Thesis Writing Guidelines

William Paterson University

College of Education

Department of Elementary & Early Childhood Education

Dr. Janis Strasser & Dr. Holly Seplocha

CIEE 629-630

Spring & Fall 2007

Included in these guidelines is Thesis Writing Tips, Instructions for Educational Research Paper,
and a Sample of Style for Thesis. We strongly encourage you to print out this document so that
you have easy access. Theses follow formal conventions. We have prepared these guidelines for
your use. They address common issues and questions of format. Make sure to use these
guidelines along with the APA Publication Manual and Strunk and White’s Elements of Style.
While your thesis advisor will assist you in making edits, you should minimize your revisions by
adhering to these tips. A thesis will reflect the master’s degree candidate’s ability to gather and
report relevant information from the current literature, and conduct and report the findings of a
well-designed study, on a chosen topic.
 CIEE 629/630 THESIS WRITING TIPS
Dr. Seplocha and Dr. Strasser

Format
1. The WPU Master Thesis must follow the 5th edition of the APA Publication Manual.
2. One-inch margins at the top, bottom, right and left sides are required by APA.
3. Double spacing is required throughout the paper. Double-space after every line of the
title, headings, quotations, references, etc. Do not use single or one-and-a-half spacing
except as noted. Use single-spacing and indent for long direct quotations (more that 40
words). Long direct quotations should be used sparingly and only when necessary.
4. Indent each paragraph one tab (5-7 spaces).
5. All typing is done flush-left, not right justified nor full justified. In other words, leave the
right margin uneven or "ragged right." Do not break (hyphenate) words at the ends of
lines. Type a line short or just beyond the right-hand margin rather than break a word at
the end of a line.
6. You may use one or two spaces after periods however, you must be consistent.
Exceptions:
No space after internal periods in abbreviations (a.m., i.e., U.S.).
No space after the colon in ratios (6:1)
7. The Fifth Edition of APA’s Publication Manual has two significant changes:
a. The use of the hanging indents (indent 2nd line and any additional lines of each
reference 5-7 spaces) in the reference list.
b. The use of italics rather than underline for all titles.
8. Do not use italics or underline for mere emphasis.
9. Use Times Roman or Courier 12 point font.
10. At the end of Research II, you are to submit two bound copies of your thesis along with a
CD contain your entire thesis in one document. Leave adequate time for a printing shop
to bind your document. Spiral binding is suggested.
11. When you merge your chapters into one document, you will need to insert a section break
at the start of Chapter 1 to enable you to correctly paginate the entire document. The front
matter is paginated in lower case Roman numerals (ii, iii, iv…). The remainder of your
document is paginated in numbers (1, 2, 3….).

In-text Citations
Your reader should be able to discover — without undue fuss — the source of any language or
ideas you have used in writing your paper that are not your own. This is an important part of
being a responsible member of the academic community. When you use the ideas or language of
someone else, you can refer your reader easily to that resource by using a documentation
technique called parenthetical citation. In parentheses, at the end of the quoted language or
borrowed idea, the author and year are noted. See examples below:
A. A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author's name and the year of
publication.
Example: The beginning school experience is frequently a difficult time in the life of a
young child (Needlman, 1990).
Use the last name only in both first and subsequent citations, except when there is more
than one author with the same last name. In that case, use the last name and first initial.
B. If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited.
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 Example: According to Piata (2004), the transition of children into kindergarten . . .
C. If both the name of the author and the date are used in the text, parenthetical reference is
not necessary.
Example: In a 2003 article, Bloom explains the key ingredients of . . .
D. Specific citations of pages or chapters follow the year.
Example: Homework can be defined as “tasks assigned to students by schoolteachers that
are meant to be carried out during non-school hours” (Cooper, 2001, p. 11). Or
According to Cooper (2001), homework can be defined as “tasks assigned to students by
schoolteachers that are meant to be carried out during non-school hours” (p. 11).
E. When the reference is to a work by two authors, cite both names each time the reference
appears.
Example: The use of a school’s web pages is related to the content, design, and purpose
of the site (Ivers & Barron, 1999). Ivers and Barron (1999) also demonstrate …
F. When the reference is to a work by three to five authors, cite all the authors the first time
the reference appears. In a subsequent reference, use the first author's last name followed
by et al. (meaning "and others").
Example of a subsequent reference: (Douglas et al., 1997)
G. When the reference is to a work by six or more authors, use only the first author's name
followed et al. in the first and all subsequent reference. The only exceptions to this rule
are when some confusion might result because of similar names or the same author being
cited. In that case, cite enough authors so that the distinction is clear.
H. When the reference is to a work by a corporate author, use the name of the organization
as the author.
Example: (Columbia University, 1987, p. 54).
I. Personal letters, telephone calls, and other material that cannot be retrieved are not listed
in References but are cited in the text.
Example: In her keynote address, Judy Jablon (Bergen-Passaic Conference, April 17,
2004) confirmed that the ideas. …

Common Errors in Style

1. Parallelism - Parallelism occurs when compound verbs or verbals express an action taking
place at the same time or in the same tense. When such is the case, the verb and/or verbals
must be in the same, or parallel, form.
Example: Gail sings and dances.
("Sings" and "dances" are parallel forms of the verb.)
Types of Parallel Structure
a. Coordinated ideas of equal rank, connected by and, but, or, or nor
Correct: Earl loves riding and climbing. Earl loves to ride and to climb.
Incorrect: Earl loves riding and to climb.
b. Compared ideas
Correct: Girls tended to prefer playing with blocks more than creating with art materials.
Correct: Girls tended to prefer to play in the block center than to play in the art center.
Incorrect: Girls tended to prefer playing with blocks more than to play in the art center.
c. Correlative ideas are linked with the correlative conjunctions both...and, either...or,
neither...nor, and not only...but also.
Correct: This study examined not only children’s choice of materials, but also children’s
language.

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 Correct: This study examined not only using materials, but also socializing with peers.
Incorrect: This study examined not only children’s choice of materials, but also
socializing with peers.
d. NOTE: Place correlative conjunctions immediately before the parallel terms:
Incorrect: Participants had both experienced choosing centers and using materials.
Revised: Participants had experienced both choosing centers and using materials.

