M.

Salman Khan
Chapter-3
Scalars & Vector
Q1. Differentiate between Scalars and Vectors.
Scalars Vectors
Physical Quantities which can be
completely specified by a number with a
suitable unit with out mention of
direction are known as Scalars.
Physical Quantities which can be
completely specified by a number with a
suitable unit and direction are called
Vectors.
Mass, Volume, Density, Temperature,
ner!y, lectric Potential, "har!e, Time
and Distance are the e#amples of Scalar
Quantities.
$cceleration, %orce, Velocity,
Displacement, Momentum and lectric
&ntensity are the e#amples of Vector
Quantities.
Scalars can be added, subtracted,
multiplied and di'ided by simple
arithmetical rules.
Vectors can be added, subtracted,
multiplied and di'ided by 'ector al!ebra.
$s the scalars are the simple numbers
therefore they do not ha'e any special
representation like 'ectors.
$ 'ector (uantity is represented by an
arrow, len!th of the arrow is
proportional to ma!nitude of the 'ector
(uantity, the direction of the arrow
represent the direction of 'ector
(uantity.
Q2. Define the following :
). *ead to Tail +ule
,. -e!ati'e of a 'ector
.. -ull 'ector
/. +esultant 'ector
I. HEAD TO TAIL RULE
To add two or mote 'ectors by this method they are drawn on a suitable scale such that the
head of one 'ector coincides with the tail of other and so no. The resultant 'ector is obtained by
0oinin! the tail of the first 'ector to the head of the last 'ector. &t is directed from the tail of the
first 'ector to the head of the last 'ector. &t is directed from the tail of the first 'ector to the head
of the last 'ector. The ma!nitude and the direction of the resultant are found by usin! ruler and
protractor.
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M. Salman Khan
II. NEGATIVE OF A VECTOR
Suppose we ha'e a 'ector $, then its ne!ati'e is define as
$ 'ector ha'in! the same ma!nitude as that of !i'en 1Vector $2 but opposite in direction is
called the ne!ati'e 'ector of $ and is denoted by 13$2.
&&&. NULL VECTOR
&t is a 'ector ha'in! 4ero ma!nitude and orbitin! direction. &t is denoted by 5.
IV. RESULTANT VECTOR
6hen two or more than two 'ectors are added we !et a sin!le 'ector which has the same
effect as the combined effect of all the 'ectors to be added. This sin!le 'ector is known as
the resultant 'ector.
The resultant of $ and 7 is +. symbolically we can write as
+ 8 $ 9 7
Q3. Write note on the following Subtraction of vectors.
SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
The subtraction of two 'ectors is 0ust like addition of 'ectors. &n order to subtract a $ from
7, the ne!ati'e of $ :i.e. 3$; is added to 7, and the resultant 'ector + of <$ and 7 is found
which !i'es the difference between 7 and $.
Q4. E!lain gra!hicall" #ethod of addition of vectors.
GRAPHICAL METHOD OF VECTORS ADDITION
Addt!" !# Ve$t!r%&
The process of combinin! two or more 'ectors to produce a sin!le 'ector
:called resultants; is known as addition.
Graph$a' Meth!d !# Ve$t!r% Addt!"
&n this method the ma!nitude and direction of a resultant 'ector is found by ruler and protractor.
6e can e#plain the !i'en procedure as follows
1. %irst we chose a system of reference
2. Draw the second 'ector with suitable scale keepin! in 'iew its ma!nitude and
direction.
3. Draw the second 'ector usin! the same scale by placin! the tail of second 'ector on
the *ead of the first 'ector.
4. =oin the 1head2 of the second 'ector with the tail of the first 'ector. The strai!ht line
0oinin! the tail of the first 'ector to the head of the second 'ector represented the
1+esultant Vector2
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M. Salman Khan
6hen three of more 'ectors to be added two 'ectors are added first, then the ne#t one and
so on. This procedure could be e#tended to any number of 'ectors in'ol'ed. Symbolically
+ 8 $ 9 7 9 " >>>>>>>>
Q$. Define resolution of a vector. Describe a #ethod of resolving a vector in to its
rectangular co#!onents.
RESOLUTION OF VECTOR
The process of splittin! up of a sin!le 'ector into a number of 'ectors is called 1+esolution of
Vectors2.
RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
The components of a 'ectors which are at ri!ht an!les to each other are called rectan!ular
components.
RESOLVING A VECTOR INTO ITS COMPONENTS
1. "onsider a 'ector $ which makes an an!les 152 with the #3a#is, the 'ector $ is
drawn by placin! its tail at the ori!in of rectan!ular co3ordinate system.
2. %rom the head of the 'ector $ perpendicular lines are drawn to the a#is and drawn to
the a#is and $# and $y are so formed are re!arded as the components of $, 7y
parallelo!ram law of 'ector addition.
$ 8 $# 9 $y
$# is actin! alon! the #3a#is
$y is actin! alon! the y3a#is
MAGNITUDES OF A( a"d A)
%or &"
"onsider ri!ht an!led trian!le 5PQ Perp ? *yp 8 Sin
or $y ? $ 8 Sin
or $y ? 8 $ Sin
or $y 8 $ Sin
%or &
7ase ? *yp 8 "os
or $# ? $ 8 "os
or $# 8 $ "os
or $# 8 $ "os

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M. Salman Khan
Q'. E!lain addition of two vector !er!endicular to each other. (&ddition of rectangular
co#!onent #ethod).
Suppose these are two forces %
)
and %
,
are actin! on a body and makin! an an!le of @A
o
with each other. 6e ha'e to find the resultant force.
&n the abo'e fi!ure 5$ and $7 represent %
)
and %
,
respecti'ely and 57 is the resultant
'ector of these forces. 5$7 is and ri!ht an!led trian!le and we can use Pytha!oras Theorem.
*ence,
:57;
,
8 :5$;
,
9 :57;
,

or +
,
8 %)
,
9 %,
,

or + 8 %)
,
9 %,
,

The direction of 1+2 can be calculated by usin! tri!onometric ratios.
Tan 8 %
,
? %
)
:Tan 8 Perp.?7ase;
8 tan
3)
%
,
?%
)
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M. Salman Khan
"hapter3/
Binematics
Q1. Define the following:
+est
Motion
Translatory Motion
+otatory Motion
Vibratory Motion
Displacement
REST
$ body is said to be at rest when it does not chan!e its position with respect to its
surroundin! ob0ects.
E*AMPLE OF REST
#amples of position of +est are !i'en below.
)3 $ book lyin! on a table.
,3 $ bird sittin! on a wall.
MOTION
$ body is said to be in motion when it chan!es its position with respect to its surroundin! ob0ects.
E*AMPLES OF MOTION
#amples of position of Motion are !i'en below.
)3 $ book lyin! on a table.
,3 $ bird sittin! on a wall.
TRANSLATOR+ MOTION
&t is the motion which is associated with bodies mo'in! in a strai!ht line, e.!.C The motion of a car
on a strai!ht road, the flyin! of an aeroplane, the fallin! of brick etc.
VIBRATOR+ MOTION
To and for motion of an ob0ect about a mean position is called 'ibratory motion or oscillatory
motion. Motion of a swin!, motion of the strin! of sitar or 'iolin are the e#amples of 'ibratory
motion.
ROTATOR+ MOTION
6hen a body mo'es such that its distance from a fi#ed point remains constant, its motion is
said to be rotatory motion.
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M. Salman Khan
Motion of the wheel of cycle, hands of clock and win! of a fan are the e#amples of rotatory
motion.
DISPLACEMENT
&t is a 'ector (uantity which si!nified the least distance between two points in a particular
direction.
Q2. Write note on the following:
Speed
Velocity
Dniform and Variable Velocity
$cceleration
Deceleration
Dniform $cceleration
$cceleration due to Era'ity
SPEED
1+ate of chan!e of distance is called speed2. &t is measured by the distance tra'eled by a
body in unit time. &f co'ered distance denoted by 1S2 and time taken by 1t2 and speed by 1'2 then
Speed 8 Distance "o'ered ? Time
or Va' 8 S? t S.& unit of speed is meter?second
or m?s or ms
3)

VELOCIT+
1+ate of chan!e of displacement is called 'elocity2
or
1Speed of a body in specified direction is called 'elocity
The a'era!e 'elocity of a mo'in! body is !i'en by the displacement di'ided by the time elapsed.
$'era!e Velocity 8 Displacement ? Time lapsed
or Va' 8 d ? t
S.&. unit 'elocity is meter?second or ms
3)
UNIFORM VELOCIT+
The 'elocity of a body is said to be uniform if it co'ers e(ual distance in e(ual inter'als of
time in a specified direction.
VARIABLE VELOCIT+
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M. Salman Khan
The 'alue of 'elocity may chan!e due to a chan!e in ma!nitude or chan!e in direction or in both.
Thus a body is said to posses a 'ariable 'elocity if its speed or its direction chan!es continuously.
ACCELERATION
1+ate of chan!e of 'elocity is called acceleration2. The word chan!e may imply an alteration in
direction or in ma!nitude or in both.
Suppose Vi is the initial 'elocity and V
f
is the final 'elocity, then :V
f
;
"han!e in 'elocity 8 V
f
3Vi
&f this chan!e occurs in time 1t2 then
+ate of chan!e of 'elocity 8 a 8 :V
f
3 Vi ; ? t a 8 : V
f
3 Vi ; ? t
or a
a'
8 V ? t
unit of acceleration m?s
,
or ms
3,

DECELERATION
&f the rate of chan!e of 'elocity is ne!ati'e then it called deceleration or retardation.
UNIFORM ACCELERATION
&f 'elocity chan!es uniformly in e(ual inter'als of time, howe'er short the inter'al may be, in a
strai!ht line the acceleration so produced is called uniform acceleration.
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVIT+
$ll bodies irrespecti'e of their masses, while fallin! freely under !ra'ity e#perience the same
acceleration called acceleration due to !ra'ity. $'era!e 'alue of this acceleration is found to be @.F
ms
3,
. &t is denoted by 1!2.
Q3. Drive the following
V
f
8 V
i
9 at
S 8 V
i
t 9 G at
,
,as 8 V
f
,
3 V
i
,

$nswer H
S 8 V
i
t 9 G at
,
PROOF &
Suppose initial 'elocity of a body 8 Vi
%inal 'elocity of a body 8 Vf
$'era!e 'elocity Va 8 :Vi 9 V
f
; ? ,
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Distance co'ered by a body in time 1t2
S 8 Va' # t :);
%rom e(uation of motion Vf 8 Vi 9 at, Substitutin! the 'alue of Vf in e(.)
S 8 : Vi 9 Vi 9 at ; ? , # t
or S 8 : ,Vi 9 at ; ? , # t
or S 8 ,Vit 9 at
,
? ,
or S 8 , Vit?, 9 at
,
? ,
S 8 Vit 9 G at
,
,as 8 V
f
,
3 V
i
,

Suppose initial 'elocity of a body 8 Vi
%inal Velocity of a body 8 Vf
$'era!e Velocity 8 Va' 8 : Vf 9 Vi ;?,
Iet the body mo'es with a'era!e 'elocity till the time 1t2 then co'ered distance
S 8 Va' # t :);
Substitutin! the 'alue of Va' in e(. :);
S 8 : V
f
9 Vi ; ? , # t :,;
%rom e(uation of motion V
f
8 Vi 9 at,
Substitutin! the 'alue of 1t2 in e(. :,;
S 8 : V
f
9 Vi ; ? , # : V
f
3 Vi ; ? a
S 8 :V
f
;
,
3 :Vi;
,
?,a
or ,as 8 V
f

,
3 Vi
,
,as 8 V
f
,
3 Vi
,

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M. Salman Khan
"hapter 3J
Static
Q1. Write a note on *+or,ue-.
De#"t!"&
1The turnin! effect of a force about the a#is of rotation is called tor(ue or moment of that force2.
6e can measure it by the product of force and moment arm.
Mathe,at$a' Repre%e"tat!"&
The tor(ue is represented by a Ereek letter Tau :; symbolically
8 % # r
where 1r2 is the moment arm.
Ma!nitude of tor(ue 8 8 % r Sin
or 8 %r Sin
6here 12 is an!le between % and r.
UNITS OF TOR-UE
%orce is measured in -ewton and moment arm in meter, then unit of tor(ue is 1-ewton
Meter2 or 1-m2.
DIRECTION OF TOR-UE
The direction of tor(ue is always normal to the plane formed by % and r. The tor(ue causin!
anticlockwise rotation is re!arded as a 'ector directed alon! the a#is outward from the pa!e.
Similarly tor(ue causin! clockwise rotation is re!arded as 'ector directed alon! the a#is into
the pa!e and con'entionally taken to be 3'e.
MOMENT ARM
The perpendicular distance b?w the line of action of force and a#is of rotation is called moment
arm.
FACTORS UPON .HICH THE TOR-UE DEPENS
Tor(ue depends upon the followin! factors.
a; Ma!nitude of the force. Tor(ue and ma!nitude of force are directly proportional to each other.
b; Ma!nitude of the moment arm. Tor(ue and moment arm also directly proportional to each other.
POSITIVE TOR-UE
The tor(ue which tends to rotate a body in counter clockwise rotation is !i'en a positi'e si!n.
NEGATIVE TOR-UE
The tor(ue which tens to rotate a body is clockwise rotation is !i'en as ne!ati'e.
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M. Salman Khan
"ounter "lockwise +otation
is out of the paper.
is taken positi'e.
"lockwise +otation
is into the paper.
is taken ne!ati'e.
MINIMUM / MA*IMUM VALUES OF TOR-UE
Tor(ue is 4ero when
Moment arm is 4ero i.e. r 8 A
$n!le b?w % and r is 4ero i.e. 8 A
8 % r Sin 8 % r # A 8 A
Tor(ue is ma#imum when
Ma#imum force is applied
Ma#imum possible len!th of moment arm.
$n!le b?w % and r is a ri!ht an!le i.e. : 8 @A
o
;

Q2.a) Define centre of gravit".
b) %ind the centre of gravit" of the fall /b0ects s!here1 2nifor# 3oad1 4ircular 5late1 5late
(S,uare1 3ectangular1 5arallelogra# Sha!ed)
c) E!lain how would "ou locate the centre of gravit" of an irregular !iece of #etal sha!e.
a; CENTRE OF GRAVIT+
1The point inside or outside the body, where the whole wei!ht of body appears to act is
called centre of !ra'ity2.
b) CENTRE OF GRAVIT+ OF SOME OB0ECTS
S.-o. -ame 5f 5b0ect Position 5f "entre 5f Era'ity
). Sphere "entre 5f Sphere
,. Dniform +od "entre 5f +od
.. "ircular Plate "entre 5f Plate
/. Plate : S(uare, +ect., or
Parallelo!ram in Shape
&nteraction 5f Dia!onals
K. Trian!ular Plate &ntersection 5f Medians
J. "ylinder Mid Point 5f $#is
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c) CENTRE OF GRAVIT+ OF AN IRREGULAR SHAPED BOD+
The centre of !ra'ity of an irre!ular shape body cannot be found by simple !eometrical
method, but a simple e#periment can help to determine it.
To find the centre of !ra'ity of an irre!ular shaped body drill a small hole 1$2 near the ed!e of
the cardboard.
Dse this hole to han! the cardboard from a nail.
6ith the help of plumb line draw a line 1$a2 on the cardboard.
+epeat this e#periment usin! the holes 172 & 1"2 respecti'ely, and draw 7b and "c. These lines
intersect each other at a point 1E2. The centre of !ra'ity lies at their point of interaction 1E2.
Q3.a) Define e,uilibriu#
b) State the two conditions of e,uilibriu#
c) Define the t"!es of e,uilibriu#.
d) Distinguish the three t"!es of E,uilibriu#.

a) E-ULIBRIUM
6hen two or more than two forces act on a body simultaneously in such a manner that there is no
chan!e, either in itLs translational motion on in itLs rotational motion, the body is said to be in
(uilibrium.
b; FIRST CONDITION OF E-ULIBRIUM
$ccordin! to this condition if the resultant of all forces actin! on a body is 4ero, the body is in
e(uilibrium.
i.e. % 8 5 : Si!ma, stands for summation;
&n !eneral case, the forces are resol'ed into rectan!ular components i.e. #3components and y3
components. &f forces are resol'ed into their components, then accordin! to first condition.
&f the sum of all forces actin! alon! the #3a#is is 4ero, the body is in e(uilibrium i.e. %# 8 A.
&f the sum of all forces actin! alon! the y3a#is is 4ero, the body is in e(uilibrium i.e. %y 8 A.
&f a body satisfies first condition of e(uilibrium, itLs translational acceleration is 4ero and the body is
said to be in Translational (uilibrium.
SECOND CONDITION OF E-ULIBRIUM
"onsider a body which can rotate about a fi#ed point and there are some forces actin! upon it,
then if the al!ebraic sum of all the tor(ue on the body is 4ero, then it is in e(uilibrium.
&f the second condition of e(uilibrium is satisfied then there is no an!ular acceleration and the
body is said to be in +otational (uilibrium.
d) STATES OF E-ULIBRIUM
ST$7I QDI&7+&DM D-ST$7I
QDI&7+&DM
-DT+$I
QDI&7+&DM
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M. Salman Khan
"entre of !ra'ity of the
body lies below the point
of support or suspension.
"entre of Era'ity of the
body lies abo'e the point
of support or suspension.
"entre of Era'ity of the
body lies at point of
support or suspension
&f we !i'e a sli!ht 0erk, to
the body , the centre of
!ra'ity rises.
&f we !i'e a sli!ht 0erk to
the body, the centre of
!ra'ity of the body is
lowered.
&f we !i'e a sli!ht 0erk to
the body, itLs centre of
!ra'ity neither rises nor
lowered.
&f a book is lifted from one
ed!e and then allowed to
fall, it will come back to
itLs ori!inal position.
&f a pencil standin!
'ertically is sli!htly
distributed from itLs
position, it will not come
back to itLs ori!inal
position.
&f a ball is pushed sli!htly
to roll, it will neither come
back to itLs ori!inal
position nor it will !ain a
new position.

