1

INTRODUCTION
1. Acetaldehyde is an important intermediate in industrial organic synthesis.
Acetic acid, acetic anhydride, n-butanol and 2-ethylhexanol are major
products derived from acetaldehyde. Smaller amounts of acetaldehyde are
also consumed in manufacture of pentaerythritol, trimethylolpropane,
pyridines, peracetic acid, crotonaldehyde, chloral, 1,3-butylene glycol and
lactic acid.
2. Acetaldehyde is commercially produced from acetylene, ethanol, propane or
butane! and ethylene. "able 1 gives a comparison of acetaldehyde
manufacturing processes.
3. "he observation that ethylene forms acetaldehyde in an a#ueous palladium
chloride solution dates bac$ to the end of the 1%
th
century. &n this reaction 'd
2(
reduces to 'd)
C
2
H
4
+ PdCl
2
+ H
2
O CH
3
CHO + 2 HCl + Pd
0
*o+ever catalysis is not ta$ing place because oxygen is not able to reoxidise
palladium.
&n the 1%,-s, .ac$er-/hemie and *oechst developed a process in +hich
reoxidation of palladium ta$es place successfully. &t employs a homogeneous
catalyst system, +hich consists of an a#ueous solution of copper chloride
/u/l
2
! and a small #uantity of palladium chloride 'd/l
2
! 0oulijn, 2--1!.
2
1eactions may be summari2ed as)
C
2
H
4
+ PdCl
2
+ H
2
O CH
3
CHO + 2 HCl + Pd
0
(Product forming reaction)
Pd
0
+ 2 CuCl
2
PdCl
2
+ 2 CuCl (Pd oxidation)
2 CuCl + 2 HCl + 0.5 O
2
2 CuCl
2
+ H
2
O (CuCl oxidation)
C
2
H
4
+ 0.5 O
2
CH
3
CHO H
2! "
# $244 %& ' mol (O(erall reaction)
3. "here are t+o variants of the .ac$er process, one using oxygen Single
stage process! and the other using air "+o stage process!. "he choice
depends on local conditions such as oxygen costs, utility prices and ethylene
purity.
Single stage process. 4thylene and oxygen are reacted simultaneously +ith
the catalyst solution in one reactor. *ere oxygen is used in situ to regenerate
copper &&! ion.
Two stage process. 4thylene reacts +ith the catalyst solution in the first
reactor. "he acetaldehyde formed is separated. "he reduced catalyst solution
is transferred to a second reactor and reoxidised by air.
,. Advantages of .ac$er process.
Raw materials. 4thylene is a cheap, large-volume petrochemical compared
to acetylene!.
Catalyst. *omogeneous catalyst gives high selectivity and lo+ operating
temperature and pressure.
3
5. 6imitations of .ac$er process.
By product formation. 7oth the single stage and t+o stage processes yield
acetic acid, chlorinated acetaldehydes mono, di, tri!, carbon dioxide,
crotonaldehyde, and methyl and ethyl chloride as by products
Material of construction. Acidic catalyst solutions are extremely corrosive.
Suitable materials of construction are among others titanium, acid-proof
ceramic and tantalum +hich are expensive
Effluent treatment. .aste+ater contains chlorinated hydrocarbons +hich are
not biodegradable due to their toxicity
8. Sales specifications 9ira et. al., 1%:,!
'1;'41"< 6&0&"S
1 Appearance /lean, clear li#uid
2 /olour, 't-/o scale 1- max.
3 Specific gravity -.8:---.8%-
3 Acetaldehyde dry basis!, +t= %%., min
, Acidity as acetic acid, +t= -.1 max
5 .ater, +t= -.-2 max
8 /hlorine, mg>$g 3- max
: ?ry residue, mg>$g 1- max
:. @lobal trends.
0ajor acetaldehyde manufacturing plants based on direct oxidation of
ethylene single stage and t+o stage processes! are found in ASA, @ermany
and 9apan. &n &ndia, acetaldehyde is largely manufactured from ethyl alcohol.
4
%. Buture trends.
Acetic acid is a major outlet for acetaldehyde. "he development of the
0onsanto methanol carbonylation for acetic acid has adversely affected
acetaldehyde consumption. &n the production of butanol and 2-ethylhexanol,
acetaldehyde has been replaced as a ra+ material by propylene and
synthesis gas in oxo-type processes.
5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PRODUCT Acetaldehyde %%.% = +t!
CAPACITY ,- tonnes per day
)
PROCESS "+o Stage .ac$er 'rocess direct oxidation of ethylene!
LOCATION @&?/ ?ahej 4state, 7haruch, @ujarat
PROCESS LICENSOR .ac$er-/hemie @mb*, @ermany
Raw material Requirement
(ton!a"#
Co$t
(R$%ton#
Total &o$t
(R$ la'($!a"#
4thylene %,= vol!
'rocess Air
*ydrochloric acid 3-= +t!
'rocess +ater
3:.-2
1-5.%-
8.,%
235.8
18---
-
13--
1--
5.353
-
-.1-5
-.238
Utilit" Requirement
()er !a"#
Co$t
(R$%#
Total &o$t
(R$% La'($ !a"#
Steam tons!
/ooling +ater tons!
'o+er $.h!
133.2
:21-.-
1,---.-
8-- per ton!
12 per ton!
3 per C.h!
1.--2
-.%:,
-.3,
PRO*ECT COST ESTIMATE+
"otal /apital estimate D 1s. ,:% la$hs
?ebt ) 4#uity ratio D 2 ) 1
"erm loan at 13= p.a. D 1s. 3%3 la$hs
"otal e#uity D 1s. 1%5 la$hs
PRODUCT PRICE+ 1s. -.2, la$h > ton
ESTIMATED ,OR-IN. RESULTS+ Assuming 1--= capacity utili2ation
'aybac$ period D 1.:1 years
1eturn on investment D ,,.3 =
7rea$ even capacity D 31.: = of installed capacity
PROCESS SELECTION
"here are t+o variants of process for acetaldehyde manufacture by direct oxidation
of ethylene E Single stage and "+o stage. "he technical $no+-ho+ of the single
*
stage process +as +or$ed out by Barb+er$e *oeschst and that of the t+o stage
process +as +or$ed out by .ac$er-/hemie. 7oth processes reached commercial
importance and are no+ in operation +orld+ide 0iller, 1%5%!
/RIE0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION 9ira et. al., 1%85!
Single stage process Big.1!
4thylene and oxygen are separately fed at the bottom of a reaction to+er filled +ith a
catalyst solution. 1eaction ta$es place at about 13-F/ and 3 atm g.
C
2
H
4
+ 0.5 O
2
CH
3
CHO
Gapouri2ed reaction products, evaporated +ater and unreacted ethylene and oxygen
are separated from the catalyst solution by a demister. Acetaldehyde is removed
from unreacted gases by cooling and scrubbing +ith +ater. "he remaining gas is
recycled to the reaction to+er after consumed ethylene has been replaced. Small
amounts of recycled gas are removed to prevent accumulation of gaseous
contaminants. A side stream of the catalyst is treated +ith oxygen and heated to
about 18-F/ to decompose byproducts. "he crude a#ueous acetaldehyde from the
scrubber is separated from light ends in a column +hich is operated as an extractive
distillation +ith +ater. Acetaldehyde is separated from +ater and purified by an
additional distillation step. *igh boiling by-products are partially +ithdra+n by a side
stream and those still remaining are removed +ith the bottoms.
"+o stage process Big.2!
4thylene is fed to a tubular reactor and reacts +ith an a#ueous catalyst solution
containing cupric chloride and palladium chloride at about :-% atm g.
C
2
H
4
+ 2 CuCl
2
+ H
2
O CH
3
CHO + 2 CuCl + 2 HCl
!
"he solution is then flashed in a to+er to atmospheric pressure +here, due to the
exothermic reaction, acetaldehyde and +ater are evaporated. "he catalyst solution,
containing cuprous chloride e#uivalent to the amount of acetaldehyde formed is
transferred into tube oxidiser and reoxidised +ith air at about 1- atm g.
2 CuCl + 2 HCl + 0.5 O
2
2 CuCl
2
+ H
2
O
After off-gas separation, the catalyst solution is ready for further reaction +ith
ethylene. "he off-gas contains more than %%= nitrogen and can be used as an inert
gas. A small stream of oxidised catalyst is heated to about 15-F/ to decompose by-
products.
"he vaporised acetaldehyde-+ater mixture from the flash to+er is distilled in the
crude column to 5--%-= acetaldehyde. 6ight ends are removed by distillation and
acetaldehyde is purified by a final distillation.
+a,te ga,

1 2 3 3

H
2
O
-cetalde./de
0t./lene
(.!1)
Ox/gen (.51)
2team 2team
1 3 4eactor 2 3 Conden,er 3 3 5ega,,er 4 3 2till
6ig. 1 2ingle ,tage 7roce,, (Hydrocarbon Processing, 118 181*3)
Off$air +a,te ga,

0t./lene
(51)
-ir
2team
1 $ 4eactor 2 3 Oxidi,er 3 3 Crude acetalde./de ,till 4 3 5ega,,er 5 3 6inal ,till
6ig. 2 9:o ,tage 7roce,, (Hydrocarbon Processing, 118 181*3)
Two Sta1e ,a&'er Pro&e$$ is selected for the acetaldehyde plant of ,- tonnes per
day capacity.
1 2 3 3 ,
10
"he t+o stage process appears to be more attractive in comparison to the single
stage process. "he advantages of the t+o stage process over the single stage
process are) -
1. Inherent Safety. &n the t+o stage process ethylene and oxygen react in
separate reactors and thus never form explosive mixtures. Safe handling
ensured. Ho special operating procedures or complex safety interloc$s
re#uired.
2. Cost. Air is cheap and available every+here. Ho capital and operation costs
for an oxygen plant in the t+o stage process.
Gacuum pressure s+ing adsorption G'SA!, 'ressure s+ing adsorption 'SA!
techni#ues are uneconomical for the oxygen purity re#uired by the single
stage process Arpentinier et al., 2--1!
3. Conversion. &n the t+o stage process, almost complete conversion %% =! of
reactants is achieved in one pass.
&n the single stage process, ethylene concentration is ta$en above the upper
flammability limit. Since the concentration of oxygen cannot be increased, all
the cuprous chloride formed is not reoxidised to cupric chloride. 4thylene
conversion per pass is limited to 8,=. As a conse#uence, gas recycle is
necessary.