2. Sentence Fragments/Incomplete sentences: A sentence fragment is a part of a sentence

punctuated as if it were a complete sentence. A sentence fragment is a group of words that
begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, exclamation point, or a question mark, but
does not express a complete thought. A complete sentence needs both a subject AND a verb.
A complete sentence contains a grammatically complete and independent thought that can
stand alone as an acceptable sentence.
Incorrect: Researchers found no relationship between older siblings’ experiences and a
child’s entry into preschool. Although siblings prior school experiences did lessen mothers’
adjustment.
Revised: Although siblings’ prior school experiences did lessen mothers’ adjustment,
researchers found no relationship between older siblings’ experiences and a child’s entry into
preschool.
3. Run-on Sentences: A run-on sentence is when two independent clauses are jointed without
any punctuation (not a comma) or connecting word.
Incorrect: Ten children and their mothers participated in this study the children were between
36 and 48 months of age.
Revised: Ten children and their mothers participated in this study. The children...
Revised 2: Ten children and their mothers participated in this study when the children were
between 36 and 48 months of age.
4. A paragraph must have more than one sentence.
5. A direct quote must be cited appropriately and include the page number.
6. Try to use the active voice whenever possible.
Active: Hobbs (2001) found that gender was a factor in book selection.
Passive: It was found by Hobbs (2001) that gender was a factor in book selection.
7. “Effect” is most often a noun and “affect” is most always a verb.
8. Use the number guide for correct use of when to spell out numbers and when to use
numerals.
9. Data is a plural word. (e.g. Data were analyzed…. )
10. Use spell check and proofread your work prior to submission. Frequent misspellings may be
perceived as a writer’s careless attitude toward the thesis.

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Before you submit your work, check for the following common
errors that spell check will not find!
Use Strunk and White’s Elements of Style to assist you in writing.

their, they're, there

• Their -- the possessive form of they
• they're -- a contraction of they are
• there -- refers to a place

who's, whose
• who's -- a contraction of who is
• whose -- the possessive form of who

your, you're
• your -- the possessive form of you
• you're -- a contraction of you are

its, it's
• its -- the possessive form of it
• it's -- a contraction of it is

to, too, two

• to – the preposition
• too – also
• two – the number

affect, effect
• affect -- a verb meaning to influence
• effect -- a noun meaning result

new, knew
• new – an adjective
• knew – a verb

imply, infer
• imply – suggested or indicated, but not expressed
• infer – something deduced from the evidence

than, then
• than – to express comparison… he is taller than Mary
• then – to express time… He went to the store then, he walked home.

When to use an apostrophe

• for possessive as in Smith’s
• for contraction as in doesn’t
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When to use a comma
• before a quotation (e.g., She said, “…..”)
• separating items in a series
• between two sentences with a conjunction (e.g., but, and)
• both sides of a non-essential component (e.g., The woman, his wife, was next to
him.)
• attaching words in front or in back of sentences (e.g., Certainly, you would …..;
Although I was angry, I ….; ……happy, even though she was crying; Shortly after
the student interview was administers, the teacher-researcher identified….)

When you start a thought about a new topic, start a new paragraph.

If you have 2 sentences, you should treat them as such. Don’t connect them
with a semicolon, a comma or no punctuation. Put a period at the end of each
sentence.

Avoid repeating or overusing the same words such as meaningful, important,

suggested, and interesting.

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 INSTRUCTIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PAPER

Your completed research paper will contain five chapters. These are:
CHAPTER I - Introduction, Statement of the Problem, Variables, Hypotheses
CHAPTER II - Review of the Literature
CHAPTER III - Methods
CHAPTER IV - Results
CHAPTER V - Discussion, Conclusions, Educational & Research Implications

In addition to the chapters, your finished paper will include:

a. A title page
b. An abstract
c. Acknowledgements (optional)
d. A table of contents
e. A list of tables
f. A list of figures
g. An appendix
h. A list of references

For CIEE 629 only parts of the first three chapters, the table of contents, a partial
appendix, and a list of references are required. The rest of the paper will be completed, along
with revisions and elaboration of the work done in CIEE 629, by the end of CIEE 630.

The length of the paper will vary as a function of your own style of written
communication. However, as a general guideline, the following are recommended:
Abstract: 1 page (120-150 words)
CHAPTER I: 6-10 pages
CHAPTER II: 35-45 pages
CHAPTER III: 10-15 pages
CHAPTER IV: 10 -15 pages - including Tables and Figures
CHAPTER V: 10-12 pages
Appendices: 3-10 pages
References: 20-30 citations

Overall then, you are aiming for a paper between about 85 and 120 pages long, including
all parts. Keep in mind, though, that you are considering a manuscript with the following
requirements:

1. Margins should be 1 inches on all sides

2. Font used should be Roman Times or Courier 12.
3. All text and headings should be double-spaced consistently throughout the paper.
4. Each chapter should begin on a new page
5. Reference listings should be double spaced

The APA Publication Manual (2001, 5th edition) is your style guide and should be
followed unless you are specifically instructed to use a different format.

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Preparing to Write Chapter I – Introduction, Statement of the Research Problem and
Hypotheses

The purpose of this chapter is to state clearly what the "big" educational problem or issue

surrounding your study is about. Having stated the larger educational problem, in the

Introduction, you then want to focus on the particular purpose of your immediate study.

In general, after you have decided upon the particular purpose of your own investigation,

you will need to make some predictions about what you think the outcomes of your investigation

will be. This is what your hypotheses are supposed to do - state your predictions of the

anticipated results of the study. Between the statement of the purpose of your study and your

hypotheses, however, you will have to define the variables of your study so that your stated

hypotheses will make sense to a reader. The definitions are usually reserved for specialized

technical terms or concepts that are used in unique ways in your field of specialization. They also

need to be framed in terms of the meaning of the terms for your study, not in terms of any formal

dictionary definition.

Most of your hypotheses will be written in a specific format and predict a particular

outcome. Often it is clearer to have a separate hypothesis for each and every variable you will be

measuring rather than having one big hypothesis that includes many variables that address

related aspects of your study. It is also sometimes the case that your will predict some

differences, but not specify the particular direction those differences will take. Finally, you may

have an interest in observing some variables, but do not want to anticipate what you will observe

until after you have collected your data.