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"hapter3K
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M. Salman Khan
%orce $nd Motion
Q1. Define the following:
%orce, &nertia, "oefficient of friction unit of force :-ewton;
%5+"
%orce is that a!ent which chan!es or tends to chan!e the state of rest or of uniform 'elocity of a
body.
INERTIA
The property of matter by 'irtue of which a body is incapable of chan!in! its state of rest or of
uniform motion alon! a strai!ht line.
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
&t is the ratio between limitin! friction and normal reaction. &t is denoted by
8 Iimitin! friction ? -ormal reaction
8 % ? +
Dnit 5f %orce :-ewton;H
5ne -ewton is that amount of force which is re(uired to produce an acceleration of )m?s
,
in a
body of mass ) B!.
Q2.a) State 6ewton7s first law of #otion.
b) E!lain the law and give the definition of force.
c) 8ive at least two ea#!les fro# the dail" life which e!lain the 6ewton7s first law.
a; STATEMENT
1'ery body continues in the state of rest or of uniform motion in a strai!ht line unless it is
compelled to chan!e that state by an e#ternal force.2
b; THIS LA. CONSIST OF T.O PARTS
The first part state that 1$ body at rest will remain at rest unless it is compelled to chan!e that
state by an e#ternal force2. &t is 'ery easy to understand, it is our common obser'ation that a book
lyin! on a table will continue to remain there until we displace it, This means an e#ternal
force is needed to chan!e the state of rest. The second part state that, 1$ body in motion in a
strai!ht line with a uniform 'elocity until it is acted upon by an e#ternal force2. $ccordin! to
second part,
&f we roll a ball on the !round, with some 'elocity it some keep on rollin! fore'er.
&f a bullet is fired from a short !un, it should keep on mo'in! fore'er.
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M. Salman Khan
7ut common obser'ation seems to contradict these statements, we know that a ball rollin! on the
!round and a bullet fired from a !un, stop after some time actually
there are three forces which stops the motion of bodies, these forces are the force of friction, force
of !ra'ity and air resistance. +ollin! ball stops due to force of !ra'ity and air resistance. Mo'in!
bullet stops due to force of !ra'ity, air resistance. This means that if we could !et rid of all these
forces the bodies will continue mo'in! in a strai!ht line.
c) E*AMPLES
1. The fireman in a railway en!ine, Swiftly mo'es the coal rod near the furnace and suddenly
stop the rod, in this process the rod comes to rest suddenly and coal already in motion
continues to mo'e in the same direction and falls into the furnace.
2. $ boy ridin! a push bike alon! a le'el road does not comes to rest immediately when he stop
pedalin!. The push bike continues to mo'e forwards, but e'entually it comes to rest as the
result of opposin! action of the air resistance and road friction.
Q3. State 6ewton7s +hird 9aw /f :otion and give at least three ea#!les
fro# "our dail" life.
STATEMENT
1&f one body e#ert a force on the second body, the second body e#ert an e(ual but opposite
force on the first2.
5+
1To e'ery action there is an e(ual and opposite reaction2.
Mathe,at$a'')
% . action 8 3 %. reaction
The minus si!n indicates that the two forces are actin! in opposite directions.
E(a,p'e%
The birds while flyin!, push the air downward with their win!s :action;. The air e#ert an e(ual
and opposite force on the birds in the upward direction :reaction;.
The swimmer pushes the water in the backward direction with a certain force :action;, water
pushes the man forwards with an e(ual and opposite force :reaction;.
The blades of the helicopter re'ol'e in hori4ontal direction and pushes the air downwards
:action;. The air lifts the helicopter 'ertically upward :reaction;.
Q4. Define ;nertia and give at least two ea#!les fro# "our dail" life.
INERTIA
1The property of matter by 'irtue of which a body is incapable of chan!in! its state of rest
or of uniform motion in a strai!ht line on its own accord is describe as &nertia2.
E(a,p'e%
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M. Salman Khan
$ passen!er in a bus falls backward when the bus suddenly starts mo'in!, when the bus
starts mo'in! the lower portion of the body share the motion of the bus, where the upper portion
is still at rest. Due to this reason passen!er falls backward when the bus start.
$ passen!er falls forward when the bus in motion suddenly stops. 6hen the bus in motion
the passen!er sharin! the motion of the bus, when bus stop the lower portion of the bus comes to
rest. The upper portion of the body is in motion, hence he fall forward.
Q$. Differentiate b<w :ass and Weight
M$SS 6&E*T
The (uantity of matter in a body is
called mass.
6ei!ht is the force with which earth attracts
a body towards its centre.
&t is the property of a body which
determines the acceleration produce in it
under the influence of a !ra'itational
force i.e. a8 %?m
&t is the measurement of !ra'itational force
between earth and the body
i.e. 68m!
&t is a non3directional (uantity. &t is a directional (uantity, and always
directed towards centre of the earth.
The mass of a body remain constant
e'ery where.
The 'alue of wei!ht is different at different
distances from the centre of the earth.
Mass can be determined by ordinary
balance.
6ei!ht is often measured by a sprin!
balance.
J?K
Q'. State 6ewton7s second law of #otion and !rove that % = #a.
STATEMENT
6hene'er a net force acts on an ob0ect it produces an acceleration in its own direction which is
directly proportional to net force and in'ersely proportional to mass of the ob0ect.
E(p'a"at!"
&t is our common obser'ation that if there is no chan!e in the mass of the ob0ect, acceleration will
increase with the increase of net force on the ob0ect mathematically we can write it as
a % :mass is constant;
Similarly if the applied force remains the same, there by increasin! mass of the ob0ect the
acceleration will decrease, mathematically we can write it as
a ) ? m :for a constant force;
7y combinin! the abo'e two relations
a %?m
or a 8 k %?m
6here k is the constant of proportionality.
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M. Salman Khan
&f ) - force is applied on an ob0ect of mass ) k! which produces an acceleration of ) m?s
,
, then by
substitutin! these 'alues we !et.
) 8 k )?)
or k 8 )
Substitutin! the 'alue of MkL in e.!.
a 8 k %?m
or a 8 :); %?m
a 8 %?m
% 8 ma
Q>. Define #o#entu# and
a) Write its :athe#atical %or#
b) State law of conservation of #o#entu# and give it #athe#atical for#
MOMENTUM
$ physical (uantity that decides how easy or difficult it will be to stop a mo'in! body is known as
momentum of the body.
Mathematically it can be calculated by the product of mass and 'elocity.
So momentum 8 mass # 'elocity
&f momentum is denoted by MPL then
P 8 mV
U"t
$s mass is measured in Mk!L and 'elocity in m?s, therefore unit of momentum is B! m?s or -s
STATEMENT OF LA. OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
&n an isolated system total momentum before and after collision remains the same.
E(p'a"at!"
"onsider an isolated system in which two bodies M$L and M7L are mo'in! with the 'elocities MD
)
L
and MD
,
L respecti'ely suppose MD
)
L N MD
,
L and both are mo'in! in the same line and same direction.
Momentum of body $ 8 m
)
u
)
Momentum of body 7 8 m
,
u
,
Total momentum of the system 8 m
)
u
)
9 m
,
u
,
Suppose after time t they collide with each other, and their 'elocities becomes MV
)
Land MV
,
L
$fter collision momentum of body $ 8 m
)
'
)
momentum of body
7 8 m
,
'
,
Total momentum of the system after collision 8 m
)
'
)
8 m
,
'
,
$ccordin! to law of conser'ation of momentum
Momentum before collision 8 Momentum after collision
So,
m
)
u
)
9 m
,
u
,
8 m
)
'
)
9 m
,
'
,
16
M. Salman Khan
Q?.
a) Define friction1 give its #athe#atical for#
b) Define the following
4oefficient of friction
3olling friction
c) &dvantages and Disadvantages of friction1
d) :ethods of reducing the friction.
a; FRICTION
6hen a body slides or rolls on a surface it e#perience a force in a direction opposite to its motion.
6hich resist the motion of the body. This resistin! force is called %orce 5f %riction.
E(p'a"at!"
Suppose a body of wei!ht M6L placed on a surface is dra! by %orce M%L. &t e#periences a force in a
direction opposite to its motion, when we increase the amount of applied force the 'alue of
frictional force also increases up to some e#tent . %rom the e#periments its is pro'ed that force of
friction has the ability to increase its 'alue with the increase of applied force till reaches the
ma#imum 'alue. Due to this stran!e nature, force of friction is called self ad0ustin! force. The
ma#imum 'alue of friction is called limitin! friction. 6hen the applied force is e#ceed from the
limitin! friction the body starts slidin!. #periments show that the limitin! friction is proportional
to wei!ht of the body. i.e. f w
or w 8 +
Therefore f + where 1+2 is the normal reaction
f 8 +

*ere 12 is the coefficient of friction, and it is dimension less constant.
b) CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
"oefficient of friction is the ratio b?w limitin! friction and normal reaction, i.e.
8 f ? +
&t depends upon nature of the surface and as it is dimension less constant.
c) R!''"1 Fr$t!"
&f we rolled a hea'y spherical ball on smooth surface, an opposin! force which try to stop the
motion of rollin! ball is called +ollin! friction.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
17
M. Salman Khan
6ear and tear of the machinery is due to e#cessi'e friction.
$ lar!e amount of power is wasted in o'er comin! friction and the efficiency of machine
decreases considerably.
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
6ithout friction between feet and !round it is not possible to walk.
&n the absence of friction, the brakes of motor car can not work.
METHODS OF REDUCING THE FRICTION
%riction can be reduced by the followin! methodsH
The 'arious part of the machine which are mo'in! o'er one another are properly lubricated.
&n machine the slidin! of 'arious parts is usually replaced by rollin! and its is done by casin!
ball bearin!.
6here slidin! is una'oidable a thick layer of !reasin! material is used between the slidin!
surfaces.
The front part of fast mo'in! ob0ects is cars and aeroplanes are made obli!ed to decrease air
friction.
**********************************************************
"hapter 3J
"&+"DI$+ M5T&5- $-D E+$V&T$T&5-
Q 1. Define centri!etal acceleration and give its #athe#atical for# and on what
factors it de!ends.
De#"t!"
6hen a body mo'es in a circle, its direction chan!es continuously due to which an
acceleration is produce which is directed towards the centre of the circle. This
acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
MATHEMATICAL FORM
18
M. Salman Khan
"entripetal acceleration 8 a
c
8 '
,
?r
6here MVL is the speed of the body and MrL is the radius of circle in which body
is mo'in!.
Q2. a) Define 4entri!etal force.
b) Derive %
c
=#2<r
c) /n what factors 4entri!etal force de!ends.
d) 8ive so#e ea#!les of 4entri!etal force fro# "our dail" life.
a; De#"t!"
6hen a body mo'es in a circle with uniform speed, the force re(uired to keep it mo'in! in
a circular path is called "entripetal force. This force is always directed towards the centre of the
circle.
b; MATHEMATICAL FORM
Suppose a body of mass MmL is mo'in! in a circular path of radius MrL with a
speed of 1V m?s2.
$ccordin! to -ewtonLs second law of motion
% 8 ma
or %
c
8 m a
c
$s we know that a
c
8 '
,
?r
therefore %
c
8 m'
,
?r
*ence
"entripetal force %
c
8 m'
,
?r
c; FACTORS UPON .HICH CENTRIPETAL FORCE DEPENDS
"entripetal force depends upon the followin! factor
Mass of the ob0ect %
c
m "entripetal force is increases with the increase of mass of the
body and decreases by decreasin! mass of the body.
Velocity of the ob0ect %
c
# '
,
"entripetal force is directly proportional to s(uare of
the 'elocity. &t increases with the increase of 'elocity.
+adius of circular path %
c
# )?r &f radius of the circle in which body is mo'in! increase,
"entripetal force will decrease.
E*AMPLES OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE FROM DAIL+ LIFE
6hen a car mo'es alon! a round track, the force of friction between tyres and road pro'ide
necessary centripetal force and keep the car on the cur'ed path.
19
M. Salman Khan
Era'itational force between moon and earth pro'ide centripetal force and keep the moon on a
circular path.
Q 3. Define centrifugal force and give so#e ea#!les of centrifugal force fro# the
dail" life.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Such a force which is produced by 'irtue of centripetal force is called centrifu!al force.
&t is a force of reaction of centripetal force. &n case of motion of a stone whirled
in a circle, centripetal force acts on the stone and centrifu!al force act on the hand.
MATHEMATICAL FORM
$s centrifu!al force is the force of reaction, therefore its mathematical
representation is same as centripetal force but with ne!ati'e si!n.
"entrifu!al force 8 3 m'
,
?r
E*AMPLES FROM DAIL+ LIFE
6hen we whirl a stone tied at the end of a strin!, we e#periences an outward force on our
hand. This is centrifu!al force.
"entrifu!e system helps in separatin! honey from bees wa#.
Q 4. State 6ewton7s law of gravitation and !rove that % = 8 #
1
#
2
<d2.
STATEMENT
'erybody in this uni'erse l attracts e'ery other body with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and in'ersely proportional to the s(uare of the
distance between their centers.
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
Suppose two bodies $ and 7 of masses Mm
)
L and Mm
,
L respecti'ely and MdL is
the distance between their centres.
$s force of attraction between the bodies is directly proportional to product of their
masses, i.e. % m
)
m
,
33333333 )
This force is in'ersely proportional to s(uare of the distance between their centres,
i.e. % )?d
,
3333333 ,
"ombinin! the relations )and , we !ot
% 8 E # m
)
m
,
?d
,

5+ % 8 E m
)
m
,
?d
,
6hen E is the !ra'itational constant.
&ts 'alue is E 8 J.JO# )A
3))
- m
,
?k!
,
20
M. Salman Khan
Q 4. Derive an e,uation for #ass of the earth1 b" a!!l"ing law of gravitation.
"onsider a body of mass MmL place on the surface of the earth.
Suppose mass of the earth is M
e
then the force of attraction between the body and
earth is !i'en by !ra'itational law
% 8 E m M
e
? +
e
,
33 )
:-e!lectin! the distance between centre of the body and earthLs surface;.
7ut we know that the force with witch earth attracts a body towards its centre is
wei!ht i.e. % 8 6 8 m! 3333 ,
7y comparin! ) and , we !et
m! 8 E m Me ? +
e
,

or m! +e
,
?Em 8 M
e

or !+e
,
?E 8 Me
or Me 8 !+e
,
?E
6ith the help of abo'e relation we can calculate the 'alue of mass of the earth..
Q$. 4alculate :ass of the earth.
6ith the help of !ra'itational law, we ha'e deri'ed a relation for mass of the earth,
i.e. Me 8 +
e
,
! ? E
6e know that in S.&. Dnits +
e
8 J./#)A
J
m
! 8 @.F m?s
,

