Ect 213

Cahier
technique
no. 213
Calculations for
LV and HV networks
B. de Metz-Noblat
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Visit this section
no. 213
Calculations for
LV and HV networks
ECT 213 first issue, December 2004
Benot de METZ-NOBLAT
ESE engineer, worked for Saint-Gobain, then started at Merlin Gerin
in 1986.
He is a member of the Electrical Network competence group that
studies electrical phenomena concerning the operation of networks
and their interaction with devices and equipment.
Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 213 / p.2
Calculations for
LV and HV networks
This Cahier Technique publication is intended to provide a general
overview of the main electrotechnical calculations carried out in
engineering studies on electrical systems at all voltage levels.
It is complementary to other Cahier Technique publications that deal more
with the operation of devices and installations in electrical systems. This
document will help owners, designers and operators understand the
importance of these calculations in ensuring correct use of the electrical
network and their impact on the total cost of ownership.
Contents
1 Introduction p. 4
2 Life of an electrical network 2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network p. 5
2.2.Electrical phenomena in networks p. 6
2.3 Types of networks and their operation p. 6
2.4 Necessary calculations p. 6
2.5 Summary table p. 7
3 Study prerequisites 3.1 Method p. 8
3.2 Role of the expert p. 10
4 Electrical-network calculations 4.1 Dependability p. 11
4.2 Steady-state conditions p. 13
4.3 Short-circuit p. 15
4.4 Protection p. 17
4.5 Stability p. 19
4.6 Harmonics p. 21
4.7 Overvoltages p. 23
4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility p. 26
4.9 Measurements for audits p. 28
5 Summary - Main risks for users - Answers provided by studies p. 31
6 Conclusion p. 33
Appendix 1. History p. 34
Appendix 2. Software p. 35
Appendix 3. Necessary data p. 36
Bibliography p. 37
1 Introduction
Electrical networks have long been studied to
ensure effective supply of electricity to processes.
The main aspects studied are design, operation and
upgrades.
Note that, in this document, the term "process"
refers to all applications of electricity users
(commercial, infrastructure, industry, distribution-
system manager).
Given the recent worldwide context, the importance
of electrical network studies is growing continuously.
c Over the past few years, the electrical world and
its organisational modes have undergone rapid
change.
v With deregulation of the electric market, the
economic rules have changed. Consumers can take
advantage of the competition between suppliers and
utilities can extend their markets.
v Users are refocusing on their core business and
divesting secondary activities such as those
required to run electrical networks. Examples are
subcontracting of maintenance or operation of
installations to specialised service companies.
v Technological progress has also had a number of
effects.
First of all, digital electronics and computer networks
have opened new horizons, but also imposed new
constraints. They have improved electric system
instrumentation and control, including remote
control, but at the same time have made processes
more sensitive to energy quality.
Secondly, the trend toward multiple energy sources
(combined heat and power - CHP, renewable
energy) and the widespread use of non-linear loads
can, over time, have major impact on network
architecture and operating modes, due to voltage
disturbances, protection needs and regulations.
c Electricity is now considered a product like any
other, which implies a need for quality.
Consumers want access to electrical energy
suited to their needs. Given the extremely
diverse requirements of processes in terms of
safety and quality, the electricity supplied must
meet the stipulated specifications.
At every level in the electrical supply chain
(production, transmission, distribution), energy
suppliers must satisfy customers and users in
line with personalised contractual clauses.
c Environmental protection criteria have become
obligatory in terms of the selection and
consumption of materials (minimum
environmental impact) and energy (maximum
efficiency).
c More than ever, economic aspects are a
crucial factor.
Users must optimise the total cost of ownership
(TCO) of the electrical network. The TCO
includes all expenditures required to use
electrical energy, i.e. investments, operation,
maintenance and the purchase of energy.
To demonstrate the importance of calculations in
engineering studies, this Cahier Technique
publication will successively discuss:
v aspects pertaining to the life of an electrical
network;
v calculation methods;
v the main calculations required according to the
type of network and the applications involved.
Note that the calculations presented here
represent only one element in the overall
electrical-engineering process.
2 Life of an electrical network
A number of aspects concerning the life of an
electrical network are discussed in this section,
so that the readers can gain a better grasp on
their own installations and take action at the
correct level in terms of the subject presented
here:
c life cycle, i.e. the successive phases in the life
of an electrical network from its design on
through to upgrades (see Fig. 1 );
c electrical phenomena encountered in system
operation;
c types of networks and their operation, which
directly determine the impact of events on
electrical components;
c finally, the calculations required to develop
economically and technically viable solutions,
and which constitute one of the final selection
criteria of the user.
2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network
Fig. 1: Life cycle of an electrical network.
F
o
r
e
c
a
s
t
s
-
A
n
t
i
c
i
p
a
t
i
o
n
New design
End
of life
Design
Construction
Maintenance
Upgrades Operation Process
Network
The life cycle of an electrical network
(see Fig. 1 ) comprises four typical phases
primarily concerned by the calculations
presented in this document.
c Design and installation
These are all the operations leading up to an
installation that is ready to supply electrical
power to processes. Various studies determine
the basic choices, including the network
architecture, sizing of equipment, protection, etc.
During this phase, it is important to carry out
calculations that assist in making the decisions
and determine future performance.
c Operation
This is the operational phase of installations,
involving the supply of electrical power to
processes and during which various events,
normal and abnormal, occur on the network
leading to operation in normal, downgraded or
safe modes.
The protection and automation systems step in
to deal with disturbances and critical situations.
They are defined by calculations, taking into
account all possible serious problems that can
occur.
c Maintenance
Network performance levels are maintained by
maintenance operations that can be preventive
(before problems occur) or corrective (following
a problem).
At times, additional measures and calculations
are required to solve unforeseen difficulties.
c Upgrades
Adaptation of electrical installations to the
changing needs of processes generally results in
major work to renovate, modify and expand the
system. This step requires calculations for the
planned modifications, taking into account all
acquired experience.
Correct execution of the calculations required
during the various phases of the life cycle
requires a good understanding of the electrical
phenomena likely to occur in the network.
2.2 Electrical phenomena in networks
An electrical network is made up of different
parts (components, devices and equipment) that
mutually influence each other. System operation
over time and on a given site is the result of this
interaction, in compliance with the laws of
electricity expressed by a set of equations
establishing relations between values such as
voltage, current, impedance, time, etc.
The classification of electrical phenomena
according to the response time of the system
(time constants) defines typical behaviour that
must be handled on a case by case basis:
c discontinuous phenomena - temporary
interruption of the supply;
c slow phenomena - standard changes in
operating conditions;
c stable phenomena - steady-state conditions;
c fast phenomena - influence of the variable
effects of rotating machines;
c conducted electromagnetic phenomena -
influence of waves propagated by cables;
c radiated electromagnetic phenomena -
radiation.
The main events associated with the above
classes of phenomena produce very diverse
effects on the distribution system and processes:
c interruption and breaks in the supply of
electricity;
c voltage sags and variations;
c transient currents;
c harmonics;
c short-circuits;
c electromechanical oscillations;
c overvoltages due to switching, arcs and
recovery transients;
c overvoltages caused by lightning;
c coupling between power and control currents.
The magnitudes of the effects listed above
depend on the types of networks and operating
requirements.
2.3 Types of networks and their operation
Certain parameters specific to the electrical
installation in question determine the necessary
calculations.
c Type of source
v short-circuit power;
v speed and voltage regulators;
v harmonic pollution;
v normal or replacement.
c Type of load
v power (active/reactive, installed/drawn);
v operating characteristics (commissioning,
sensitivity to disturbances);
v phase unbalance;
v harmonic loads;
v priorities of different loads for the process
(normal / essential / vital).
c Network diagram
v voltage levels;
v structure (radial, loop, double/single supplies,
double/single busbars);
v configuration (normal/back-up, redundant);
v system earthing arrangements (SEA);
v line lengths;
v power-factor correction;
v types of switching devices;
v maintenance requirements.
c Standards, regulations and local work habits
Analysis of the above parameters determines
the types of studies capable of providing
quantitative solutions for the problems at hand.
2.4 Necessary calculations
The purpose of the calculations is to analyse and
foresee system responses to various situations.
The results impact on network architecture,
selection of device and equipment characteristics,
and operating rules.
The following sections cover:
c dependability;
c steady-state conditions;
c short-circuits;
c protection;
c stability;
c harmonics;
c overvoltages;
c electromagnetic compatibility (EMC);
c measurements for evaluations and audits.
2.5 Summary table
The table ( Figure 2 ) presents along a double
scale (time and frequency) the information
discussed above:
v classes of phenomena;
v electrical events;
v network types and operation;
v types of calculation.
Class of phenomenon
Discontinuous
Slow
Fast
Stable
Conducted electromagnetic
Radiated electromagnetic
Time
Frequency 0.1 Hz 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
10 s 1 s 0.1 s 10 ms 1 ms 0.1 ms 0.01 ms 1 s
Time
Frequency 0.1 Hz 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
10 s 1 s 0.1 s 10 ms 1 ms 0.1 ms 0.01 ms 1 s
Electrical events
Interruptions and breaks in supply
Voltage sags and
variations
Transient currents
Electromechanical oscillations
Harmonics, flicker
Short-circuits
Overvoltages caused by switching,
arcs and recovery transients
Overvoltages caused
by lightning
Coupling between power and control currents
Network type and operation
Reliability of system and components
Regulation of system voltage
and frequency
Load operation
Overload protection, load shedding
Monitoring of rotating machines
(speed and voltage)
Short-circuit protection
Power-electronics assemblies
Switchgear operation
Type of calculation
Dependability
Dynamic stability
Load flow
Harmonics
Short-circuit, protection, SEA
Switching transients
Atmospheric transients
EMC
Fig. 2: Summary of electrical-network operation.