Preparing to Write Chapter II - The Literature Review

The purpose of this chapter is to develop a rationale for conducting your own study. It

entails a thorough review of the available research on your topic. While no literature review ever

covers all possible articles, it is expected that your review will uncover the important studies on
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the variables you will be investigating. You should frame Chapter II so that it appears to lead to

your own study. It is sort of a justification of the purpose of your study.

It is also expected that your review will present conflicting findings so that you establish a

real need for conducting your study as a way of clearing up these differences. It is also

appropriate to include some references that provide a theoretical background for your own study.

All citations referred to in your text should be listed in your reference list. On the other hand,

your reference list should not include any citations that are not referred to in your text.

Doing a literature review means that after you find important and relevant articles that address

some aspect of your topic, that you organize these articles according to specific topic headings.

Each topic heading will serve as an organizer for discussing several pieces of literature in a

single subsection of the chapter. In general, each study you report on should be summarized so

that it describes the purpose of the study, the participants of the study, briefly tells about the

research methods used in the study, and reports on the authors' findings of the study. Conclusions

claimed by the author may also be mentioned. Any special flaws in the study should be noted as

well so that the findings are presented in a fair way.

The language used to describe the studies and all other parts of the paper should be objective

and not use personal pronouns too often (i.e., no "I" or "me" language) or contractions. In

addition, the writing should flow so that the connection between one sentence and the next is

evident. Articles within the same topic heading should be connected and the organization of the

chapter should build a case for conducting your own study. Paragraphs should be of reasonable

length, neither too long nor too short. Finally, direct quotes should be avoided.

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Preparing to Write Chapter III - Research Methods of Your Study

This chapter includes three main areas, all of which are part of your methods for doing

the study. First you want to have a section describing your participants in terms of number, ages,

how many of each gender, demographic information about the participants and the communities

from which they come and/or reside, and other pertinent ethnic and geographical information.

Your participants include all those people who participate in the activities of your study. Target

participants are only those participants on whom you are gathering data that will be reported in

the results of your study.

Participant descriptions should also include information about any people who will be

working with you such as other teachers. If you are engaging directly in the study, you too

should be described as the teacher-researcher in terms of your gender, ethnic group/race, general

age category, and years of experience as a teacher and in the school and grade of your study.

Following a description of your participants, you will need to give information about the

materials that you will be using in your study. This includes assessment instruments, teaching

materials (books, curricula, software, etc.), technical equipment (computers, recorders, etc.), and

any other paraphernalia that you may be using.

After describing your materials, you will then discuss in detail the procedures you will be

using in your study. These include any pre-intervention training or tests, and post-intervention

experiences, a description of how much time will be spent in particular activities, a description of

the place in which activities will occur, and how participants will be physically seated or

otherwise engage in study activities . It should also include precise details about the sequence of

events that will take place during the study and any other information that would help someone

else replicate your study at a later time.

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Preparing to Write Chapter IV - Results

This chapter will contain all the summarized numerical information that you need to

report on the variables and outcome measures you obtain from your subjects. It also may contain

narrative reports on your informal behavioral observations of your participants. Only data that

bear directly on your hypotheses, predictions, or questions as stated in Chapter I are to be

considered in this chapter. Keep in mind, though, that data may be quantitative (numerical) or

qualitative (observations). This means that your results can be reported in terms of statistical

findings and that it may also include some descriptive narrative of informal observations or

particular performances of your participants. All data and must be reported in Chapter IV if you

want to discuss it later in Chapter V. The results are reported separately for each hypothesis.

Observational findings are reported under a separate heading such as “Additional Research

Questions” or “Informal Findings.”

Where appropriate, this chapter will include Tables (charts) or Figures (graphs) that

summarize and compare the quantitative data you collected. Findings from statistical analyses

are also reported in this chapter. Raw data or individual participant's scores, however, are not

reported in this chapter, but samples of that information may appear in an Appendix.

All information in this chapter is presented in an objective fashion and used to determine

whether or not your hypotheses were confirmed or not confirmed. You do not make any value

judgments in this chapter nor state opinions of any kind. Similarly, if you report on qualitative or

observational data, you just report objectively what you observed. You do not interpret the

meaning of your observations until Chapter V. You also do not make inferences about

educational practices here or explain why you did or did not get the results predicted. All

justifications, excuses, explanations, inferences, and philosophical issues are saved for your

discussion in the final chapter.

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Preparing to Write Chapter V - Discussion, Conclusions, Educational Implications

This chapter provides you with an opportunity to bring your study back to practical

terms. You can explain here why your predications were supported or not supported as the case

may be. Your paper is just as good and just as valid, whether or not you confirm your

hypotheses. How you explain your results is key here, however. Your explanation should include

references to studies by others, theoretical justifications of what you observed, flaws in your own

experimental design or implementation that may explain weak results, and implications for

further research and educational practices.

The chapter has three sections. The first section is a Discussion of your findings,

hypothesis by hypothesis. The second section allows you to draw Conclusions about what your

study actually have demonstrated in terms of the ‘big issue’ on which your study is grounded and

in terms of further research. The third section, the most important one, gives you a place to

discuss the Educational Implications of your study, based on what you found out and not

necessarily on what you predicted. This section should provide a detailed description of what

you would recommend to other teachers based on what you learned. It should be written as a set

of instructions for teachers who may want to apply your recommendations in their own

classrooms. Think of this as a glorified lesson plan.

No new information about the experiences of your own study and the results you

obtained should be brought into this chapter. Everything that you will be discussing will have to

refer to something already stated. Your results from Chapter IV should contain all the

information you need to refer to in this chapter although no numerical information about your

results is restated in this chapter. However, while you still use objective language here, you do

have an opportunity to give more support to your own point of view, especially if your

predictions held up. Your presentation should be strictly narrative and take as broad a view of the

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findings as possible.