E 8 J.JO#)A
3))
- m
,
?k!
,
Substitutin! the 'alues , we !ot
Me 8 :J./#)A
J
;
,
# @.F ? J.JO # )A
3))

Me 8 /A.@J # )A
),
#@.F ? J.JO # )A
3))

8 /A)./A # )A
), 9 ))
? J.JO
8 JA.) # )A
,.
8 J.A) # )A
,/
Me 8 J # )A
,/
k!
Q'. Differentiate between g and 8.
! E
&t is the acceleration due to !ra'ity &t is !ra'itational constant
&n S.&. units its 'alue is @.F m? s
,
&n S.&. units its 'alue is J.JO # )A
3))
-m
,
?
B!
,
&ts 'alue increases by decreasin! altitude
and 'ice 'ersa
&ts 'alue is constant for whole uni'erse
21
M. Salman Khan
Q>. E!lain the variation of *g- with altitude.
Value of 1!2 is not a constant !ra'ity, its 'alue depends upon the distance of the body from the centre
of the earth. The 'alue of 1!2 'aries in'ersly as the s(uare of this distance, i.e.
! ) ? r
,
6here 1r2 is the distance b?w centre of considerin! body and centre of the earth.
Therefore, at the earth, 'alue of 1!2 is less at e(uator then pole because e(uatorial distance is more at
poles.
Differentiate b?w centripetal and centrifu!al forces.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE CENTIFUGAL FORCE
&t is a centre seekin! force. &t is centre fleein! force.
This force acts on the body makin!
circular motion
This force acts on the body pro'idin!
centripetal force
This force is a force of action This force is a force of reaction
**********************************************
"hapter3F
65+B -+EP & P56+
Q1.a) Define wor@ and it7s units.
b) Evaluate wor@ when force and dis!lace#ent are not in one direction.
a) .OR2
6ork is said to be done when a force 1%2 causes a displacement 1d2 in the body on which it
acts.
E*PLANATION
&f the displacement of the body takes place under the action of a constant force in the
direction of force, the work done is !i'en by the product of the ma!nitude of force and that of the
displacement.
MATHEMATICAL FORM
6ork 8 : %orce ; : Displacement ;
or 6 8 % S
UNITS OF .OR2
0OULE&
22
M. Salman Khan
&n S.& units, the unit of work is =oule. &t is defined as 1the work done by a force of one
-ewton in mo'in! a body throu!h a distance of one meter in the direction of force.
ERG&
&n ".E.S. system the unit of work is +E. &t is defined as 1the work done by a force of one
dyne while mo'in! a body throu!h a distance of one centimeter in the direction of force2.
FOOT POUND&
&n 7ritish n!ineerin! system the unit of work is %oot Pound. &t is defined as 1the work
done when a force of one pound mo'es a body throu!h a distance of foot in a direction of force.
EVALUATE .OR2 .HEN FORCE AND DISPLACEMENT ARE NOT IN ONE
DIRECTION
&f force makes an an!le with the direction of displacement then we calculate work by resol'in!
force into two components 1%
#
2, which acts alon! the direction of displacement 1%
y
2, which acts
perpendicular to the !round .
then, %
#
8 % "os
%
y
8 % Sin
$s the body is mo'in! alon! the hori4ontal direction therefore the component %
#
is doin!
work, whereas the component %
y
is not effecti'e because no work is done alon! this direction
therefore.
6ork 8 : %
#
; :d;
or 6ork 8 :% "os ; :d;
or 6ork 8 % d "os
FACTORS ON .HICH .OR2 DEPENDS
Displacement : d ;
$n!le 7etween %orce $nd Displacement
Q2. Define 5otential Energ"1 Derive a for#ula of 5otential Energ".
POTENTIAL ENERG+
Potential ner!y of a body is define as the ener!y due to position of a body.
Gra3tat!"a' P!te"ta' E"er1)
&f a body is lifted to a position hi!her than itLs initial position in the !ra'itational field of
the earth, the work is done on it. This work is stored in this body as
potential ener!y. Such potential ener!y is called Era'itational Potential ner!y. This ener!y is
reco'ered if the body is allowed to fall..
Ma1"t4de O# P.E&
23
M. Salman Khan
Suppose a body of mass MmL is situated at some point in a !ra'itational field of the earth. &t
is lifted with 'ery small speed 'ertically throu!h a distance MhL. The force re(uired to raise the
body is 0ust e(ual and opposite to its wei!ht :68m!; of the body.
This work done on the body is, therefore, !i'en by
6ork 8 %orce # Displacement
6ork 8 6 # h
6ork 8 m!h
This work is e(ual to potential ener!y
P. 8 m!h
Fa$t!r% O" .h$h P!te"ta' E"er1) Depe"d%
Potential ener!y depends upon the followin! factors.
Mass of the body
*ei!ht from initial point.
Value of acceleration due to !ra'ity
Potential ner!y is directly proportional to mass and hei!ht .
Q3. Define Ainetic Energ" and derive the for#ula A.E =1<2 #v
2
.
DEFINITION
ner!y possessed by a body by 'irtue of its motion is called the Binetic ner!y.
E*PLANATION
&t is the ener!y possessed by a mo'in! body. $ mo'in! body is capable of doin! work. The
work which a mo'in! body can do is e(ual to its Binetic ner!y..
This ener!y has many practical application.
1) Eeneration of electricity from mo'in! water is used to dri'e turbines.
2) 6ind mills.
MAGNITUDE OF 2INETIC ENERG+
Suppose a body of mass 1m2 placed on a hori4ontal friction less table. Suppose force 1%2 is
applied on the body which accelerates the body in the direction of force, then accordin! to
-ewtonLs Second law of motion, applied force
% 8 ma
Suppose the body starts its motion from rest and after co'erin! 1S2 its final 'elocity
becomes 1V2.
Dsin! the e(uation of motion ,aS 8 V
f
,
< V
i
,
Substitutin! the 'alues, we !et
,aS 8 V
,
3 A
,
,aS 8 V
,

S 8 V
,
? ,a
24
M. Salman Khan
6ork Done by the force
68 % # S
5r 68 :ma; :V
,
? ,a;
68 m'
,
? ,
This work is appeared in the form of Binetic ner!y
Therefore B.. 8)?, m'
,
FACTORS ON .HICH 2.E. DEPENDS
Binetic ner!y depends upon two factors.
1) M$SS 5% T* 75DP
2) VI5"&TP 5% T* 75DP
Binetic ner!y is directly proportional to mass of the body.
Binetic ner!y is directly proportional to s(uare of the 'elocity.
Q: State the law of conservation of energ" and e!lain this law for a freel"
falling bod".
LA. OF CONSERVATION OF ENERG+
1ner!y can neither be created nor it can be destroyed but it can chan!ed from one form of ener!y to
another form of ener!y2.
E*PLANATION
"onsider a body of mass MmL lyin! at a hei!ht MhL from the !round. 6hen we release this body it will mo'e
towards the !round and its potential ener!y decreases but Binetic ener!y increases at the same time.
Durin! this motion from $ to " its potential ener!y chan!es into B.. we will calculate P. and B.
at different points and total ener!y.
AT POINT A&
B. 8 A :body is at rest therefore, its 'elocity 8 A;
P. 8 m!h
Total ner!y 8 P.. 9 B..
8 m!h 9 A 8 m!h
Total ener!y 8 P. 9 B..
8 m!h 9 A 8 m!h
AT POINT C&
Distance co'ered by the body from $ to " 8 #
*ei!ht from the !round 8 h3#
P. at " 8 m! :h3#;
&nitial 'elocity at $ 8 'i 8A
%inal 'elocity at " 8 'f 8 '
7y usin! the e(uation of motion.
,!h 8 Vf
,
3Vi
,
,!# 8 V
,
3:A;
,
,!# 8 V
,