3 Study prerequisites
In addition to the necessary know-how, the
means implemented for network calculations
constitute an essential aspect for studies, for a
number of reasons:
c complete approach in terms of the method, to
ensure valid final results;
c adaptation of tools to needs which can vary
depending on the types of calculation and the
applications;
c investment in tools and their maintenance, at
the lowest possible cost.
In appendix 1, a rapid historical presentation
shows the radical changes in the means used,
from the origins to present day, due to the new
technologies available and their decreasing cost.
This section presents the approach used for
calculations and the digital tools currently
employed, then discusses the importance of the
expert's role in the calculations.
3.1 Method
The overall calculation procedure follows a
standard scientific approach, i.e. simple in its
principle, but precise and rigorous in its
execution. This section discusses the steps in
the method, then the currently used digital
simulation tools.
Steps
Figure 3 shows the different steps in calculating
electrical systems.
c Need
The overall purpose of calculations is to foresee
the quantitative behaviour of a real system in
order to size it, understand its operation or
control it.
c Qualitative analysis
Preliminary analysis, based on experience and
know-how, makes it possible to draft a qualitative
list of the important phenomena for an
application.
c Phenomena and events studied
This step consists in selecting, on the basis of
the above analysis, the phenomena for which
calculations will be run.
c Quantitative analysis
Use of the digital quantification tool comprises:
v Modelling
Modelling an electrical network means
representing each element and all the
interconnections between elements by equations
expressing the electrical, magnetic and
mechanical behaviour. The equations must be
adapted to the phenomena studied.
v Simulation
Simulation of an electrical network means
simultaneously solving all the equations in the
Fig. 3: The various steps in calculating electrical systems.
Real system
Experience
(measurements)
Qualitative
analysis
Calculation loop
Need
Validation loop
Phenomena
and events
to be studied
Quantitative analysis
= Modelling + simulation
Quantitative prediction
Comparison
model. The main variable can be space, time or
frequency. Simulation on a computer requires
calculation software.
c Quantitative prediction
The simulations cover the possible situations
and relevant parameters. Processing and
formatting of the results produces the desired
prediction.
c Experience, measurements and validation
This step checks that quantification was correctly
carried out, i.e. that the models and digital
processing produced significant results.
Comparison of the prediction with measurements
is a validation technique that justifies the selected
method. It may be requested to guarantee the
announced results.
Digital means
Digital calculation is now widely used and
comprises a number of elements.
c Hardware
The calculation device is a computer, generally a
PC, which now offers sufficient memory and
calculating speed.
c Software
All system equations are processed by a special
program. The user-machine interface (UMI) can
be used to add data to the models, start the
calculation and present the results in the form of
values, tables and curves (see Fig. 4 ).
The table in appendix 2 lists the software
suitable for the different calculations.
c Data bank
Each electrotechnical element is described by the
models and the characteristic physical values. All
of this data is stored in a data bank. Appendix 3
list the main data required for calculations.
The investment consists essentially of the
software and its maintenance because the cost
of hardware has become negligible due to
widespread use of PCs.
Most software programs are available on the
market, supplied by utilities, equipment
manufacturers, electrical consulting firms,
schools and universities.
Evaluation
This method is the means to confirm and
quantify the phenomena foreseen by the theory.
Under certain circumstances, it also reveals
poorly identified phenomena.
A particularly difficult aspect is the experimental
validation of the results which requires experience
and know-how. For example, the necessary
measures depend on the type of study and
disturbance monitoring (with interpretation of the
results) may be required.
Fig 4: UMI screen for data entry and the display of the results (source - Schneider Electric).
3.2 Role of the expert
The above method has been proven by many
years of practical experience.
But though it provides reliable results for the
purpose to which it is put, correct results
nonetheless require the knowledge, know-how
and experience of specialised engineers.
These experts are in a position to:
c sift through all the available data and retain
only the relevant information;
c recognise the orders of magnitude and detect
any inconsistencies;
c evaluate the tools and models to select the
most suitable;
c make the necessary approximations to simplify
the calculations without altering the results;
c check and interpret the results to propose
effective solutions.
4 Electrical-network calculations
This Cahier Technique publication covers all
electrical networks and consequently all
applications:
c on public, industrial, commercial and
residential networks;
c from low to high voltages.
This section describes the studies listed above,
systematically taking into account the following
points:
c the purpose of the study;
c the concerned electrical phenomena and their
origin;
c their effects and the proposed solutions;
c the contribution of the study and its
deliverables;
c an example of an application drawn from real
studies carried out by Schneider Electric.
The overall goal is simply to briefly inform the
reader and the scope of each example is
therefore necessarily limited. For more detailed
technical information, consult the bibliography
and particularly the Cahier Technique
publications addressing the various points.
The risks run by users and the answers provided
by the studies are then summarised in the
following section.
4.1 Dependability
Over the course of the years, dependability is a
need that has spread to all processes that are
vulnerable to energy outages.
The notion of dependability is defined by the
values for:
c energy availability;
c the annual rate of outages;
c maintainability.
Goals
The purpose of an operating-dependability study
on network behaviour is to:
c design the optimum network architecture in
view of meeting the energy needs of the loads in
the installation, as defined by the continuity of
service requirements imposed by the process,
through:
v better control over the risks caused by
outages;
v enhancement of the decision-aid criteria in
order to make a selection between a number of
solutions;
c plan for downgraded operating situations,
quantify their probability and define a level of
confidence attributed to the supply of electrical
energy.
Phenomena and origins
The presence of electrical energy is generally
characterised by:
c reliability for a time interval DT, expressed as
the mean time between failures (MTBF) or the
mean time to (the first) failure (MTTF);
c availability at time T;
c the mean time to repair (MTTR) a failure.
The supply of electrical energy depends
essentially on:
c the topological structure of the electrical
network for all the possible operating modes and
during their changes in status condition (normal,
downgraded and safe modes);
c normal operation of the system when the
various operating scenarios run correctly;
c the organisation of maintenance;
c forecasts concerning accidental disturbances.
Effects and solutions
Electrically speaking, operating failures in a
network manifest themselves in the manners
presented below.
c Energy outages of the utility. The distribution
networks themselves fail or are disturbed (device
failure, atmospheric disturbances, etc.). The
results are voltage sags and more or less long
outages for the incoming substations. Depending
on the network topology and the means
implemented, these disturbances may be
propagated down to the load level.
c Insulation faults. The resulting short-circuits
provoke for the loads voltage sags or outages
that depend on:
v the protection devices installed and their level
of discrimination;
v the "electrical" distance between the load and
the fault;
v the network topology which may offer the
means to reconfigure the system through active
or passive redundancy.
c Nuisance tripping which provokes a break in
the supply of power to the downstream loads.
c Switching faults when the switchgear does not
carry out the expected change in status
(requested opening or closing of a circuit). These
failures are generally not a direct cause of
disturbances for the loads. However, they are
often not detected and subsequently cause
network malfunctions when other phenomena
occur such as:
v loss of protection and/or discrimination;
v loss of reconfiguration or backup means.
The effects of voltage sags or outages depend
on the sensitivity of the load.
Certain loads, such as computer equipment, are
sensitive to voltage sags and very short outages
(a few dozen milliseconds), whereas other
devices can handle longer outages without
disturbing the process.
It is therefore important to characterise devices
by their degree of sensitivity.
What is more, the actual down time of a load or a
process does not depend necessarily on the
duration of the outage. In certain cases, the
return to normal operation can depend on much
more than the simple return of electrical energy
(e.g. preparation of clean rooms, set-up of
machine tools, chemical processes, etc.).
From it above, it is clear that it is necessary to
determine the criticality of loads based on the
consequences of a shutdown.
The traditional means implemented to prevent
these disturbances are:
c autonomous sources (gensets, gas turbines,
etc.);
c multiple incomers from the distribution
network, as independent as possible;
c installation of power interfaces (UPSs, no-break
power supplies, etc.);
c systems used to resupply loads via either
network reconfiguration (source-changeover
systems, loops, etc.) or an alternate source
located as close as possible to the load;
c installation of devices to detect failures as fast
as possible (short intervals between preventive
maintenance work, automatic tests, etc.).
The contribution of a study
An operating-dependability study is the means to
manage the risks of negative events during
design of the network architecture by:
c determining the criticality of loads and,
depending on their degree of sensitivity, the
possible negative events for the electrical
installation. The goal is to identify the critical
points in the network and to determine their
performance criteria in terms of dependability;
c running quantitative analysis of one or more
basic architectures according to dependability
factors;
c finally, justifying the decisions made
concerning backup and/or interface systems,
redundancy, preventive maintenance, given the
customer's needs.
Example
This case is drawn from a study to improve the
electrical network of an automobile factory
(see Fig. 5 ). The goal was to reduce the
number and duration of outages due to failures
and maintenance activities.
c Purpose of the calculations
Implement criticality analysis, quantify the
existing system, then propose improvements.
Fig. 5: Recommended modifications (in green) carried out on the electrical network of an automobile factory, diagram and results
(source Schneider Electric).
Fault-tree analysis
Parameter Current Future Gain
Non-availability of electrical
energy in hours per year 6.9 0.7 90 %
5.5 kV/380 V
transformers
5.5 kV - 2000 A busbars 5.5 kV - 2000 A busbars
Backup
transformer
Backup switches
Workshops' feeders
5.5 kV substations supplied by open loop
Diagram of HV/LV distribution loop
2500 A LV
circuit breakers
c Results of the calculations
The calculations provided the data required to
determine modifications in the topology that
produced the desired increase in dependability
(see the diagram in Figure 5).
Annual lack of energy availability of less than
one hour was obtained and the maintenance of
electrical equipment no longer results in
interrupting the supply of power to the process.