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 SAMPLE OF STYLE FOR THESIS

THE TITLE OF YOUR PAPER APPEARS HERE IN CAPS AND DOUBLE-SPACED AS

NEEDED FOR APA STYLE

by

YOUR NAME IN CAPS

This is a research paper submitted for CIEE 629/630, Research in Education I & II, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters Degree in Education at William Paterson University.
Spring and Fall 2007
 Abstract

THE TITLE OF YOUR PAPER APPEARS HERE IN CAPS AND IS DOUBLE SPACED IF

MORE THAN ONE LINE IS NEEDED

by

Your name appears here in lower case

Thesis Advisor: type in either Dr. Janis Strasser or Dr. Holly Seplocha

Here you write a nice concise summary of your study in 120-150 words. This part does not

need to be written until you have finished your study in CIEE 630. No data appear in the

abstract. You just report on what the purpose of the study was and what you found out. An

abstract should be accurate, to the point, easily understandable, and informative. It should include

the purpose, participants, methodology, and principal findings and conclusions. Use an active

voice while avoiding personal pronouns I and We.

The abstract is page numbered ii. (Your title page is considered page number i, although

the number does not appear on the page). If you want to have an acknowledgment page as well,

then this would follow the Abstract page and be considered the next lower case Roman numeral.

Notice the margins on this page. Margins should be 1” top, bottom and sides throughout

your thesis.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This page is optional. If you choose to acknowledge those family members, friends or

colleagues that were of assistance to you, this is the place to do it. It should be no longer

than one page. As with the rest of your thesis, this page should be double-spaced.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

List of Tables......................................................... vi

List of Figures........................................................ vi

Chapter

I. Introduction........................................... 1

Statement of the Problem.................... 2

Purpose of the Study........................... 4

Definitions of Variables....................... 5

Hypotheses...................................……... 6

II. Review of the Literature................... 8

First Topic Heading................ 8

Second Topic Heading.............. 15

Third Topic Heading................. 21

Fourth Topic Heading................ 25

Summary of the Literature Review........... 30

III. Methods.................................................. 34

Participants....................................... 34

Materials........................................ 38

Procedures.................................... 42

Pre-Intervention Training (or Pretests).. 45

Intervention Techniques........... 48

Post-Intervention Assessments(or Posttests).. 53

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 Chapter Page

IV. Results.................................................. 57

Overview of Treatment of Data............ 60

Analysis of Data.............................. 63
Hypothesis 1–Problem Solving
Condition and Accuracy................. 65

Hypothesis 2–Problem Solving 66

Condition and Strategy...................

Summary of Results........................ 69

V. Discussion............................................. 71

Hypothesis 1–Problem Solving

Condition and Accuracy.......................... 73

Hypothesis 2–Problem Solving

Condition and Strategy........................... 74

Conclusions................................... 77

Educational Implications.................... 81

Limitations of the Study 83

Implications for Future Research 85

Appendices............................................................................. 86

A. Title of Appendix A Goes Here............................ 86

B. Title of Appendix B Goes Here......................... 87

C. Title of Appendix C Goes Here......................... 88

References............................................................... 89

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 LIST OF TABLES
A Table is a chart with data or words.

Table Page

1. Title of First Table Goes Here in Upper and Lower Case

and If It Goes on for More Than a Single Line, You Single
Space............................................................... 64

2. Title of Second Table Goes Here..................................... 67

3. Title of Third Table Goes Here...................................... 68

Tables normally are used to present quantitative data that can best be understood in a table format
rather than reading lengthy text. Tables with numerical values include only horizontal lines.
Word tables are used to present qualitative or descriptive information that can be more efficiently
presented in a table format than reading lengthy text. Word tables can include both horizontal and
vertical lines if vertical lines are needed for clarity.

LIST OF FIGURES
A Figure is a bar graph, pie chart, drawing, or a sample of a child’s drawing or work.

Figure

1. The title of your first figure goes here with the first letter
of the first word in upper case and the remaining words in
lower case. If the title is longer than one line, it is single
spaced .......................................................................... 63

2. The title of your second figure goes here...................... 69

Each Table or Figure goes on its own page and is placed on the page immediately following where

it is mentioned, e.g. “as shown in Table 2, the relationships are”. Never write “the figure above” or

“the Table on page 12.”

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 CHAPTER I

Introduction

Overview

This overview is an introductory statement that will prepare the reader for the general topic

of the thesis. It should refer primarily to the broad problem that your study addresses and not to

your particular study at this point. You are concerned with stating something about some

controversy in the educational community that will lead up to your particular study in the pages

that follow. This statement does not contain specific citations beyond reference to current

standards or professional position papers that provide a basis for conducting the study being

developed here. After you have finished with this overview statement you go on to the next

section as indicated here.

Statement of the Problem

The first paragraph of this section should state a problem in terms of the overall problem

or controversy you alluded to in your first few paragraphs in the Introduction to Chapter I. At this

point you want to develop your conception of the problem a bit more thoroughly than in the

initial Overview section of Chapter I. This statement should take about 2 pages.

Purpose of the Study

This section should define what you will specifically be investigating, why you are

investigating it, and what you expect to find out or demonstrate from this investigation. You can

get very specific here. You should explicitly state what your study is about. The purpose of this

study is…

The Research Questions

This section should list your Research Questions. These flow from the Statement of the

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Problem. They are very specific. You should only have two or three.

Definition of Variables

Most of the time, this section is used to define specific variables such as “developmentally

appropriate practice,” “emergent curriculum, ” “process approach, ” “interactive play,” “open-

ended process-based art materials” or “social adjustment” and is meant to operationalize the

variable terms you will use in your hypotheses and in your methods chapter. The definitions

should be in terms of what you will use to assess or measure them with. For example, you might

say

Open-ended process-based art materials

Open-ended process-based art materials in this study refers to materials such as paint,

crayons, collage materials, stickers, magazines for cutting, various types of paper (tissue paper,

construction paper, etc.) scissors, glue, and other materials that students may use in any way that

they wish. For this study, students must be allowed to enter and exit the art area freely during

center time.

Strategies

Three types of strategies were recorded. These included children who worked “quickly”

with the art materials (less than two minutes), children who were “engaged” worked alone for

more than 10 minutes) and children who were “interactively engaged” (worked for more than 10

minutes while talking for at least part of that time with another child in the art area)

Note also that some variable terms are nested under broader variables. Each needs to be defined

separately. For example:

Social Adjustment

In this study, social adjustment refers to the ways in which children handle problems of

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their own (i.e. .feeling hungry before snack time), problems involving two or more children (i.e.

there is only one more large block and two children want to use it for their individual block

constructions) and the way in which they interact, in general, with other children during center

time.