3. Operation flexiility. 'resence of inerts in feed gases is allo+able for the t+o
stage process since no recycle is needed. ?ilute ethylene I%,= vol.! and air
can be used.
11
"he single stage process re#uires pure ethylene I%%.:= vol.! and pure
oxygen I%%.,= vol.! to limit the amount of inerts in the recycle stream.
,. Reactant losses. &n the t+o stage process there is no loss of reactant.
&n the single stage process, to prevent build up of inerts, a part of the reactant
recycle stream is purged. "his leads to ethylene and oxygen losses.
DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION (Refer to process flow diagram attached)+ 2
4thylene is fed at 1- atm to a tubular reactor 1-1-1. &t reacts +ith boiling a#ueous
catalyst solution of cupric chloride and palladium chloride at 3%:.2 C. 1-1-1 is
operated adiabatically since the heat of reaction is small.
C
2
H
4
+ 2 CuCl
2
+ H
2
O CH
3
CHO + 2 CuCl + 2 HCl J*
2%: C
D -11 $9 > mol
"he product stream is then flashed in to+er ?-1-1 to atmospheric pressure +here,
due to the exothermic heat of reaction, acetaldehyde, +ater and lo+ boiling by
products such as methylene chloride and chloroacetaldehyde are evaporated. Bresh
process +ater is added to the catalyst solution to compensate for the +ater flashed
out.
"he catalyst solution, containing cuprous chloride e#uivalent to the amount of
acetaldehyde formed is transferred into tubular oxidiser 1-1-2 and reoxidised +ith
air at about 1- atm.
2 CuCl + 2 HCl + 0.5 O
2
2 CuCl
2
+ H
2
O J*
2%: C
D -233 $9 > mol
Since reaction is highly exothermic, 1-1-2 is operated isothermally by circulating
cooling +ater in a jac$et.
After off-gas separation in ?-1-2, the regenerated catalyst solution is ready for
further reaction +ith ethylene. "he off-gas contains more than %-= nitrogen and can
12
be used as an inert gas. Bresh hydrochloric acid 3-=! is added to restore the
chlorine concentration in the catalyst solution +hich is lost due to byproduct
formation. "he catalyst solution is heated in 4-1-: to 3%:.2 C under pressure to its
boiling point and re introduced into 1-1-1.
"he vaporised acetaldehyde-+ater mixture from the flash to+er ?-1-1 at 383.2 C is
distilled in the crude distillation column "-1-1 at 1 atm to obtain 5-= +t
acetaldehyde. Honcondensables, mainly ethylene and inerts are vented out from the
condenser. "he bottoms contain most of the +ater and acetic acid, +hich are sent
for effluent treatment. "he crude acetaldehyde at 313.2 C is sent to an intermediate
storage tan$ "C-1-1.
;+ing to the lo+ boiling points of methylene chloride and chloroacetaldehyde, pure
acetaldehyde cannot be obtained by distillation since these byproducts become
concentrated in the upper half of the column. /ountercurrent extraction of crude
acetaldehyde +ith pure +ater is carried out in pac$ed extraction columns "-1-2 and
"-1-3 ;pavas$y and 1eisner, 1%:1!. "he acetaldehyde becomes concentrated in
the +ater, +hereas, methylene chloride and chloroacetaldehyde form a separate
+ater insoluble phase. Almost %:= +t of the acetaldehyde supplied to the column
remains in the a#ueous phase. %-= of the methylene and ,-= of
chloroacetaldehyde remain in the separate heavier phase. "he raffinate stream rich
in chloro compounds is dra+n from the bottom of "-1-3 and sent for incineration.
"he a#ueous extract stream at 3-8.3 C is dra+n from the top of "-1-2 is sent to the
final distillation column "-1-3.
"he a#ueous acetaldehyde solution is preheated in 4-1-3 under a pressure of 3
atm., so that there is no substantial evolution of vapour from the solution, to 353.2 C
13
6on2a,1%52!. "his is above the boiling point of the solution at the operating
conditions of 2 atm in the final distillation column "-1-3!. "he bottoms, mainly +ater,
is sent for effluent treatment. /hloroacetaldehyde is +ithdra+n as a side-cut and
incinerated. 'ure acetaldehyde %%.%= +t.! is dra+n as the top product and sent to
the product storage tan$.
SITE SELECTION
.IDC (.u3arat In!u$trial De4elo)ment Cor)oration#5 Da(e35 /(aru&(5 .u3arat is
the site selected for the acetaldehyde plant of ,- tonnes per day capacity.
14
"he factors considered for site-selection of are listed belo+ in the order of priority
'eters and "immerhaus, 1%5:K /oulson and 1ichardson, 1%:3a!
1. Raw materials E 4thylene 12,,,- tpa approx.! and air are the ra+-materials
for .ac$er process.
4thylene is available from crac$ers at *a2ira :,-5,538 tpa! and Gadodara
,,3-,--- tpa! +hich are +ithin :- $m of the plant site 1aghvan, 2---!.
"ransport is possible by laying pipelines or by ethylene tonners.
2. Mar!et E Acetaldehyde being an intermediate can be sold to facilities
manufacturing acetic acid and other derivatives from acetaldehyde in @&?/
and 0&?/ areas.

3. "tilities - .ater is supplied from Harmada 1iver near An$lesh+ar by @&?/.
'o+er is made available by @ujarat 4lectricity 7oard. ;ne 22->55 $G and t+o
55>11 $G substations are available at ?ahej estate.
3. Transport - ?ahej is located +ithin the industrialised area bet+een 0umbai
and Ahmedabad. &t is connected at the national level by rail and road and
also has a major port +ith a large chemical terminal.
,. #aour E S$illed labour +ill usually be brought in from nearby urban areas.
Ans$illed labour is available locally.
5. Infrastructure E 7asic infrastructure facilities such as good roads, to+nships,
treated +aste+ater disposal into sea, drainage, telecommunication, fire
15
stations, dispensaries, par$s, post-office, bus stand, ban$s, hotels, petrol
stations etc. have developed by @&?/
8. #ocal taxes E @ujarat state offers certain tax exemptions to promote erection
of plants here
MATERIAL AND ENER.Y /ALANCE
OVERALL MATERIAL /ALANCE
1)
1.511 ton, (51 (ol.) C
2
H
4
0.01* ton, (301. +t) HCl PROCESS 2.0!3 ton, acetalde./de (.1)
10.2! ton, 6re,. :ater ;a,i,< 1$.our 12.0 ton, li=uid effluent
4.453 ton, -ir 3.))4 ton, >itrogen ric. ga,
MATERIAL /ALANCE ACROSS E6UIPMENT
Note: - All values in $g > hour unless indicated other+ise
&n the description, numbers in brac$ets denote stream numbers
Rea&tor (R2787#
4thylene feed 1! purity is ta$en as %,= vol. &nerts are assumed to be mostly carbon
dioxide. 4thylene conversion is about %%.,= and product yield is %,= AguilL and
'enrod, 1%85!. 7y-products, namely methylene chloride, acetic acid and chlorinated
aldehydes amount to about ,= of converted ethylene.
About 1.%= of ethylene is converted to chlorinated aldehydes and in particular
chloroacetaldehyde ;pavs$y et al., 1%:2!. /u
2(
i.e. cupric chloride is ta$en in
stoichiometric amount to ethylene feed. &n a typical manufacturing operation, copper
is present in the a#ueous solution at concentrations of about 1 0 @rate et al., 1%%5!.
So #uantity of +ater re#uired is +or$ed out accordingly. /handalia 1%55!
recommends -.--3 0 palladium chloride and -.-1 0 hydrochloric acid as optimum
catalyst composition. *ydrochloric acid is added to compensate for chlorine losses
due to by-product formation.
1*
IN OUT
STREAM 7 9 :
4thylene 1353
-
8.31,
&nerts 121 - 121.-
/upric chloride - 1.311 x 1-
3
882.3
/uprous chloride - %:.8: %:8:
.ater - 1.-3, x 1-
,
1.-35 x 1-
,
'alladium chloride - ,,.3% ,,.3%
*ydrochloric acid - 122.3 3533
Acetaldehyde - - 2183
Acetic acid - %1,.: %53.-
/hloroacetaldehyde - - 88.%3
0ethylene chloride - - 5:.2:
TOTAL 7;<= 7%7>< ? 78
;
7%97= ? 78
;
0la$( Tower (D2787#
"he product stream from 1-1-1 3! contains lo+ boiling components such as
acetaldehyde, methylene chloride and chloroacetaldehyde. "hese +ill be almost
completely removed +ith the flash vapour stream 3!. 0ost of the acetic acid and
+ater +ill remain in the li#uid stream ,!, as they are relatively high boiling. An
e#uivalent amount of fresh process +ater is re#uired to be added to maintain the
catalyst stability.
IN OUT
STREAM : = ;
4thylene 8.31, 8.31, -
&nerts 121.- 121.- -
/upric chloride 882.3 - 882.3
/uprous chloride %:8: - %:8:
.ater 1.-35 x 1-
,
,2:: %.:31 x 1-
3
'alladium chloride ,,.3% - ,,.3%
1!
*ydrochloric acid 3533 - 3533
Acetaldehyde 2183 2183 -
Acetic acid %53.- 3:.2 %1,.:
/hloroacetaldehyde 88.%3 88.%3 -
0ethylene chloride 5:.2: 5:.2: -
TOTAL 7%97= ? 78
;
@@<= 7%7:A ? 78
;
Cru!e Di$tillation Column (T2787#
"he feed to "-1-1 is saturated vapour coming from the flash to+er 3!. /rude
acetaldehyde I5-= +t.! is obtained as distillate 1,!. "he bottoms 15! mainly
consist of +ater +ith small #uantity of acetic acid. "he non-condensables, mainly
ethylene and inerts are vented out from the condenser 13!. /rude acetaldehyde is
sent to intermediate storage tan$ "C-1-1.
IN OUT
STREAM = 7= 7; 7A
4thylene 8.31, 8.31, - -
&nerts 121.- 121.- - -
.ater ,2:: - 12%5 3%%2
Acetaldehyde 2183 - 215% 3
Acetic acid 3:.2 - ,.383 32.83
/hloroacetaldehyde 88.%3 - 85.:2 1.11-
0ethylene chloride 5:.2: - 58.%2 -.35--
TOTAL @@<= 79<%: :A7; =8=8
1
E?tra&tion Column (T2789 an! T278:#
/ounter current extraction of crude acetaldehyde +ith +ater is carried out in the
extraction column "-1-2 and "-1-3. "he #uantity of solvent +ater 1:! is ta$en as
approximately three times that of acetaldehyde in the feed stream 18! ;pavas$y
and 1eisner, 1%:1!. "he extract stream 1%! is reported to contain by +t.!
approximately %:= acetaldehyde, ,-= chloroacetaldehyde, %%= acetic acid, ,=
methylene chloride and %%.%= +ater present in the feed. "he raffinate is rich in
chlorinated by-products 2-!.
IN OUT
STREAM 7@ 7< 7> 98
.ater 12%5 ,212 5,-1 8
Acetaldehyde 215% - 2125 33
Acetic acid ,.383 - ,.31% -.-,3--
/hloroacetaldehyde 85.:2 - 3:.31 3:.31
0ethylene chloride 58.%2 - 3.3%5 53.,2
TOTAL :A7; ;979 <A@= 7;:%8
0inal Di$tillation Column (T278=#
20
'ure acetaldehyde, the final product %%.%= +t.!, is removed as distillate 22!. "he
bottoms 23! contain mostly +ater. /hloroacetaldehyde is dra+n as a side cut 23!
and contains some acetaldehyde.
IN OUT
STREAM 97 99 9: 9=
.ater 5,-1 -.2 1.: 53%%
Acetaldehyde 2125 2-:1 31.1: 13.:2
Acetic acid ,.31% trace trace ,.31:
/hloroacetaldehyde 3:.31 1.5% 2,.38 11.2,
0ethylene chloride 3.3%5 -.1%83 2.%8, -.2233
TOTAL <A@= 98<: A7%=: A;:8
O?i!i$er (R2789#
;xidation of cuprous chloride 8! +ith air :! proceeds rapidly and to completion
Smidt et al., 1%52!. &t is assumed that conversion is %%= +ith no side reaction.
;xygen is ta$en to be 3-= in excess.
21
IN OUT
STREAM @ < >
/upric chloride 882.3 - 1.311 x 1-
3
/uprous chloride %:8: - %:.8:
.ater 1.-33 x 1-
,
- 1.-33 x 1-
,
'alladium chloride ,,.3% - ,,.3%
*ydrochloric acid 3533 - 28.,1
Acetic acid %1,.: - %1,.:
;xygen - 1-3: 238.,
Hitrogen - 3315 3315
TOTAL 7%7<A ? 78
;
==;= 7%9:9 ? 78
;
Se)arator (D2789#
"he unreacted gases, rich in nitrogen are vented out 1-!. .ater vapour in the gas
stream is condensed and returned bac$ to the separator. Bresh hydrochloric acid is
added after ?-1-2.
IN OUT
STREAM > 78 77
/upric chloride 1.311 x 1-
3
- 1.311 x 1-
3
/uprous chloride %:.8: - %:.8:
.ater 1.-33 x 1-
,
- 1.-33 x 1-
,
'alladium chloride ,,.3% - ,,.3%
*ydrochloric acid 28.,1 - 28.,1
Acetic acid %1,.: - %1,.:
;xygen 238., 238., -
Hitrogen 3315 3315 -
TOTAL 7%9:9 ? 78
;
:AA= 7%7>; ? 78
;
22
ENER.Y /ALANCE
Note) All enthalpy values in $9>hr and temperature in C unless indicated other+ise.
"he reference temperature for enthalpy balance is ta$en as 283.15 C.
*1 denotes heat of reaction.
Stream temperatures are denoted alongside the stream number in brac$ets.
6i#uids +hose specific heat data +ere unavailable have been assumed to have a
specific heat of 3.1:5: $9 > $g C.
"hermodynamic data have been obtained from reference numbers 3, :b, 22, 32.
ENER.Y /ALANCE ACROSS E6UIPMENT
Rea&tor (R2787#
STREAM IN OUT
1332.2! ,.,%5 x 1-
,
-
23%:.2! ,.35% x 1-
8
-
*1 8.211 x 1-
3
3 - ,.,32 x 1-
8
TOTAL ;%;:9 ? 78
@
;%;:9 ? 78
@
0la$( Tower (D2787#
STREAM IN OUT
23
3 ,.,32 x 1-
8
-
3383.2! - 1.31, x 1-
8
,383.2! - 3.115 x 1-
8
TOTAL ;%;:9 ? 78
@
;%;:9 ? 78
@
Cru!e Di$tillation Column (T2787#
STREAM IN OUT
3383.2! 1.31, x 1-
8
-
13313.2! - 3.8,3 x 1-
3
1,313.2! - 5.-,, x 1-
,
153:3.2! - 1.:51 x 1-
5
/ondenser - 1.223 x 1-
8
1eboiler ,.,2, x 1-
,
-
TOTAL 7%=@8 ? 78
@
7%=@8 ? 78
@
E?tra&tion Column (T2789 an! T278:#
STREAM IN OUT
18313.2! 5.-,, x 1-
,
-
1:3-3.2! 5.,35 x 1-
,
-
1%3-8.3! - 1.23: x 1-
5
2-3-8.3! - 2.21 x 1-
3
TOTAL 7%9A ? 78
A
7%9A ? 78
A
24
0inal Di$tillation Column (T278=#
STREAM IN OUT
21353.2! 3.25: x 1-
5
-
22313.2! - 3.3:, x 1-
,
23335.2! - 8.35, x 1-
3
233%3.2! - 3.2:1 x 1-
5
/ondenser - 2.3-8 x 1-
5
1eboiler 2.885 x 1-
5
-
TOTAL A%8== ? 78
A
A%8== ? 78
A
O?i!i$er (R2789#
STREAM IN OUT
8383.2! 3.32: x 1-
8
-
:383.2! %.118 x 1-
,
-
*1 5.1,3 x 1-
5
-
/ooling +ater - 5.1,3 x 1-
5
%383.2! - 3.31% x 1-
8
TOTAL ;%8:= ? 78
@
;%8:= ? 78
@
Se)arator
STREAM IN OUT
%383.2! 3.31% x 1-
8
-
1-383.2! - 3.8%, x 1-
,
11382.-! - 3.311 x 1-
8
/ondenser - 5.%81 x 1-
,
TOTAL =%=7> ? 78
@
=%=7> ? 78
@
Beat e?&(an1er$
NUM/ER STREAM IN STREAM OUT BEAT LOAD
25
4-1-3 1% 3-8.3!, 233%3.2! 21353.2!, 2,31%! 2.-3- x 1-
8
4-1-: 13381.8! 23%:.2! 1.1,8 x 1-
8
4-1-% 253-3.2! 5383.2! 1.3:, x 1-
5
PROCESS DESI.N
"he t+o e#uipments +hich have been chosen for process design are) -
1. 1eactor 1-1-1
2. /rude ?istillation column "-1-1
7% REACTOR R2787
1eactor 1-1-1 is designed +ith the objective of manufacturing acetaldehyde by the
gas-li#uid reaction bet+een ethylene and the catalyst solution.
T(e et("lene &on4er$ion !e$ire! i$ >>%; C in a $in1le )a$$. "hus, plug flo+ in
the gas phase +ould be desirable and the reactor should be chosen to attain the
same.
/ommercially, a )lu1 Dlow tuEular rea&tor is used for this purpose.
2)
&n vie+ of the high rate of circulation of the catalyst solution and a large flo+ rate of
gas, it is possible to maintain ade#uate mixing +ithout employing a mechanical
stirrer. "his is particularly so, because of the high length to diameter ratio of a tubular
reactor, +here the mass velocity of the gas and the solution +ould be very high
/handalia, 1%88!.
A tubular reactor can provide high shear mixing +ith a lo+ amount of pressure drop.
Static mixers are commonly used to supply additional mixing energy to the reactor
instead of mechanical stirred reactors. "hese include simple static mixers, fluidic
mixers and vortex mixers among others /etin$aya, 1%%,!.
0ass transfer does not play a significant role in the oxidation of al$ene and so
interfacial area has not been considered for reactor design /handalia, 1%88!.
1eaction lies in 1egime 1 i.e. $inetics controlled ?orais+amy and Sharma, 1%:3!.
"he formation of acetaldehyde is first order +ith respect to ethylene /handalia,
1%88!. "hus the throughput +ould be directly proportional to the pressure employed.
A feed gas pressure of 1- atm. has been conveniently employed here.
"he heat of reaction is very small and so reactor can be operated adiabatically at
about 3%:.2 C.
"he design parameters that need to be determined to establish a +or$ing design are
the follo+ing)
1. *ydrodynamic parameters
2. Cinetic parameters
*<?1;?<HA0&/S ;B ".; '*AS4 B6;.)
6i#uid-gas flo+ in pipelines sho+ different patterns of flo+ behaviour, namely bubble,
plug, stratified, +avy, slug, annular and dispersed flo+s. "he ranges of conditions
2*
over +hich individual patterns exist are represented on maps such as those of
7a$er.
'ressure drop in t+o phase flo+ is found in terms of pressure drops of the individual
phases +ith empirical multipliers. "he basic relation is)
( ) ( ) ( )
L L G G twophase
L P L P L P ' ' '
2 2