4.2 Steady-state conditions
Correct operation of an electrical network during
normal, stable operating conditions results from
good overall design of the system.
The notion of steady-state conditions is defined
in the installation and supply standards by:
c the rated frequency of the electrical signals,
called the power frequency;
c the amplitude and phase of the voltage and
current waves, and their changes over time;
c the active and reactive power levels (supplied,
drawn, lost) and the corresponding energy.
Goals
The purpose of studying the behaviour under
steady-state conditions is to:
c design networks (basic sizing of installations
and equipment, system control and
management);
c take into account risk situations caused by
installation malfunctions or problems inherent in
the electrical devices (wear, ageing).
The phenomena requiring analysis are all the
normal exchanges of active and reactive energy
at power frequencies between the sources and
loads, via electrical connectors, under the
foreseeable operating conditions of the supplied
process and the electrical system:
c flow of currents;
c distribution of voltages;
c corresponding active and reactive power.
Correct operation of networks under steady-state
conditions depends on:
c normal use of the system, a consequence of
the operation and requirements of the process
and the network, i.e. the sources and loads in
use, variations in supply voltages, downgraded
and emergency modes;
c the structure of the electrical network for the
various operating modes, in terms of topology,
length of lines, voltage levels).
Electrically speaking, malfunctions occur in one
of the three forms presented below.
c Supply voltages outside tolerances
The voltage of supply networks is standardised.
For example, standard EN50160 authorises
tolerances of 10% above and below the rated
voltage. The entire network is subjected to the
consequences of these variations (within 10%).
Calculation of steady-state conditions must
therefore take into account the combinations of
extreme voltage and consumption values.
c Voltage drops on lines or transformers
Drops are due to the currents and depend on the
active (P) and reactive (Q) power levels, and the
impedance, resistive (R) and inductive (X),
according to the law on relative variation
U/U = (R P + X Q)/U
2
.
A voltage drop produces various disturbances:
v voltage variations within the 10% limits of the
rated value, depending on the changes in the
connected loads and sources;
v voltage fluctuations, due to voltage variations
at frequencies that cause lights to flicker. These
fluctuations are provoked by certain typical high-
power variable loads, such as welding machines
or arc furnaces;
v a voltage unbalance in the three-phase system
due to large single-phase or two-phase loads.
Voltage drops provoke:
v additional temperature rise in electric circuits
and thus greater losses;
v tripping of circuit breakers and slowing of
machines;
v malfunctions of sensitive loads and protection
devices;
v bothersome flicker effect in lighting.
Voltage drops can be limited in a number of
manners.
v Reduction of R and X, by modifying the short-
circuit voltage of transformers, the size of lines or
their length (layout of loads).
v Increase of the rated voltage with a
corresponding reduction of current, which
provokes a significant reduction in losses
(quadratic law).
c Instantaneous propagation throughout the
network of the source voltage level and of
voltage drops.
This effect impacts on each element to a
different degree (quantitatively), depending on
the system topology.
Calculation of the steady-state conditions is the
means to foresee the distribution of voltages and
to propose solutions in view of limiting
propagation by:
v increasing the short-circuit power of the
sources;
v using regulators for the transformers (load and
no-load conditions);
v power-factor correction equipment, which
corresponds to a negative voltage drop
(capacitors, electromechanical conditioners in
the form of synchronous machines or static
systems such as static Var compensators);
v rebalancing of the single-phase loads on the
three phases.
The purpose of this study is to ensure correct
design of the electrical installation, taking into
account future changes and all process
operating modes through:
c thoughtful evaluation of the basic decisions;
c calculation of the power sums of the steady-
state conditions;
c taking into account the different operating
configurations of the electrical network,
including the emergency and backup
structures;
c economic optimisation (balance between
investment and energy losses).
Example
This case is drawn from a study on the design of
a commercial site, using the dedicated ECODIAL
software program developed by Schneider
Electric, in compliance with the UTE 15-500
guide.
Only the first step in this study is presented here.
It deals with the power sum of the installation,
required to size the supply sources.
Note that for a low-voltage installation, the
apparent-power values, after weighting by
application of the load and diversity factors, are
summed algebraically, conductor losses are
neglected and the nodes are at the rated
voltage.
Figure 6 shows the analysed single-line diagram
with the screen for the data and the results (the
Fig. 6: Design of a commercial site using the dedicated ECODIAL software, showing the single-line diagram and the power-sum screen
(source Merlin Gerin - Schneider Electric).
B1 MLVS
RA
RB
Q1
C1
TRA GE
T1
B5 T Workshop
Q5
C5
L5
x2
Offices
Q2
C2
G2
G
Q6
C6
L6
x4
Machine
R3
Q3
C3
CAP
Q4
C4
Workshop
Q7
C7
D7
E7
x4
Lighting
Lighting
Q8
C8.1
V8
M8
M
x5
Var Speed Mot
C8.2
Var Speed Mot
Q9
K9
M9
M
x2
C9
Motor
characteristics of individual loads may be
accessed for each switchboard), where the
calculated total power for the source is 275 kVA.
This power sum is used to select the correct
power ratings for the source transformer and the
backup genset.
The values of the currents in lines are stored in
memory for later use in sizing the devices.
4.3 Short-circuit
Operation of an electrical network may result in
faults in the form of high short-circuit currents
producing serious consequences that must be
managed as best possible.
A short-circuit is an accidental contact between
conductors, determined by:
c its type, which indicates the elements
involved, i.e. single-phase (between a phase and
earth or neutral), three-phase (between three
phases), phase-to-phase clear of earth (between
two phases), two-phase-to-earth (between two
phases and earth),
c its initiation characteristics, i.e. the waveform
of the current over time,
c its amperage (minimum and maximum values),
c its duration which is variable because the fault
can be transient or continuous,
c its origin, internal (within a device) or external
(between connectors).
Goals
The purpose of studying a network subjected to
a short-circuit is to:
c identify risk situations that can possibly cause:
v danger for persons,
v destruction of devices due to electrodynamic
forces, excessive temperature rise and
overvoltages,
v malfunctions that can result in total loss of the
network due to voltage sags and outages,
c assist in making basic design decisions to limit
the effects of faults, concerning:
v system earthing arrangements (SEA),
v suitable sizing of devices,
v protection settings, determined on the basis of
the fault-current calculations.
The phenomenon requiring analysis is a sudden
unbalance in the initial steady-state conditions:
c due to the appearance of high currents and
voltage drops at the fault points,
c extension of the unbalance to the entire
network,
c resulting in a new balance rendering the
system unusable in part or whole, more
vulnerable and disturbed.
The origins of short-circuits in networks are
accidental disturbances caused by undesired
contacts between conductors, dielectric
breakdown of insulation due to overvoltages,
mechanical events (breaking of cable, falling
tree, animal) or human errors. The effects
depend on the structure of the network, including
the SEA, distant sources (distribution network) or
near sources (nearby genset).
Electrically speaking, short-circuits produce a
direct effect in the form of an overcurrent and an
indirect effect in the form of voltage variations.
c The direct effect is produced on the installation
components according to the successive phases
of the initiation of the current:
v peak value of the first half period, which is the
maximum instantaneous peak,
v rms value of the AC component,
v value of the non-periodic (DC) component,
which depends on when the fault occurs and the
network characteristics. If the value is equal to
zero, the operating mode is said to be
symmetrical, otherwise it is asymmetrical.
The DC component adds to the AC component.
The effects impacting on equipment are:
v the electrodynamic forces exerted on the
busbars and along cables,
v the temperature rise due to the flow of current
in lines and switchgear,
v the operating capability (C+O) of a device on a
shorted circuit.
These effects are managed by selecting
sufficiently sized devices and equipment:
v electrodynamic withstand of lines, which
characterises their mechanical strength,
v the current vs. permissible duration
characteristics, which represent the thermal
withstand capacity,
v the short-circuit breaking and making
capacities which define the capacity of circuit
breakers to handle the forces brought into play.
c The indirect effect is produced by voltage sags
or outages and by the increased potential of the
exposed conductive parts (ECP), with as a
result:
v malfunctions of sensitive devices, opening of
contacts, locking of variable-speed drives,
v disturbances in the transient behaviour of
rotating machines (see section 4.5),
v dielectric destruction of devices (see section 4.5),
v touch voltages for persons.
These effects are countered by controlling:
v the transient conditions (see section 4.5),
v overvoltages (see section 4.7),
v clearing of faults by implementing a suitable
protection system (see section 4.4).
The purpose of this study is to foresee the
constraints inherent in faults:
c calculation of currents and voltages,
c for the various types of faults,
c and for the operating configurations, providing
minimum and maximum values.
These results are then used to design the
electrical lines (e.g. the size of busbars and their
fixing system).
Example
a power station, where it was necessary to size
the devices in the substation.
Check that the protection circuit breaker has the
capacity to break the short-circuit current
produced by a fault close to the generator, for
example on the substation busbars. The problem
lies in determining the most unfavourable current
initiation conditions (moment of the initial zero
crossing time).
Them three-phase current is asymmetrical
(see Fig. 7 ) with the superposition of a damped
Fig. 7: Study on the substation of a power station, simulation of the asymmetrical three-phase short-circuit current
produced by a fault near the generator.
-10
0
Total current
Peak current Breaking current Steady state current
40
60 20
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
480
500
-5
0
5
10
15
20
DC component
4.4 Protection
An electrical network that malfunctions must not
endanger life and property.
Network protection is a set of devices that detect
abnormal situations and react in a reliable,
discriminate and rapid manner.
The main malfunctions were described in the
previous sections.