Hypotheses

An introductory paragraph should be used here to state the general idea of all your

hypotheses. For example you might say: It was generally expected that children who were able to

solve their own problems would also be likely to interact appropriately with other children during

center time. It was also hypothesized that those who could successfully solve problems involving

themselves and other children would also interact appropriately with others during center time.

Then the specific relationships should be stated hypothesis by hypothesis as in the example

below. Note that this section is reserved for particular directional predictions that you are making

about the variables in your study. If you have an open-ended question or a prediction with no

particular direction in mind (such as something will change, but you don’t know how it will

change), reserve those questions for the next section (Additional Research Questions).

Hypothesis 1

It was hypothesized that students who were read to at home consistently would be more

able to retell stories than those who were not read to at home.

Hypothesis II

It was hypothesized..... (NOTE: The hypothesis should be stated in the past tense so that

you can avoid unnecessary retyping in your final draft).

Additional Research Questions

This section should include questions about aspects of your study for which you have no

3
particular predictions, but about which you will be making observations. Open with a general

statement, such as:

“In addition to the formal hypotheses of this study, the teacher-researcher was also

interested in some related questions and observations.”

Then go on with some specific questions. For example, if you are examining your own

reactions to a new teaching process, you might say:

How would the teacher’s view of the value of 90 minutes of free-choice center time change

as a function of this teaching experience?

Or you might say:

What would the students’ spontaneous reactions be to working with manipulative

materials? What individual differences would be observed?

Or you might say:

What was the pattern of dependent behaviors observed over the course of the 6-week

intervention?

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 CHAPTER II

Review of the Literature

Begin here with a short paragraph outlining the topics that the following literature review

will cover. Refer to the specific terminology that will be used in your topic headings. (NOTE

THAT YOU SHOULD INCLUDE STUDIES THAT HAVE CONFLICTING FINDINGS ON

THE SAME ISSUES. NOTE ALSO THAT EACH STUDY CITED SHOULD APPEAR

UNDER ONLY ONE HEADING.) Remember to use APA format for in-text references and

citations.

Instructions for Writing a Summary of a Research Article

For each Research Article you will write about in your Literature Review, you are to summarize the
study in this suggested format.

Include the following:

1) An opening sentence that introduces the article and its focus or problem under investigation

2) A description of the participants (formerly called subjects) of the study

3) A description of the methods and procedures used in the study, i.e., what was done

4) A description of the findings or results that were reported

5) A closing sentence indicating what the authors concluded about their findings

6) If there was an important flaw, shortcoming, or limitation in the study, mention this here

Sample

Whorton, Karnes, and Currie (1995) conducted a study to determine if intellectually gifted
students were achieving in reading, mathematics, and spelling commensurate with their measured
cognitive abilities. Discrepancies between ability and achievement were calculated in each of these
areas for 64 intellectually gifted students, 30 males and 34 females, in grades 4 through 6 in a
southern school system. All students participating in the study had been classified as gifted
according to state guidelines. In each instances, actual reading, mathematics, and spelling
achievement scores obtained from Wide Range Achievement Test were subtracted from expected

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achievement values in order to compute discrepancies.
The results indicated that females scored closer to their expected achievement levels than
males, but that there were significant discrepancies between ability and achievement for both boys
and girls at all age levels for all three subjects. The discrepancies ranged from 0.6 to 1.3 points in
reading, 2.8 to 3.6 points in mathematics, and 1.8 to 2.6 points in spelling. The authors did not
suggest any specific reasons for the measured differences, but did suggest that further research was
needed to see if the results obtained in their study would be replicated with other gifted samples in
different regions of the country.

Each study will be summarized in the appropriate Topic Heading. Each Topic Heading should

have more than one study included.

First Topic Heading

In this section you open with a sentence describing the variables or issues that this section

of the literature review will address and then you go on to cite and describe the various studies that

you have found on this topic using the suggested format above.

Second Topic Heading

Do the same as above for the next section of the literature review.

Third Topic Heading

Again open with a sentence introducing this topic and then go on to describe the various

studies that you have found in this area.

Continue using this format, using separate topic headings, until you have covered all your

topics in the literature review concerning your research problem.

Summary of the Literature Review

In this section you summarize the findings of the studies you have already reported on.

Indicate the general trends have you found and how these findings lead up to your particular

study. Build a case for your study at this point. It is important that you do not introduce any

new information here, but just write about what you have already reported on and tie it up.

Be sure that you have used opposing sides too, so that you have a justification for doing

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your study. If the results of all the studies you report on have been consistent, then you have no

reason to do a study. Therefore, look for conflicting findings, differences in outcomes, and

something that still needs to be investigated. The summary, then, does not produce an answer as

much as it raises a question or two.

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 CHAPTER III

Methods

Participants

In this section you indicate who your participants were by providing information on how

many were in the study, their ages, their grade, how many boys and how many girls, something

about ethnic and socioeconomic status, and any other unique characteristics that define these

participants. Participants include students, teachers who may be involved, parents who may be

involved, administrators who may be involved, and the teacher-researcher. You should not identify

the particular name of your school or your district. For example, you might begin with:

The participants in this study were 34 first grade students attending an affluent, middle to

upper-middle class suburban public elementary school in northern New Jersey.....etc.

Materials

Describe your materials here as for example: Anxiety was assessed with the Mel Brooks

(1993) test of High Anxiety. This test consisted of 53 items of increasingly.......

If you developed a material for your study, you should note that and what it included. For

example:
Teacher Survey

The researcher created a survey (Appendix C) for teachers to complete in order to

determine their perceptions of ability grouping. Questions were asked pertaining to if the

individual agreed with the concept of ability grouping, what subjects do they believe should be

homogeneously grouped, and what grouping they believe students benefit most from.

It is a good idea to organize the materials into separate sections with headings such as

Assessment Materials and Intervention Materials (with possible sub-headings).

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 Procedures

In this section, you organize and describe the specific steps of your study with sufficient detail that

another person could follow your procedure to replicate this study. You should begin with a brief

paragraph that describes the general methodology used with appropriate citations on research

methodology if appropriate. This remainder of this section should be organized into headings that

logically flow for YOUR STUDY. Any pilots you did of materials or instruments created should also

be noted. For example,

Pre-Intervention Procedures

This would be the place to describe any training you gave to students before you gathered

of data for the pre-intervention assessments or interventions. It is also the place to describe how

you selected participants and assigned them to intervention conditions.

