Definitions

Batch Melting: The melt remains resident until at some point it is released and moves upward;
Equilibrium melting process with variable %melting.

Adiabatic Process: a process that occurs without the transfer of heat or matter between a system
and its surroundings.
[1][2]
A key concept in thermodynamics, adiabatic transfer provides a
rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics. It is
also key in a practical sense, that many rapid chemical and physical processes are described
using the adiabatic approximation; such processes are usually followed or preceded by events
that do involve heat transfer.
Adiabatic processes are primarily and exactly defined for a system contained by walls that are
completely thermally insulating and impermeable to matter; such walls are said to be adiabatic.
An adiabatic transfer is a transfer of energy as work across an adiabatic wall or sector of a
boundary.
Approximately, a transfer may be regarded as adiabatic if it happens in an extremely short time,
so that there is no opportunity for significant heat exchange.
[3]



Incremental Batch Melting: Calculate batch melting for successive batches (same equation);
Must recalculate Di as solids change as minerals are selectively melted (computer programs e.g.
MELTS)

Half-Life: the time required, probabilistically, for half of the unstable, radioactive atoms in a
sample to undergo radioactive decay.
Low-Velocity Zone: The low-velocity zone (LVZ) occurs close to the boundary between
the lithosphere and the asthenosphere in the uppermantle. It is characterized by unusually
low seismic shear wave velocity compared to the surrounding depth intervals. This range of
depths also corresponds to anomalously high electrical conductivity.It is present between about
80 and 300 km depth. This appears to be universally present for S waves, but may be absent in
certain regions for P waves.
[2]
A second low-velocity zone (not generally referred to as the LVZ,
but as ULVZ) has been detected in a thin 50 km layer at the core-mantle boundary.
[3]
These
LVZs may have important implications for plate tectonics and the origin of the Earth's crust.
[2][3][4]

The LVZ has been interpreted to indicate the presence of a significant degree of partial melting,
and alternatively as a natural consequence of a thermal boundary layer and the effects of
pressure and temperature on the elastic wave velocity of mantle components in the solid
state.
[2]
In any event, a very limited amount of melt (about 1%) is needed to produce these
effects. Water in this layer can lower the melting point, and may play an important part in its
composition

Primary Melt/Magma
When a rock melts, the liquid is a primary melt. Primary melts have not undergone any
differentiation and represent the starting composition of a magma. In nature it is rare to find
primary melts. The leucosomes of migmatites are examples of primary melts. Primary melts
derived from the mantle are especially important, and are known as primitive melts or primitive
magmas. By finding the primitive magma composition of a magma series it is possible to model
the composition of the mantle from which a melt was formed, which is important in understanding
evolution of the mantle.
Parental Melt/Magma
Where it is impossible to find the primitive or primary magma composition, it is often useful to
attempt to identify a parental melt. A parental melt is a magma composition from which the
observed range of magma chemistries has been derived by the processes of igneous
differentiation. It need not be a primitive melt.
For instance, a series of basalt flows are assumed to be related to one another. A composition
from which they could reasonably be produced by fractional crystallization is termed a parental
melt. Fractional crystallization models would be produced to test the hypothesis that they share a
common parental melt.
At high degrees of partial melting of the mantle, komatiite and picrite are produced.