Goals
The purpose of calculating the protection system
is to:
c identify abnormal operating situations that may
result in accidents for humans, destruction of
devices or the loss of supply for consumers,
c determine the necessary measures to ensure
the protection of life and property, and the
availability of electrical energy. These measures
result in the following necessary operations:
v definition of the protection system,
v selection, installation and combination of the
breaking and protection devices,
v determining the settings of protection devices.
The electrical phenomena that must be studied
are those present:
c during operation at power frequency, when
operating malfunctions occur affecting the rated
values, e.g. power (overload), current, voltage,
frequency, etc.,
c during faults, short-circuits and overvoltages.
Protection devices must be suited to:
c normal system operation which may drift
toward abnormal conditions (overloads, voltage
sags, etc.),
c foreseeable accidental disturbances, including
short-circuits, human errors,
c network architecture (radial, open or closed
loop).
A faulty protection system is manifested,
electrically speaking, by voltage drops
throughout the network, overvoltages, overloads,
short-circuit currents, where the main effects are:
c accidents for persons,
c destruction of devices and equipment,
c malfunctions of the electrical network and,
consequently, of the process.
These effects can be avoided by:
c first, fundamental decisions concerning:
v the SEA: isolated (IT), earthed (TT or TN),
impedant, compensated,
v the breaking devices: circuit breaker, fuse,
disconnector-fuse, disconnector,
v the discrimination system: current, time,
energy, ZSI, directional, differential,
c then, by coordinating the protection devices
based on the results of the short-circuit study
(settings of relays and trip units, cascading
between LV circuit breakers).
Practically speaking, this means:
v de-energising the faulty section of the network
as fast as possible,
v maintaining energised the non-faulty sections
and, if possible,
v backup protection by the upstream device,
where the general idea behind the protection
settings is to trip for the smallest fault current
and not to trip for the highest normal current.
operation of the electrical installation, where the
major parameters are:
c faults on the distribution network (phase faults,
earth leakage and faults, overloads),
c faults in the machines operating on the site
(rotating machines, computer equipment, etc.),
c the operating configurations, i.e. the sources,
loads, emergency modes, future extensions,
c the devices in the protection system: sensors,
relays/trip units, breaking devices,
c the protection plan and the settings of the
protection devices.
Example
the network for a petrochemical site.
Select the protection functions for one of the HV/
LV transformers in the installation and determine
the settings for a maximum three-phase short-
circuit on the LV side.
sinusoidal and a non-periodic current, hence the
characteristic currents (peak, interrupted,
continuous).
The maximum constraints exerted on the
installation are used to select the circuit breaker
in compliance with standard IEC 62271-100.
The part of the installation in question is shown
with its protection system and the table lists the
recommended settings for the protection
functions (see Fig. 8 ). The time/LV current
curves in Figure 9 show that discrimination is
ensured between the sections upstream and
downstream of the transformer.
Relay ANSI Type Setting Delay
code
A1 49 Thermal 120% 105 min
A2 50/51 Overcurrent 1400 A 0.5 s
Definite time
A2 50/51 Overcurrent 3300 A 0.1 s
Definite time
B 50/51 Overcurrent 12000 A 0.25 s
Definite time
C 50/51 Overcurrent 3200 A 0.04 s
Definite time
Fig. 8: Discrimination study for a petrochemical site, diagram and types of protection relays selected for a HV/LV
transformer.
Fig. 9: Discrimination diagram for protection devices placed upstream and downstream of the transformer.
400 V
6 kV
M
B 50/51
C 50/51
A1
A2
49
50/51
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
t (s)
1 1
3
4
2
0
0
1000 10000 1e+005 1e+006
I (A)
(O) : Fault current on LV outgoer: maximum three-phase
A1(1): thermal, A2(2): overcurrent, B(3): overcurrent, C(4): overcurrent on LV outgoer
4.5 Stability
such as load variations, start of large motors,
load switching and busbar management, etc.
c Structure of the electrical network
This category includes the topology, source
regulations (generators and transformers) and
the protection and automation systems in the
electrical network.
Instability is manifested, electrically speaking, by
the main types of malfunctions listed below.
c Frequency variations
An unbalance in the active power between the
production centre and the loads results in a
frequency variation throughout the system. The
variation may exceed the permissible limits (e.g.
2%) beyond which the production centres are
disconnected from the network. This situation
can degenerate to the point where the entire
system fails.
This problem can be avoided by automatically
and gradually shedding loads, as well as by
calling on reserve power (genset startup and
regulation at maximum power).
c Voltage variations
Voltage drops are due to power flows (primarily
reactive) in lines and transformers, or to very
high currents.
This cumulative phenomenon (a drop in voltage
produces an increase in the current and vice
versa) can result in system failure or
malfunctions.
This risk is limited by making available sufficient
and well distributed reactive power (regulation of
source reactive power, compensation capacitors,
transformer load regulators, position of reactive
sources), by load shedding and changes in
motor start modes.
c Cascading overloads
The elimination of circuits due to temperature
rise or damage results in load transfers to other
circuits, again with the risk of a cumulative effect.
That is why systems are normally designed to
accept the loss of a line (N-1 operating situation)
by modifying the network operating topology or
the overload protection devices, or by starting up
new sources.
c Loss of synchronisation
Short-circuits result in desynchronisation
between generators, which may make it
necessary to disconnect certain machines. The
resulting current and voltage oscillations in the
network and the loss of elements (loads or
sources) disconnected by their protection
systems can lead to the failure of the entire
network.
Stability concerns essentially high-power
networks, with high voltages and generally a
wide-area and complex topological structure,
possibly with one or more energy-production
sites.
Correct operation of an AC electrical network is
the result of continuous adjustments in the
balance (hence stability) between energy
production and consumption over time and
space.
The notion of network stability is characterised
by:
c steady-state stability (minor changes) where
the system returns to its initial status following a
normal, low-amplitude disturbance,
c transient stability/instability, where the system
shifts from one stable state to another, or
diverges, following a sudden disturbance (loss of
load or source, start of a high-power motor),
c dynamic stability, where system operation is
controlled by limiting the negative effects of
disturbances (e.g. protection of vital loads) using
appropriate solutions (e.g. load shedding).
Goals
The purpose of studying the dynamic behaviour
of a network is to identify risk situations that may
result in transient instability and to determine the
necessary counter-measures in view of
maintaining dynamic stability. These measures
deal with:
c clearing electrical faults within acceptable time
limits, by the protection system,
c optimising operating modes,
c suitable sizing of the installation.
Instability phenomena occur throughout the
network in the form of:
c electromechanical oscillations of machines
around their position of synchronous balance,
resulting in variations in speed and the rated
power frequency (50 or 60 Hz),
c oscillations in current flows in the lines
between sources and/or loads, producing
exchanges of active and reactive power and
resulting in voltage drops.
Instability has three possible origins.
c Accidental disturbances
This category includes short-circuits, voltage
sags, outages and failure of sources, nuisance
tripping, device failure, human errors, etc.
c Normal network operation
This category includes the consequences of
operation and the requirements of processes
This situation is avoided by correct monitoring of
generator settings, an effective protection plan
and a well thought out load-shedding plan.
A study systematically covers the main
phenomena presenting a risk and adapts to the
particular aspects of each situation requiring
analysis by taking into account the responses of
the process:
c three-phase short-circuit (two-phase or single-
phase where applicable),
c loss of lines, sources or loads,
c motor start-up,
c sharing, shedding and connection of loads,
c source electromechanical regulation modes
and coupling (public networks, turbines and
generators).
To be complete, the study must include:
c contingency analysis taking into account
standard operating problems (e.g. the N+1 rule,
short-circuits at different voltage levels, etc.) and
even exceptional problems,
c simulation of the operation of protection devices
and automation systems (actions and chronology),
c analysis of sensitivity to the decisive parameters
(e.g. fault clearing time, motor characteristics,
setting coefficients for generator regulators, etc.).
Example
This case is drawn from design study for a
heavy-industry production site.
The installation comprises a number of sources
supplying the loads (motors and passive loads)
via two sets of busbars (priority and non-priority)
(see Fig. 10 ).
1000
0
2000
Tripping in less than 300 ms Tripping in 350 ms
V
1 2 3 4 5 6
sec
The voltage returns to normal.
The process is correctly resupplied.
fault
B1
C
Utility
G1
O
C
non-priority priority
O
G2
1000
0
2000
3000
V
1 2 3 4 5 6
sec
The voltage does not return to normal.
The process is not correctly resupplied.
fault
0.85
0.80
0
0.90
0.95
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
sec
The pump reaccelerates. The process continues.
fault
0.85
0.80
0
0.90
0.95
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
sec
The pump stalls. The process shuts down.
fault
Fig. 10: Stability study on a heavy-industry production site. Diagram and significant curves following tripping.
The following was noted during a short-circuit on
the secondary of a transformer connected to the
public utility:
v a voltage drop that provoked, among other
problems, a slowing of the motors,
v when the fault was cleared, the current drawn
by the motors rose to the in-rush level, producing
considerable voltage drops and insufficient
reacceleration torques for certain motors that
stalled or crawled.
The motors can reaccelerate only if the fault is
sufficiently short.
c Purpose of the study
The short-circuit is normally cleared by the
transformer protection devices (opening of the
upstream and downstream circuit breakers). The
goal is to determine the maximum clearing time
that ensures the dynamic stability of the network.
c Results of the study
The voltage and speed curves show that network
stability is ensured, for a three-phase short-
circuit on the secondary of the transformer, when
the protection devices are set to less than
300 ms.
4.6 Harmonics
Harmonics concern essentially electrical
networks supplying non-linear loads
representing a high power level with respect to
the source and capacitors.
All AC networks encounter some distortion of the
current and voltage sinusoidal waveforms due to
the types of loads and/or the sources.