Pre-Intervention Assessments

This section refers to any baseline measures or the pretests you may be using. Say:

Before the intervention procedure began subjects were given the Brooks High Anxiety

Scale....

Intervention Procedures

This section refers to a detailed description of what you will be doing with all participants.

It should be step-by step and include sufficient detail that someone could replicate your study. It

should include the activities and time-line for all forms of instruction used. For example, you may

say something like:

Tutoring condition. Participants in the tutoring group were seen individually over a period of

15 weeks for 20 minutes each day. At each session, the tutor presented.......

For the first 3 weeks, students were coached in....

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 During the second 3 weeks,....etc.

Self-regulation condition. Participants in the self-regulation group were given 20 minutes a day

to work on the Do-It-Yourself Workbook over a period of 15 weeks.

During the first 3 weeks, students completed pages on.....

During the next 3 weeks, etc....

Post-Intervention Assessments

Immediately following the completion of interventions, participants were again given the

High Anxiety Scale.....

Note that not all studies have this exact format. The headings you use should reflect the nature

of YOUR STUDY.

Data Collection

Here you should briefly describe your role during the study and how objectivity was

maintained. It is helpful to include a data collection table to visually display what data was

collected to address each hypothesis. For example, you might write:

The data collected in this study were used to determine the effect of Teacher-Selected and

Student-Selected writing by using a word count and rubric focusing on Organization, Detail, and

Mechanics. Table 2 graphically displays and organizes the data collection methods according to

hypothesis 1, 2 and 3.

Table 2

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Data Collection Methods

RUBRIC WORD FIELD WRITING

COUNT NOTES QUESTIONNAIRE

Hypothesis 1:
Teacher-Selected X X X

Hypothesis 2:
Student-Selected X X X

Hypothesis 3:
Student X X X
Attitudes

Tables are numbered consecutively in the order in which they are first mentioned in the text. Note
that the Table uses Arabic numeral and is flush left and that the title of the table is on the next
line and is italicized. Begin each table on a separate page.

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 CHAPTER IV

Results

Overview

In the overview of the results section, you should report, in general, on the kinds of

analyses you used on your data. Focus on each variable or hypothesis separately if you used

different forms of analysis for each one. This section should consist of a few paragraphs in which

you briefly describe the kind of data you collected and the kind of statistical measures you used.

For example, you might say something like:

The data collected in this study were used to determine the effect of whole language and

basal reading instruction on the reading comprehension, written expression, and oral expression

of limited English proficient students.

Post-intervention tests for reading comprehension, oral expression, and written expression

were administered immediately following the completion of the 3 weeks of each instructional

mode (basal or whole language). Reading comprehension was measured using a teacher made

assessment of 20 items with 5 points given for each correct answer. Students' oral responses were

holistically scored and awarded a score of 0-10 points for comprehension, pronunciation,

grammatical structure, vocabulary, and fluency for a possible score of up to 50 points. Written

samples were obtained for each mode of instruction and were holistically scored from 0-5 points

for content, form, grammar, mechanics, and style, with a possible total score of 25 points. The

mean performance scores on each of these variables was compared as a function of instructional

mode using t-tests for related samples.

The Maculaitis Assessment Program was also administered as a pretest and posttest to

measure change in the variables of reading comprehension, oral expression, and written

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expression. T-tests for related samples were used to compare mean scores on the three components

of the test as well as on the test as a whole at pretest and posttest times.

When your study is qualitative, you should instead note here how your data was analyzed.

For example, you might write:

The data collected in this study were analyzed to explore whether children use gender

specific colors in creating their art projects. Work samples were collected over a four week period.

Students completed four different projects: self-portraits, family-portraits, portrait of one or

several friends, and a drawing of their choice (free draw). Each project was completed using a

different art medium.

The teacher/researcher then reviewed the work looking for trends in color selection and

use. Colors not included in the previously defined stereotypical boy or girl color lists (see

Stereotypical Color Determination, page 31) were ignored. Typical male colors applied to male

and female images, and female colors applied to male and female images were recorded. The

teacher/researcher also listened for and recorded any conversations regarding gender-stereotypical

colors. Parent questionnaires were examined for trends in bedroom and clothing colors for both

boys and girls. Finally, the Art Feelings Forms were collected and reviewed at the end of each

project.

Interview and observation allowed the teacher/researcher to watch the students in an

unobtrusive manner as well as to interview students about any stereotypical color usage that

occurred. The teacher/researcher triangulated data through work samples, observations,

questioning, a parent questionnaire and the art feelings form. Analytical or interpretive procedures

were used to arrive at findings or theories. “These procedures include the techniques for

conceptualizing data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 20).” The coding of data was placed into tables

13
for the teacher/researcher to review and look for trends in color use according to the student’s

gender. Emergent patterns were uncovered and identified from the data.

Analysis of Data

Hypothesis 1 - Relationship of ............(use the variables named in the first hypothesis stated in Chapter 2)

Following the overview section, you report on the data and statistical analyses of the data

you obtained. This section should be organized hypothesis by hypotheses so that it is divided into

as many parts as you have hypotheses. Each subsection begins with a heading that names the

important variables in your hypothesis. The paragraph that follows should begin with a

restatement of your hypothesis. Tables and Figures are included in this section. You should refer

to each Table or Figure used in your narrative of the results. Each Table and Figure should appear

alone on a separate page following the page of text in which it is first mentioned. If more than one

Table or Figure is cited on a page of text, include the Tables and Figures on the following pages in

the order in which they were cited. An example of this section follows:

Hypothesis 1 - The Effect of Problem Posing on Problem Solving Strategies

It was hypothesized that students who were given an opportunity to pose problems as well

as solve them would utilize more efficient solution strategies than students who were not given

only problem solving experiences. To test this hypothesis, students were pre- and post-tested on

the Numbers are Us Test (NCTM, 1992). Strategy scores were calculated for each subject and group

mean scores were obtained for the problem posing-solving and problem solving groups.