B. at " 8 G m V
,
8 G m :,!#;
25
M. Salman Khan
8 m!#
*ence total ener!y at " 8 8 P. 9 B.
8 m! :h3#; 9 m!#
8 m!h 3 m!# 9 m!#
8 m!h.
AT POINT B&
P. 8 A :h 8A;
B. 8 m!h
8 m!h 9 A
8 m!h
Durin! the motion from $ to 7 potential ener!y is con'erted into Binetic ener!y and Binetic
ener!y is con'erted into potential ener!y, but total ener!y remains the same.
26
M. Salman Khan
"hapter3@
M$"*&-
Q1. Define the following.
Effort
9oad
:echanical advantage
/ut !ut
;n!ut
Efficienc".
EFFORT 5P
&t is a force directly applied to a machine for din! work. &t is denoted by MPL.
LOAD 5.
The wei!ht lifted or resistance o'ercome by a machine is known as wei!ht and it is denoted by
M6L.
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
&f a wei!ht M6L is raised by a machine when an effort MPL is applied, the ratio of load and effort is
called mechanical ad'anta!e of the machine, *ence
Mechanical $d'anta!e 8 6ei!ht or resistance o'ercome by a machine
%orce applied on machine
M.$. 8 6
P
INPUT
&f an effort MPL acts throu!h a distance MdL then work done on machine is called &nput, Thus
&nput 8 effort # distance throu!h which the effort acts.
&nput 8 Pd
OUT PUT
&f a machine mo'es a load M6L throu!h a distance MhL then useful work done by machine is called out
put, thus
5ut put 8 Ioad # distance throu!h which the load mo'es
5ut put 8 6h
27
M. Salman Khan
EFFICIENC+
The ratio between useful work done by the machine to the work done on the machine is called the
efficiency of the machine.
&t is denoted by a Ereek letter ML :eta;.
fficiency 8 8 useful work done by the machine
useful work done on the machine
fficiency always e#pressed in percenta!e.
8 5utput # )AA
&nput
or 8 6 # h #)AA
p # d
Q2.
Define lever.
/n what !rinci!le it wor@s.
4alculate its #echanical advantage.
Write down the t"!es with so#e ea#!le.
a; DEFINITION &
Ie'er is a strai!ht ri!id ban which can rotate about a fi#ed point. This point is called
%ulcrum.
b; ON .HAT PRINCIPE LEVER .OR2S
Ie'er works on principle of moment i.e.
Moment of effort 8 moment of wei!ht
5+ effort # effort arm 8 wei!ht # wei!ht arm
c; MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
$s a le'er works on principle of moment, therefore we can calculate the mechanical
ad'anta!e with the help of this principle i.e.
effort # effort arm 8 6ei!ht # 6ei!ht
5+ P Q 5$ 8 6 Q 57
5+ 5$ ? 57 8 6 ? P
5+ M.$. 8 6?P 8 5$ ? 57
M.$. 8 ffort $rm ? 6ord $rm
Mechanical ad'anta!e of le'er can be increased by increasin! effort arm or by decreasin! load arm,
to a minimum possible limit.
d; T+PES OF LEVER
Ie'er is di'ided into three classes dependin! on different positions of fulcr relati'e to the point of
application of the force and resistance or wei!ht.
28
M. Salman Khan
1. Le3er O# The Fr%t 2"d
&n the le'er of the first kind, fulcrum M%L is in between effort MPL and wei!ht M6L.
E(a,p'e%& "ommon balance, pair of scissors, Sea3Saw are the e#amples of the first kind of
le'er.
2. Le3er O# The Se$!"d 2"d
&n the le'er of the second kind, wei!ht M62 is in between %ulcrum M%L and effort MPL.
E(a,p'e%& 6heel barrow, nut crackers are the e#amples of second kind.
3. Le3er O# Thrd 2"d
&n the third kind of le'er, effort MPL is in between wei!ht M6L and fulcrum M%L
E(a,p'e%& *uman arm and fire ton!ue are its e#amples.
Q: Write note on the following.
5ulle"
;nclined !lane
Wedge
Screw Bac@
Wheel and ale.
PULLE+
C!"%tr4$t!" &
&t consist of a !roo'ed wheel which can carry a strin!, rope or chain passin! round it.
The wheel mounted on an a#le which is fi#ed to a frame work called 7lock.
The pulley used in two ways.
%i#ed pulley
Mo'eable pulley
%i#ed Pulley
&f the block of the pulley is fi#ed it is called fi#ed pulley.
.!r6"1&
Ioad is attached at one end and effort is applied on the other end in downward direction to lift the
load.
Me$ha"$a' Ad3a"ta1e&
&f we i!nore the wei!ht of the rope and force of friction between the rope and wheel then from
principle of le'er.
ffort # ffort arm 8 6ei!ht # 6ei!ht arm
P # 5$ 8 6 # 57
5$ ? 57 8 6 ? P
M$ 86 ? P 8 5$ ? 57 8 r ? r :where MrL is the radius of wheel;
M.$. 8 )
29
M. Salman Khan
Such pulleys used to chan!e the direction of force. The ad'anta!e of fi#ed pulley is the force can
be applied in downward direction, which is more con'enient.
M!3ea7'e p4''e)
Arra"1e,e"t A"d .!r6"1&
&n this pulley, one end of the rope which is passin! round the pulley is tied to a firm support M5L
and effort MPL is applied at its other end. The load M6L to be lifted, is hun! from the hook of the block.
Me$ha"$a' Ad3a"ta1e&
&n each se!ment of the rope tension is e(ual to applied effort. $s the wei!ht is supported by the
two se!ments of the rope, the upward effort actin! on wei!ht M6L is M,PL.
%or e(uilibrium condition position.
6 8 ,P 5+ 6?P 8 , 5+ M$ 8 ,
INCLINED PLANE
De#"t!"
&nclined plane is a plane surface makin! a certain an!le with the hori4ontal.
U%e& &t is used up to help us in raisin! hea'y loads.
Me$ha"$a' Ad3a"ta1e&
Suppose $7 is an inclined plane ha'in! len!th MlLL hei!ht MhL and the an!le of inclination is
.
Suppose wei!ht M6L is bein! pulled up by a force MPL parallel to plane surface. $s
the wei!ht M6L is actin! 'ertically downward, therefore it is resol'ed into its components.
6 "os which is balanced by normal reaction +.
6 Sin which tend to pull the body parallel to plane surface. The force MPL actin! a!ainst
this force. &f force of friction is ne!lected then for an e(uilibrium.
6 Sin 8 P
5+ 6 ? P 8 )?Sin 3333 :);
&- $7",
Sin 8 h ? l
Substitutin! this 'alue in :);
6 ? P 8 )
h ? l
5+ M.$. 8 l ? h
5+ M.$. 8 len!th of inclined plane
hei!ht of inclined plane
M.$. of inclined plane can be increased by increasin! len!th or by decreasin!
hei!ht of inclined plane.
30
M. Salman Khan
.EDGE&
De#"t!"
6ed!e is a simple machine made up of two inclined planes.
Dse.
Dsed as fulcrum in le'ers.
Dsed to split wood into small pieces.
Me$ha"$a' Ad3a"ta1e
Suppose a wed!e is penetrated into a wooden lo! by a force MPL . +
)
, +
,
are two
reactin! forces actin! normally on the inclined planes.,
"onsider the e(uilibrium position of 6ed!e and ne!lectin! the frictional force.
+
)
, +
,
and MPL forms a trian!le QPR. Such that QP, PR and QR show P,
+
)
and +
,
respecti'ely. $s $7" and QPR are two similar trian!les therefore
RQ ? QP 8 $"?7" :+atio of the sides of similar trian!les are e(ual;
5+ +?P 8$"?7" :RQ 8+, QP 8P; :+
)
8+
,
8+;
6e know that
M.$. 8 6ei!ht or resistance ?ffort.
&s M.$. 8 +?P 8 len!th of inclined plane ? Thickness of 6ed!e
CONCLUSION
M.$. of a wed!e can be increased by increasin! len!th of inclined plane and by
decreasin! thickness of wed!e.
SCRE.
De#"t!"
Screw is a simple machine consists of a threaded rod with a circular head, called screw head.
U%e
&t is used to hold different parts of machines to!ether.
"onstruction
&t consist of two main parts.
$ cylinder on which continuous threads are wrapped?
$ circular !roo'ed head on the top of a screw.
The distance b?w two consecuti'e threads is called pitch, and it is denote by 1h2.
.!r6"1
6hen an effort 1P2 is applied on the head of the screw, &t completes one re'olution and
mo'es throu!h a distance e(ual to pitch of the screw.
Me$ha"$a' Ad3a"ta1e
6hen the screw completes one re'olution, the effort 1P2 is applied for one
complete re'olution and co'ered a distance e(ual to circumference of the circular head i.e. ,r
6here MrL is radius of circular headC so the &nput 8 P # ,r .
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M. Salman Khan
6here the screw mo'es for wand, &t may be used to raise wei!hts or o'er come
resistance applied to its ends a distance e(ual to pitch of the screw.
Therefore out put 8 6 # h
%or an ideal condition,
5ut put 8 &nput
6 # h 8 P#,r
6?P 8 ,r?h
5r M$ 8 ,r?h
*ence M$ can be increased by increasin! radius of circular head or by decreasin!
pitch of the screw.
S$re8 0a$6
$ Screw =ack is a simple machine usually used to lift car or other hea'y automobile
when need arise.
C!"%tr4$t!"
&t consist of a lon! Screw rod passin! throu!h a threaded block M7L and a handle it
to turn the threaded block M7L.
.!r6"1
6hen the effort is applied to the handle M*L and the handle co'ers a distance e(ual to
circumference of the circle of radius MrL where MrL is e(ual to len!th of the handle. Due to this
effort the block mo'es e(ual to pitch of the screw and raised a load M6L.
Me$ha"$a' Ad3a"ta1e
%or an ideal Screw =ack
&nput 8 out put
P # ,r 8 6 h
5r 6?P 8 ,r ? h
%or a lar!e mechanical ad'anta!e pitch of the screw should be small as compared to len!th
of the rod.
.hee' a"d A('e
&t is a 'ery simple machine used for liftin! hea'y loads, such as pullin! bucket of water
from well.
C!"%tr4$t!"
&t consist of two wheels, one is lar!e ha'in! radius M+L and the other wheel is small
ha'in! radius MrL. 7oth the wheels are fi#ed on the same shaft and are called wheel and a#le.
.!r6"1
The effort is applied on the rim of the wheel and load is raised by a strin! wound round the
a#le.
&f effort MPL is applied for one complete rotation of lar!er wheel ha'in! radius e(ual to M+L
then &nput 8 P # ,+
Ioad is raised throu!h a distance e(ual to circumference of a#le, then 5utput 8 6 # ,r
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M. Salman Khan
%or an ideal condition
&nput 8 5ut put
P # ,+ 8 6 # , r
5r 6?P 8 ,+ ? ,r
5r 6?P 8 +?r
M.$ 8 +?r
M.$ of wheel and a#le is increased by increasin! + or by decreasin! r.
*********************************************
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M. Salman Khan
"hapter3)J
+%+$"T&5- 5% I&E*T
Q1. Define refraction of light and state the laws of refraction.
REFRACTION&
+efraction is the bendin! of li!ht which occurs when it passes from one transparent medium
:material; to another.
i 8 an!le of incidence. :an!le b?w incident ray and normal;
r 8 an!le of refraction :an!le b?w refracted ray and normal;
e 8 an!le of emer!ence :an!le b?w emer!ent ray and normal;
LA.S OF REFRACTION&
Fr%t La8 &
The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
A"1'e !# De3at!" &
The an!le with which incident ray de'iates from its ori!inal path is called $n!le of De'iation.
A"1'e !# M",4, De3at!" &
The last 'alue of an!le of de'iation after which it increases with the increase of an!le of incidence
is called $n!le of Minimum De'iation.
Se$!"d La8 &
%or li!ht rays passin! from one transparent medium to another, the sine of an!le of incidence and
the sine of an!le of refraction are in constant ratio. This constant is known as M+efracti'e &nde#L
and denoted by a Ereek Symbol ML.
Mathematically 8 Sin i ? Sin r
i 8 ,A
o
Sin S i 8 A../ MnL 8 Sin i ? Sin r 8 ).K
r 8 ).
o
Sin S r 8 A.,,
i 8 .A
o
Sin S i 8 A.KA MnL 8 Sin i ? Sin r 8 ).K
r 8 )@
o
Sin S r 8 A...
i 8 /A
o
Sin S i 8 A.J/ MnL 8 Sin i ? Sin r 8 ).K
r 8 ,K
o
Sin S r 8 A./,
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M. Salman Khan
Q2. Define refractive ;nde . Describe different #ethods b" which "ou can
calculate the refractive inde of a #ediu# .
REFRACTIVE INDE*&
&t is the bendin! ability of a li!ht ray in the second medium with respect to first, and it is different
in different medium. &t is denoted by Ereek symbol MnL.
+efracti'e inde# can be calculated by followin! different methods.
+efracti'e inde# is the ratio between sine of an!le of incidence to sine of an!le of refraction
Mathematically MnL Sin i ? Sin r
+efracti'e inde# can be calculate by di'idin! the speed of li!ht in air to speed of li!ht in second
medium
&f V
)
8 Speed of li!ht in air.
V
,
8 Speed of li!ht in second medium :sup !lass;
Then +efracti'e &nde# 8 MnL 8 Sin i ? Sin r
The refracti'e inde# of !lass by prism can be calculated by the formula.
n 8 Sin :$9Dm; ? ,
Sin $ ? ,
6here M$ M is the an!le of prism.
MDmL is the an!le of minimum de'iation.
The refracti'e inde# of a medium can be calculated by the formula n 8 )?Sin "
6here L"L is the critical an!le of that medium.
Q3) Define critical angle.
Define total internal reflection.
E!lain the !heno#ena of total internal reflection.
%ind a relation between the critical angle and the refractive inde of the #ediu#.
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M. Salman Khan
CRITICAL ANGLE&
6e know that when a ray of li!ht passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium , the
refracted ray bends away from the normal. &f now the an!le of incidence 1i2 is slowly increased
the an!le of refraction becomes @A
o
, then the refracted ray !ra4es alon! the boundary of the
media. This particular an!le of incidence for which the an!le of refraction become @A
o
is called
critical an!le.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION&
6hen li!ht passes from a denser medium to rarer medium it bends away from the normal
and ha'in! a small an!le of incidence 1i2 and a weak internally reflected ray is produced as well
as a refracted ray . The an!le of refraction is !reater than the an!le of incidence 1i2. &t follows that
if the an!le of incidence is increased it will reach the critical 'alue where the an!le of refraction is
e(ual to @A
o
.
&f the an!le of incidence is further increased, become !rater than the critical an!le :i N c; it is
impossible for the an!le of refraction to e#ceed @A
o
. -ow no li!ht emer!es and the li!ht is totally
internally reflected, The inside surface of denser medium beha'es like a perfect mirror. This
phenomena is known as Total &nternal +eflection.
C!"dt!"% F!r T!ta' I"ter"a' Re#'e$t!"&
There are two conditions for total internal reflection.
The ray of li!ht should incident from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
The an!le of incidence should be !reater than the critical an!le.
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M. Salman Khan
Q$. Write note on the following:
Total reflectin! prism.
Periscope.
TOTALL+ REFLECTING PRISM&
$ prism with one @A
o
corner and two /K
o
corners can be used to turn a ray of li!ht throu!h
@A
o
. &n fi!. ray PQ is totally internally reflected, because the an!le of incidence 1i2 8 /K
o
is !reater
than the critical an!le for !lass to air, an!le "8/,. The ray is de'iated by @A
o
.
U%e&
Totally reflectin! prism is used in some periscope in preference to a plane mirror because there is
no e#posed sil'ered surface to become dama!ed and no multiple reflections.
PERISCOPE&
I"tr!d4$t!"&
&t is an optical instrument which is used to see the ob0ects on the surface of the sea by an obser'er
in a submarine under water.
C!"%tr4$t!"&
&t consist of two ri!ht an!led trian!le prism and three con'e# lenses. The first is fi#ed at the top
and the second prism P, is fi#ed at the bottom of a 'ertical tube which bent at ri!ht an!le at the
lower end. There is also a lens system in the tube.
6orkin!H
The rays from the distant ob0ects are reflected at ri!ht an!les by the upper prism into the 'ertical
tube. The rays pass throu!h a system of lenses and fall on the second prism P,. This prism bends
rays a!ain and the rays then fall on an eye piece that forms a final enlar!ed ima!e which can be
'iewed by the obser'er.
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M. Salman Khan
Q'. E!lain in detail the refraction of light through !ris# .
INTRODUCTION&
Prism is a transparent refractin! medium bounded by two trian!ular and three rectan!ular
surfaces. Trian!ular section of the prism is called
1Principle Section2. The an!les of the trian!le is called 1$n!le 5f the Prism2.
Iet PQ is the ray incident on the face 1$72 of the prism at 1Q2, refraction at Q takes place from
air to !lass , the refracted ray Q+ bends towards the normal, when Q+
reaches 1+2 refraction takes place a!ain from !lass to air, So the refracted ray bends away from
the normal 15M2 at 1+2. This ray is called a emer!ent ray.
*ere refraction takes place two times, firstly when li!ht ray enter into the prism, secondly when
li!ht tra'el from !lass to air.
Q?. Describe the changes in the !osition1 nature and siCe of the i#age for#ed b" conve lens
when the ob0ect is brought fro# infinit" to o!tical centre of the lens. Draw the ra"
diagra#.
Ca%e I & .he" A" O79e$t P'a$ed At I"#"t)&
6hen an ob0ect is at infinity, the ima!e is formed at principal focus. &t is real, in'erted and
e#tremely diminished.
Ca%e II & .he" A" O79e$t P'a$ed Be)!"d :;F< &
6hen an ob0ect is beyond 1,%2, the ima!e is formed between principal focus and 1,%2. &t is real,
in'erted and smaller in si4e.
Ca%e III & .he" A" O79e$t P'a$ed At :;F< &
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M. Salman Khan
6hen an ob0ect placed at 1,%2 the ima!e is formed at 1,%2. This ima!e will be real, in'erted and
same in si4e.
Ca%e IV & .he" A" O79e$t P'a$ed 7=8 :F< a"d :;F< &
6hen an ob0ect placed b?w 1%2 and 1,%2. This ima!e will be real, in'erted and ma!nified.
Ca%e V& .he" A" O79e$t P'a$ed At :F< &
6hen an ob0ect is placed at 1%2 itLs ima!e will be formed at infinity. This ima!e will be real,
in'erted and hi!hly ma!nified.
Ca%e VI & .he" A" O79e$t .th I" The F!$a' Le"1th&
6hen an ob0ect is placed within the focal len!th, itLs ima!e is formed on the same side of the
ob0ect. This ima!e is erect, 'irtual and ma!nified.
QD: Draw a labelled diagra# showing the structure of e"e. E!lain the functions of different
!arts of the e"e.
SCLEROTIC&
&t is the opa(ue coatin! of the eye.
CORNEA&
The front portion of the sclerotic is sli!htly more con'e# than the rest of the eye ball, and is called
the "ornea.
CHOROID&
&nside the sclerotic is a blank opa(ue membrane called "horoid.
IRIS&
The front portion is a coloured diaphra!m, called the iris.
PUPIL OF THE E+E&
The iris contains a central aperture called the Pupil 5f The ye.
RETINA&
The third coatin! inside the eye is called +etina.
OPTIC NERVES&
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M. Salman Khan
This ner'e carries the impression to the brain where it is translated into the mysterious
phenomena called 1si!ht2.
LENS OF THE E+E&
&t is a con'e# lens, made of hard transparent !elatinous water.
A-UEOUS HUMOR&
&t is transparent matter filled b?w cornea and lens.
VITROUS HUMOR&
&t is hi!hly transparent matter filled b?w lens and ratin!.
CILLAR+ MUSCLES&
These muscles perform an important role. These muscles control the lens in
ad0ustment for seein! far off or a near by ob0ects.
F4"$t!"% O# Part% O# E)e&
SCLEROTIC&
&t is hard coatin! to protect the eye
CHOROID&
&t is a layer of tissue which supplies blood to the eye and also contains black colourin! which
reduces reflection of li!ht with in the eye.
RETINA&
&t contains li!ht sensiti'e cello and ner'es fibres. Ii!ht fallin! on the retina produces chemical
chan!es in the cells which then send electrical impulses alon! the ner'e fibres 'ia optic ner'e to
the brain.
LENS&
The lens forms a real, in'erted and diminished ima!e on the retina.
CILIAR+ MUSCLES&
&t controls the shape of the lens. These muscles contract or rela# so the thickness of the lens
chan!es
IRIS&
The iris is a coloured rin!, which has a circular hole in itLs centre called the pupil, 7y ad0ustin!
the si4e of the pupil, the iris can control the amount of li!ht reachin! the retina.
A-UEOUS AND VITREOUS HUMOR&
The eye is rou!hly spherical and keeps itLs shape due to li(uid inside it called $(ueous $nd
Vitreous *umour.
Q1E. What are the #ain defects of the e"e. Fow are the" re#oved. %ollowing are the #ain
defects of the e"e
Short3Si!htedness or Mypia
Ion! Si!htedness or *ypermetropia
$sti!matism
Presbypia
Sh!rt-S1hted"e%% Or M)!pa&
&f a person cannot see distant ob0ects but can see near ob0ects, he is sufferin! from disease called
short si!htedness.
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M. Salman Khan
Ca4%e &
&n this case the eye ball of the person is too con'er!in! or the eye ball is too lon! as a result
of the ima!e of distant ob0ects is formed in front of the ratin!.
Re,!3a'&
This defect of the eye is corrected by usin! a conca'e lens of suitable focal.
L!"1 S1hted"e%%&
&f a person cannot see near ob0ects, but can see clearly the distant ob0ects, he is said to be sufferin!
from lon! si!htedness.
Ca4%e&
&n this case the eye ball of the person in less con'er!in! or the eye3ball is too short. %or such a
person the rays from near ob0ects are focussed beyond the retina.
Re,!3a'&
&n order to brin! the ima!e at the retina a con'e# lens of suitable focal len!th is used which is in
front of the eye.
Q11. Write a note on 4o#!ound :icrosco!e .
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE&
&t is an optical instrument by which a small ob0ect can be seen 'ery much lar!e.
C!"%tr4$t!"&
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M. Salman Khan
&t consists of two con'e# lenses of short focal len!th at one end of two tubes, one of these tubes can
be mo'ed into the other, so that the distance between the lenses can be chan!ed. The lens near the
ob0ect is called ob0ecti'e and the other near the eye is called ye3Piece.
O79e$t3e&
This lens faces the ob0ectC it has short focal len!th or hi!h power or small aperture.
E)e Pe$e&
This lens faces the eye3piece. &t has lar!e focal len!th as compared to ob0ecti'e. &t has lar!e
aperture.
.!r6"1&
The small ob0ect $7 is 'iewed is placed in front of the ob0ecti'e at a distance sli!htly !reater than
the focal len!th of the ob0ecti'e 152, So that a real, in'erted and enlar!ed ima!e $L 7L is formed.