Harmonic pollution of a network is quantified by
the signal distortion transformed into a spectrum
(amplitude and phase) with the fundamental (50
or 60 Hz) and the harmonic orders (successive
whole number orders), from which it is possible
to deduce:
c the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the
current and voltage, which measures the rms
value of the distortion with respect to the
fundamental,
c the laws governing the combination of
harmonic values with respect to the amplitude
and phase.
Goals
The purpose of studying the response of a
network to harmonics is to:
c identify risk situations which may cause
malfunctions or temperature rise in certain
devices, premature ageing, electromagnetic or
mechanical disturbances,
c then determine the precautions required to
control the situations, maintaining pollution at
acceptable levels with respect to standards
(devices, installation, supply).
These precautions cover:
c identification of the polluting loads,
c estimation of filtering solutions,
c suitable sizing of installations,
c optimisation of operating architectures.
The different electrical phenomena related
to the presence of harmonics occur
throughout the network, via interdependent
mechanisms:
c generation of harmonic current or voltage
sources by the polluting loads,
c effects of the pollution in the immediate vicinity
of the polluting sources,
c propagation of the harmonics to the entire
network with effects produced on all loads,
c composition of the pollution at all points in the
network at each instant,
c possible amplification of the pollution through
resonance (plug circuit) when capacitors are
present (long lines, power-factor correction).
Harmonics have a number of causes:
c normal operation of the network, due to
process operation and requirements, including
operation of polluting loads at different speeds,
starting or stopping of other loads,
c the structure of the electrical network, including
the voltage levels, separation of polluting and
vulnerable loads, the relative power of sources,
polluting loads and capacitors.
This pollution is manifested, electrically
speaking, by the main types of malfunctions
listed below.
c Direct sources of pollution
The loads distorting the current represent the
vast majority of the devices causing harmonics.
They are said to be "non linear" because the
current drawn does not have the same waveform
as the supply voltage. Each type of load has a
specific harmonic spectrum.
There are passive loads (welding machines, arc
furnaces, lamps) and power-electronic loads that
are increasingly used (variable-speed drives,
rectifiers and dimmers, UPSs and devices with
switch-mode power supplies).
The voltage and power ranges of these devices
are very wide, ranging from small household
appliances (LV, a few dozen Watts) up to large
industrial loads (HV, dozens of MW).
Voltage pollution is due to the design of coils and
magnetic circuits of devices (rotating machines,
transformers).
The limitation of harmonics caused by loads is
possible, to a certain extent, by 12-pulse bridges,
converters drawing a sinusoidal signal,
smoothing inductors and built-in filters.
c Direct effects of pollution on loads
v Harmonic currents cause stray power
phenomena resulting in additional temperature
rise and energy losses.
This can be avoided by oversizing devices
according to derating coefficients defined by
equipment standards.
v Voltage distortion caused by harmonics
disturbs operation of electronic devices (e.g. shift
in zero crossing time of the reference wave).
v Harmonics also product mechanical (noise,
vibrations) and electromagnetic (low currents
affected by high currents) effects
(electromagnetic compatibility - EMC).
c Transmission results in harmonic propagation,
amplification and addition.
v The loads drawing harmonic currents inject the
disturbances into the entire network, as a
function of the impedances encountered. The
result is voltage distortion supplied to the loads
throughout the network.
v In addition, the presence of capacitors can
amplify the pollution due to resonance (plug
circuit) made up of the capacitor in parallel with
the network inductors).
v In its own immediate vicinity, each polluting
load suffers the negative effects of its own
harmonics.
Finally, at each point in the network, the vector
composition of the various harmonics also
produces its effect at all times. Practically
speaking, the harmonics are summed using a
standardised method that takes into account a
non-simultaneity factor (IEC 60871).
c The risk criteria are quantified by standards
and regulations based on the distortion levels.
Generally speaking, a situation is considered
serious when the THDU reaches 5% and
difficulties are certain to occur above 10%. That
is why utilities contractually undertake to supply
voltage under a given level of THD and users
must limit the harmonic currents injected.
Practically speaking, risk situations are
evaluated according to power criteria applied to
polluting loads and capacitors.
c A number of methods exist to limit risks:
v increase the short-circuit power of sources,
v separate sensitive loads from polluters,
v install antiharmonic inductors (capacitors are
protected against harmonic overloads),
v install passive filters (harmonics are trapped in
circuits with a low inductance),
v install active filters (harmonics are neutralised
by harmonic injection in phase opposition).
operation of the installation when the harmonic
loads are turned on, by:
c calculation of distortion, taking into account the
spectrum of the polluters (amplitudes and
phases, laws governing composition and
propagation),
c optimum calculation of filtering,
c calculation of device oversizing (steady-state
and transient harmonic constraints),
c analysis of network operating diagrams in the
various operating modes (normal and
downgraded for connection of sources, polluters
and loads),
c analysis of sensitivity to important parameters
(e.g. variation in the values of electrical elements
in the network as a function of the accuracy,
temperature, etc.).
Example
a steel mill with a DC arc furnace and a capacitor
bank for power-factor correction (see Fig. 11 ).
The furnace draws whole-number harmonics
(rectifier) superimposed on a DC spectrum
(unstable arc).
The capacitor bank forms a plug circuit with the
system inductors (antiresonant, third order),
resulting in a prohibitively high level of THD
(18.5%). It is necessary to calculate the filtering
required to reduce the THD to an acceptable
level.
Mounting of the capacitors in three damped
resonant filters (tuned to orders 3, 5, 7) modifies
the network impedance spectrum and reduces
the voltage THD to an acceptable value of 3%.
Fig. 11: Study on harmonics for a steel mill (diagram and spectra).
225 kV network
Pscn = 6000 MVA
Psc min = 4800 MVA
63 kV cable
L = 1000 m
S = 1000 mm
2
140 MVA
arc furnace
225 kV/63 kV
s = 170 MVA
Usc = 12.5 %
63 kV busbars
Harmonic filters
50
100
150
Without filter
Dampened filter
Impedance as seen by the load
Impedance spectrum as seen from the 63 kV busbars. Current spectrum of the furnace.
Ohm
2 4 6 8
10
20
30
Amp
5 10
Harmonic
order
Harmonic
order
4.7 Overvoltages
Overvoltages concern all electrical networks,
which however differ in vulnerability according to
their topology, voltage level, types of devices
employed and operating modes.
Operation of AC networks is always subject to
voltage disturbances in the form of peak voltages
beyond the limits stipulated by standards or
specifications.
Overvoltages in a network are quantified by the
amplitude and shape of the waveform and by the
duration of the disturbance:
c overvoltage coefficient, ratio between the peak
amplitude of the voltage and the rms value of the
operating voltage,
c continuous sinusoidal overvoltage (at power
frequency) for a long duration (over one hour),
c temporary sinusoidal overvoltage (near power
frequency), for a relatively long duration
(between 1.5 times the power frequency and one
hour),
c transient overvoltage (oscillating or not),
generally rapidly damped, very short (less than
the power frequency). This category includes
overvoltages with a slow front (e.g. switching
impulses), a fast front (lightning strikes) and a
very fast front.
Goals
The purpose of a network study on overvoltages
is to:
c identify risk situations that may result in:
v destruction of devices and equipment by
dielectric breakdown, electrodynamic constraints
and ageing,
v malfunction of electronic devices,
c determine the measures required to limit their
effects to a minimum, thus ensuring effective
withstand of network devices and equipment.
These measures cover:
c installation design (SEA),
c estimation of protection devices (type, location
and rating),
c correct sizing of devices and equipment,
c operating advice.
The observed phenomena are damped
oscillating exchanges of energy between circuits
(inductors, capacitors, resistors) occurring
instantaneously by local status changes (e.g.
device switching). Depending on the type of
overvoltage, they are manifested by:
c their formation at the point of change,
c their propagation to the rest of the network,
according to the laws of reflection, refraction and
overlaying of the transmitted waves, with
attenuation that is a function of the frequencies
involved (the higher the frequency, the faster the
damping),
c the possible combination of different types of
overvoltage, likely to increase the constraints.
Overvoltages affecting networks have a number
of origins:
c normal network operation, including load
switching, switching on or off of inductive or
capacitive circuits (cables, lines, capacitors,
transformers, motors), the specific operation of
protection devices,
c the structure of the electrical network, including
the SEA, voltage levels, the length of lines,
c accidental disturbances, including faults and
the measures to clear them, nuisance tripping,
lightning strikes.
Electrically speaking, these overvoltages are
grouped according to their main types
(see Fig. 12 ):
c at power frequency, which may have different
causes such as insulation faults, load unbalance,
overcorrection of the power factor, etc.,
c switching impulses, due to connection or
disconnection (common events during normal
Overvoltage Low frequency Transient
class
Permanent Temporary Slow front Fast front Very fast front
Shape
Shape range f = 50 or 60 Hz 10 < f < 500 Hz 5.000 > Tp > 20 s 20 > T1 > 0,1 s 100 > Tf > 3 ns
(frequency, rising Tt u 3.600 s 3.600 u Tt u 0.03 s 20 ms u T2 300 s u T2 0.3 > f1 > 100 MHz
front, term) 30 > f2 > 300 kHz
3 ms u Tt
Standardised shape f = 50 or 60 Hz 48 i f i 62 Hz Tp = 250 s T1 = 1.2 s (*)
Tt (*) Tt = 60 s T2 = 2.500 s T2 = 50 s
Standardised (*) Short duration Switching Lightning (*)
withstand test power frequency impulse test impulse test
test
(*) to be specified by the relevant product Committee
T
t
T
t
T
2
T
p
T
2
T
1 T
f
T
t
Fig. 12: The different types of overvoltage.
operation of the network) of a device, such as a
transformer, motor, reactor, capacitor or cable/
line,
c resulting from faults or their clearing. The fault
is considered an involuntary or inevitable
switching operation, followed by a second
operation when it is cleared,
c lightning impulses, following a lightning strike
which is a sudden discharge of current that can
reach several thousand amperes.