1!
6oc$hart and 0artinelli distinguish bet+een the various combinations of turbulent
and laminar viscous! flo+s of the individual phases.
6oc$hart-0artinelli correlation 2!
( ) ( )
L
G L
G
L
Gasholdup
L P L P X
X CX
X X C

+ +
+ +
1
1
' ' '
1
' 1 ' 1
2
2 2
2 2
+here / is a constant +hich depends upon the flo+ of the individual phases.
"he 1eynolds number, friction factor and pressure drop are evaluated for each
phase individually.
D
m 4
4e
3!
[ ]
2
4e ' 5 . ) ' 135 . 0 ln(
)434 . 1
+

D
f

3!
( ) D fv L P ' 2 '
2
,!
"he gas flo+ rate increases from -.33 $g>s at the reactor entrance to -.5: $g>s at the
exit. "his is because although ethylene #uantity decreases, the lo+ boiling
components namely acetaldehyde, methylene chloride and chloroacetaldehyde
constitute the vapour phase at the high reaction temperature. "he li#uid flo+ rate is
almost constant at about 33 $g>s.
"he value of the parameters above has been tabulated for both inlet and outlet
conditions) -
2!
Inlet Outlet
.a$ Liqui! .a$ Liqui!
m, $g>s -.33 33.3 -.5:
1e 1.12 x 1-
5
:.3: x 1-
3
1.83 x 1-
5
:.32 x 1-
3
L
P
H>m
2
-.-1, 1.-: -.-23 1.21

$g>m
3
:.5 1--- 13.1 1---
M 8-.3 ,3.-
2

L
P
!- 2 phase H>m
2
@as holdup
3.3
3.5:
-.35
3.:
3.,5
-.3:
*ere values of cD2- for turbulent flo+ and D- in 2! and 3! respectively
14A/"&;H C&H4"&/S)
"he material balance for a differential length d2, 2 from the entrance gives,
-d@ D 1
A
a S d2 5!
1
A
a D l $ NAOP 8!
.here
l= li#uid holdup
$D reaction rate constantD-.33 s
-1
at 3%:.2 C
NAOPD dissolved ethylene concentration
NAOPD * x p :!
+here
*D*enryQs constant for ethyleneD-.: gmol > cu.m atm
p D 'artial pressure of ethylene
p decreases along the length of the reactor from entry to exit as the ethylene &is
consumed by the reaction.
Assume,
2
p D A ( 7 2 +here A and 7 are constants
At 2D-, pD5.%5 atm therefore AD5.%5 atm
At 2DR, pD-.-35 atm therefore 7D -5.%2 > R
z

p
2 . )
) . ) %!
Substitute %! in :!K :! in8! and 8! in 5!
&ntegrating 5! from entrance to exit,
@i E @o D $ l S * 5.%5 R E 3.35 R!
D 3., $ l S * R
@i D 13., gmol>s
@o D -.-83 gmol>s
13.3 D 3., $ l S * R
average value of l is obtained from the hydrodynamic design, selecting diD -., m so
that flo+ is plug flo+ according to 7a$erQs regime map
"herefore SD -.1%5 m
2
Average value of l is -.,3, thus
RD 113 m
"hic$ness D
p f!
pd
i
2
1-!
.here
p D design pressure D 1- atm D1 H>mm
2
di D internal diameter D -., m
f D 0ax permissible stress of /S D %, H>mm
2
Substituting,
"hic$ness D 3.1 mm
30
"he process design for the tubular reactor 1-1-1 can be summari2ed as)
?iameter
6ength
"hic$ness
0;/
-., m
113 m
3.1 mm
/arbon steel lined +ith "itanium
9% CRUDE DISTILLATION COLUMN T2787+
/rude ?istillation column "-1-1 involves multicomponent separation and is designed
using the 0en$'e2Un!erwoo!2.illian! Met(o!.
"he crude distillation column "-1-1 is designed +ith the objective of obtaining a
distillate of crude acetaldehyde I5-= +t.!
A to+er comprised of rectifying above feed! and stripping belo+ feed! sections is
capable of ma$ing a more or less sharp separation bet+een t+o products or pure
components of the mixture, that is, bet+een the light and heavy $ey components.
"he light key is the most volatile component and the heavy key is the least volatile
component +hose concentration is to be controlled in the bottom product.
/omponents of intermediate volatilities +hose distribution bet+een top and bottom
products is not critical are called distributed keys.
31
Bor the case under study, acetaldehyde is ta$en as the light $ey and +ater is ta$en
as heavy $ey. 0ethylene chloride, chloroacetaldehyde and acetic acid are regarded
as the distributed $eys.
"he first step in the design of distillation e#uipment is specification of the re#uired
distribution of light and heavy $ey components. "he design parameters that need to
be determined to establish a +or$ing design are the follo+ing)
1. 0inimum number of theoretical trays
2. ?istribution of non$eys bet+een the overhead and bottoms products
3. 0inimum reflux
3. Humber of theoretical trays
,. 6ocation of the feed tray
5. "ray efficiencies
0&H&0A0 "1A<S
"his is found from the relative volatility and distribution of the $eys bet+een the
overhead and bottoms by the Ander+ood-Bens$e e#uation.
[ ]
h" l"
h"
b
d
l"
b
d
m
# ' ln
? ) '( ) ln@(