The eye3piece is mo'ed forward or backwards. So that $L 7L falls within the focal len!th and final
ima!e $2 72 is formed by the lens :eye3 piece; at a distance of least district 'ision. $2 72 is
in'erted, 'irtual and ma!nified ima!e of $7.
Q12. What do "ou @now about #agnif"ing glass Describe the function of #agnif"ing glass.
MAGNIF+ING GLASS OR SIMPLE MICROSCOPE&
6hen a con'e# lens is placed near a small ob0ect such that the distance between the lens and the
ob0ect is less than its focal len!th, a ma!nified erect and 'irtual ima!e of the ob0ect is seen throu!h
the con'e#, which is said to act as a simple microscope or ma!nifyin! !lass.
"onsider an ob0ect $7 placed in front of a con'e# lens within the focal len!th. $ ray which is
parallel to principal a#is after passin! throu!h the lens, passes throu!h the con'e#, another ray of
li!ht which passes throu!h optical centre unde'iated. 6hen these rays are produced backward
meet and formed an ima!e $272 where the ob0ect is placed.
This ima!e on the same side of the lens, lar!e in si4e, 'irtual and erect.
Q13. Write down the construction and wor@ing of an &strono#ical 3efracting +elesco!e.
C!"%tr4$t!" &
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M. Salman Khan
$n $stronomical Telescope is comprised of two con'e# lenses. The lens facin! the ob0ect is called
ob0ecti'e. &t has a lar!e focal len!th and wide aperture. The lens which is placed close to the eye is
called eye3piece. &t has a short focal len!th.
.!r6"1 &
$s these hea'enly bodies are at a 'ery lar!e distance from the earth, so the rays comin! from then
will be parallel so they are focused by the ob0ecti'e at its principal focus and ima!e of the star is
formed. The ima!e is real, in'erted and small in si4e. The eye3piece is ad0usted in such a way so
that the ima!e formed by the ob0ecti'e is focussed within the focal len!th of eye3piece. The ima!e
formed by eye3piece is 'irtual ima!e which is hi!hly ma!nified. This final ima!e is in'erted with
respect to real ob0ect but for astronomical ob0ects it does not make any difference.
U%ed&
&t is used by $stronomer for seein! hea'enly bodies
Q14. Write down the construction and wor@ing of a !hoto gra!hic ca#era.
PHOTO GRAPHIC CAMERA&
$ photo!raphic camera is comprised of a li!ht proof bo# which has been blackend from the inside
so that stray li!ht may be absorbed. &n an ordinary camera a con'e# law is fitted on the front side
but in costly cameras a combination of lenses is used. The function of lens or combination of lenses
is to produce a real and in'erted ima!e of the ob0ect at the other end on li!ht sensiti'e film or
plate. &f we want to !et a sharp ima!e then the lens should be mo'ed in or out with the help of
mechanical de'ice. There is an arran!ement of a diaphra!m and shutter for controllin! the li!ht
which is allowed to enter the camera. $ shutter of 'ariable speed and a diaphra!m of chan!in!
aperture control the lens and amount of li!ht enterin! into the camera when the camera is not in
use, the shutter remains closed. The shutter s allowed openin! for a fraction of second when we
press the button for takin! the photo!raph.
**********************************************
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M. Salman Khan
"hapter3).
+%I"T&5- 5% I&E*T
REFLECTION&
6hen a ray of li!ht tra'ellin! in one medium meets the surface of another medium obli(uely
some or all the li!ht may be turned back into the first medium.
This is called 1+eflection of Ii!ht2.
LA. OF REFLECTION&
The two laws of reflection are.
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in one plane.
The an!le of incidence is e(ual to an!le of reflection.
Q2. Differentiate between regular and irregular reflection.
+e!ular +eflection &rre!ular +eflection
+eflection of li!ht from a smooth
surface is called re!ular reflection.
+eflection of li!ht from a rou!h
surface is called irre!ular reflection.
$ll parallel rays of li!ht reflected in
the same direction.
$ll parallel rays of li!ht are
randomly reflected in different
directions.
Due to the re!ular reflection ima!es
are formed.
Due to the irre!ular we can see non3
luminous ob0ect.
+eflectin! surface is not 'isible. +eflectin! surface is 'isible.
Q3. What are the i#!ortance of irregular reflection.
&rre!ular reflection plays an important role in nature.
&t is due to the irre!ular reflection that we are able to see the non3luminous ob0ects.
&t is due to this fact that sunli!ht reach us before sun rise and persists for some time e'en after
the sun set.
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M. Salman Khan
Q4. Describe the characteristics of an i#age for#ed b" a !lane #irror.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IMAGE FORMED B+ A PLANE MIRROR&
&ma!e formed by a plane mirror is erect and 'irtual.
Si4e of ima!e formed by a plane mirror is e(ual to the si4e of the ob0ect.
&ma!e formed by a plane mirror is laterally.
&ma!e formed by a plane mirror is as far behind the mirror as the ob0ect in front of it.
Q$. Define the following.
Spherical mirror, conca'e mirror, con'e# mirror, pole, radius of cur'ature, principal focus,
focal len!th & aperture
SPHERICAL MIRROR&
$ spherical mirror is a portion of the surface of a polished hollow sphere.
CONCAVE MIRROR&
&f the spherical mirror is polished from outside then this mirror is called conca'e mirror.
The centre of cur'ature lies in front of reflectin! surface.
&t con'er!es the rays of li!ht, therefore formed a real ima!e.
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M. Salman Khan
CONVE* MIRROR&
&f the spherical mirror is polished from inside then this mirror is called "on'e# Mirror.
"entre of cur'ature lie behind the reflectin! surface.
&t di'er!es the rays of li!ht, therefore it is called di'er!in! mirror.
POLE&
The centre of the reflectin! surface of the mirror is called 1Pole2 of the mirror.
CENTRE OF CURVATURE&
&t is the centre of sphere of which the mirror is a part is called 1"entre of "ur'ature2.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE&
+adius of that sphere of which the mirror is a part is called 1+adius 5f "ur'ature2 .
PRINCIPAL FOCUS OR FOCUS&
&t is the point where parallel beam of li!ht after reflection from the mirror either actually
con'er!es to that point or appears to di'er!e from that point. &t is denoted by 1%2.
%ocus of conca'e mirror is called +eal %ocus.
%ocus of con'e# mirror is called Virtual %ocus.
FOCAL LENGTH&
The distance b?w the pole and focus is called 1%ocal Ien!th2 of the mirror. &t is positi'e in conca'e
mirror and ne!ati'e in con'e# mirror.
APERTURE&
The diameter of the circular boundary of the spherical mirror is called aperture.
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M. Salman Khan
Q'. Differentiate b<w 3eal and Virtual i#age.
+eal &ma!e Virtual &ma!e
$n ima!e is said to be real, if the rays
of li!ht actually pass throu!h it.
Virtual ima!e is only 'isible to the
eye and a reflected ray of li!ht
appears to come from that from that
point.
&t can be recei'ed on the screen. &t cannot be recei'ed on the screen.
+eal ima!es are in'erted. Virtual ima!es are erect.
Distance of real ima!e is taken
positi'e.
Distances of 'irtual ima!es are taken
ne!ati'e.
Q>. E!lain with the hel! of a ra" diagra#1 the nature1 the siCe and the !osition of an i#age
for#ed b" a concave #irror when an ob0ect #oved fro# infinit" to !ole of the #irror.
Ca%e I& .he" A" O79e$t I% P'a$ed At I"#"t)&
Position of &ma!e 8 the ima!e is formed at focal point
Si4e of &ma!e 8 e#tremely diminished
-ature of &ma!e 8 +eal and in'erted
Ca%e II & .he" A" O79e$t I% P'a$ed Be)!"d :C<&
Position of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is formed b?w focal point and centre of cur'ature.
Si4e of &ma!e 8 Small in si4e
-ature of &ma!e 8 +eal and in'erted
Ca%e III & .he" A" O79e$t I% P'a$ed At :C<&
Position of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is formed at 1"2
Si4e of &ma!e 8 same in si4e
-ature of &ma!e 8 +eal and in'erted
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M. Salman Khan
Ca%e IV & .he" a" O79e$t % P'a$ed 7et8ee" :F< / :C<&
Position of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is formed beyond 1"2
Si4e of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is ma!nified
-ature of &ma!e 8 +eal and in'erted
Ca%e V & .he" A" O79e$t % P'a$ed at :F<&
Position of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is formed at infinity
Si4e of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is hi!hly ma!nified
-ature of &ma!e 8 +eal and in'erted
Ca%e VI & .he" A" O79e$t P'a$ed 7=8 :F< A"d P!'e&
Position of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is formed behind the mirror
Si4e of &ma!e 8 Ma!nified
-ature of &ma!e 8 Virtual and rect
Q?. E!lain with the hel! of ra" diagra#1 i#age for#ed b" conve #irror.
Position of &ma!e 8 &ma!e is formed behind the mirror
Si4e of the &ma!e 8 Small in si4e
-ature of the &ma!e 8 Virtual and erect
QD. Derive the #irror e,uation 1 <f = 1< ! G 1< , .
&n order to deri'e a relation b?w focal len!th, ob0ect distance and ima!e distance, consider an
ob0ect $7 placed in front of a conca'e mirror b?w
%ocus and centre of cur'ature. 7y considerin! two incident rays $5 and $P reflected from the
mirror and formed an ima!e $L7L.
&n the abo'e fi!ure $P7 and $LP7L are similar trian!les, therefore
$L7L 8 7LP
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M. Salman Khan
$7 8 7P
$L7L 8hi :*ei!ht 5f The &ma!e;
$7 8 ho :*ei!ht 5f The 5b0ect;
hi 8 ( : 7LP 8 ( ;
ho 8 p ) : 7P 8 p ;
$s P%D and $L%7L are also similar trian!les is
$L7L 8 7L%
PD P%
$L7L 8 7LP 3 P%
PD P%
$s PD 8 $7 :5pposite sides of the rectan!le;
hi 8 (3f
ho f
"omparin! e(. ) and , we !et
( 8 ( < f
p f
(f 8 p : ( < f ;
(f 8 p( < pf
Di'idin! whole e(. 7y p(f
(f 8 p( 3 pf
p(f p(f
(f 8 p( 3 pf
p(f p(f p(f
) 8 ) 3 )
p f (
) 9 ) 8 )
p ( f
) 8 ) 9 )
f p (
Q1E. 8ive so#e uses of s!herical #irrors.
There are se'eral particles uses of spherical mirror some of which are mentioned below.
SHAVING MIRRORS&
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M. Salman Khan
$ conca'e mirror produces erect and ma!nified ima!e when an ob0ect placed within the focal
len!th, therefore it is used as sha'in! mirror.
USE IN MEDICAL E*AMINATION OPHTHALOMOSCOPE&
Doctors use conca'e mirrors for the e#aminations of ear, nose, throat and eyes of the patients in
ophthalmoscopes.
USE IN MICROSCOPE&
"onca'e mirrors are used to throw li!ht on the slides in a microscope so that the slides can be
'iewed more clearly.
USE IN SEARCH LIGHTS AND HEAD LIGHTS&
"onca'e mirrors are used to focus li!ht in the case of search li!hts and head li!hts of automobiles.
USE IN TELESCOPE&
The conca'e mirror are used as ob0ecti'e in bi! telescopes
USE FOR REAR VIE.&
Due to the di'er!in! property of a conca'e mirror is used in automobiles to ha'e the rear 'iew.
**********************************************
"hapter3),
16$VS $-D S5D-D2
Q1. Define Vibrator". Si#!le Far#onic #otion and !ositive that a bod" attached to an
elastic s!acing eecute. Si#!le Far#onic :otion.
S,p'e Har,!"$ M!t!"&
The periodic motion, in which acceleration is directly proportional to displacement and the
direction of the acceleration is towards the mean position is called Simple *armonic Motion.
E(p'a"at!"&
Iet an ob0ect of a mass 1m2 is attached to a hori4ontal sprin! is placed on a friction less surface as
shown in fi!ure.
Iet a force is applied, due to which the body is displaced by a distance #.
$ccordin! to *ookLs Iaw $pplied force
% #
$ccordin! %orce or % 8 k #
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M. Salman Khan
6here MkL is sprin! constant.
7ut due to elasticity the sprin!, the sprin! opposes the applied force and this opposin! force is
called lastic +estorin! %orce.
The elastic restorin! force :%; is e(ual to applied force but opposite in direction, therefore
lastic +estorin! force 8 3 :$pplied %orce;
% 8 3 k # i
&f 1a2 is the acceleration of body and 1m2 is the mass of the body then accordin! to -ewtonLs
second law of motion
% 8 ma ii
"omparin! :); and :,; ma 8 3k #
Therefore a 8 3 k #
m
Since k ? m is constant
Therefore a 8 3 :constant; #
5r a 33 #
This shows that acceleration 1a2 of the body is directly proportional to its displacement and is
directed to mean position.
*ence the motion of body under elastic restorin! force is S.*.M
Q2. 5rove that vibrator" #otion of Si#!le 5endulu# is Si#!le Far#onic :otion.
S,p'e Pe"d4'4,&
$n ideal Simple pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by a wei!ht less and in e#tensible
strin! from a fi#ed point.
Pe"d4'4, A% A S,p'e Har,!"$ O%$''at!r&
6hen we displace a pendulums bob from its mean position 152 to a new position 1$2 and then
released it will mo'e towards 152 and due to inertia it will not stop at 152 and mo'es towards a
new position 172.
The whole process is repeated a!ain and a!ain. 1$2 and 172 are the e#treme positions of bob and
potential ener!y is ma#imum it that points. This potential ener!y is con'erted into B.. when bob
mo'es from 1$2 to 152 or 172 to 152 and therefore, B.. is ma#imum at 152.
$t 1$2 or 172 B.. of bob is 4ero and it is ma#imum at 152, therefore the bob accelerates when
mo'es towards 152.
&f we increase the displacement of bob the acceleration of bob will also increase.
%rom the abo'e discussion it is pro'ed that acceleration is directly proportional to displacement
and the direction of acceleration is towards the mean point.
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M. Salman Khan
C!"$'4%!"&
Vibratory motion of Simple pendulum is Simple harmonic motion.
Q3. Define resonanceH give at least two ea#!les fro# "ou dail" life.
Re%!"a"$e&
6hen the fre(uency of dri'en force is e#actly e(ual to the natural fre(uency of the oscillator, the
dri'en force imparts the ma#imum ener!y to the oscillator, resultin! a considerable increase in
amplitude of 'ibration. This is called +esonance.
E(a,p'e% O# Re%!"a"$e&
$n interestin! e#ample of resonance is that of swin! while en0oyin! a swin! we apply force by the
special mo'ement of our body at a particular position in e'ery 'ibration. The result is increase in
the amplitude of swin!.
6hen an opera3sin!er sin!s at a 'ery hi!h pitch, !lass are caused to break. This is because
fre(uency of the note is same as the fre(uency of !lass, resultin! an increase in amplitude of
particles of !lass and the !lass will break.
Q4. a)Define Wave :otion.
b) Define +ransverse and 9ongitudinal Waves and E!lain with the hel! of an ea#!le.
.a3e M!t!"&
The mechanism by which ener!y is transferred from one place to another is called 1wa'e motion2.
Tra"%3er%e .a3e%&
Trans'erse wa'es are those wa'es in which the disturbance tra'els in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of oscillation of particles.
E(a,p'e%&
6e can produce trans'erse wa'es in a rope by fastenin! the rope at one end, and holdin! the other
end.
&f we !i'e a sudden up and down 0erk in a direction perpendicular to its len!th. $ wa'e pulse tra'els
from the 0erk end to the fi#ed end of strin!. This wa'e produces ele'ation and depressions called
crest and trou!h respecti'ely.
The distance between two consecuti'e crest or trou!h is known as wa'e len!th and it is denoted by
Ereek Symbol 12 :Iambda;.
L!"1t4d"a' .a3e%&
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M. Salman Khan
Those wa'es in which particles of elastic medium are 'ibratin! in the same direction in which wa'e
is tra'ellin! called Ion!itudinal 6a'es.
E(a,p'e%&
"onsider a hori4ontal wa'e on a sprin! produced by wa'in! the sprin! back and for with oneLs
hand. This is lon!itudinal wa'e in which particles of the medium 'ibrate back and forth alon! the
direction of wa'e. The portions where the particles come closer are called compression and when
these particles come back to its ori!inal shape is rarefaction. The distance between two consecuti'e
compressions is called 6a'e Ien!th.
Q$. Differentiate between +ransverse and 9ongitudinal Waves.
Tra"%3er%e .a3e% L!"1t4d"a' .a3e%
&n trans'erse wa'es the particles of the medium
liberate in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion of wa'es.
&n lon!itudinal wa'es the particles of the medium
'ibrate in the direction of motion of wa'es.
Trou!h and "rest are produce in trans'erse
wa'es.
"ompression and rarefaction are produced in
lon!itudinal wa'es.
&n trans'erse wa'es the distance between two
identical positions of two consecuti'e trou!hs or
crests is known as 6a'e Ien!th.
&n Ion!itudinal wa'es, the distance between two
identical positions of two consecuti'e
compressionsL or rarefactions is known as 6a'e
Ien!th.
&t can be produced in solid, li(uid and also in
space.
&t can be produced in solid li(uid and !as only
but not in 'acuum.
Microwa'es, +adio 6a'es, 6a'es on the surface
of water are e#amples of trans'erse wa'es.
Sound wa'e and compress ional wa'es in a
sprin! are e#amples of lon!itudinal wa'es.
Q'. Define the ter#s Wave 9ength1 %re,uenc" and +i#e 5eriod and !rove that V># .
.a3e Le"1th&
&t is the distance between two consecuti'e crest and trou!h. &t is denoted by a Ereek symbol 12
:Iambda;.
&t is also defined as the distance between two particles which are in phase :ha'in! same fre(uency
and same direction of motion;.
Fre?4e"$)&
&t is number of 'ibrations e#ecuted by an oscillatin! body in one second is called fre(uency. &ts S.&.
unit is 'ibration?s, cycles?s or hert4. %re(uency and time period are reciprocal of each other i.e.
f 8 )?T
T,e Per!d&
&t is the time re(uired to complete one 'ibration or one oscillation. &t is denoted by 1T2.
Time period and fre(uency are reciprocal of each other i.e. T 8 )?f
Pr!!# V> # &
The 'elocity of wa'e :whether of trans'erse or of lon!itudinal; is defined as the distance throu!h
which any part of the wa'e disturbance mo'es in unit time.
"onsider a wa'e of wa'e len!th 12 passin! throu!h a point in time 1t2 then
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M. Salman Khan
S 8
Time 8 T
&f 1V2 is representin! speed of wa'e thenH V 8 S ?t 5r V 8 ? T
5r V 8 )? T.
$s we know that reciprocal of time is fre(uencyC therefore, V 8 f
The abo'e relation is called wa'e e(uation. &t is true for any types of wa'e. Such as water wa'es,
Sound wa'es and radio wa'es etc.
Q>. Define ;nterference1 4onstructive destructive interference of waves and stationar"
waves.
I"ter#ere"$e&
&t is the interaction of two wa'es passin! throu!h the same re!ion of space at the time.
C!"%tr4$t3e I"ter#ere"$e&
&f two wa'es interfere in such a way that crest of one wa'e falls on crest Aof second wa'e or trou!h
of one wa'e falls on trou!h of second wa'e then their combined effect is !reater than either of two,
wa'es this is called constructi'e interference.
De%tr4$t3e I"ter#ere"$e&
&f two wa'es interfere in such a way that crest of one wa'e falls on trou!h of second wa'e then
they cancel the effect of each other and there is no wa'e will be obser'ed on the surface of water.
This is called destructi'e interference.
Stat!"ar) .a3e%&
6hen two wa'es of same fre(uency and wa'e len!th tra'ellin! in the same medium in opposite
direction meet with each other, form a new wa'e, in which particles of the medium do not transfer
the ener!y from one point to another, These special wa'es are called stationary wa'es or standin!
wa'es. These wa'e form nodes and $ntinodes.
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M. Salman Khan
"hapter T
S5D-D
S!4"d&
Psycholo!ically, sound is the sensation produced in ear. Physically, it is said to the stimulus, due to
'ibratory sources, and capable of producin! the sensation of hearin! in the auditory system.
Therefore, sound wa'es are the lon!itudinal wa'es that are capable of producin! the sensation of
hearin!.
C!"dt!"% Ne$e%%ar) T! Hear S!4"d&
Sound is a form of ener!y which tra'els in the form of lon!itudinal wa'es but all the lon!itudinal
wa'es are not sound wa'es. There are few conditions that must be fulfilled to detect sound.
a@ C!"dt!" Ne$e%%ar) F!r Pr!d4$"1 S!4"d&
Sound is produced only if a body is 'ibratory i.e. there is a 'ibratory source to produce sound
wa'es.
7@ C!"dt!" Ne$e%%ar) F!r Pr!pa1at!" O# S!4"d .a3e%&
Sound wa'es re(uired material median for the propa!ation.
$@ C!"dt!" Ne$e%%ar) F!r Re$e3"1 S!4"d .a3e%&
Sound wa'es are recei'ed only if there is an auditory system i.e. a recei'er like ear in human
bein!s.
d@ C!"dt!" Ne$e%%ar) F!r Dete$t!" O# S!4"d&
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M. Salman Khan
Proper fre(uency ran!e is re(uired to detect sound wa'es. This fre(uency ran!e is known as
$udible %re(uency +an!e. &t has different 'alues for human bein!s and for other recei'ers
:or!anisms;. The audible fre(uency ran!e for human ear is ,A *4 to ,AAAA *4.
A4d7'e S!4"d&
Those sound wa'es which can be detected are known as $udible sound. %or an a'era!e human ear
an a'era!e human ear cannot detect the audible sound fre(uency ran!es from ,A *4 to ,AAAA *4
i.e. !reater than ,AAAA*4.
I"#ra S!"$&
Theses lon!itudinal wa'es ha'in! fre(uency less than ,A *4 are known as &nfrasonic. These wa'es
cannot be detected by a human ear but can be cau!ht by some other or!anisms.
U'tra%!"$&
Sound wa'es ha'in! fre(uency more than ,AAAA *4 are known as Dltrasonic. $n a'era!e human