Depending on their type, overvoltages produce
different effects and the solutions to avoid them
must be suited to each type.
c Power frequency
v An insulation fault in a network causes an
overvoltage with a theoretical coefficient of up to
1.7 (single-phase fault with an isolated neutral).
Similarly, breaking of the neutral conductor
causes overvoltages by displacing the neutral
point.
v A load unbalance in a three-phase network can
unbalance the system to the point of saturating
the transformers and disturbing operation of
motors.
v Overcorrection of the power factor due to shunt
capacitors raises the voltage if the load level is
low.
v A line carrying no load behaves like a series of
LC circuits with a gain greater than one (Ferranti
effect), resulting in a continuous overvoltage at
the end of the line with a non-negligible
amplitude for distances greater than 300 km
(factor of 1.05). This effect is even greater when
a load is disconnected at the end of a long line.
v Ferro-resonance, a non-linear oscillation
between a capacitor and a saturable inductor,
may result in overvoltages in some situations,
e.g. a voltage transformer in series with an open
circuit breaker or between a phase and the
neutral in an IT system, etc.
All these risks can be limited by design and
operating precautions. For example, correctly
balanced loads, checks on initial energisation of
capacitors, installation of voltage relays on
incomers.
c Switching impulses
The resulting overvoltages depend on the load
conditions (load or no load), with or without a
residual load, according to a certain periodicity
and taking into account the actual physical
behaviour of the switching device in terms of
pre-arcing, withstand to the transient recovery
voltage (restrike/re-ignition) and current pinch-
off.
v When a capacitor is switched in at the
maximum network voltage, the overvoltage
coefficient can reach 2 and for disconnection the
coefficient can reach 3.
v During switching of a transformer or motor, the
overvoltage coefficient can reach 2, in addition
the steep front of the transients produces
particularly high constraints on the initial spires
of the windings of the devices.
v During line switching, the overvoltage
coefficient can reach 3. This is the case for
reconnection of a long line with a trapped
residual charge (capacitive load).
Switching overvoltages can cause dielectric
breakdown in devices and system malfunction.
The recommended protection devices act by
limiting and damping the energy oscillations
between the circuits, through insertion resistors
in circuit breakers and contactors, checks at the
time of switching by a synchroniser, RC surge
arrestor or even lightning arrestors.
c Impulses during faults (appearance and
clearing).
The occurrence of a fault generally results in an
overvoltage coefficient of less than 2 and it is
more the overcurrents that are a problem (see
section 4.3).
Fault clearing provokes an overvoltage with a
coefficient of less than 2.5 (worst case of a
single-phase fault with an isolated neutral). The
transient is overlaid on the temporary situation
caused by the fault.
c Lightning strikes
The sudden current discharge can reach several
hundred kiloamperes, combined with a voltage
that is a function of the network impedances.
This current can discharge:
v to a line or a metal structure. During
propagation, the resulting voltage waves can
cause insulator flash-over and overvoltages,
v to earth causing an increase in the potential,
which causes voltage increases in the earth
electrodes of installations.
Lightning currents produce thermal and
mechanical effects (electrodynamic forces),
whereas lightning voltages cause dielectric
breakdown of devices and system malfunctions.
Protection devices act in two manners:
v first, they avoid direct lightning impacts on
electrical systems and divert them to earth
(lightning rods, lightning shields and earth
electrodes),
v secondly, they direct the lightning currents
conducted in the network to earth to limit
overvoltages and avoid dielectric breakdown
(spark gap units, lightning arrestors, varistors,
high-quality earth electrodes, etc. in LV/MV/HV).
A study intended to prevent the negative effects
of overvoltages in installations comprises the
following steps:
c qualitative evaluation of the risk phenomena,
which depend on the studied network,
c calculation of the generated overvoltages and
study of their transmission to the system,
c analysis of sensitivity to important parameters,
c definition of the protection devices,
c determination of device and equipment
insulation in compliance with the applicable
standards.
Example
The selected case is drawn from a study on the
design of a HV distribution substation that must
be securely protected against overvoltages
caused by lightning striking the incoming line.
The purpose is to size devices for lightning
overvoltages taking into account the
recommendations of standard IEC 60071-1 and
2 on insulation coordination, which quantifies the
risk. The mean time between two destructive
faults is between 250 and 1 000 years.
Statistic simulation of lightning impacts on the
line using the electrogeometric model indicates
the distribution of the overvoltages propagated in
the substation and is used to deduce the
probability of the resulting risk (see table in
Figure 13 ).
Optimum substation protection against lightning,
quantified as per the insulation-coordination
standard, consisted of lightning arrestors in the
substation and the level of protection shown in
figure 13.
Struck line
P1 lightning arrestor
GIS substation
Transformer
Cable
Risk for:
Installed Cable GIS Transformer
lighning substation
arrestors (LIWL* 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV)
P1 1454 years 425 years 299 years
P1+ P3 2053 years 812 years 592 years
P1+ P2 + P3 10
E
9 years 10
E
9 years 2.7 10
E
6 years
(*) LIWL: lightning impulse withstand level.
Fig. 13: Study on lightning overvoltages for the design
of a HV distribution substation, diagram and risk
estimates.
4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) concerns
all electric and electronic devices, systems and
installations. The notion is defined in the
international standards as the capacity of a
device, system or installation to operate normally
in its electromagnetic environment without
causing disturbances.
Goals
The purpose of an EMC study is to:
c identify the situations likely to provoke and/or
be subjected to system malfunctions during
operation in view of evaluating the
consequences,
c provide the suitable solutions based on the
standards and good professional practices to
limit the effects in installations.
Studies cover all electromagnetic disturbances:
c resulting from interaction between various
network elements, i.e. the source, coupling via
the transmitter and the victim for which normal
operation is disturbed,
c over a spectrum, depending on the waveform,
ranging from continuous up to a GHz and higher,
c characterised by their amplitude and energy,
c according to the conduction and/or radiation
modes.
Electromagnetic emissions have a number of
origins:
c normal network operation, because voltages
and currents can be natural sources of
disturbances,
c the network structure and installation
implementation, which can facilitate the
transmission of disturbances.
Transmission of electromagnetic disturbances
takes place via different types of coupling:
c capacitive (voltage) between nearby
conductors, e.g. closely laid cables, etc.,
c inductive (current) between conductors, e.g.
cables with high and low currents, etc.,
c antenna effect (electromagnetic radiation), e.g.
output cable of an electronic device with HF
chopping, etc.,
c galvanic due to the common impedance of
circuits, e.g. a single conductor for the supply of
a data-acquisition device and measurement
acquisition.
The noted effects concern essentially:
c the malfunction of elements in the electrical
system and the process controlled by sensitive
devices,
c temperature rise and/or the destruction of
electronic, analogue or digital components.
All these effects are managed by good
professional practices in view of:
c reducing the level of disturbances emitted by
the sources,
c reducing the coupling modes,
c reducing the vulnerability of the victims
(hardening), by adapting, for the concerned
frequency ranges:
v the manner in which the SEA is taken into
account,
v wiring, e.g. cable selection, separation and
running of power cables and low-current (signal)
cables,
v shielding, e.g. the types of screen (conducting
or ferromagnetic), the connection mode of
terminals, management of earth loops,
v use of electrical filters tuned to the signals
requiring attenuation.
Correct design of an electrical installation
requires a study to:
c identify the sources of disturbances, the
couplings and the victims,
c define the means required to obtain a system
complying with standards.
Example
This case is drawn from a study on an industrial
site where the measurement-acquisition and
video systems were disturbed by operation of
the process test facility.
Determine the action required for normal
operation of the metrology system.
The SEAs of the test facility (TN-C) and the
acquisition system (TN-C-S) are different
(see Fig. 14 ). The 50 Hz leakage currents and
the harmonics caused by the variable-speed
Fig. 14: EMC study for measurement-acquisition and video systems installed near a test facility, diagram showing
the path of leakage currents and harmonics.
VSD Distribution (TN-C)
i 50 Hz + harmonics
i 50 Hz + harmonics
i 50 Hz + harmonics
PEN PEN
PEN
TN-C TN-S
N
PE
AC
DC
Motor
Test facility
Inverter
Acquisition
system
MLVS
AC
DC
Ph
N
drive in the test facility loop back to the supply
via two possible paths, the test bench and the
acquisition system, with current levels
proportional to the admittances.
The study recommended protecting the
acquisition system from its environment using
galvanic isolation for its lines, a practical,
effective and inexpensive solution.
4.9 Measurements for audits
This section fills out the previous sections by
highlighting the importance of measurements in
monitoring an electrical network and improving
its effectiveness.
Measurements are indispensable when an audit
of the network is necessary:
c either during normal operation of the system,
at start-up of the installation or during major
modifications, to check that the network operates
as planned during the design stage,
c or following unexplained problems such as the
destruction of devices or the loss, in part or in
whole, of power.
Even a well designed network can suffer
problems or malfunctions that are difficult to
understand, in which case measurements are a
basic element in establishing a diagnosis.
Measurements for network audits
The purpose of measurements is to:
c check electrotechnical values following start-up
of an installation,
c monitor consumption and energy quality,
c identify and explain major or reoccurring
problems in the system,
c recommend solutions for problems,
c validate the models used in network
simulations.
Phenomena studied
The phenomena studied, for which
measurements are required, span all the
elements discussed in the above sections.
The solutions decided in view of avoiding their
effects result from:
c observations made during visits to the
installation,
c processing of the electrical measurements
made by permanent devices and devices
temporarily installed,
c electrotechnical calculations,
c checks on compliance with standards and
good professional practices.