1!
+here
H
m
D minimum number of stages at total reflux including reboiler
lk D light $ey
hk D heavy $ey
S
i
D average relative volatility of the component i +ith respect to the
reference component the heavy $ey!
d D distillate
32
b D bottom
"he relative volatility is ta$en as the geometric mean of the values at the column top
and bottom temperatures.
"he relative volatility and feed composition have been tabulated belo+. "he #uantity
of acetaldehyde and +ater in the distillate stream are fixed as 3%.3 and 82 $mol>hour
respectively. "heir #uantity in the bottoms is calculated by the material balance
e#uation 3!.
/omponent
A
i
Beed f
i
!
$mol>hr!
?istillate d
i
!
$mol>hr!
7ottoms b
i
!
$mol>hr!
Acetaldehyde (l'#
/hloroacetaldehyde
Acetic acid
0ethylene chloride
.ater (('#
1,.2
,.%
-.,%
:.,
1
3%.3%
-.%%2:
-.:-33
-.:-33
2%3.:
3%.3
82
-.-%
221.:
According to e#uation 1! H
m
is estimated to be 9%@:.
?&S"1&7A"&;H ;B H;HC4<S
A convenient approximation is that the distribution of the non$eys re#uire the
minimum number of trays as given by e#uation
1
]
1

h"
h" m
#
i
i
i
b
d
b
d

2!
33
A better estimate can be obtained by replacing the number of stages at total reflux in
e#uation 2! by an estimate of the actual numberK a value e#ual to H
m
>-.5 is often
used.
7y material balance,
i i i
f b d +
3!
+here
f D feed
Solving e#uations 2! and 3! the distribution of non$ey components is estimated and
tabulated belo+.
/omponent
A
i
Beed
f
i
!
$mol>hr!
d
i
>b
i
!
?istillate
d
i
!
$mol>hr!
7ottoms
b
i
!
$mol>hr!
Acetaldehyde (l'#
/hloroacetaldehyd
e
Acetic acid
0ethylene chloride
.ater (('#
1,.2
,.%
-.,%
:.,
1
3%.3%
-.%%2:
-.:-33
-.:-33
2%3.:
,38.:
5:.:%
-.12:1
1:5.8
-.3235
3%.3
-.%8:5
-.-%122
-.8%%1
82
-.-%
-.-132-
-.8121
-.--32:
221.:
0&H&0A0 14B6AM
"he method of Ander+ood employs auxiliary parameters T derived from the
e#uation

$
%
i
fi i
1

3!
+here
34
x D mole fraction
# D thermal condition of the feed
and the summation extends over all the components in the feed.
"he only roots re#uired are those in numerical value bet+een the relative volatilities
of the light and heavy $eys.
*ere since the feed is saturated vapour, # F 8. Solving by trial and error method the
value of T calculated to be ;%<<.
/omponent
fi
%
i

fi
%
i

i
fi i
%
!! . 5
Acetaldehyde (l'#
/hloroacetaldehyde
Acetic acid
0ethylene chloride
.ater (('#
-.132:
-.--2:81
-.--2323
-.--2323
-.:3%5
1,.2
,.%
-.,%
:.,
1
2.181
-.-15%3
-.--1381
-.-1%8,
-.:3%5
-.233-
-.%331
--.---25
-.--8,33
--.183-
8%>>>=
"hen the minimum reflux and the distribution of the intermediate component are
found from the substitution of the value of T into Ander+oodQs second e#uation.
+

1
m
i
di i
&
%

,!
+here
1
m
D 0inimum reflux ratio
35
/omponent
di
%
i

di
%
i

i
di i
%
Acetaldehyde (l'#
/hloroacetaldehyde
Acetic acid
0ethylene chloride
.ater (('#
-.3--3
-.--8%3,
-.--831
-.--53::
-.,:35
1,.2
,.%
-.,%
:.,
1
5.-:3
-.-35::
-.---338
-.-,,1,
-.,:35
-.5,2%
2.,:2
-:.3 x 1-
-,
-.-21-5
--.11%8
:%7:A
F R
m
G 7
"he minimum reflux is calculated to be 9%7=.
;'41A"&H@ 14B6AM
Bor many systems, the optimum design reflux ratio +ill lie bet+een 1.2 to 1., times
the minimum reflux ratio.
*ere +e select the operating reflux ratio as 1.3 times the minimum reflux ratio.
"hus the operating reflux ratio is 9%>>.
A/"AA6 HA0741 ;B "*4;14"&/A6 "1A<S
A graphical correlation made by @illiland has found +ide acceptance because of its
fair accuracy and simplicity of use. ;f the several representations of the plot by
e#uations, that by 0olo$anov et al. is accurate and easy to use)
3)
1 +

&
& &
X
m
5!
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+
+

5 . 0
1
2 . 11* 11
4 . 54 1
ex7 1
X
X
X
X
'
8!
+here
1 D ;perating reflux ratio
"he number of theoretical trays is
'
' #
#
m

1
:!
Galues are calculated to be)
M D -.2131
< D -.33:,
H D ,.85,
"1A< 4BB&/&4H/<
"he range can be from less than 1-= to more than 1--=. Bor hydrocarbon
fractionation a commonly used efficiency is about 5-=.
So the actual number of trays is %.51 i.e. 78
B44? "1A< 6;/A"&;H
An estimate of the optimum location can be made +ith the Ander+ood-Bens$e
e#uation, by applying it t+ice, bet+een the overhead and feed and bet+een the feed
and the bottoms. "he ratio of the numbers of the rectifying H
r
and stripping H
s
trays
is
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

h" l"
h" l"
s
r
b
f
b
f
f
d
f
d
#
#
ln
ln
%!
3*
# # #
s r
+
1-!
Brom e#uations %! and 1-! the number of trays in the rectifying section and
stripping section can be calculated.
Solving e#uations %! and 1-! +e get H
r
>H
s
D -.233
So the feed tray is 1.:2 i.e. 2 from the top
/;6A0H ?&A04"41
"he principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapour flo+ rate. "he
vapour velocity must be belo+ that +hich +ould cause excessive li#uid entrainment
or a high pressure drop. "he e#uation given belo+, +hich is based on the +ell-
$no+n Sounders and 7ro+n e#uation, by 6o+enstein, can be used to estimate the
maximum allo+able superficial vapour velocity and hence the column area and
diameter.
( ) [ ]
5 . 0
2
' ) 04* . 0 2* . 0 1*1 . 0 (
v v l t t v
l l u +
11!
+here
u
v
D maximum allo+able vapour velocity, based on the gross column cross-sectional
area, m>s
l
t
D plate spacing, m
.e have,
v l
8
D 1--- $g>m
3
and -.% $g>m
3
respectively
Assuming the plate spacing to be -.,m,
u
v
D 1.,-: m>s
3!
"he column diameter is calculated as,
v v
c
u
(
D

+here
G D maximum vapour rate, $g>s
G D 1(1! x ?
.here
? D distillate flo+ rate, $g>s
7y calculation,
?
c
D 1.%3 m
Assuming the do+ncomer occupies 1,= of the cross sectional area of the column,
?
c
D 2.1 m
"he process design of the column can be summari2ed as,
?iameter
"rays
"ray spacing
*eight
Beed tray
1eflux ratio
2.1 m
1-
-., m
I, m
2
2.%%
DETAILED DESI.N
"he detailed mechanical design of /rude distillation column "-1-1! is done here.
9oshi and 0ahajani, 1%%5!
S(ell+
3
&nternal ?iameter 21-- mm
"otal *eight ,--- mm
0aterial of construction SS315
.or$ing pressure 1. -32 $g>cm
2
.or$ing temperature 3%3.2C
'ermissible stress %,- $g>cm
2
0odulus of 4lasticity 1%.,

1-
3
$g>cm
2
Bea!$
"ype "orispherical
&nternal ?iameter 21-- mm
0aterial of construction SS 315
?esign "emperature 3%3.2C
?esign 'ressure 1.-:2$g>cm
2
'ermissible stress %,- $g>cm
2

/ro+n 1adius 21-- mm
Cnuc$le radius 125 mm

0lan1e$+

0aterial /arbon Steel
'ermissible Stress %,- $g>cm
2
@as$et 0aterial Asbestos
@as$et "hic$ness , mm
40
NoHHle$+
0aterial /arbon steel
"hic$ness 3 mm

?esign pressure internal! D 1.-:2 $g>cm
2
"hic$ness of shell t
s
D
P 2f&
P.5
i

D

-:2 . 1 :, . - %,- 2
21-- -:2 . 1


t
s
D 1.31 mm
"he minimum thic$ness for shell is 3.- mm. As there is no corrosion allo+ance for
stainless steel, the shell thic$ness is ta$en as 3.- mm.
"esting for other stresses)
a! /ircumferential stress)

,
,
i
2t
) t P(5 +

t
f
D

131 . - 2
! .1311 - 21- 1.-:2

+
D :-8.3 $g>cm
2
b! Axial stress)
1! ?ue to internal pressure

t . 4
P.5i
1
f
D

131 . - 3
21-
-
1.-:2



1
f D 3-3.3 $g>cm
2
tensile!
2! ?ue to +eight of vessel and its contents
41

) t (5 t
+
, i ,
2
+

f
. D .eight of Gessel and contents D 1--- $g

2
f D 1-.85 $g>cm
2
compressive!
3! Stress due to +ind load

3
f
t D
)
i
2

0 D bending moment D
2
) ( * . 0
2
H t D P
i w
+
Since the column is only , m tall the +ind load is neglected
"otal stress in axial direction f
a
D f
1
- f
2
(f
3
D 3%2.5 $g>cm
2
c! Stress due to offset piping or +ind

t) (5 5 t .
29
f
i i
,
+

" D "or#ue about vessel axis D 1--

$g-m assumed!

D 1.-2, $g >cm
2
/ombining the above stresses the e#uivalent stress is)

2
,
2
a a t.
2
t 4 3f f f f f f + +

D 5%%.3 $g>cm
2
tensile!
Bor satisfactory design the follo+ing conditions must be satisfied
f
1
tensile! f
t
permissible!
f
a
tensile! f
t
permissible!
.e have found that
f
1
D 5%%.3 $g>cm
2
42
f
a
D 3%2.5 $g>cm
2
f
t
D :-8.3 $g>cm
2
"herefore the shell design is satisfactory.
De$i1n oD Bea!$+
A "orispherical head is used at top as +ell as bottom. 7oth heads are flanged.
/ro+n 1adius 1
c
D 21-- mm
Cnuc$le 1adius 1
i
D 125 mm 5= of 1c !
"he thic$ness of the "orispherical head is given by
2.f.&
.+ P.4c

h
t
+here . D stress intensification factor
?
4
4
3 @
4
1
i
c
+
. D 1.:5
t
h
D 2.5 mm
Bor structural stability, the minimum head thic$ness must be e#ual to the shell
thic$ness.
t
h
D 3.- mm.
De$i1n oD 0lan1e$ Dor Bea! an! S(ell+
"he flanges are made of carbon steel +ith a stainless steel lining raised face! in the
form of a ring.
@as$et factor m D 2.--
0inimum design seating stress D <a D112 $g>cm
2
&nternal diameter of gas$et D 21-- mm
4xternal gas$et diameter is assumed asK
@
o
D 21,- mm
43
A flat asbestos gas$et of 21-- mm internal diameter and 21,- mm external diameter
and , mm thic$ness is used to cover the raised face.
7asic gas$et seating +idth
b
-
D 12., mm
4ffective gas$et seating +idth b D:.:3 mm
Ander atmospheric conditions bolt load due to gas$et reaction is given by)
.
m1
D A
g
<
a
D b @ <
a
D55-%8 $g
.here @ D @
i
( @
o
!>2
D 212, mm
<
a
D Seating stress 112 $g>cm
2
!

