquid. So the sensor become pressurized. The pressure is related to the temperature commonly indicated by a simple pressure gauge. Nowadays the pressure is converted into electrical signal. This way the instrument can be used as a switch / alarming signal. 14 15 Pressure transducers either converts the pressure into mechanical movement or electrical output. Mechanical movement is produced with the following elements; 1) Bourdon Tube 2) Spring and piston 3) Bellows and capsules 4) Diaphragm 16 a) Bourdon Tube 17 Bourdon is hollow tube. When a pressure difference exist between the inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the end moves. The movement is coupled to a needle on a dial to make a complete Gauge. It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air nozzle to control air pressure to convert into an electrical signal. 18 b) Piston Type The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. A window in the outer case allows the pressure to be indicated. Applications : hydraulic system, system to withstand shock, vibration, sudden pressure changes. 19 c) Capsules and Bellows A bellow is made of several capsules. these are hollow flattened structures made from thin metal plate. When pressurized the bellows expand and produce mechanical movement. Applications : Measuring small pressure. 20 d) Diaphragm The principle is similar to Bellows type, but the diaphragm is very thin and made from rubber. The diaphragm expands when very Small pressures are applied. 21 e) Electrical Pressure Transducer There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement of the earlier types into electrical signal. - Strain Gauge type - Piezo electric types - Other electric effects 22 Strain gauges are fixed at a strained surface. The change in length of strain gauge produces changes in electrical resistance. Thus this resistance is converted to voltage. 23 The element used here is a piece of crystalline material that produces an electric signal when it is mechanically stressed. The electric charge will be converted to voltage. 24 Other electric effects commonly used is capacitive and inductive type transducers. The pressure produces a change in the capacitance or inductance of an electronic component in the transducer. One example is electronic oscillator to change the frequency of oscillations. The frequency may be converted to voltage that represent the pressure measured. 25 a) Optical Types Transducer These use light beam and light sensitive cell. The beam is either Reflected or interrupted so that pulses is produced for each Revolution. The pulses are counted over a fixed time and the speed obtained. electronic processing is required to time the pulses and turned the result into analogue / digital signal. 26 b) Tachometer There are 2 types AC and DC tachometer. AC type generates sinusoidal output. The frequency of voltage represent the speed of rotation. 27 Flow meters measures the flow of fluids in certain medium. It is categorized into ; 1) Positive displacement types 2) Inferential types 3) Variable area types 4) Differential pressure types 28 a) Positive Displacement Types These types have mechanical element that makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for an exact known quantity of fluids. The quantity of fluid depends on number of Revolutions of the meter shaft. The flow rate depend on speed of rotation. Most common devices; - rotary piston types - meshing rotor types - vane types - turbine types 29 a.1) Meshing Rotor Types Consist of 2 rotor with lobes. When fluid is forced in, the rotor turns and operate the whole measuring system. a.2) Turbine types 30 b) Variable Area Types There are 2 types commonly used Float type ( rotameter) Tapered plug type 31 Fluid flows through the annular gap around the edge of the float. The restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the pressures forces the float upwards. The level of the float indicates The flow rates. If the flow changes, the float will move up / down accordingly. 32 A tapered plug is aligned inside a hole / orifice. A spring holds it in place. The flow is restricted as it passes through the gap and a force is produced which moves the plug. The plug takes up a position where the pressure force just balance the spring force. 33 These are the range of meters that converts flow rate into Differential pressure. 34 The working principle is that something makes the velocity changes and this will produce changes in pressure. So, p = p 2 p 1 35 3 main types of force sensor is; - hydraulic types - mechanical types - Electrical strain gauge types 36 a) Mechanical Types Make use of spring such as spring balance. The spring deflection is proportional to the applied force.