Marine Geochemistry
Redfield Ratios
The uptake of nutrients from surface waters and their release into deep water from falling organic
particles imposes a verti-cal gradient on the concentration on nutrients in the ocean (Figure
15.13). Redfield (1958) found that C, N, and P were present in living tissue in nearly constant
proportions of 106:16:1. These are called the Redfield ratios (more recent work suggests that
marine organic matter is actually richer in carbon and just slightly poorer in nitrogen, with the best
current estimate of the Redfield ratios being about 126:16:1). Thus we would expect the
concentration of phosphate and nitrate to be highly correlated in seawater, and this is indeed the
case. N and P concentrations in seawater is the same as that ratio of oceanic organic matter.
All P and N in the shallow ocean comes from the mineralisation of organic matter at depth, so it
is supplied to the cycle with the Redfield ratio.
Classification of elements based on how they behave in ocean:
Conservative elements vary exactly like salinity, i.e. only by dilution and concentration. In
principle there are no sinks. In principle the residence time is infinite.
Nutrient elements are essential for life and are stripped efficiently out of shallow waters where
productivity is high, then regenerated at depth by respiration or decay of falling organic matter.
The residence time in the shallow ocean is very short but in the whole ocean is long.
Scavenged elements are supplied at the surface but are readily adsorbed onto particles and
removed by sedimentation. The residence time is short. Often classified as S/N.
What makes a good stable isotope?
- The elements have a relatively low atomic mass - measurable separation
- The relative difference between rare (heavy and abundant (light) isotope is large
- These elements form chemical bonds that have a high degree of covalent character
- Forms compounds with a high variety of bonding neighbours (many oxidative states)
- Rare isotope is a small fraction of total (0.05 Rare isotope is a small fraction of total (0.05
5%) to ensure precise determinations of isotopic ratios by mass spectrometry
- Abundant in nature.
- Biogenic elements - A biogenic substance is a substance produced by life processes. It
may be either constituents, or secretions, of plants or animals
Stable Isotopes Ocean
- colder waters tend to have higher values (+3.5), that is, they are O-18 enriched, while
warmer waters have lower values (0 to 2), that is, they are O-18 depleted.
- A fraction of the biogenic particles produced in surface water survives degradation or
dissolution in the deep sea and gradually accumulates on the seafloor.
- paleoceanographers are attempting to make use of the contrasting behavior of the two
natural radionuclides thorium 230 and protactinium 231.
- Weathering removes uranium from crustal rocks and rivers transport it to the ocean,
which has a uniform uranium concentration everywhere. Two primary uranium (U)
isotopes, U-238 and U-235, initiate different decay series and produce daughters with
distinct properties (Fig. 3). Among these daughters, thorium 230 (Th-230) and
protactinium 231 (Pa-231) are particularly useful for late Quaternary paleoceanography.
Unlike their parent uranium isotopes, Th-230 and Pa-231 are very insoluble in seawater.
They are rapidly adsorbed onto settling particles and removed to the underlying
sediments through a process called "scavenging."
- The basic principles to understand are source, means of transport, rate of supply, and
potential for dissolution or change on the sea floor. The basic sources of the sediments
found in the deep sea are erosion from land , eruption of volcanoes, production by
pelagic organisms , and cosmic fallout. Means of transport, which applies mostly to
sediments eroded from land, refers to whether the sediments were dispersed out over
the oceans by wind, were transported to the deep sea by gravity flows, were conveyed
far from shore by surface currents before settling out of suspension, or were carried and
dropped by melting ice. Rates of supply for sediments eroded from land or erupted by
volcanoes declines with distance from a source. Rates and types of production by pelagic
organisms vary with nutrient supplies and temperature in the surface waters of the
ocean. Potential for dissolution or change depends upon the chemistry of the water in the
deep sea and in the deep-sea sediments themselves.
- Dissolved load
- Supply source
- Turbidity currents
- Dissolution in bottom waters affect carbonates accumulation rates in the deep sea
- Circulation of deep bottom waters is driven by four main factors: formation in source
regions, deep-sea topography, interocean connections, and the Earth's rotation.
Thermohaline circulation is density driven as the most dense waters flow along the
bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. The effect of the Earth's rotation, the Coriolis
effect, accelerates currents along the western sides of basins. Current flow is also
accelerated over any topographic high or through any constriction or passageway. While
most of the deep sea floor experiences rather slow currents (less than 2 cm/sec), current
velocities of 10-15 cm/sec and higher have been recorded in areas of current
acceleration. Furthermore, current velocities at midwater depths can be 2-3 times those
on the bottom, so current velocities over seamounts can be strongly erosional.
Factors influencing marine oxygen-18 record.- varies between glacial and interglacial periods
(isotopically light water was stored in glaciers, thus enriching the oceans in 18O.) will show
zig/zag pattern on an O-18 vs Time graph
1. Condensation and evaporation hence, composition of seawater
2. Variation in the earths orbit eccentricity (degree to which orbit differs from circular) and
tilt; precession ( change in the orientation of the rotational axis of a rotating body) affects
eccentricity
3. Variation in the solar energy flux insolation
4. Temperature
Fractionation between H2180 and H2160 molecules during evaporation concentrates the H2 O-
16 molecules in the water vapor, leaving the water enriched in H2180 molecules. Conversely,
fractionation during condensation concentrates the H2180 molecules in the precipitation
(rain/snow), further enriching the clouds (water vapor) in H2160 molecules relative to H2180
molecule
The most important fact is that for the last 40,000 years, the 18Ocalcit e changes have been
demonstrated to be globally synchronous by AMS (accelerator mass spec) 14C dating
Last 3 million years :Onset of Pleistocene glaciations with formation of permanent ice sheets at
high northern latitudes. As the ice sheets waxed and waned, the concomitant fall and rise of sea
level left direct evidence for the intensity and timing of glacial cycles. The major sea-level cycles
occur at intervals of ~100,000 years (100 kyr) over the past ~800 kyr, with maximum amplitudes
of 120140 m, involving changes in ice volume of 5060 million km3. Superimposed on these
are lesser cycles of a few tens of thousands of years and shorter duration. The oscillations
between glacial and interglacial climate conditions over the past three million years have
been characterized by a transfer of immense amounts of water between two of its largest
reservoirs on Earth the ice sheets and the oceans. Since the latest of these oscillations,
the Last Glacial Maximum (between about 30,000 and 19,000 years ago), 50 million cubic
kilometres of ice has melted from the land-based ice sheets, raising global sea level by
130 metres. Such rapid changes in sea level are part of a complex pattern of interactions
between the atmosphere, oceans, ice sheets and solid earth, all of which have different
response timescales. The trigger for the sea-level fluctuations most probably lies with
changes in insolation, caused by astronomical forcing, but internal feedback cycles
complicate the simple model of causes and effects.