1
m
*
D 55-%8 $g
"he load under operating conditions is given by

2
m
*

D .P .B
4
C).B.m.P 2 .(
2

+

2
m
*
D 3-%2: $g
"he total bolt area is calculated on the basis of the greater load

A D
f
+
m2

+here f is the permissible stress in bolt made of 0S D ,:8 $g>cm
2
A D 113 cm
2
Ho.of bolts, H D
5 . 2
cm in diameter ga,%et mean

H D :,
:: bolts are used.
44
7olt diameter d
b

>
- 4 C

d
b
D 13.-mm
'itch circle diameter './.?!
D ;utside diameter of gas$et ( 2diameter of bolt ( 12mm D 21:: mm
;utside diameter of flange 7! D '/?(2diameter of bolt!
D 2213 mm
Blange thic$ness is given by

f "
P
B
f
t

HB
. + 5 . 1
3 . 0
1
"
g m
+

.
m.
D total bolt load D 55-%8 $g
h
g
D 1adial distance from gas$et load reaction to bas$et circle
D 7 - @!>2
D 33., mm
* D "otal hydrostatic end force
* D P B
4
2

D 3:383 $g
C D 2.:2
t
f
D 33 mm
Ase 33 mm thic$ flange.
De$i1n oD NoHHle$+
NoHHle NumEer SiHe in
mm
Gapour outlet at top
head
1 2--
1eflux at top plate 1 2--
45
6i#uid outlet at
bottom
1 2--
Gapour inlet at bottom 1 2--
Beed 1 2--
0anhole 1 2--
"he design procedure for all no22les is the same
0or reDlu? noHHle at to) oD $(ell+
diameter of no22le d D 2-- mm
Ho22le thic$ness re#uired
t
n
D
P $ 2f&
d P
d D diameter of no22le
D -.1331 mm
Actual thic$ness ta$en D 3 mm
"he area for +hich compensation is re#uired is
A D d t
s
D 2--

3.-
D :-- mm
2
Area available for compensation)
i! "he portion of the shell as excess thic$ness
A
s
D d
n
t
s
E t
s
U!
.here
t
s
U D theoretical shell thic$ness re#uired D -.2-11 mm
t
s
D Actual shell thic$ness used D 3.- mm
A
s
D 8,%.8: mm
2
ii! Area of compensation provided by the no22le external to the vessel
A
n
D 2., t
s
t
n
- t
n
U!
t
n
D Actual thic$ness of no22le used D 3.- mm
4)
t
n
U D Ho22le thic$ness re#uired theoretically D -.1331 mm
A
n
D 21.3% mm
2
A
s
( A
n
D 8,%.8:(21.3%D8:1.28 mm
2