ear cannot detect them because eardrum cannot 'ibrate with such a hi!h fre(uency. *owe'er,
many species like bat3bu!s and dolphin can hear sound with fre(uency more than ,AAAA *4. 7ats
and Dolphins can hear sound with fre(uencies abo'e )AAAAA.
Q2. Describe an e!eri#ent to !rove that sound waves are !roduced b" a vibrator" source.
Sound is always produced by some 'ibratin! body. $s the source 'ibrates mechanically about a
fi#ed point, the medium in the 'icinity is alternately compressed and rarefied. The 'ibratory
ob0ect may be the pron!s of a tunin! fork, skin of a drum, wire in a piano or 'iolin, a reed in
harmonium, a !on! of an electric bell, air column in the 'ocal cord of human bein! etc.
E(per,e"ta' Ver#$at!"&
"onsider electric bell connected to an electric surface where the switch is turned on, the hammer
connected in the bell strikes to the !on! :metallic disc; and sound is heard. The 'ibrations of
rin!in! bell can be demonstrated by brin!in! a pitch3ball suspended by fine thread close to it. The
pith3ball is thrown off as soon as it touches the bell.
Re%4't&
The abo'e e#periment pro'es that the rin!in! bell is 'ibratin! about its mean position producin!
alternati'e compressions & rarefaction in the medium.
Q3. What is #eant b" !ro!agation of sound waves. 5rove b" an e!eri#ent.
6hene'er a body is 'ibratin!, it produces a disturbance in the surroundin! air. This disturbance
reaches our ear in the form of wa'es thus producin! the sensation of sound. &f there is no medium
around the 'ibratin! body, the sound wa'es will not reach our ear and we will hear any sound.
Iet us perform an e#periment.
E(per,e"t&
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M. Salman Khan
Suspended an electric bell in a 0ar by its wire throu!h a cork fi#ed in its mouth as shown in %i!.
Switch on the bell. 6e will hear the sound of the bell. -ow start3remo'in! air from the 0ar with
the help of the bell will start decreasin! ultimately, bell. This e#periment shows that air is
necessary for the propa!ation of sound in fact a material medium such as air, water metals etc., is
needed for the sound to tra'el from one place to another. Thus three thin!s are necessary for the
sound :i; 'ibratin! body :ii; some material medium like air, water etc. and :iii; recei'er like ear.
Q4. Wh" does the flash of lighting seen earlier than the sound of thunder.
&t is a matter of common e#perience that the flash of li!htin! is seen earlier than hearin! the
thunder of cloud. Similarly when a !un is fired, its sound is heard a little after seein! its flash. The
reason is that li!ht tra'els much faster than sound. Due to its slow 'elocity sound la!s behind and
so it is heard a little after seein! the flash.
Q$. Fow "ou calculate the velocit" of sound.
Select two stations at a distance of F Bm. to )A Bm. such that there is no obstacle between them
which can hinder the 'iew. %ire a !un at station $ and ask your friend at station 7 to start a
stopwatch on seein! the flash. The stopwatch should be stopped on hearin! the sound of the !un.
The distance S between the two stations is already known. So the 'elocity V of the sound can be
calculated by the formulaH
V 8 S ? t
The mean of these time inter'als is calculated to find the e#act 'alue of 'elocity of sound. The
distance between the two stations $ and 7 S.
$'era!e Time t 8 t) 9 t,
,
Velocity 5f Sound V 8 S ? t
The 'elocity of sound in air at A
o
" is ..A m?s. The 'elocity of sound in water is )/KA m?s and in
iron it is K).A m?s. The 'elocity of sound is increased with the increase in temperature.
Q'. What is the difference between #usical sound and noise.
M4%$a' S!4"d N!%e
Musical sound which has a pleasant
effect on our ears.
6hich has unpleasant and 0arrin! effect
on our earU
&n musical sounds there is a re!ularity in
the 'ariation of fre(uency and amplitude
-oise has abrupt chan!es in amplitude
and fre(uency and there is no re!ularity
in the 'ariation of fre(uency.
Sound of different musical instrument,
which are operatin! in a ri!ht manner,
of a son! of Mehdi *assan or -oor
=ehan are some e#amples of musical
sound.
7arkin! of do!s, rattin! of machines,
sound produced by rickshaws are some
e#amples of noise.
Q>. Describe the characteristic of #usical sound.
"haracteristics of musical sound are as followsH
L!4d"e%% !# I"te"%t)&
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M. Salman Khan
). The characteristics of a sound by which a loud and a faint sound can be dis!uised are
called loudness.
,. Ioudness depends upon intensity and also upon the sensiti'eness of the ear.
Ioudness or &ntensity depends upon the followin! factorsH
The A,p't4de O# V7rat"1 B!d)&
&f the amplitude of the 'ibratin! body is lar!e, the sound will be loud. 5n the other hand if the
amplitude is small then the sound will be faint. 6hen we beat a drum forcefully the membrane
'ibrates with lar!e amplitude and a loud sound is heard.
Area O# V7rat"1 B!d)&
$ louder sound is produced if the surface area of a 'ibratin! body is lar!e. The loudness of a school bell is more than
that of a house bell.
D%ta"$e O# S!4"d"1 B!d)&
&f we are standin! near a rail road track we will hear a faint sound of a train which is far away from us. $s it
approaches us the sound becomes louder and louder. The sound will be loudest when the train passes by us. $fter
passin! by us, as the train mo'es away from us the sound will start becomin! feeble and feeble a!ain.
Pt$h&
&t is a sensation that depends upon the fre(uency. $ shrill sound is produced by a source of hi!h fre(uency whereas
the pitch is lower if the fre(uency is lower. Pitch does not depend upon loudness or (uality. The 'oice produced by
ladies and children has hi!h pitch because the fre(uency is hi!h.
-4a't) Or T,7er &
&t depends on the presence of o'ertones. The (uality of sounds enables us to distin!uish between two sounds ha'in!
the same loudness and pitch. -ature has pro'ided different o'ertones in the 'oice of different persons. The hummin!
of a mos(uito or a bee has low amplitude but hi!h fre(uency.
Q?. Differentiate between 5itch and Qualit".
Pt$h -4a't)
The characteristics of sound by which a shrill
sound can be distin!uish from a !ra'e one is
known as the sound.
&t is that characteristics of sound, which enables
us to distin!uish between two sounds of same
loudness.
Pitch of the sound depends upon the fre(uency of
the sound.
&t depends upon the wa'e form of the wa'es.
QD. What is an echo. Fow is it !roduced.
E$h!&
1The sound is heard after reflection from a surface is called an echo2.
The repetition of sound produced due to reflection by a distant e#tended surface like a cliff, hill, well, buildin! etc, is
called an echo. The effect of sound on the human ear remains for )?)A
th
of second. Suppose, a person produces sound
and this sound is reflected from an obstacle at a distance MDL. The time taken by the sound to tra'el to the obstacle and
back is MtL. Velocity of sound is ..A m?s.
therefore, D 8 Vt ,D 8 ..
,D 8 ..A # ) D 8 .. 8 )J.K V )Om
)A ,
&t means that if the distance between the source of sound and the obstacle is less than )O meters
:KJft.;
Q1E. What is #eant b" Ieats.
Beat%&
6hen two sound wa'es that differ from one another in fre(uency by a 'ery small number. Then
sometimes we hear a loud sound where the compressions of the two wa'es meet and at other time
we hear a faint sound where the one wa'e falls upon the rarefaction of the other wa'e. This
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M. Salman Khan
phenomenon is called beats. The number of times we hear the rise and fall of sound per second is
called the beat fre(uency. The beat fre(uency is e(ual to the difference in the fre(uencies of the
two sounds.
"hapter3)K
-$TD+ 5% I&E*T & I"T+5M$E-T&SM
Q: Write a note on the following:
6ewton7s 4or!uscular theor" of light
Wave theor" of light
Quantu# theor" of light
Ne8t!"% C!rp4%$4'ar The!r)&
Sir &saac -ewton in )JOK presented a theory re!ardin! nature of li!ht. &t is known as
-ewtonLs corpuscular theory of li!ht.
$ccordin! to this theory 1$ luminous body like the sun, electric bulb etc. continuously
emits minute in'isible particles called corpuscles in all direction these corpuscles posses followin!
properties.
). Tra'el in a strai!ht line with a 'ery hi!h speed without bein! affected by the earthLs
!ra'itation.
,. Penetrate into the transparent medium.
.. Produce the sensation of 'ision when they strike retina.
/. +eflect back from a polished surface.
A$he3e,e"t% !# C!rp4%$4'ar The!r)&
6ith the help of this theory. -ewton e#plains the followin!H
). Propa!ation of li!ht in a strai!ht line.
,. Shadow formation.
.. 7endin! of li!ht in a denser medium.
Dra8 Ba$6% !# C!rp4%$4'ar The!r)&
). -ewton assumed that speed of li!ht is more in denser medium than a rarer medium.
%oucault Pro'ed that -ewton assumption is wron!.
,. -ewton assumed that hi!her the temperature of luminous body hi!her the speed of li!ht.
This assumption is also pro'ed wron!.
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M. Salman Khan
H4)1e"% .a3e The!r)&
*uy!ens presented another theory re!ardin! nature of li!ht. $ccordin! to the theoryH
Ii!ht is emitted theory from a source in the form of wa'es which
continuously propa!ated away from source.
A$he3e,e"t !# Th% The!r)&
+eflection and refraction was successfully e#plained.
Present e#plained the rectilinear propa!ation of li!ht.
&nterference of li!ht also pro'ed by this theory.
Dra8 Ba$6% !# Th% The!r)&
&t was known durin! those days that a medium is essential for the propa!ation of wa'es
therefore it was assumed that whole uni'erse is filled with hypothetical medium called ether.
Morley and Michelson with the help of an e#periment pro'ed the ther did not e#ist.
Ma(8e''% E'e$tr!,a1"et$ The!r)&
$ccordin! to Ma#well li!ht wa'es are electroma!netic i.e. they are rapidly mo'in! electric
and ma!netic fields which are perpendicular to one another. The propa!ation of electroma!netic
wa'es does not re(uire any material medium. *e pro'ed that electroma!netic wa'es are of
trans'erse type.
Dra8 Ba$6% !# Th% The!r)&
The Ma#wellLs theory could not e#plain the phenomenon of photo3electric effect.
P'a"6% -4a"t4, The!r)&
Quantum theory is simply a sort of re'i'al of -ewtonLs corpuscular theory. $ccordin! to
this theory li!ht is a form of ener!y and tra'els in the form of ener!y packets called Photons.
ner!y of each photon is !i'en by 8h where h is the plankLs constant and is the fre(uency of
li!ht. The ener!y of photon depends upon the fre(uency. instein !a'e a simple e#planation of
photo3electric effect on this theory. -eil 7ohr also used this theory to e#plain the spectrum of
*ydro!en atom. Quantum theory could not e#plain interference and polari4ation.
D%per%!" O# L1ht&
6hen white li!ht is allowed to pass throu!h a prism it is decomposed into se'eral colors
which appear as a band on the screen. The splittin! up of li!ht into itLs constituent colors is called
dispersion of li!ht. The band of colors seen on the screen is called spectrum.
M!"!$hr!,at$ A"d Ord"ar) L1ht&
Sunli!ht or white li!ht is called ordinary li!ht while the li!ht which contains only one
colour or of simple fre(uency is called monochromatic li!ht.
Ra"7!8&
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M. Salman Khan
$fter rainfall tiny water droplets remain suspended in the air and they beha'e like prism and
disperse the sunli!ht fallen on to it into se'en different colors. &f the sun is at the bank of the obser'er and
li!ht rays fall obli(uely on the droplet then rainbow is seen. &t is an spiral arc of colors which appear when
sunli!ht is dispersed by droplets.
Dnder fa'orable conditions se'eral bows may be seen. The bri!htest bow is called primary bow it
shows brilliant colors of the spectrum of the sunli!ht. &t is red on the outer and 'iolet on itLs inner ed!e.
V%7'e a"d I"3%7'e Spe$tr4,&
6hen whit li!ht is allowed to pass throu!h a !lass prisms it !ets split it into its constitute
colors and a bend of colors is seen on the screen. This color bend is called 'isible spectrum. 7ut
there are se'eral other types of wa'es in the spectrum at both the ends of 'isible spectrum
correspondin! the wa'es whose fre(uency !reater than 'iolet wa'es is called 1Dltra Violet2 and
the portion of in'isible spectrum correspondin! the wa'es whose fre(uency less than that of red
are called 1infrared2.
E,%%!" Spe$tra&
6hen a substance stron!ly heated it starts emittin! radiation. Spectrum thus form the
radiation is called emission spectrum.
&t is found that the substance in automatic state emits radiation which produced sharp and
district lines in the spectrum. Such a spectrum is called line spectrum.
6hen a temperature of a solid !oes on increasin! the number of lines seen in the spectrum
also increases. The solid becomes white hot it emits nearly all the colors and so we !et what is
continuous spectrum.
Iuminous !ases or 'apors when heated produced a spectrum in which we see !roups of
closely packed lines on bends such a spectrum is called bend spectrum.
Ph!t!"&
$ccordin! to Quantum Theory, li!ht is emitted and absorbed in the form of ener!y
packets. These ener!y packets are known as Photons. ner!y of photons is !i'en as followsH
8 h
6here 12 is ener!y, 1h2 is PlankLs constant and 12 is the fre(uency.
Q E!lain Electro#agnetic S!ectru#.
6hen we !et electroma!netic spectrum then we !et the followin! wa'e len!th spectrum of li!ht.
Rad! .a3e&
These wa'es consist of a lar!e ran!e of wa'elen!th form a few millimeters to se'eral
meters.
M$r!8a3e%&
These wa'es of shorter wa'e len!ths between )mm and .AAm. &t is used in radar and
microwa'es o'ens.
I"#rared .a3e%&
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M. Salman Khan
These wa'es are radiated by hot bodies at different temperature. &ts wa'elen!th is )A
micrometer to )A
3K
m.
V%7'e .a3e%&
Their wa'elen!th ran!es from .FA nm down to JA nm. These are emitted by hotter stars
ha'in! a mean temperature !reater than ,KAAA
o
c.
U'tra V!'et .a3e%&
Their wa'elen!th ran!es from .FA nm down to JA nm. These are emitted by hotter stars
ha'in! a mean temperature !reater than ,KAAA
o
c.
Ga,,a Ra)%&
Their wa'elen!th is less than )A3)) m. They are emitted by the nucleus of certain
radioacti'e substance.
Gree" H!4%e a"d It% E##e$t&
De#"t!"&
Due to small amount of water 'apour and carbon dio#ide in the atmosphere, it is trappin!
heat ener!y and this effect is called Ereen *ouse ffect.
E(p'a"at!"&
The ma0or part of ener!y, which recei'es earth from the sun, is absorbed by the
atmosphere. Due to these !ases of atmosphere and surface of water is heated. 6hen earth is
heated, it radiates ener!y in the form of infrared wa'es of lar!er wa'elen!th.
D4%t a"d 1a%&
Molecules scatter some li!ht to space. The small amount of water 'apors and carbon dio#ide in the
atmosphere is transparent to 'isible li!ht, but lower part of atmosphere. $n analo!ous effect takes place
in !reen houses where the !lass of !reen house allows li!ht to pass throu!h and heat the enclosed !round.
Since !lass is relati'ely opa(ue to infrared radiation, the heat is trapped in the !reen house. Sometimes
!reen house effect is so !reat that we can feel it. %or e#ample, in winter it is much warm at ni!ht in the
presence of thick cloud layers. &f such layers dissipate and clean air mo'es in the temperature of the
surroundin!, it is sure to drop as the !round radiates its heat ener!y unhindered into space.
**********************************
62
M. Salman Khan
*$T
Heat Te,perat4re
*eat is a form of ener!y which is
transferred from one point to another
due to difference of temperature.
&t is the measures of a'era!e Binetic
ner!y of molecules.
&t is measured in =oules. Dnit of temperature is Bel'in or
o
" or
o
%.
&t is measured by "alorimeter. &t is measured by thermometer.
&t depends upon amount of substance. &t does not depend upon amount of
substance.
Q2. Write down the construction and wor@ing of the following.
/rdinar" 9i,uid ;n 8lass +her#o#eter.
4linical +her#o#eter.
:ai#a &nd :ini#a +her#o#eter.
+her#os %las@.
Ord"ar) L?4d-G'a%% Ther,!,eter&
The most common type of thermometer is the li(uid in !lass thermometer as shown in
fi!ure it consists of a !lass stem with a capillary tube, ha'in! a small bulb at one end. The bulb
and part of the capillary tube are filled with a li(uid, usually mercury or alcohol colored with a
red dye to make it 'isible. The upper end of the capillary tube is sealed so that li(uid will neither
spill nor e'aporates from the tube. 5n heatin!, the li(uid e#pands and rises in the tube. &n order
that the li(uid may e#pand freely in the upper part of the tube, air is remo'ed from it before
sealin! the upper end. $ temperature scale is marked on the !lass stem to indicate temperatures
correspondin! to 'arious le'els of the li(uid in the tube. The li(uid <in3!lass thermometer
commonly used in a laboratory.
C'"$a' Ther,!,eter&
P4rp!%e O# C'"$a' Ther,!,eter&
$ clinical thermometer is used to find the temperature of human body by placin! the bulb
under the ton!ue or in the arm pit. The normal body temperature is about .O
o
". The temperature of
a sick person 'aries sli!htly from this 'alue. %or this reason a clinical thermometer has a limited ran!e
of calibration usually .K
o
" to /.
o
" :@K
o
% to ))A
o
%;
C!"%tr4$t!" A"d .!r6"1&
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M. Salman Khan
The !lass stem of the clinical thermometer has a narrow bend or constriction in its capillary bore
near the mercury bulb.
This helps to stop the mercury thread mo'in! back towards the bulb after the thermometer
is remo'ed from the patientLs mouth and the temperature can be read easily.
Ma(,a A"d M",a Ther,!,eter
C!"%tr4$t!"&
This thermometer consist of a bulb 1Q2, completely filled with alcohol, a 1D2 tube 1P2,
contained mercury, another bulb 1R2, partially filled with alcohol, and two steel inde#es 1$
)
2
and 1$
,
2. Temperature scales are pro'ided a!ainst each limb of the D tube. The alcohol in 1Q2
has the lar!est 'olume compared to the 'olume of mercuryin! and alcohol in 1P2 and 1R2 respecti'ely.
.!r6"1&
6hen the temperature rises, the alcohol in 1Q2 e#pands and pushes the mercury column
down, with the result that the inde# $
,
is forced up by the mercury meniscus. Thus the lower end
of $
,
indicates the ma#imum temperature reached, this bein! read from the scale. $s the temperature
falls, the alcohol in Q contracts and owin! to the pressure of alcohol 'apors in R, the inde# $
)
is forced
up by the mercury column. Thus the lower end of $
)
indicates the minimum temperature reached.
U%e&
&t is use in !reen houses, food stora!e and methodolo!ical stations.
Ther,!% F'a%6&
De#"t!" O# Ther,!% F'a%6&
1Thermos %lask is a pot desi!ned to pre'ent heat loss from the fluid inside it, due to all of the
three heat transfer mechanism. Similarly it pre'ents the heat from outside, !ettin! into the material2.
C!"%tr4$t!" O# Ther,!% F'a%6&
&t consists of double wall !lassed 'essel, which is sil'ered on the outer surface of the inner wall
and on the surface of the outer wall. The space between the walls is e'acuated, and is then sealed. The
!lass 'essel is enclosed in a metal case such that it rests on a cork at the bottom of the case, and is
secured at the neck with a pad of felt or a rin! of rubber.
.!r6"1 O# Ther,!% F'a%6&
Elass is a relati'ely poor thermal conductor while cork, air are felt between the !lass 'essel
and the metal case are all bad conductors. Thus heat from a hot li(uid kept in the !lass 'essel cannot
rapidly pass to the metal case. The cork in the neck of the 'essel, and the cup o'er that, pre'ent loss of
heat by con'ection. Moreo'er, the sil'erin! on the outside of the inner wall makes that wall a bad
radiator, while that on the inner surface of the outer wall tends to reflect back any heat that is
radiated. "onse(uently hot or cold drink in the thermos flask remains hot or cold for relati'ely lon!
time.
Q3: Define the following:
4onduction
4onvection
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M. Salman Khan
3adiation
+her#al 4onductivit"
C!"d4$t!"&
"onduction is the transfer of heat ener!y throu!h a solid body due to the molecular interactions.
C!"3e$t!"&
"on'ection is the transfer of heat from one part of a fluid to another by the mo'ement of the
fluid from the hotter to the colder part.
Radat!"&
&n this process heat ener!y is transfer from hot place to cold place without any material
medium. The hot ob0ect emits radiation which carries away ener!y. 6hen these radiation fall
on an ob0ect, their ener!y is transferred to the latter in the form of heat.
ner!y transfer from sun to earth is an e#ample of radiation.
Ther,a' C!"d4$t3t)
Thermal conducti'ity can be (uantitati'ely defined as the amount of heat conducted for one
second throu!h a meter cube of the substance whose opposite faces are maintained at a temperature
difference of )
o
".
Mathe,at$a'')
B8Q I ? $ T t
&ts unit is =
o
"
3)
m
3)
s
3)
Q4. Define 4oJefficient of 9inear E!ansion and !rove that 9
2
=9
1
K1G +L
C!-e##$e"t O# L"ear E(pa"%!"&
1&t is the chan!e in len!th per unit len!th per de!ree rise in temperature2.
&t is denoted by 12.
Mathematically
8 I ? I
)
T
I
,
8 I
)
W)9TX
"onsider an iron rod of len!th I
)
, at temperature T
)