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 As indicated in Table 1, the problem posing and solving group obtained a mean score of

23 on the pretest and 54 on the posttest. The problem solving group achieved a pretest mean of

28 and posttest mean of 35. A comparison of these scores was made using a t-test for independent

samples. The results of the analysis indicated that pretest strategy scores on the problem solving

test were essentially the same for the posing and non-posing groups (t(22) = 0.89, p = .54).

However, after instruction, the group that posed problems demonstrated a significantly higher

post-test score compared to the group that learned without posing any problems (t(22) = 3.55, p <

.01).) These results supported the hypothesis predicting that problem solving strategies would be

enhanced by the use of problem posing with problem solving compared to having only problem

solving experiences.

Note that the table is presented on the next page. It stands alone and is not presented in

text.

15
Table 1 (Note that this table uses only horizontal lines. Unless it greatly adds to the clarity of the

table, avoid using vertical lines in tables.)

Comparison of Mean Mathematics Content Test Scores as a Function of Learning Condition
_____________________________________________________________________________

Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention t-score

______________________________________________________________________________

Feedback Group (n=10) 42.45 46.15 2.087*

No Feedback Group (n=10) 43.75 44.15 0.212

t-score 0.563 0.842

______________________________________________________________________________
* p < .05

Note that the number of participants in each group is identified using the abbreviation (n= X).

Then continue on the next page with remaining text if appropriate or in this case a heading to

identify the variables in your second hypothesis, for example):

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Hypothesis 2 - The Effect of Problem Posing on Problem Solving Accuracy

Accuracy scores of both groups were tabulated for both pre- and post-tests.....etc.

(...and so on...going through the steps of this hypothesis and subsequent hypotheses as above.)

Additional Research Questions

This is where you report on all those neat informal observations and reflections that you

noted and described in chapter II as open-ended questions. This section is presented in a narrative

format and should refer back to the planned observations you made but did not make specific

predictions about. However, some unexpected observations may also have been made. You can

report on these here as well.

Summary of Results

End the Results section with a Summary of Results (use this as a heading beginning at the left

margin.) This is a paragraph or two in which you state in simple, non-numerical language what you

found. No discussion of the implications of the results should appear here. These belong in the

next chapter (the Discussion) in which you discuss the meaning and reasons for your findings.

This summary should just state the hypotheses that were confirmed and those that were not. An

example of the format appears below:

The results supported the hypothesis concerning the effects of problem posing on students'

problem solving strategies. As expected, students who had problem posing experiences executed

more efficient strategies on post-tests than students who did not have a chance to pose problems.

However, contrary to expectations, the hypotheses regarding the use of problem posing for

enhancing accuracy of answers on problem solving tasks was not supported. In fact, students who

posed problems tended to obtain fewer accurate answers than students who did not pose

problems.

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 CHAPTER V

Discussion

As with each of your other chapters, this chapter should begin with a general statement

regarding the findings of all your hypotheses. Then you should go on with the rest of the

Discussion section of the chapter by dealing with each of your hypotheses separately. Each of

these sections should include a reason or rationale for why the hypothesis was or was not

confirmed. The rationale may refer to the experimental flaws (e.g., duration of intervention was

too short) that may have affected your study, the theoretical explanations and implications of

your findings (e.g., whole language philosophy indicates that learning with meaningful material

increases comprehension), and some mention of how your findings fit into the findings of

previous research (refer back to literature already mentioned in literature review).

After completing the discussion of your first hypothesis, you then go on to the next

hypothesis and so on until you have addressed all your hypotheses. Remember that here as

elsewhere, you should aim to have a connected and logical narrative and not simply a listing of

disconnected sentence ideas.

Following the discussion of your hypotheses one-by-one, you should start a new heading for

your Conclusions. The Conclusions section (really a subdivision of the Discussion section),

unlike the first part of the chapter, does not refer to particular hypotheses. Rather it refers back to

your general description of the problem as presented in your introductory overview and purpose of

the study in Chapter I and Literature Review in Chapter II where you introduce the purpose of

your study. Tell what you can infer from your findings. What are the theoretical implications of

your study for your field, if any? This is also a good place to discuss the further research that still

needs to be done on your topic based on questions that your study did not address or based on the

18
failure of your study to support your hypotheses. You can and should bring in references to

previous literature at this point as well.

The very last section of this chapter deals with the Educational Implications (really

another subsection of the Discussion) of your study. Be as specific here as possible about what

your results mean for educational practices in the future, but limit your comments to those that are

related to your study rather than toward your personal viewpoint. Again you may refer to previous

literature if it is relevant. A brief summarizing paragraph or two at the end of this section should

tie up the whole paper.

An example for the format of Chapter V follows:

Discussion

NOTE: THIS SECTION OF THE PAPER SHOULD RUN AT LEAST 5 PAGES OR

LONGER AND BE DETAILED.

The results of this study largely support the overall hypothesis that the use of gesture in

counting activities is related to the development of children's understanding of the quantitative

relationships underlying the counting process. There were, however, several unexpected findings

regarding the ages at which this development occurs. The following discussion attempts to explore

the implications of the findings that both support and challenge the hypotheses of this study.

Hypothesis 1 - The Relationship of Student Grouping Arrangement to Achievement

As expected, students who demonstrated weaker skills in their testing achieved higher

grades on those skills when learning took place in flexible homogeneous grouping arrangements

than when whole-class instruction was utilized. This finding held up for all skills taught although

they seemed to be particularly affected in the geometry content area. In contrast to expectations,

however, the students who began instruction at higher levels of skill development failed to show

19
any distinction in their learning regardless of grouping condition. These findings suggest,

therefore, that flexible in-class ability grouping, at its best, has important positive effects for some

students and, at its worst, has no negative effects for other students.

(EXPAND HERE - REFER TO PREVIOUS LITERATURE; JUSTIFY RESULTS IN

TERMS OF THEORY-FOR EXAMPLE:) The finding regarding the differential effects of grouping

arrangement as a function of students' beginning skills levels is in marked contrast to the literature

that demonstrated negative consequences of grouping for lower achievers (Jones, 1990; Smith,

1992). However, it should be noted that the form of grouping used in this study was different

from the form described in previous studies. EXPAND HERE AGAIN-MAKE THIS LONGER.