Area of compensation re#uired D :---8:1.28 D 1:.83 mm
2
"his area is provided by means of rings.
Tower internal$
.eir dimensions) /oulson and 1ichardson, 1%:3d!
.eir height )- 3--,- mm recommended
.eir length )- Hormally about -.8 of the column diameter i.e. about 138- mm
Plate Su))ort+
'late sections are suppoted on a ring +elded round the vessel +alls and on beams.
.idth of beam D ,- mm
.idth of support ring D 5- mm
Special fasteners are used so that the sections can be assembled from one side
only. ;ne section is removable and acts as a man+ay.
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
"he instrumentation and process control strategy adopted for the various process
e#uipments has been explained briefly belo+) - Refer to !"# diagram!
Rea&tor 1-1-1 and 1-1-2!) -
1-1-1 is operated adiabatically.
4*
1-1-2 has a cooling jac$et to maintain isothermal operating conditions. B/ of the
coolant is adjusted by the "/ of the reactor using a cascade control. *ere the
reactor temperature control is critical to prevent thermal runa+ay.
7oth reactors are provided +ith flo+ control.
0la$( !rum ?-1-1!) -
Beed input is on B/. ;verhead vapour flo+ rate is on '/ and bottom li#uid flo+ rate
is on 6/.
Di$tillation &olumn "-1-1 and "-1-3!) -
7oth sieve tray distillation columns "-1-2 and "-1-, have the same cascade control
strategy. Beed input to "-1-1 is on '/ of ?-1-1 and to "-1-3 is on 6/ of "-1-2.
7asically a cascade control is used to regulate the temperature and conse#uently
the concentration at the top or bottom of a distillation column. At both top and
bottom, temperature control "/ is the primary controller. At the top, the set point on
the B/ of reflux is adjusted by the "/ to ensure constant column temperature.
Similarly at the bottom, the set point of the B/ on steam supply is adjusted by the "/
to ensure constant column temperature. ;utflo+ of the bottoms is maintained by 6/.
E?tra&tion &olumn "-1-2 and "-1-3!) -
"he internals of both the extraction to+ers are pac$ed +ith 1aschig rings. 4xtraction
is countercurrent, +ith the feed stream introduced at the top of "-1-2 and process
+ater solvent! at the bottom of "-1-3. "he controls basically consist of level and
flo+ controls. 7oth the inputs are on flo+ control. "he lighter +ater>acetaldehyde
phase is removed from the to+er on 6/ at the top. "he heavier methylene
chloride>chloroacetaldehyde phase is removed on interfacial level control &6/! at the
4!
bottom. A ratio controller maintains the solvent flo+ rate to "-1-3 three times the
feed flo+ rate to "-1-2.
Stora1e tan') -
"an$s containing process and utility +ater are on 6/. *orton spheres containing
ethylene are on '/.
Pum)$
;utputs of all pumps are controllable by regulation of the speed of the driver.
"hrottling of discharge is the control method for small centrifugals, variable speed
drivers for larger ones.
Com)re$$or$
"hrottling of the suction of centrifugal and axial compressors +astes less po+er than
throttling the discharge. Speed control is a particularly effective control mode applied
to large units that can utilise turbine or internal combustion drives. /ontrol is by
throttling of the supply of motive fluids, steam or fuel.
SaDet" !e4i&e$
&n general every process vessel needs a relief. 1eactors, heat exchangers and
cooling jac$ets can rupture in case the outlet valves are closed. 1elief devices are
chosen depending upon physicochemical properties and corrosiveness of the in-
process materialsK if they may be vented or sent to containment systems.
Symbols used
6/ E 6evel control
"/ E "emperature control
4
'/ E 'ressure control
B/ E Blo+ control
UTILITIES AND STORA.E 0ACILITIES
UTILITIES
Bollo+ing are the utilities re#uired by acetaldehyde plant of ,- tonnes per day
capacity) -
50
1. /ooling +ater
2. Steam
3. 'o+er
/ooling .ater) -
/ooling +ater is mainly re#uired for the condensers of the distillation columns "-1-1
and "-1-3, cooling jac$et of reactor 1-1-2 and intercoolers of the feed gas
compressors. "emperature of the cooling +ater to the process is 3-
o
/. &t is heated to
3,
o
/ before returning to the cooling to+er.
"he #uantity of cooling +ater re#uired is estimated to be <978 ton$ )er !a".
Steam) -
A fire-tube boiler is re#uired for generation of lo+-pressure steam at 3., atm and
13:
o
/ saturated!. Steam is mainly re#uired for the reboilers of distillation columns
"-1-1 and "-1-3. "o minimi2e corrosion, boiler feed +ater is demineralised and
treated. /ondensate from the reboiler is recycled bac$.
"he #uantity of steam re#uired is estimated to be 7=:%9 ton$ )er !a".
4lectricity) -
4lectricity is mainly re#uired for the drives of compressors and pumps. &t is also
re#uired for lighting and controls. 4lectricity is purchased offsite from @&?/. 9ira et
al. 1%85! have reported consumption of electricity to be 3-- $.h per metric ton of
acetaldehyde for a t+o stage plant.
"he po+er re#uired is estimated to be 7%; ? 78
=
',( )er !a".
51
STORA.E
Storage facilities are re#uired for acetaldehyde, ethylene, process +ater, nitrogen
and hydrochloric acid.
&t is proposed to $eep an inventory of 2 days for acetaldehyde and ethylene since
ethylene sources are available near the plant facility. Bor hydrochloric acid and +ater
it is proposed to have an inventory of 1 day.
Hitrogen rich stream from 1-1-2 can be further enriched using membrane e#uipment
and stored. &t is used to purge tan$ers and storage vessels containing acetaldehyde.
ENVIRONMENT AND SA0ETY
52
4thylene and acetaldehyde are extremely flammable chemicals and re#uire special
handling and storage procedures. Acetaldehyde and a#ueous solutions of cupric
chloride, palladium chloride and hydrochloric acid are highly corrosive and re#uire
proper choice of material of construction.
E00LUENT TREATMENT STRATE.Y
All effluents into air and +ater from the acetaldehyde plant must meet the emission
standards laid do+n by the local 'ollution /ontrol 7oard.
"he ethylene and inerts stream from the crude distillation column is flared before it is
discharged into the atmosphere.
"he t+o stage process yields relatively small amounts of a rather concentrated
+aste +ater. 0ono, di and tri chlorinated acetaldehydes appear in the side cut from
the final distillation column. "he raffinate stream from the extraction column is rich in
methylene chloride, chloroform, chlorofuran and chlorinated acetaldehydes.
7iological treatment is unli$ely for streams rich in chlorine content. ?ecomposition of
halogenated by-products has been claimed +ith heating at moderate temperatures
and pressures using a#ueous solutions of cupric salts.
"he bottoms from the distillation columns contain only traces of chloro compounds
and can be easily treated using carbon bed or o2one before discharge.
.ENERAL SA0ETY .UIDELINES
1. All process and storage vessels must be purged +ith nitrogen before start up.
2. Acetaldehyde is stored in stainless steel containers under nitrogen pressure.
/ontainers should be chilled thoroughly before opening.
3. Ceep all containers in a +ell-ventilated place. ?esign ventilation to isolate
operations from rooms and offices.
53
3. 4liminate all sources of ignition. "a$e precautionary measures against static
discharges. Smo$ing is strictly prohibited in the plant area. Gehicles must
have spar$ arrestors. "he main plant must have fire alarms and hydrants.
,. 4nclose ha2ardous operations such as sample points. Seal rooms, se+ers,
ventilation and the li$e. Shield high temperature surfaces.
5. Ase di$es around tan$s and pumps. 'rovide lines for flushing and cleaning.
'rovide +ell-designed se+er system +ith emergency containment.
8. 'rovide personnel +ith protective e#uipment such as aprons, safety glasses,
safety helmets and respirators as the need may be.
:. Ho maintenance +or$ to be carried out on any e#uipment +ithout a valid +or$
permit.
%. /hal$ out a clear action plan to be follo+ed in case of an emergency.
0aterial Safety ?ata Sheets for the chemicals have been included.
MATERIAL SA0ETY DATA SBEETS
54
ACETALDEHYDE (CH
3
CHO) (-llen 4.8 10)
D50>9D6D042
2/non/m, acetic alde./de8 et.anal8 et./l alde./de
C-2 4egi,tr/ numCer *5$0*$0
>DO2H 4egi,tr/ numCer -; 125000
H-ECH0F Code 2G0
H> numCer 10!
PHG2DC-I P4OP049D02
5e,cri7tion Colourle,, fuming li=uid :it. 7ungent8 fruit/ ,mell
;oiling 7oint 20.! C
Felting 7oint $123.5 C
5en,it/ 0.*!2* at 20 C
Ja7our den,it/ 1.52
Ja7our 7re,,ure *40 mm Hg at 20 C
6la,.7oint $3! C (clo,ed cu7)
0x7lo,i(e limit, 41 $ )1
-uto ignition tem7erature 1!5 C
2oluCilit/ Fi,ciCle :it. :ater8 alco.ol or et.er
Folecular :eig.t 44.05
EXPOSURE LIMITS
9IJ (9+-) 100 77m
9IJ (290I) 150 77m
9oxicit/ C/ inge,tion Brade 2K I5
50
0.5$5 g'%g
H0-I9H H-E-452
2%in contact 9.e li=uid irritate, t.e ,%in and ma/ cau,e ,en,iti,ation. Prolonged 7eriod, of
,%in contact cau,e, er/t.ema and Curn,8 and re7eated ex7o,ure to t.e (a7our
cau,e, dermatiti,. 2/m7tom,< Cru,ting8 ,caling8 :ee7ing and itc.ing of ,%in.
0/e contact 2e(ere e/e irritant and t.e li=uid cau,e, ,e(ere corneal inLur/. 4e7eated
ex7o,ure to t.e (a7our cau,e, conLuncti(iti,. 2/m7tom,< 0/e irritation8
Curning ,en,ation8 7ain8 :atering8 and'or c.ange in (i,ion.
55
Dn.alation 9.e irritant effect cau,e, coug.ing and a Curning feeling in t.e no,e and
t.roat. Headac.e8 narco,i,8 Cronc.iti,8 alCuminuria8 fatt/ li(er and lung
oedema .a(e al,o Ceen re7orted. C.ronic ex7o,ure to (a7our ma/ cau,e
delirium8 .allucination,8 lo,, of intelligence etc.
Dnge,tion 9.e li=uid i, ,e(erel/ irritating to t.e dige,ti(e tract if ,:allo:ed and ma/
cau,e nau,ea8 (omiting8 diarr.oea8 .eadac.e8 alCuminuria and li(er damage.
Carcinogenit/ 9.e D-4C e(aluation ,tate, Min,ufficient e(idenceN for carcinogenit/ of
acetalde./de in .uman,.
Futagenicit/ Futagenic in mo,t in vitro and in vivo te,t,.
6D429 -D5
2%in 4emo(e contaminated clot.ing immediatel/. 5renc. t.e affected area :it.
running :ater for at lea,t 10 minute,.
0/e, +a,. t.e e/e :it. flo:ing :ater for 10 minute,.
Dn.alation 4emo(e ca,ualt/ from area of ex7o,ure. Df uncon,ciou,8 do not gi(e an/t.ing
to drin%8 gi(e artificial (entilation. Df con,ciou, ma%e t.e ca,ualt/ lie or ,it
do:n =uietl/8 gi(e ox/gen if a(ailaCle. +.eeO/ Creat.ing ma/ occur and
Jentolin ma/ Ce u,ed a, immediate treatment.
Dnge,tion 5o not ma%e t.e ca,ualt/ (omit. 9reat uncon,ciou, ca,ualtie, a, for lung, Cut
if con,ciou, gi(e 1 7int of :ater to drin% immediatel/. Con(ul,ion, ma/ occur
and ma/ uncon,ciou,ne,,.
In all cases of exposue! "#e pa"$en" s#oul% &e "ansfee% "o #osp$"al as soon as poss$&le'
HA(DLI() A(D STORA)E
-cetalde./de ,.ould Ce .andled :earing an a77ro(ed re,7irator8 ,afet/ goggle,8 natural
ruCCer or >eo7rene glo(e, (not PJC or PJ-) and ot.er 7rotecti(e clot.ing and ,.ould onl/
Ce u,ed in a c.emical fume .ood.
-cetalde./de ,.ould Ce %e7t under nitrogen8 in container, 7rotected again,t 7./,ical damage.
0x7lo,i(e 7eroxide, are formed on 7rolonged ,torage. Iarge =uantitie, of acetalde./de
,.ould Ce %e7t out,ide in detac.ed refrigerated tan%, 7ro(ided :it. an inert ga, Clan%et in t.e
(oid ,7ace aCo(e t.e li=uid le(el. 2maller container ,torage ,.ould Ce in detac.ed non$
comCu,tiCle Cuilding, :it. cooling facilitie,8 good (entilation and a:a/ from ,ource, of
ignition. Ja7our, ma/ tra(el a con,ideraCle di,tance to a ,ource of ignition and fla,. Cac%.
>o al%aline material,8 .alogen,8 %etone,8 acid an./dride,8 7.enol, or oxidi,ing material,
5)
,.ould Ce allo:ed in t.e ,torage room. Dn,ide ,torage ,.ould Ce in a ,tandard flammaCle
li=uid, caCinet or ,torage room.
SPILLS A(D LEA*A)E
0liminate all ,ource, of ignition8 (entilate t.e area and :ear a laCorator/ coat or o(erall,8
glo(e,8 ,afet/ Coot, and a77ro(ed ,elf$contained Creat.ing a77aratu,. -C,orC ,mall ,7ill,
onto 7a7er to:el, and Curn in a ,uitaCle incinerator. 9reat large ,7ill, :it. exce,, ,odium
Ci,ul7.ite ,olution8 add a ,mall amount of :ater8 mix :ell and ,coo7 into large 7la,tic
Cuc%et,. 2tir and allo: to ,tand for 2$3 .our, Cefore di,c.arging into drain :it. x 1000
dilution of cold ta7 :ater.
+IRE +I)HTI()
6ire, in(ol(ing acetalde./de ,.ould Ce extingui,.ed u,ing dr/ c.emical8 alco.ol foam or
carCon dioxide. +ater ma/ Ce ineffecti(e Cut ,.ould Ce u,ed to cool fire$ex7o,ed container,.
PALLADIUM CHLORIDE (P%Cl
,
) ("eit. and +alter,8 1!5)
5*
IDE(TI+IERS
2/non/m, 7alladium(ou,) dic.loride8 7alladium (DD) c.loride
C-2 4egi,tr/ numCer *)4*$10$1
>DO2H 4egi,tr/ numCer 493500000
0D>0C2 >umCer 231$5)$2
H> numCer 32)0
PHG2DC-I P4OP049D02
5e,cri7tion 5ar% Cro:n cr/,talline 7o:der
;oiling 7oint >ot a(ailaCle
Felting 7oint 500
0
C
5en,it/ 4.0 g'cc at 1!
0
C
Ja7our den,it/ >ot a(ailaCle
Ja7our 7re,,ure >ot a(ailaCle
6la,.7oint >ot a77licaCle
0x7lo,i(e limit, >ot a(ailaCle
-uto ignition tem7erature >on$flammaCle
2oluCilit/ 2oluCle in :ater8 acetone8 et.anol8 ./droCromic acid8
./droc.loric acid
Folecular :eig.t 1**.31
0PPO2H40 IDFD92
9IJ >ot regulated
9oxicit/ C/ inge,tion I5
50
200 mg'%g
H0-I9H H-E-452
2%in contact Drritant to ,%in and mucou, memCrane,. 9oxic
0/e contact 0/e irritant
+IRST AID
2%in 4emo(e contaminated clot.ing immediatel/. 5renc. t.e affected area :it.
running :ater. H,e ,oa7 to a,,ure remo(al.
0/e +a,. t.e e/e :it. flo:ing :ater or normal ,aline for at lea,t 20$30 minute,.
5!
Dn.alation 4emo(e ca,ualt/ from area of ex7o,ure. Df uncon,ciou,8 gi(e artificial
(entilation. Df con,ciou, ma%e t.e ca,ualt/ lie or ,it do:n =uietl/8 gi(e ox/gen
if a(ailaCle.
Dnge,tion Df con(ul,ion, are not 7re,ent8 gi(e a gla,, or t:o of :ater or mil% to dilute t.e
,uC,tance. -,,ure t.at t.e 7er,onQ, air:a/ i, unoC,tructed and contact a
.o,7ital for ad(ice on :.et.er to induce (omiting.
In all cases of exposue! "#e pa"$en" s#oul% &e "ansfee% "o #osp$"al as soon as poss$&le'
HA(DLI() A(D STORA)E
H,e ,afet/ gla,,e,8 ruCCer glo(e, and 7rotecti(e clot.ing. H,e ,uitaCle re,7irator :.en .ig.
concentration, are 7re,ent.
2tore in cool8 dr/ 7lace in tig.tl/ clo,ed container,. 0n,ure good (entilation at t.e :or%7lace.
SPILLS A(D LEA*A)E
5am7en ,7illed material :it. :ater to a(oid du,t8 and t.en tran,fer material to a ,uitaCle
container. H,e aC,orCent 7a7er dam7ened :it. :ater to 7ic% u7 remaining material. +a,.
,urface, :ell :it. ,oa7 and :ater. 2eal all :a,te, in (a7our$tig.t 7la,tic Cag, for e(entual
di,7o,al.
+IRE +I)HTI()
Product i, not flammaCle. H,e fire$fig.ting mea,ure, t.at ,uit t.e ,urrounding fire
5
COPPER CHLORIDE (CuCl
,
) (+ei,, B.8 1!0a)
D50>9D6D042
2/non/m, cu7ric c.loride di./drate8 co77er Cic.loride8 co77er
(2+) c.loride8 co77er dic.loride8 co77er (DD) c.loride8
erioc.olcite (an./drou,)
C-2 4egi,tr/ numCer *44*$3$4
0D>0C2 numCer 231$210$2
H> numCer 2!02
PHG2DC-I P4OP049D02
5e,cri7tion ;ro:n or oli(e to tan 7o:der
;oiling 7oint >ot a77licaCle (decom7o,e,)
Felting 7oint )20 C
27ecific gra(it/ 2.54 at 20 C
Ja7our den,it/ >ot a(ailaCle
Ja7our 7re,,ure >ot a(ailaCle
6la,.7oint >ot flammaCle
0x7lo,i(e limit, >ot flammaCle
-uto ignition tem7erature >ot a(ailaCle
2oluCilit/ 2oluCle in :ater
Folecular :eig.t 1*0.4!
0PPO2H40 IDFD92
9IJ >ot a(ailaCle
9oxicit/ C/ inge,tion Brade 3K I5
50
50$500 mg'%g
H0-I9H H-E-452
2%in contact Cau,e, ,%in irritation. Cau,e, redne,, and 7ain.
0/e contact Cau,e, e/e irritation. Fa/ re,ult in corneal inLur/. Cau,e, redne,, and 7ain.
Dn.alation Harmful if in.aled. 5u,t i, irritating to t.e re,7irator/ tract. Fa/ cau,e ,e(ere
irritation of t.e u77er re,7irator/ tract :it. 7ain8 Curn,8 and inflammation.
Dnge,tion Harmful if ,:allo:ed. Cau,e, ga,trointe,tinal irritation :it. nau,ea8 (omiting
and diarr.oea.
)0
+IRST AID
2%in 4emo(e contaminated clot.ing immediatel/. 5renc. t.e affected area :it.
running :ater. H,e ,oa7 to a,,ure remo(al.
0/e +a,. t.e e/e :it. flo:ing :ater for at lea,t 20$30 minute,.
Dn.alation 4emo(e ca,ualt/ from area of ex7o,ure. Df uncon,ciou,8 gi(e artificial
(entilation. Df con,ciou, ma%e t.e ca,ualt/ lie or ,it do:n =uietl/8 gi(e ox/gen
if a(ailaCle.
Dnge,tion 5o not induce (omiting. Df (ictim i, con,ciou, and alert8 gi(e 2$4 cu7ful, of
mil% or :ater. >e(er gi(e an/t.ing C/ mout. to an uncon,ciou, 7er,on.
In all cases of exposue! "#e pa"$en" s#oul% &e "ansfee% "o #osp$"al as soon as poss$&le'
HA(DLI() A(D STORA)E
H,e ,afet/ gla,,e,8 ruCCer glo(e, and 7rotecti(e clot.ing. H,e ,uitaCle re,7irator :.en .ig.
concentration, are 7re,ent.
2tore in cool8 dr/ 7lace in tig.tl/ clo,ed container,. 0n,ure good (entilation at t.e :or%7lace.
"ee7 a:a/ from moi,ture8 al%ali metal,8 7ota,,ium8 ,odium8 nitromet.ane8 ./draOine8 and
,odium ./7oCromite.
SPILLS A(D LEA*A)E
Jentilate area of lea% or ,7ill. +ear a77ro7riate 7er,onal 7rotecti(e e=ui7ment and 7ic% u7
and 7lace in a ,uitaCle container for reclamation or di,7o,al8 u,ing a met.od t.at doe, not
generate du,t.
+IRE +I)HTI()
2uC,tance i, non$comCu,tiCle. H,e agent mo,t a77ro7riate to extingui,. ,urrounding fire.
)1
ETHYLE(E (C
,
H
-
) (+ei,, B.8 1!0C)
D50>9D6D042
2/non/m, acetene8 et.ene8 olefiant ga,
C-2 4egi,tr/ numCer *4$!5$1
H-ECH0F code 2P0
H> numCer 1)2 (com7re,,ed)
103! (li=uefied)
PHG2DC-I P4OP049D02
5e,cri7tion Colourle,, ga, :it. ,:eet odour
;oiling 7oint $103.*
0
C at 1 atm
Felting 7oint $1).1
0
C
27ecific gra(it/ 0.5) at 3103.!
0
C
Ja7our den,it/ 0.*! (air # 1)
6la,.7oint $13).1
0
C
0x7lo,i(e limit, 2.*51 $ 2!.)1
-uto ignition tem7erature 450
0
C
2oluCilit/ 2oluCle in :ater8 alco.ol8 et.er
Folecular :eig.t 2!.05
0PPO2H40 IDFD92
9IJ 2im7le a,7./xiant
9oxicit/ C/ inge,tion >ot 7ertinent
H0-I9H H-E-452
Dn.alation Foderate concentration in air cau,e, dro:,ine,,8 diOOine,,8 and
uncon,ciou,ne,,. O(erex7o,ure cau,e, .eadac.e8 nau,ea8 and :ea%ne,,.
6D429 -D5
Dn.alation 4emo(e (ictim to fre,. air. Bi(e artificial re,7iration if nece,,ar/. 2ee%
medical aid.
)2
HA(DLI() A(D STORA)E
-(oid contact C/ u,ing ,elf$contained Creat.ing a77aratu,8 ,afet/ goggle,8 .and glo(e, and
face ma,%.
2tore in a cool8 dr/8 :ell$(entilated location a:a/ from .eat ,7ar% or flame. 9.e ,toring 7lace
,.ould .a(e flame7roof electrical unit,. 0x7lode, ,7ontaneou,l/ :.en mixed :it. c.lorine8
carCon tetrac.loride8 aluminium c.loride8 Cromotric.loroet.ane in 7re,ence of catal/,t.
SPILLS A(D LEA*A)E
2.ut off lea%, if :it.out ri,%.
+IRE +I)HTI()
Df 7o,,iCle ,to7 t.e flo: of ga, ,u77l/. H,e :ater to cool adLacent area,. CarCon dioxide8 dr/
c.emical or :ater ,7ra/ can Ce u,ed a, extingui,.er,.
)3
PLANT LAYOUT
"he principal factors to be considered in plant layout are)
1. 4conomic considerations) construction and operating costs
2. "he process re#uirements
3. /onvenience of operation
3. /onvenience of maintenance
,. Safety
5. Buture expansion
.ENERAL .UIDELINES 0OR PLANT LAYOUT+ Refer to layout diagram!
1. $dministration offices% laoratory% canteen% wor!shops% stores and
par!ing are located at a safe distance from ha2ardous processes.
;ffices and canteen should be easily accessible to visitors.
7uildings are arranged so as to minimise the time spent by personnel in
travelling in bet+een them.
2. Control room is located adjacent to the processing units and at a safe
distance from ha2ardous processes.
3. "tility uildings are sited to give most economical run of pipes to and from
process units and in accordance to safety rules.
3. $ccess roads to all buildings and process units for construction,
maintenance and fire fighting operations.
,. &ates and roads for product despatch by tan$ers are different from those for
personnel and their vehicles.
5. 'lares and cooling towers are sited so that the plume and condensate spray
drifts a+ay from the plant area and adjacent properties under the prevailing
+ind.
)4
8. The main storage areas are placed bet+een the loading and unloading
facilities and process units they serve.
:. #and is available in the main plant and tan$ farm for future expansion, such
as a for+ard integration to manufacture acetic acid from acetaldehyde.
)5
E6UIPMENT SPECI0ICATIONS
Rea&tor (R2787#
TYPE
Len1t(
Diameter
Internal$
T(i&'ne$$
MOC
"ubular 1eactor
113 m
-., m
Static mixer
3 mm
/arbon steel lined +ith "itanium
O?i!i$er (R2789# .alas, 1%::aK 9haveri and Sharma, 1%55!
TYPE
Len1t(
Diameter
Internal$
T(i&'ne$$
MOC
"ubular 1eactor
3.3 m
-., m
Static mixer
3 mm
/arbon steel lined +ith "itanium
0la$( Tower (D2787# .alas, 1%::cK Alrich 1%:3b!
Bei1(t
Diameter
T(i&'ne$$
MOC
5 m
2 m
3 mm
/arbon steel lined +ith "itanium
Se)arator (D2789# .alas, 1%::cK Alrich 1%:3b!
Len1t( 5.,1 m
))
Diameter
T(i&'ne$$
MOC
2.18 m
3 mm
/arbon steel lined +ith "itanium
Cru!e Di$tillation Column (T2787#
TYPE
Tra"
Bei1(t
Diameter
T(i&'ne$$
Tra"$
Ma?% Tem)erature
Pre$$ure
MOC
"ray column
Sieve tray
, m
2.1 m
2- mm
1-
3:3.2 C
1 atm
SS 315
E?tra&tion Column (T2789 an! T278:# ;pavs$y et al., 1%:1!
TYPE
Tra"
Bei1(t
Diameter
T(i&'ne$$
Ma?% Tem)erature
Pre$$ure
MOC
'ac$ed column
/eramic 1aschig rings
21.3 m
-.81 m
2- mm
313.2 C
1 atm
SS 315
0inal Di$tillation Column (T278=# .alas, 1%::b!
TYPE
Tra"
"ray column
Sieve tray
)*
Bei1(t
Diameter
T(i&'ne$$
Tra"$
Ma?% Tem)erature
Pre$$ure
MOC
1- m
-.:3 m
2- mm
1%
3%3.2 C
2 atm
SS 315
Pum)$
'umps can be si2ed once the head re#uirements are $no+n. 'umps internals of 9-
1-1 and 9-1-2 are made of *astealloy. "he others are made of SS315.
)!
PRO*ECT COST ESTIMATE
"he cost of reactors, distillation columns, process vessels and extraction columns is
calculated in terms of material for construction. /ost of internals and supports is
)
assumed to be 3-= of the material costs. 'rice of SS315 is ta$en as 1s. 2--> $g.
'rice of /S lined +ith "i is ta$en as 1s. 3--> $g. /ost of heat exchangers is
calculated based on area, assuming 1s. -.1, la$h>m
2
. 'umps and compressors
costs are assumed to be 1s. -., la$hs each.
PLANT AND MACBINERY COST+
E6UIPMENT No MOC DESI.N
PARAMETER
COST
1s. 6a$hs!
14A/";1 1-1-1
1-1-2
/S lined +ith "i
/S lined +ith "i
6ength 77: m
?iameter 8%; m
"hic$ness : mm
6ength =%= m
?iameter 8%; m
"hic$ness : mm
15.5
-.5,
?&S"&66A"&;H
/;6A0H
"-1-1
"-1-3
SS315
SS315
*eight ;m
?iameter 9%7 m
"hic$ness = mm
*eight 78 m
?iameter 8%<= m
"hic$ness = mm
2.83
2.2-
4M"1A/"&;H
/;6A0H
"-1-3
"-1-3
SS315
SS315
*eight 97%= m
?iameter 8%@7 m
"hic$ness : mm
*eight 97%= m
?iameter 8%@7 m
"hic$ness : mm
2.%:
2.%:
'1;/4SS
G4SS46S
?-1-1 /S lined +ith "i *eight A m
?iameter 9 m
"hic$ness = mm
3.52
*0
?-1-2 /S lined +ith "i
*eight A%;7 m
?iameter 9%7@ m
"hic$ness = mm
3.25
*4A"
4M/*AH@41 4-1-1
4-1-2
4-1-3
4-1-3
4-1-,
4-1-5
4-1-8
4-1-:
4-1-%
SS 315
SS 315
SS 315
SS 315
SS 315
SS 315
/S
*astealloy
/S
Area (m
9
#
151.%
1.-13
22.58
11,.5
-.1:%3
5.%11
3.%1,
23.33
1.33
23.2%
-.1,
3.3-
18.33
-.-2:
1.-3
-.,%
3.,
-.2
'A0'S 18 nos.! D 1s. :., la$hs
/;0'14SS;1S 2 nos.!D 1s. 1 la$h
TOTAL COST O0 TBE /ATTERY LIMIT PLANT F R$% >A%7 LA-BS
"he ;utside 7attery limit 'lant includes)
1. "an$ farm
2. Air plant
3. 7oiler
3. Blare
,. /ooling "o+er
*1
5. ?eioniser and demineraliser
8. 4lectric substation
:. &ncinerator
%. 4ffluent "reatment plant
&t is assumed that ;utside 7attery limit 'lant is ,-= the cost of 7attery limit 'lant
TOTAL COST O0 TBE OUTSIDE /ATTERY LIMIT PLANT F R$% =<%7 LA-BS
TOTAL COST O0 /LPGO/LP F R$% 7==%9 LA-BS
&t is assumed that delivery and installation is 3-= of 76'(;76'
TOTAL COST O0 /LPGO/LP A0TER DELIVERY F R$% 987%> LA-BS
COMPONENT C O0 DELIVERED COST COST R$% LA-BS
'iping 3- A8%A
4lectrical systems 1, :8%:
&nstrumentation and
/ontrols
3- A8%A
TOTAL PLANT I MACBINERY COSTS FR$% :;:%= LA-BS
OVERALL PRO*ECT COST
/ost /omponent 1s. 6a$hs = of "otal
6and and Site ?evelopment /ost 1,.% 2.8-
7uilding and /ivil .or$ 31.2 8.--
Plant an! Ma&(iner" Co$t :;:%8 A8%88
Cno+-ho+ and 4ngineering /ost ,:.% 1-.--
0iscellaneous Bixed Assets ,.:% 1.--
're-operative 4xpenses 13.8 2.3
/ontingencies ,:.% 1-.--
'reliminary and /apital 1elated 4xpenses 2.%3 -.,-
0argin 0oney 2,= of +or$ing capital! 3:.1 5.,
*2
Total E$timate! Pro3e&t Co$t ;<> 788%88
TOTAL PRO*ECT COST ESTIMATE 0OR TBE ACETALDEBYDE PLANT O0 ;8
TONNES PER DAY CAPACITY IS R$% ;<> LA-BS
PRODUCTION COST ESTIMATE
B$SIS( - $% &'NN() '* +,(&+-#(./#( (00.01 wt) or 'N( #+/
1A. 0A"41&A6S
1a+ materialO 1e#uirement
ton!
/ost
1s.>ton!
"otal cost
1s la$hs!
4thylene %,= vol!
'rocess Air
*ydrochloric acid 3-= +t!
'rocess +ater
3:.-2
1-5.%-
8.,%
235.8
18---
-
13--
1--
5.353
-
-.1-5
-.238
TOTAL COST O0 RA, MATERIAL F R$% A%<9 la'($ )er !a"
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
A"&6&"&4S
Atility 1e#uirement /ost "otal cost
*3
1s.! 1s. la$hs!
Steam tons!
/ooling +ater tons!
'o+er $.h!
133.2
:21-.-
1., x 1-
3
8-- per ton!
12 per ton!
3 per $.h!
1.--2
-.%:,
-.3,
TOTAL COST O0 UTILITIESF R$% 9%== la'($ )er !a"
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
PRODUCTION COST SCBEDULE
B$SIS( - $% &'NN() '* +,(&+-#(./#( (00.01 wt) or 'N( #+/
/omponent 'ercentage of total
production cost
/ost
1s. 6a$hs!
1a+ materials ( Atilities 2ariable costs!
Salary
Bactory ;verheads
%-
8
3
%.25
-.82
-.31
";"A6 1-- 1-.2%
@1;SS /;S" ;B '1;?A/"&;H D 1.1 x /;S" ;B '1;?A/"&;H
D 1s.11.3 6a$hs > day
.ROSS COST O0 PRODUCTION PER TONNE O0 ACETALDEBYDE IS
R$% 8%99A LA-BS
*4
0INANCIAL ANALYSIS
,OR-IN. CAPITAL+
"he +or$ing capital is ta$en for an in4entor" oD $e4en !a"$ ) -
.or$ing capital has the follo+ing components) -
1A. 0A"41&A6S
1a+ materialO 1e#uirement
ton!
/ost
1s.>ton!
"otal cost
1s la$hs!
4thylene %,= vol!
*ydrochloric acid 3-= +t!
'rocess +ater
255.13
,3.13
1828
18---
13--
1--
3,.2
-.83
1.83
";"A6 GA6A4 ;B 1A. 0A"41&A6 &HG4H";1< D 1s. 38.8 la$hs
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
A"&6&"&4S
*5
Atility 1e#uirement /ost
1s.!
"otal cost
1s. la$hs!
Steam tons!
/ooling +ater tons!
'o+er $.h!
1--2
,838-
1-,---
8-- per ton!
12 per ton!
3 per $.h!
8.-1
5.%
3.1,
";"A6 GA6A4 ;B A"&6&"&4S &HG4H";1< D 1s. 18.1 la$hs
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
'1;?A/"
'roduct Vuantity
tons!
/ost
1s.>ton!
"otal cost
1s la$hs!
Acetaldehyde %%.%=! 3,- 2,--- :8.,
";"A6 GA6A4 ;B A/4"A6?4*<?4 &HG4H";1< D 1s. :8., la$hs
JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ
TOTAL ,OR-IN. CAPITALF R$% 7;9%: LA-BS
2,= of the .or$ing capital is included in the ;G41A66 '1;94/" /;S" as 0argin
0oney. "he balance is borro+ed by +ay of short-term loans.
0A1@&H 0;H4< D 1s. 3:.1 6AC*S
7;11;.4? .;1C&H@ /A'&"A6 D 1s. 113.2 6AC*S
"otal Bixed capital investment D ,:% la$hs
?ebt) 4#uity D 2)1
"erm 6oan D 3%3 la$hs at 13= interest p.a.
*)
4#uity D 1%5 la$hs
'romoterQs /ontribution ,1= D 1-- la$hs
&nstitutional participation 2-= D 3%.2 la$hs
'ublic issue 2%= D ,5.: la$hs
7orro+ed +or$ing capital D 113.2 la$hs at 1:= p.a.