The contribution of an audit
The purpose of an audit is to maintain or improve
the operating conditions of an electrical network,
with different levels of complexity and
requirements, by:
c a general understanding of system based on
essentially qualitative checks concerning the
safety of life and property, the long-term operation
of devices, power sums, the protection plan and
the presence of the necessary instrumentation,
c achieving satisfactory system performance with
respect to defined qualitative criteria, e.g.
dependability analysis, analysis of electrotechnical
risks, sizing of the network and of devices,
c overall optimisation of the system, e.g. energy
quality, utility contract and consumption,
maintenance and replacement parts, and ranking
of the proposed action according to its importance,
c taking into account the existing system and
any future changes.
Note. The development of data-exchange
techniques (IT) has opened new horizons with,
for example, disturbance monitoring (see Fig. 15
and 16 ) and remote diagnostics and monitoring
of electrical networks in various fields (industrial
and commercial) (see Fig. 17 ).
An audit example
This example is drawn from the audit on the
electrical network of a micro-electronics industry,
carried out to provide a general check-up after
many years of operation.
c Purpose of the audit
The purpose of the audit is to detect any weak
points in the electrical installation that could
impact on the quality of the energy supply.
c Results of the audit
The aspects specific to the electrical network
and its components made clear the need to
make improvements on the network architecture,
the protection plan and to take into account the
ageing of the HV/LV transformers.
The table in figure 18 (see page 30) sums up
the results of the audit.
Fig. 15: SEPAM Series 40 digital protection relay
(Merlin Gerin brand - Schneider Electric).
Fig. 17: PM70 remote metering device (Merlin Gerin
brand - Schneider Electric).
Fig. 16: Oscillogram of a fault recorded by a SEPAM relay.
Chapter Item Measurements Diagnostic Action required Priority
level
Network diagram Network architecture No In a number of substations, for a Run an availability study to Not urgent
fault on the LV busbars, no improve the architecture.
redundancy is available during
repairs.
Major fault No After a fault on a HV loop, resupply Check the operating mode of the Not urgent
of the substations requires manual UPSs.
operations. Study the need for LV gensets.
No LV gensets to supply critical
switchboards.
Earthing No The HV SEA is isolated to ensure Study the possibility of an Must be
good continuity of service, but the impedant SEA. studied
number of earth faults is on the rise
with network ageing.
Protection plan 130 kV protection No In certain configurations, Revise the protection plan Urgent
overcurrent protection can result in implementing differential and
the total failure of the HV network. directional functions.
Check the discrimination offered
by the protection devices between
the utility and the factory.
15 kV protection No Discrimination is partial in the Restudy the settings of the Urgent
cases listed below: protection devices for the HV
c insufficient time delay between network, based on the calculation
upstream and downstream ends of of the short-circuit currents. Study
lines, the possibility of logic-based
c in part of the network, the time discrimination.
required to clear an LV fault can
reach several seconds.
Dielectric Lightning impulse No Transformers equipped with No action required.
characteristics of on HV side lightning arrestors.
HV/LV transformers
Lightning impulse No No lightning arrestors on the LV Study lightning protection for the Not urgent
on LV side loads. LV network.
Switching impulse No The setting for overcurrent No action required.
when HV CB opens protection accepts in-rush currents.
No risk of nuisance tripping.
Internal resonance Yes No HF overvoltages measured. No action required.
at HF
HV harmonics Yes Negligible THD. No action required.
LV harmonics Yes Negligible THD. No action required.
Switching impulse Yes Capacitor contactors are not Study the possibility of insertion Not urgent
when capacitor bank equipped with insertion resistors. resistors to reduce the in-rush
opens currents.
Thermal Overload and Yes No overloads. No action required.
characteristics of harmonic currents Negligible harmonic values.
HV/LV transformers
Continuous Yes Negligible values. No action required.
overvoltage (HV)
HV harmonics Yes Negligible values. No action required.
DC current (LV) No Phenomenon not taken into account. Must be
checked
SEA: System earthing arrangement.
Fig. 18: Results of an audit on an electrical network in the micro-electronics industry
5 Summary - Main risks for users -
Answers provided by studies
Main risks for user Answers provided by studies
Dependability
See section 4.1
Stmeady-state conditions
See section 4.2
Short-circuit
See section 4.3
Protection
See section 4.4
Accidents involving persons.
Destruction of property.
Production shutdown.
Loss of information (computer systems, etc.).
Additional costs, e.g. possible replacement of
equipment, repairs, production shutdown (lost
production and process restarts).
Quantify the frequency of problems.
Quantify the availability of electrical energy.
Determine the weak points in the solution which must
be improved, if necessary.
Determine any unnecessary redundancies.
Compare different architectures.
Recommend preventive maintenance.
Recommend stocks of replacement parts.
Operating disturbances (damage to sensitive loads,
variation in motor torques, mechanical vibrations and
even production shutdowns).
Visual disturbances (flicker).
Abnormal temperature rise in connections and
magnetic circuits, resulting in energy losses and
possible risk of fire and accelerated ageing.
Additional costs, e.g. possible replacement of
equipment (need to oversize), repairs, production
shutdown (lost production and process restarts).
A check on system sizing in compliance with
standards:
c selection of voltage levels in the network structure,
c short-circuit power and voltage tolerances
c location and distribution on power-factor correction,
c equipment: breaking devices, cable sizes,
transformer and motor characteristics, etc.
Calculation of system steady-state conditions (load-
flows) in different operating situations:
c distribution of voltages at nodes and of currents in
the connectors, in amplitude and phase,
c voltage drops,
c power flows and the corresponding losses.
Optimisation of energy contracts.
Operating recommendations (selection of transformer
voltage taps, load-shedding and reconnection plan,
start-up of capacitors, etc.).
Updating of network data.
Dangerous touch voltages for persons.
Damage to electrical equipment due to overcurrents
(temperature rise and fire).
Disturbances due to voltage sags (malfunction of
sensitive devices).
Additional costs, e.g. (repairs, production shutdown,
etc.).
Short-circuit currents calculated in compliance with the
installation standards (IEC 60909 and UTE C15105
guide), required to calculate the protection devices.
Sizing of devices and equipment (circuit breakers,
fuses, transformers, switchboards, sensors, cables,
wiring systems, earthing circuits) taking into account
making and breaking capacities as well as short-circuit
thermal and electrodynamic withstands.
Accidents involving persons.
Damage to electrical equipment and machines.
Shutdown of unaffected parts of the network.
Faulty sections of the network maintained in operation,
resulting in system instability.
Process malfunctions leading to production losses and
repair costs.
A general definition of the protection system and its
principles, e.g. SEA, protection and backup functions,
selected discrimination, coordination between different
voltage levels.
Sensor characteristics: location, ratio, accuracy class.
Breaking-device characteristics: type, location.
Protection-device characteristics: settings of trip units
and relays.
Curves or tables showing effective discrimination
between protection devices.
Main risks for user Answers provided by studies
Stability
See section 4.5
Harmonics
See section 4.6
Overvoltages
See section 4.7
EMC
See section 4.8
Measurements for audits
See section 4.9
Mechanical failures (breaking of shafts of rotating
machines and speed reducers, damage to coils)
following heavy torque shifts.
Destruction or premature wear of electrical equipment
due to abnormal temperature rise caused by
overcurrents (transformers and connections, motors
when supply is unbalanced or motors that crawl during
reacceleration).
Malfunctions due to variations in voltage, in loads,
notably for sensitive equipment such as variable-speed
drives, computers, safety systems, measurement
devices), control devices (contactors, circuit breakers)
and lighting.
etc.).
Validation of source short-circuit power.
Optimum distribution of loads (operating diagrams).
Improvement in the protection system (basic design,
settings with critical fault-clearance times).
Selection of the motor-start method.
Plan for load shedding and source uncoupling.
Definition of load reconnection sequences and/or load
transfers.
Automation of source transfers.
Optimisation of regulation-device operation and
settings.
Destruction or premature ageing of electrical
equipment due to thermal overloads (temperature rise
due to harmonic currents, to third-order harmonics in
neutral conductors) or dielectric breakdown
(overvoltages due to harmonic voltages).
Harmonic mechanical disturbances, e.g. vibrations and
motor fatigue, abnormal noise in transformers and
switchboards.
Malfunctions caused by current and voltage harmonics
(equipment incorporating power electronics), nuisance
tripping of protection devices, disturbances in low-
current systems (telecom, measurement and metering
systems).
Additional costs:
c reduced installation efficiency due to additional
energy losses (Joule, iron, skin and proximity effects),
c additional investment to oversize equipment
(derating) or to install filters.
Identification of polluting loads.
Evaluation of harmonic distortion levels (current and
voltage THD) and of harmonic spectra.
Validation of network structure, e.g. short-circuit power
of sources, isolation of disturbing devices, separation
of sensitive parts of the network, power-factor
correction.
Recommendations for direct action on polluting loads,
e.g. by changing from a 6 to a 12-pulse bridge.
Recommendations for action on the pollution, e.g.
sizing of filters (type of filter, specifications on
components).
Recommendations on device derating.
Operating disturbances (voltage sags and short
outages).
Destruction of equipment due to dielectric breakdown.
Accelerated ageing and temperature rise in equipment
due to non-destructive, but repeated stresses.
Malfunctions of sensitive equipment (power
electronics, low-current systems).
etc.).
Definition of the optimum solutions to attenuate the
problem, based on the selective, simultaneous and
selective use of several protection systems, e.g.
lightning rods, overhead earth wire, lightning arrestors,
surge arrestors, spark gap units, varistors, diodes,
choke coils, insertion resistors, synchronisers.
Sizing and location of the recommended systems.
Definition of equipment insulation in line with the
protection systems, selection of dielectric withstand in
compliance with insulation-coordination standards
(IEC 60664 for LV and IEC 60071 for HV).