o
". &t is heated to certain temperature
T
,
and its len!th becomes I
,
.
"han!e in len!th 8 I 8 I
,
< I
)
"han!e in temperature 8 T 8 T
,
< T
)
"han!e in len!th per unit len!th per de!ree rise in temp 8 I
,
3 I
)
?I
)
T
5r 8 I ? I
)
T
5r I
)
T 8 I
5r I 8 I
)
T
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M. Salman Khan
5r I
,
< I
,
8 I
)
T
I
,
8 I
)
9 I
)
T
I
,
8 I
)
W)9 TX
Dnit of "o3efficient of linear e#pansion is
o
"
3)
.
Q$. Define bi#etallic stri!s and write note on the following
Ii#etal +her#o#eter
+her#o#eter
%ire &lar#.
B,eta''$ Strp%&
7efore *eatin! $fter *eadin!
7rass
&ron
6hen two metallic strips of different thermal e#pansion are pasted to!ether bimetallic strips
are formed i.e. 7imetallic strips of iron and brass.
B,eta''$ Ther,!,eter&
$s we know li(uid !lass thermometer ha'e a low ran!e of measurement because li(uid
'apori4e at low temperature and also !lass melts. So it can not be used to measure hi!h
temperature as abo'e KAA
o
". So bimetallic thermometer is used for the measure of hi!her
temperature.
C!"%tr4$t!" A"d .!r6"1 O# B,eta' Ther,!,eter&
$ bimetal strip can be used to make a simple thermometer which is tou!h but easy to read
as compared with li(uid3in3!lass thermometers. &t consists of a bimetal strip in the form of a lon! spiral.
5ne end of the spiral is kept fi#ed while a li!ht pointer is attached to the other, as shown in %i!.
6hen the temperature rises, the bimetal strip coils itself into an e'en ti!hter spiral due to different
e#pansion rates of the two metals which form the bimetal strip, and the pointer mo'es across the
temperature scale.
Ther,!%tat&
Thermostat are de'ices which control temperature in a certain space e.!. in refri!erators,
electric o'ens, motor car en!ines etc. To maintain the temperature of air inside the room at a
comfortable le'el, thermostats are used with room heaters or air3 conditioners.
C!"%tr4$t!" A"d .!r6"1 O# Ther,!%tat%&
The essential parts of a thermostat are shown in %i!. Suppose this thermostat is connected to
an electric room heater. $s the temperature of air inside the room rises, the bimetal strip bends and
the electrical contact is disconnected. This switches off the heater. 6hen the room temperature falls,
the bimetal strip cools and strai!htens. $s the contacts touch each other, the heater is switched on
a!ain. &n this way the thermostat switches the heater on and off to keep the room at a more or less
steady temperature.
66
M. Salman Khan
The desired temperature is selected by mean of a control knob. &f the control knob is
screwed in wards, the bimetal strip has to bend further before the contacts disconnected. Thus
the room needs to be warmer before the heat is switched off.
Fre A'ar,&
$nother 'ery useful application of a bimetal strip is a fire alarm. $ model fire alarm is shown
in fi!. one end of a bimetal strip is firmly fi#ed while the other end is free. 5ne terminal of a J 'olt
bulb or an electric bell. The other terminal of the battery is connected with a metallic contact which is
0ust abo'e the free end of the strip. The heat ener!y !i'en off when a fire starts raises the
temperature of the bimetal strip. The free end of the strip bends towards the contact and on
touchin! it electric current flows throu!h the circuit. The bulb therefore, li!ht up or in case of a bell, it
rin!s, to si!nal a warnin! about fire.
Q'. What do "ou @now about.
a) &no#alous E!ansion /f Water
b) Wh" do fish and other a,uatic ani#als in oceans and seas survive in etre#el" cold
water.
c) Wh" do water !i!es burst in winter seasons in cold regions.
d) Wh" roc@s do are brea@ in cold regions.
a; $ll the substances contract on free4in! and e#pand on heatin! but water has a stran!e
beha'ior between A
o
" to /
o
". &t e#pands when its temperature falls from /
o
" to A
o
" and contract
when it is heated from A
o
" to /
o
". This stran!e beha'iors of water is called $nomalous #pansion of
water.
E##e$t O# A"!,a'!4% E(pa"%!" O# .ater&
The effect of anomalous e#pansion of water is important in nature & e'eryday life. Some of them
are discussed here briefly.
&n 6inter, the water ponds, lakes and seas in the area close to the north and south poles of the
earth cools down as the atmospheric in temperature falls. The cooler and denser water at the surface
initially flow to the bottom. 6hen the temperature at the surface reaches /
o
", this downward flow
of water ceases. &f the atmosphere temperature further falls below /
o
" the water at the surface e#pands,
becomes li!hter and therefore does not sink. $s the water free4es at the surface it remains there
while water near bottom remains at /
o
". This help fish and other forms of marine life to sur'i'e an
wither season.
Durin! the rainy season, a lot of water seeps throu!h the numerous cracks & fissures in rocks.
&n winter e#pands free4in!. The rocks are therefore sub0ected to hi!h pressure and are broken up.
&n colder climates, the water supplies pipes burst, when the atmosphere temperature falls
below /
o
". This is because water in the pipes e#pands, and e#erts enormously pressure on the walls
causin! dama!e to the pipes.
Q>. State and following law.
67
M. Salman Khan
#plain Eeneral Eas (uation and write its mathematical form.
B!)'e% La8&
1Volume of a !i'en mass of !as is in'ersely proportional to the pressure, if the temperature
is kept constant2.
Mathe,at$a' Repre%e"tat!"&
&f 1V2 denotes the 'olume and 1p2 stands for pressure then
V ) ? P
5r V 8 :"onstant; ) ? p
5r VP8 "onstant
Graph$a' Repre%e"tat!"&
The pressure 'olume !raph is a cur'e line shows that they are in'ersely proportional
(uantities.
Char'e% La8&
Volume of a !i'en mass of a !as is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, pro'ided that
pressure is kept constant2.
Mathe,at$a' Repre%e"tat!"&
&f 1V2 and 1T2 stands for 'olume and temperature recepti'ely then
V T
5r V 8 :"onstant; B
5r V?T 8 "onstant
Graph$a' Repre%e"tat!"&
The relation between 'olume and temperature for a !i'en mass of a !as on !raph is strai!ht line
which shows that they are directly proportional to each other.
Q12. What is refrigerator write down its construction and wor@ing.
Re#r1erat!r&
&t is de'ice which is used to cool thin!s and to preser'e for a certain period of time e.!. food,
fruits etc.
C!"%tr4$t!"&
+efri!erator uses !ases which li(uefy under pressure at normal temperature usually %reon
!as is used as a refri!erant. +efri!erator consist of three parts
"ondenser
'aporator
"ompressor
.!r6"1&
The !as is first compressed and fed into the condenser. There it li(uefies under pressure and is
then let throu!h a 'al'e into a e'aporator. &n e'aporator %reon e'aporates under normal pressure
absorbin! heat from the area surroundin! the e'aporator, thus coolin!
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M. Salman Khan
it down. &t is a!ain brou!ht to the condenser with the help of compressor. %reon loses its
heat in condenser where it a!ain li(uefied. This process is continuously repeated in this way
temperature inside e'aporator becomes lower and thin!s are preser'ed for lon! time.
E(pa"%!" O# L?4d&
6hen li(uids are heated, they e#pand and their 'olumes increases and on coolin! contraction
takes place. 6e know that li(uids are always contained in some sort of container which is made up
of solid. So when li(uid is heated, first heat is absorbed by the solid container and its cubical
e#pansion takes place. Then after sometimes the li(uid inside starts !ettin! heat and its cubical
e#pansion takes place. 6hen the e#pansion of the solid 'essel occurs, the le'el of li(uid inside the
container lower due to increased capacity of the container. Then on further heatin! the li(uid le'el
rises as it starts absorbin! heat from the 'essel.
Thus while studyin! e#pansion of li(uids we come across two types of e#pansion.
The apparent e#pansion.
The real e#pansion.
Their coefficients are as defined as follows.
A. The C!e##$e"t O# Appare"t E(pa"%!"&
&ts is the rate of apparent e#pansion or apparent chan!e in 'olume per unit ori!inal 'olume per
de!ree rise in temperature its is denoted by Pa.
;. The C!e##$e"t O# Rea' E(pa"%!"&
&t is the rate of real e#pansion, or the real increase in 'olume per unit ori!inal 'olume per
de!ree rise in temperature. &t is denoted by Pr.
The coefficient of apparent e#pansion always sli!htly lower than the coefficient of real
e#pansion by rate of cubical e#pansion of the container.
Pr 8 Pc 9 Pa
6here Pc is the coefficient of cubical e#pansion of the container.
Spe$#$ Heat &
&t is the amount of heat absorbed or !i'en out by one k! of a substance when it is heated or
cooled throu!h )
o
".
Spht 8 $mount of heat absorbed ? !i'en out
Mass # rise ? fall in temperature
" 8 Q ? mt
Q 8 m"t
where c 8 Specific *eat
m 8 Mass of the Substance
t 8 rise or fall in temperature
The S& unit of specific heat is =?k!
o
".
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M. Salman Khan
Ca'!re&
&t is the amount of heat absorbed?!i'en out by )!m of water throu!h )
o
". &t is e(ual to /.,
=oules.
2'! Ca'!re&
&t is the amount of absorbed ? !i'en out by )B!, of water when heated ? cooled throu!h )
o
".
&t is e(ual to /,AA =oules.
There is another unit of heat called 7ritish thermal unit :7TD;
) 7TD 8)AK/=oules.
The La8 O# Heat E($ha"1e&
6hen two bodies at different temperature are brou!ht in contact, heat starts flowin! from a
body at hi!her temperature towards a body at lower temperature. &n this way hot body loses heat
and cold body !ains it. The law of heat e#chan!e states that 1*eat lost by hot body is e(ual to heat
!ained by cold body.
Deter,"ed !# %pe$#$ heat !# %!'d 7) ,eth!d !# ,(t4re&
&n this method a special type of container called calorimeter and thermometer are used to note
the temperature of the contents.
&n this method the solid of which the specific heat is re(uired, is heated throu!h a known
temperature in the test tube of hypsometer. &n the mean time the empty calorimeter with stirrer is
wei!hted. ,?. of 'olume of "olorimeter filled with water and then wei!ht it. The difference !i'es mass
of water. The temperature of calorimeter is noted. 6hich is also the temp of water beside it. *ot
solid from the test tube pro'ed with "olorimeter and stirred for some time to achie'e a constant
temperature. The final temperature of the mi#ture is noted. $!ain after wei!ht the "olorimeter and
y the followin! calculation find specific heat of solid.
The followin! data is obtained.
Mass 5f mpty "alorimeter with stirrer 8 m
)
k!.
Mass 5f "alorimeter stirrer and water 8 m
,
k!.
Mass of water 8 :m
,
< m
)
; k!.
Mass of mi#ture 8 m
.
k!.
Mass of solid 8 : m
.
< m
,
; B!.
&nitial temperature of "abrimetre 8 t
)