"erm 6oan 1epayment 'eriod D: year paid half yearly in e#ual instalments
0oratorium 'eriod D 2 year
.or$ing capital 1epayment period D 3 yr paid annually in e#ual instalments
E$timation oD 0inan&ial E?)en$e$
"he loan re)a"ment $&(e!ule is as sho+n. "his gives the financial expenses by
+ay of interest on the term loan.
<ear & && &nterest on ./ Binancial 6oan
'rincipal &nterest 'rincipal &nterest 'rincipal &nterest 4xpenses 1epaid
1 3%3 ,, 3%3 ,, 113.2 2-.,5 13-.5 2:.,,
2 3%3 ,, 3%3 ,, :,.5, 1,.32 12,.3 2:.,,
3 3%3 ,, 35:.33 ,1.5 ,8.1 1-.2: 115.% 88.5:
3 333.% 3:.1 31%.2 33.8 2:.,, ,.13 ,3.2 88.5:
, 2%3.: 31.3 28-.2 38.: - - 8%.1 3%.12,
5 23,.5 33.3 221.1 3-.%, - - 5,.3 3%.12,
8 1%5., 28., 182 23.1 - - ,1.5 3%.12,
: 138.3 2-.5 122.: 18.2 - - 38.: 3%.12,
% %:.3 13.: 83.8 1-.3 - - 23.1 3%.12,
1- 3%.2 5.:% 23.53 3.3, - - 1-.33 3%.2
**
De)re&iation S&(e!ule
"o estimate the depreciation, the pre-operative expenses and the contingencies are
distributed among the other project cost components, in their proportions. "he
revised project cost brea$-up for depreciation purpose! is as sho+n)
/ost /omponent 1s in la$hs!
6and W Site ?evelopment 1:.2
'lant and 0achinery cost 3-3.3
7uilding and /ivil +or$ 38.1
0iscellaneous Bixed Assets 5.82
H;"4) Bigures in brac$et indicate the actual contribution
Bollo+ing depreciation rates +ere used for the estimation of +or$ing results)
Com)onent
De)re&iation Rate$
SLM ,DV
6and W site ?evelopment 6 W ?! - -
'lant and 0achinery /ost 'W0 ! 1-.3 2,
7uilding W civil +or$ 7 W / ! Bactory 3.33
Hon-factory 1.53
Bactory 1-
Hon-factory ,
0iscellaneous Bixed Assets 0BA! 3.33 1-
"he complete depreciation schedule is as follo+s)
<ear 'W0 7W/ 0BA "otal S60 "otal .?G
S60 .?G S60 .?G S60 .?G
1 351.8 3-2., 3,.: 33.5 5., 5.- 313.- 3,2.1
2 32- 225.% 33.: 3-.3 5.3 ,.3 38-.% 282.5
3 28:.3 18-.2 33.5 38.3 5.- 3.% 328.: 212.3
3 235., 128.5 32.3 33.5 ,.: 3.3 2:3.8 155.5
, 1%3.: %,.8 31.2 32.1 ,.5 3.% 231.5 131.:
*!
5 1,3.1 81.: 3-.- 2%.: ,.3 3.5 1%:., 1-,.2
8 111.3 ,3.: 3%.- 28.5 ,.1 3.2 1,,.3 :3.8
: 5%.8 3-.3 38.8 2,.8 3.% 2.% 112.3 5%.-
% 2: 3-.3 35.5 23.% 3.8 2.5 5%.2 ,5.:
1- - 22.8 3,.3 22.2 3.3 2.3 25.1 38.3
Sale$ RealiHation
"he product is sold at 1s 2, > $g. "here are no byproducts or side products, +hich
can be sold.
Sales reali2ation D 1s. 312, la$hs> year
/rea' E4en Anal"$i$
"he follo+ing e#uation is used to estimate the brea$ E even capacity
SM D GM ( B
+here)
M D 7rea$-even capacity
S D 'rice of one ton of product
G D Gariable cost of production per ton
B D Bixed cost of production
"herefore,
J $ 2
6
P
"he fixed cost of production includes the overheads, administrative expenses,
financial expenses and depreciation S60!
B D 1s. 33%.% la$hs> year
G D 1s. -.1:,2 la$hs> ton
S D 1s. -.2, la$hs> ton
"herefore MD ,23, tons> year i. e. 31.: = of installed capacity.
*
7rea$ even is 31.:= of the installed capacity
RATIO ANALYSIS
PerDorman&e Ratio$
1. 'aybac$ 'eriod
Assuming 1-- = capacity utili2ation
Sales D 1s. 312, la$hs
@ross /ost of 'roduction D 1s. 3835 la$hs
.ro$$ ProDit F :<> la'($
"otal /apital &nvestment D 'roject /ost ( 7orro+ed .or$ing /apital
Total Ca)ital in4e$tment F R$% @8:%9 la'($
'aybac$ period D
Profit Bro,,
Dn(e,tment
, 'aybac$ period D 1.:1 years
'aybac$ period D 1.:1 years
2. 1eturn on &nvestment 1;&!
Assuming 1--= capacity utili2ation
1;& D
100
Dn(e,tment
Profit Bro,,