Hypothesis 2 - The Relationship of Student Grouping Arrangements to Attitude

As anticipated, students who were heterogeneously grouped reported having more positive

attitudes toward working in groups and toward working on mathematics problems. HERE, TOO,

EXPAND AND MAKE LONGER BY REFERRING TO THEORY AND RESEARCH AND

ANY PARTICULAR UNANTICIPATED FINDINGS YOU MAY HAVE INCLUDED IN

YOUR RESULTS CHAPTER.

Hypothesis 3 - Gender Differences in the Effects of Student Grouping Arrangements

Contrary to expectations, there was no relationship found between gender and the effect of

instructional grouping arrangements on students' achievement and attitudes. EXPAND HERE BY

REFERRING TO OTHER LITERATURE THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE CONSISTENT

WITH YOUR OWN FINDINGS AND ESPECIALLY IN A CASE LIKE THIS WHERE THERE

ARE NO SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS, REFER TO EXPERIMENTAL FLAWS IN YOUR OWN

STUDY THAT MAY HAVE AFFECTED THE OUTCOME. FOR EXAMPLE...This finding ran

counter to the literature suggesting that low achieving girls are more intimidated by the large group

20
instruction than low achieving boys (Brown, 1990; White, 1988; Zeldon, 1978). However, the fact

that all groups remained mixed in terms of gender in this study may have had an effect on the

results. As indicated by Jones (1993), girls remain less active in groups when boys are present and,

therefore, it is possible that in this study the girls were less active than they would have been in a

gender-separate group. Thus, the diminished activity level, and not the ability grouping, may have

exerted a stronger effect on these girls so that their performance was not as enhanced as

anticipated.........

In addition, in this study the girls started out at a higher level than the boys and so initial

differences may have masked differences that occurred as a result of the variations in treatment

conditions...EXPAND SOME MORE HERE TOO.

Additional Research Questions

Informal observations suggested that lower achieving students did not engage in problem-

based learning activities with the same enthusiasm as students who were higher achievers. It

appeared that the former students were waiting for the teacher to provide information and give

specific directions rather than respond to the task as a challenge for which they could assume

responsibility. This difference raises another question about whether it is possible to engage lower

achieving students in these kinds of independent learning activities and if it is, what classroom

conditions would make it possible for them to engage more actively in the problem-based learning

experience....etc.

Conclusions

(NOTE: THIS SECTION SHOULD RUN AT LEAST 3 PAGES OR LONGER.)

In general this study indicates that ability grouping in mathematics can serve a positive

function......etc. EXPAND HERE - REFER TO PREVIOUS LITERATURE AND JUSTIFY

21
RESULTS IN TERMS OF THEORY...However, the type of grouping used in this study was very

specific and of short duration. Therefore,.......may not apply......etc. Further investigation....etc.

etc..... Also the fact that no gender differences in achievement were found as a function of

grouping arrangements calls into question the argument that girls are more intimidated by large

groups than boys. REFER; TO YOUR OWN EXPERIMENTAL FLAWS HERE TOO.

Perhaps the more important factor in gender differences in achievement is...... EXPAND

HERE - REFER TO PREVIOUS LITERATURE; NOTE YOUR OWN EXPERIMENTAL

FLAWS; JUSTIFY RESULTS IN TERMS OF THEORY.....This observation is also consistent with

the broad goal of "mathematics for everybody" as presented in the introductory section of the

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics curriculum and evaluation standards....EXPAND

ON EACH THOUGHT.

Educational Implications

(THIS SECTION SHOULD ALSO RUN AT LEAST 2-3 PAGES.)

The observed enhancement of achievement in flexible grouping arrangements for

mathematics suggests that this type of student grouping arrangement should be the one of choice

in heterogeneously grouped classes. This method provides...........etc. AGAIN HERE YOU NEED

TO EXPAND MUCH MORE ON YOUR OWN TOPIC.

Overall, this study demonstrated that.......etc. (THIS SHOULD BE ABOUT ANOTHER

PAGE OF SUMMARIZING AND SPECULATING FOR THE FUTURE.)

Limitations of the Study

(THIS SECTION SHOULD BE ABOUT
PAGE IN LENGTH.)

This Section should mention the flaws or limitations with your study. For example, it was

only conducted with a very small population or for a short period of time. It could mention

22
specific problems that may have effected your findings, for example, many of the children in the

class were out sick with the flu during the week that you collected your data or that since many of

the children did not speak fluent English, their responses were limited by what they were able to

verbalize.

Implications for Future Research

(THIS SECTION SHOULD BE ABOUT ONE PAGE).

This section should mention what you or other researchers might look at in the future,

with regard to enhancing your study. For example, they could look at a larger sample, look at a

different age group, or look at a different population (urban or suburban, etc.) to expand upon

your research. Or, a study could be conducted for a longer period of time, or in a different setting.

23
 APPENDIX A

Title of Your First Appendix in Upper and Lower Case

Here you provide all the details of your educational materials, your tests, the examples of

students' work and anything else that was too detailed to report in Chapters 3 or 4.

Each piece of information should be given a title and a separate Appendix. When you refer

in your text to an appendix, do not write “see Appendix A” or (see Appendix A). Simply write

(Appendix A).

Correct: Children were interviewed using the Interview Guide: Student Attitudes (Appendix A).

Incorrect: Children were interviewed using the Interview Guide: Student Attitudes (see Appendix

A.

24
 REFERENCES

Jones, S. (1995). The time is now. Journal of Empty Space, 1, 1-10.

Smith, S. (1998). If your title is a long one, then you should go on to the next line using double spacing and

indenting as prescribed in APA style manual. New York: Old Age Press.

Toms, R. (1990). Titles should be in italics and not underlined. Wayne, NJ: William Paterson Press.

Underthehill, M. (1997). Remember to use only first initials and not full names of

authors, 59(2), 212-234.

Zero, M.T. (1997). Put your references in alphabetical order. Educational

Etiquette, 99, 23-24.

APA 5th Edition should be used for all references. Only references that you cite in your study

should be included on this list. You should continually be adding to this list as you write each

chapter. It is often difficult to go back to your reference list and try to find the correct citation

at the end. When the final draft of your thesis is submitted each semester, clean this reference

list to ensure that any reference cited in the text of your thesis is included on this list and that

any references cited on this list are included in your text.

25