o
" :+oom Temperature;
&nitial temperature of water 8 t
)

o
" :+oom Temperature;
&nitial temperature of solid 8 t
,

o
" :Temp in the *ypsometer;
%inal temperature mi#ture 8 t
.

o
"
%all of temp of solid 8 :t
,
< t
.
;
o
"
+ise of temp of "olorimeter 8 :t
.
< t
)
;
o
"
+ise in temp of water 8 :t
.
< t
)
;
o
"
Specific *eat 6ater 8 /,AA =?B!
o
"
Specific *eat 5f "olorimeter 8 "
)
, =?B!.
o
" :!i'en;
Specific *eat 5f solid 8 " 8U :+e(uired;
*eat lost by solid 8 sp heat of solid of # fall of colorimeter temp.
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M. Salman Khan
*t lost by solid 8
*eat !ained by "alorimeter 8 spht # mass # rise in temp.
*t !ained by "alorimeter 8 c
)
m
)
:t
.
< t
)
;
*eat !ained by water 8 /,AA # :m
,
< m
)
; # :t
.
< t
)
;
$ccordin! to law of heat e#chan!e
*eat lost by solid 8 *t !ained by cm 9 heat !ained by water.
: m
.
< m
,
; "
,
:t
,
< t
.
; 8 "
)
m
)
:t
.
< t
)
; 9 :m
,
< m
);
/,AA :t. < t
)
;
"
,
8 : m
,
< m
)
; # /,AA : t
.
< t
)
; # m
)
"
)
: t
.
< t
)
;
:m. < m
,
; :t, < t
.
;
Me't"1 P!"t&
The temperature at which the meltin! of a solid to li(uid occurs is called its meltin! point.
Late"t Heat !# F4%!"&
&t is the amount of heat re(uired to con'ert unit mass of a solid into li(uid at its meltin! point
with out rise in temperature. 5r
*eat !i'en out by unit mass of a li(uid to chan!e into solid at its free4in! point with out fall in
temperature is called latent heat of fusion.
I
f
8 Q ? m
6hen e'er chan!e of state occurs, there is no rise or fall in temperature.
#planation 5n The 7asis 5f Binetic Molecular TheoryH
6hen a solid is heated its molecular motion is increases, a result the temperature rises. &f the
solid continues to absorb heat, a sta!e come when the 'ibration of the molecule increases so much
that it o'er comes the intermolecular force of attraction which keeps the body bound to!ether as solid.
$t this point solid starts chan!in! it state of li(uid. $ny further addition 0ust helps in breakin! up
the bonds of attraction between the molecules. The ener!y of the molecule does not increase on the
a'era!e the temperature remains constant till all the solids are broken.
Late"t Heat !# Vap!rBat!"&
&t is the amount of heat re(uired to con'ert unit mass of a li(uid into 'apors at its boilin! point
with out risin! temperature. 5r
The heat !i'en out by unit mass of 'apors to chan!e into li(uid at their point of condensation
with out fall in temperature.
I
'
8 Q ? m
E(p'a"at!" O" The Ba%% O# M!'e$4'ar The!r)&
6hen a li(uid is heated its molecular motion increases in temperature. 6hen the li(uid
continues to absorb heat a sta!e come when the intermolecular force of attraction is o'er come and any
further addition of heat does not raise its temperature but chan!e of state starts takin! place till the
hole li(uid chan!e to 'apor.
E##e$t O# Pre%%4re O" Me't"1 P!"t CRe1e'at!"@&
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M. Salman Khan
Substance which e#pands on free4in! when sub0ected to pressure, melt before their meltin! point
on remo'al of pressure they a!ain free4e at their free4in! point. This process is called re!elation.
To illustrate we takes the ice block supported on stands a wire is passed o'er it with wei!ht
chan!es on the earth end. The layer of ice 0ust beneath the wire due to pressure melt and skins
down. $s the wire skins the pressure is remo'ed and that layer free4es a!ain. This process
continues till the whole wire passes throu!h it and the block does not cut in to two.
E##e$t O# Pre%%4re O" B!'"1 P!"t&
The boilin! point of a li(uid increases with pressure and 'ice 'ersa. 6ater boils at )AA
o
"
when the pressure OJA mm *!. &ts pressure is reduced the boilin! point decreases.
To illustrate this we take a flask half filled with water and heat it till it starts boilin!. Iet it
boil for some time so that sufficient steam may produce. Then stop heatin! and cork the flask. The
flask is then in'erted on a stand and cold water is poured o'er it.
$s we pour cold water the water inside the flask a!ain starts boilin! althou!h we ha'e stop
heatin!. This e#plained as, 16hen the heatin! was stopped there was pressure of steam :'apors; also
inside atmospheric pressure when the cold water is poured the steam :'apors; inside the flask condensed
to water and reduced the pressure on water and the boilin! point also decrease water starts boilin!
a!ain below its boilin! point.
E3ap!rat!"&
The process of con'ertin! a li(uid into 'apors without boilin! it called e'aporation. 'aporation
takes place at all temperature.
E(p'a"at!" O" The Ba%% O# M!'e$4'ar The!r)&
$ccordin! to kinetic molecular theory, the molecules of li(uid are in continuous motion due to
motion, they posses kinetic ener!y. The ener!y of all the molecules are not same. The molecules which
are near the surface of li(uid due to continuous collision with other molecule ac(uire so much ener!y
that they o'er came the inter molecular force of attraction of the li(uid and escape out of the surface of
li(uid, lea'in! behind a fall in temperature of the li(uid. Due to fall in temperature the coolin!
effects is e#perienced.
%actors upon which rate of e'aporation Depends
+ate of e'aporation depends upon the followin! factors.
Te,perat4re !# the '?4d&
&f the surface temperature is hi!h rate of e'aporation increase. 6hile ironin! the cloths, wet
cloths dry out (uickly as the water e'aporates (uickly.
Nat4re O# L?4d&
Ii(uid ha'in! low boilin! e'aporate more (uickly e.!. alcohol etc.
S4r#a$e O# The L?4d&
+ate of e'aporation increases with increase in surface area, we spread wet cloths to !et them
dry (uicker or the unwanted water is spread o'er lar!er area of (uick e'aporation.
Dr)"e%% O# Ar&
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M. Salman Khan
+ate of e'aporation increases of air is drier. &n rainy season the cloth take much time to dry as
rate of e'aporation decreases due to moisture in the air.
Speed O# ."d&
&f speed of wind increases rate of e'aporation is also increases. 7ecause the wind carries the
'apor to other place lea'in! capacity for new 'apors. So e'aporation increase.
Ar Pre%%4re O" The S4r#a$e I# L?4d &
&f pressure is reduced the rate of e'aporation increases. 7ecause lowin! of pressure reduces the
boilin! point so rate of e'aporation increases.
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"hapter3)F
I"T+5-&"S
Q: Define se#i conductors. 8ive so#e ea#!les.
Se, C!"d4$t!r%&
Those materials which ha'e conducti'ity between an insulator and a conductor are called
semi conductors. "rystals of !erminiun and silicon are the e#amples of semi conductors.
Q: Define Do!ing.
D!p"1&
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M. Salman Khan
Process by which the electrical conducti'ity of elements such as Silicon or Eerminiun is
increased by addin! in them a small amount of an element which has either three or fi'e electrons
in its atom is called dopin!.
Q: Write two !oints of differences between nJt"!e substances and !Jt"!e substances.
n < type substance p < type substance
&f a tetra'alent element is dopped with
a penta'alent element four out of fi'e
electron form co'alent bonds and the
fifth 'alence electron is free to mo'e
about which makes the dopped element
a better conductor. Such a material is
known as n < type substance.
&f a tetra'alent element is dopped with
a tri'alent element then three electrons
form co'alent bond and a space known
as hole is left. Such a material is known
as P < type substance.
There is an e#cess of ne!ati'e electrons.
There is an e#cess of holes. :Positi'e
chan!es;
Q: Write two !oints of differences between %orward Iias and 3everse Iias.
%orward 7ias +e'erse 7ias
6hen a semiconductor diode is
connected to a D.". Source in such a
way that p < side is connected to the
positi'e terminal and n < side to the
ne!ati'e terminal and holes mo'e from
the p < type to the n < type and
electrons mo'e from the n < type to the
p < type material across the 0unction it
is called forward biased.
6hen a semiconductor diode is
connected to a D.". Source in such a
way the p < side is connected to the
ne!ati'e terminal and n < side to the
positi'e terminal and holes and
electrons mo'e away form the 0unction
it is called re'erse biased.
&t has 'ery low electrical resistance. &t has 'ery hi!h electrical resistance.
Q: Define rectification. Fow a 56 0unction diode is used as a rectifier.
Re$t#$at!"&
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M. Salman Khan
The con'ersion of alternatin! current :$."; to direct current :D."; is called rectification.
.!r6"1 !# D!de a% Re$t#er&
Durin! the positi'e half cycle of the $.". the p < section of diode is positi'e which make it
forward bias and allow the flow of current throu!h the load M+L. 7ut durin! ne!ati'e half cycle of
the $." the p < section of diode is ne!ati'e which make it re'erse bias and stop the flow of current
across the 0unction. Thus only positi'e half cycle of the $.". passes throu!h diode and this
rectification is called half wa'e rectification.
Q: Define +ransistor.
Tra"%%t!r&
Transistor is a semiconductor which consists of a thin central layer :. < K Ym; of one type
semiconductor material sandwiched between two relati'ely thick pieces of the other type.
Q: Write the t"!es of transistor.
T)pe% !# Tra"%%t!r%&
Transistors are of followin! two types.
); npn < Transistor
,; pnp < Transistor
"p" - Tra"%%t!r&
The npn transistor has a thin piece of p < type material sandwiched between two pieces of n
< type material.
p"p - Tra"%%t!r&
The pnp transistor has a thin piece of n < type material sandwiched between two pieces of p
< type material.
Q: Fow does a transistor wor@s.
.!r6"1 !# Tra"%%t!r%&
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M. Salman Khan
$ transistor consists of two 0unctions. 5ne is the emitter base 0unction :7; and the other is
collector base :"7;. Eenerally the emitter base 0unction is forward biased, while the collector base
0unction is re'erse biased.
$s the base emitter 0unction is forward biased, so its resistance !ets 'ery low and a stream
of electrons is in0ected from the emitter into the base. Thus current be!ins to flow throu!h this
0unction. $s the base re!ion is 'ery thin, so practically almost all the electrons in0ected into the
base are attracted towards the collector due to its lar!e positi'e potential and 'ery few electrons
enter into the base circuit. &n this way a current be!ins to flow in the collector circuit.
Q: Define a#!lifier. &nd how a transistor is used as an a#!lifier.
A,p'#er&
$n amplifier is a de'ice used to increase the amplitude of an input si!nal :current or
'olta!e; without chan!in! the shape of wa'e.
.!r6"1 !# Tra"%%t!r a% a" A,p'#er&
The importance of the transistor is based upon the fact that 'alue of the collector current is
many times !reater than the base current. &f current is char!ed sli!htly, then the collector current
chan!es si!nificantly. &n this way the transistor acts as an amplifier.
Q: What are the advantages of transistor.
Ad3a"ta1e% !# Tra"%%t!r&
); Transistors are small in si4e.
,; Transistors are li!ht in wei!ht.
.; Transistors are not easily broken.
/; Transistors produce little heat.
K; Transistors are 'ery cheap.
J; Transistors use 'ery little potential.
O; Transistors ha'e lon! operatin! life.
Q: Define 3adar.
Radar&
+adar stands for +adio Detection and +an!in!.
Q: Fow #an" !arts of radar.
Part% !# Radar&
+adar consists of followin! partsH
); Transmitter
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M. Salman Khan
,; +ecei'er
.; &ndicatin! de'ices
Q: What are the uses of 3adar.
U%e% !# Radar&
); &t is used to beware of surroundin! ships, ice ber!s hidden rocks under water
and hills hidden by mist and cloud.
,; &t is used for air traffic control.
.; &t helps in na'i!ation in low 'isibility.
/; &t helps to detect enemy planes.
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