Design of the SEA.
Operating advice.
Damage to electrical and electronic equipment due to
temperature rise or dielectric breakdown.
Malfunctions of electrical components that may impact
on the entire network.
Malfunctions of process machines.
etc.).
An EMC audit (to understand how disturbances occur).
Assistance in drafting technical specifications for
electrical systems.
Advice on installation configuration, e.g. running of
different types of cables, SEA, ECPs, etc.
Application of EMC standards.
Studies and calculations often require measurements carried out on site, either continuously (e.g. via a
permanently installed remote-monitoring system) or by temporarily installed measurement devices.
6 Conclusion
The optimum total cost of ownership (TCO) of a
system is the result of the best compromise
between the service obtained by the user for the
needs of the process and the total outlay.
For an electrical network, the TCO takes into
account the different phases in the life of the
system, e.g. design, construction, operation,
maintenance and upgrades.
For this reason, all participants (owners,
designers and users) are involved in all phases
of the project and the electrical engineering
studies constitute an indispensable step in the
overall process leading to effective use of
electrical energy. These studies can also be
considered a profitable investment in that the
efficiency of the installation can be improved.
This Cahier Technique publication has
demonstrated the wide range of calculations
required in conducting these studies.
These studies concern all types of networks in
the LV and HV fields, and applications in all
domains (industrial, commercial, residential,
distribution). They can be used to foresee the
electrical phenomena occurring during operation
of systems and to analyse their impact on
installation sizing and network operation. They
also take into account important events and
parameters, in both the normal and downgraded
operating modes.
The various summary tables show the
importance of the necessary means and know-
how (see the following appendices as well).
Finally, the examples provided indicate that the
relevance of the selected solutions is also the
result of the vast experience gained through a
large number of audits. Only very large electrical
companies (energy distributors or device
manufacturers) have the necessary experience.
N.B. More in-depth information is available in the
collection of Cahier Technique publications
dealing specifically with many of the topics
covered in this document (see the bibliography).
Appendix 1. History
The physical laws governing the operation of
electrical networks were established prior to the
generalisation of networks and thus to the need
for calculations.
The development over time of the tools used for
predictive analysis of the behaviour of electrical
networks can be broken down into four
overlapping periods.
c Calculations "by hand" from 1925 to 1960
During this period, the many aspects involved in
the operation of electrical networks were
discovered, based on the phenomena observed
and measurements made in installations.
Analytical methods were used, based on a priori
ideas concerning the physical phenomena, i.e.
solutions were calculated on the basis of
electrical laws, using manual techniques (slide
rules and tables), and hypotheses were
confirmed by checking the calculations with the
measurements made. Predictive extrapolation
was widely used, thanks to nomographs in which
the major parameters could be varied. In
parallel, professional practices based on
experience were improved.
c Physical simulation models from 1950 to 1990
Due to their increasing size and complexity,
networks became true electrical systems with
extensive interaction between components. In
addition, the notion of energy quality gradually
appeared. The need for prediction became more
pressing and more general, because it was
necessary to foresee the many operating
situations, both normal and disturbed, precisely
and dependably.
Simulators met these requirements fairly well.
They were laboratory instruments, expensive
both to purchase and use, and thus limited to the
major utilities. The idea behind a simulator is to
create a scale model of the network, reproducing
the behaviour of the system in real time.
Depending on the planned application, the
simulator can analyse transients (e.g. wave
propagation), constitute an artificial network (e.g.
tests on protection systems) or a micro-network
(e.g. tests on dynamic stability).
To enhance their capacity and performance
levels, simulators were equipped with analogue
simulators having the electronic devices required
to model certain components (e.g. regulators),
thus creating hybrid simulators.
c Digital simulation models since 1970
At the time when optimisation of networks had
started and major failures of large industrial and
public-distribution networks occurred, needs in
terms of calculations increased. Digital
simulators were the answer with the coming of
the computer age.
v Initially, calculations were run on large
mainframe computers. The programs were
generally created by large companies for their
own needs.
v Around 1990, digital simulation and
decentralisation spread with the progress
achieved in PCs. Programs appeared on the
market and, today, users have a wide selection
for a number of applications.
Note. The idea behind a digital simulator is to set
up a digital model based on the laws governing
the network, then to simulate operation by
solving the equations with the suitable program.
The major advantage lies in its great flexibility in
handling all types of networks and a wide range
of phenomena, but it does not operate in real
time.
c Digital Case Tools since 1990
These software engineering tools represent the
generalisation of computerised simulation as the
universal means of calculation (virtual networks)
with comprehensive data bases and real-time
processing for product development, operator
training, optimised management, etc.
Appendix 2. Software
The table below indicates the main software
programs available on the market and the
calculations for which they are used.
Type of calculation
Dependability Steady-state Short- Protection Dynamic Harmonics Overvoltages EMC
Type of program conditions circuit stability
Functional analysis c c
FMECA c c
Fault tree c
Markoff graph c
Ptri network c
Load-flow c c c
Load-flow optimisation c
Cable sizing c c
LV cable sizing and c c c
protection
Earthing network c c c c
calculations
Short-circuit c c c
Discrimination c c c
Steady-state stability c c
Dynamic stability c
Motor starting c c c
Harmonics c c c
Current/voltage c c c c c
transients
Lightning protection c c
EMC disturbances c c
EMTP general- c c c c c
purpose software
Data acquisition c c c c c c c
(measurements)
Appendix 3. Necessary data
This table presents a general overview of the data
required for the various calculations.
Necessary data
General data c c
v network single-line diagram c c c c c c c
v operating configurations c c c c c c c
v SEAs c c c c c c
For all components c c
v rated voltage and power c c c c c c
v impedances (positive, negative and zero sequence) c c c c
v short-circuit withstand c c
v transient-voltage withstand (switching and lightning) c
v types of protection c c
Sources c c
v voltage and frequency (rated/min./max.) c c c c c c c
v short-circuit power (rated/min./max.) c c c c c
v existing harmonic voltages c
v protection settings c c
Gensets c c
v voltage, power and power factor c c c c c c
v impedances and time constants c c c c
v mechanical characteristics (inertia, number of poles) c
v transfer functions, turbine regulation, excitation c
Lines, cables, busbars, GIS substations c c
v resistance, inductance, capacitance of lines c c c c c
v length, parallel elements, installation methods c c c c c c
v geometric data on pylons and structures c
v characteristics of insulators, spark gap units, etc. c
Transformers c c
v voltages (primary, secondary, tertiary) c c c c c c
v power, type of connection, taps c c c c c c
v short-circuit voltages and losses c c c c c
Passive loads, capacitors, inductors c c
v rated voltage and power c c c c
v power factor c c c c
v type of load (constant impedance, current or power) c c c c
v load and diversity factors c c c c
Active loads c c
v rated voltage and power c c c c c
v power factor c c c c c
v motor characteristics (speed, inertia, slip, Tstart/Tn, Tmax/Tn, c c c c c
Istart/In, etc.)
v characteristics of devices incorporating power electronics (type of c c c c
assembly, etc.)
v load and diversity factors c c c c c
Non-linear loads c c
v U, I (lightning arrestor) characteristics c
v current and voltage harmonic spectra c
Breaking devices c c
v fuse type and rating c c
v circuit-breaker characteristics (making and breaking capacity, c c c c
transient recovery voltage, etc.)
Protection c c
v characteristics of current and voltage sensors c
v protection functions and setting ranges c
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Bibliography
Schneider Electric Cahiers Techniques
c Electrical disturbances in LV -
Cahier Technique n 141 -
R. CALVAS
c Introduction to dependability design -
E. CABAU
c EMC: electromagnetic compatibility -
J. DELABALLE
c Overvoltages and insulation coordination in
MV and HV -
D. FULCHIRON
c Harmonic Disturbances in Networks and their
Treatment -
C. COLLOMBET, J. SCHONEK, J.-M. LUPIN
c LV breaking by current limitation -
P. SCHUELLER
c Energy-based discrimination for low-voltage
protective devices -
M. SERPINET, R. MOREL
c Lightning and HV electrical installations -
Cahier technique n 168 -
B. de METZ-NOBLAT
c HV industrial network design -
G. THOMASSET
c Electrical installation dependability studies -
S. LOGIACO
c Dynamic stability of industrial electrical
networks -
B. de METZ-NOBLAT, G. JEANJEAN
c Ferroresonance -
P. FERRACCI
c Power Quality -
P. FERRACCI
Other publications
c Les Techniques de lIngnieur
c Les cahiers de lingnierie published by
Electricit de France
Normes
c IEC 60071-1: Insulation coordination -
part 1: definitions, principles and rules.
c IEC 60071-2: Insulation coordination -
Part 2: Application guide.
c IEC 60364: Electrical installations of buildings -
part 1: scope, object and fundamental principles.
c IEC 60871-1: Shunt capacitors for a.c. power
systems having a rated voltage above 1000 V -
Part 1: General - Performance, testing and rating
- Safety requirements - Guide for installation and
operation.
c IEC 62271-100: High-voltage switchgear and
controlgear - Part 100: High-voltage alternating-
current circuit-breakers
c NF C02-160 / NF EN 50160 : Caractristiques
de la tension fournie par les rseaux publics de
distribution.
c UTE C15-500 : Guide pratique - Dtermination
des sections des conducteurs et choix des
dispositifs de protection l'aide de logiciels de
calcul.
Schneider Electric Direction Scientifique et Technique,
Service Communication Technique
F-38050 Grenoble cedex 9
Tlcopie : 33 (0)4 76 57 98 60
E-mail : fr-tech-com@mail.schneider.fr
DTP: SEDOC Meylan.
Transl.: Lloyd International - Tarporley - Cheshire - GB.
Editor: Schneider Electric
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