Connection between isotopes and temperature/weather[edit]
18
O is two neutrons heavier than
16
O and causes the water molecule in which it occurs to be
heavier by that amount. The addition of more energy is required to vaporize H
2
18
O than H
2
16
O,
and H
2
18
O liberates more energy when it condenses. In addition, H
2
16
O tends to diffuse more
rapidly.
Because H
2
16
O requires less energy to vaporize, and is more likely to diffuse to the liquid
surface, the first water vapor formed during evaporation of liquid water is enriched in H
2
16
O, and
the residual liquid is enriched in H
2
18
O. When water vapor condenses into liquid, H
2
18
O
preferentially enters the liquid, while H
2
16
O is concentrated in the remaining vapor.
As an air mass moves from a warm region to a cold region, water vapor condenses and is
removed as precipitation. The precipitation removes H
2
18
O, leaving progressively more H
2
16
O-
rich water vapor. This distillation process causes precipitation to have lower
18
O/
16
O as the
temperature decreases. Additional factors can affect the efficiency of the distillation, such as the
direct precipitation of ice crystals, rather than liquid water, at low temperatures.
Due to the intense precipitation that occurs in hurricanes, the H
2
18
O is exhausted relative to the
H
2
16
O, resulting in relatively low
18
O/
16
O ratios. The subsequent uptake of hurricane rainfall in
trees, creates a record of the passing of hurricanes that can be used to create a historical record
in the absence of human records.
[1]

Connection between temperature and climate[edit]
The
18
O/
16
O ratio provides a record of ancient water temperature. Water 10 to 15 C (18 to 27 F)
cooler than present represents glaciation. As colder temperatures spread toward the equator,
water vapor rich in
18
O preferentially rains out at lower latitudes. The remaining water vapor that
condenses over higher latitudes is subsequently rich in
16
O.
[2]
Precipitation and therefore glacial
ice contain water with a low
18
O content. Since large amounts of
16
O water are being stored as
glacial ice, the
18
O content of oceanic water is high. Water up to 5 C (9 F) warmer than today
represents an interglacial, when the
18
O content of oceanic water is lower. A plot of ancient water
temperature over time indicates that climate has varied cyclically, with large cycles
and harmonics, or smaller cycles, superimposed on the large ones. This technique has been
especially valuable for identifying glacial maxima and minima in the Pleistocene.
Connection between calcite and water[edit]
Limestone is deposited from the calcite shells of microorganisms. Calcite, or calcium carbonate,
chemical formula CaCO
3
, is formed from water, H
2
O, and carbon dioxide, CO
2
, dissolved in the
water. The carbon dioxide provides two of the oxygen atoms in the calcite. The calcium must rob
the third from the water. The isotope ratio in the calcite is therefore the same, after
compensation, as the ratio in the water from which the microorganisms of a given layer extracted
the material of the shell. The microorganism most frequently referenced is foraminifera.
[citation
needed]

Marine oxygen isotope record
The isotopic record is based on the ratio of two oxygen isotopes, oxygen-16 (
16
O) and oxygen-18
(
18
O), which is determined on calcium carbonate from shells of microfossils that accumulated
year by year on the seafloor. The ratio depends on two factors, the temperature and the isotopic
composition of the seawater from which the organism secreted its shell. Shells secreted from
colder water contain more oxygen-18 relative to oxygen-16 than do shells secreted from warmer
water. The isotopic composition of the oceans has proved to be related to the storage of water in
large ice sheets on land. Because molecules of oxygen-18 evaporate less readily and condense
more readily, an air mass with oceanic water vapour becomes depleted in the heavier isotope
(oxygen-18) as the air mass is cooled and loses water by precipitation. When moisture
condenses and falls as snow, its isotopic composition is also dependent on the temperature of
the air. Snow falling on a large ice sheet becomes isotopically lighter (i.e., has less oxygen-18)
as one goes higher on the glacier surface where it is both colder and farther from the moisture
source.

Incompatible and Compatible Elements
Transition elements - Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn
All compatible, no huge differences
Low abundances in felsic or intermediate

Liquid Line of Descent
Overall Conclusions and Andesite Petrogenetic Model: II
Most island arc lavas are extremely phenocryst rich; their
bulk composition then do not likely represent true liquid
compositions.
Smooth Harker diagrams for all major elements. Implies
common liquid-line of descent driven by fractional
crystallization of SiO2-poor and FeO-rich such as Timagnetite
and amphibole.
Sr-enrichment from seawater alteration of hydrated
basaltic oceanic crust and Pb-enrichment from terrigenous
sediments (1-3%).
Volatiles from descending slab are liberated into overlying
mantle wedge. Initiates partial melting yielding water-bearing
basalts. Basalts are enriched in the subduction component
(LIL and LREE, Sr, Pb enriched). The basalts transit mantle
wedge and in older arcs likely pond at MOHO, where they
may melt the lower crust and differentiate by fractional
crystallization. More evolved magmas (lower density) rise
into mid-crust and periodically erupt.
Some evidence for repeated basalt injections into midcrustal
storage zones in the form of zoned crystals, variable
Fe-Ti oxide-derived temperatures, and textures of mafic
inclusions.