1;& D ,,.3 =
1eturn on &nvestment D ,,.3 =
0inan&ial Ratio$
1. ?ebt ) 4#uity 1atio
"he debt ) e#uity ratio is 2)1
2. &nterest /over
1--= capacity utili2ation is assumed. "he interest cover is calculated for the first
year.
!0
&nterest /over D
Dntere,t
Profit Bro,,
&nterest cover D 2.-:
ESTIMATES O0 ,OR-IN. RESULTS
"he projected +or$ing results for 1- years are presented in a tabulated form.
A dividend of 2-= is assumed from the 1st year
"erms used )-
1. 3ross rofit D Sales E @ross /ost of 'roduction
2. 'perating rofit = @ross 'rofit E Binancial 4xpenses E S60 depreciation
3. &a4able rofit = @ross 'rofit E Binancial 4xpenses E .?G depreciation E loss
from previous year if any!
3. ,orporate &a4 = 3-= of taxable profit
,. rofit after ta4 = @ross 'rofit E Binancial 4xpenses E/orporate "ax
5. rofit for #ividend = 'rofit after tax E S60 depreciation
8. rofit after #ividend = 'rofit for ?ividend E ?ividend
:. Net ,ash +ccruals = 'rofit after dividend ( ?epreciation
Also assuming that no 0A" 0inimum Alternative tax! has to be paid in the first ,
years if the taxable profit is negative.
<ear 1 2 3 3 ,
= /apacity Atili2ation 8- :- %- 1-- 1--
/apacity "'A! 115-- 132-- 13%-- 15,-- 15,--
Sales 2:%- 33-- 381- 313- 313-
@ross /ost of 'rodn. 251- 2%%- 335- 383- 383-
@ross 'rofit 283 312 3,- 3:% 3:%
Binancial 4xpenses 131 12, 118 ,3.2 8%.1
?epreciation S60! 3,.3 8-.8 1-5 131 188
?epreciation .?G! ::.3 1,, 2-3 232 28-
!1
;perating profit 1-8 11, 12: 1%, 13,
"axable 'rofit ,3.5 31., 2%.3 %3.5 3-.:
/orporate "ax 15.1 %.3, :.8: 2:.3 12.2
'rofit after tax 38., 22.1 2-., 55.2 2:.,
'rofit for ?ividend %-.5 1-5 11% 155 121
'rofit after ?ividend 82.3 :3.: %,.- 133 %8.1
Het /ash Accruals 1-: 1,, 2-1 28, 283
<ear 5 8 : % 1-
= /apacity Atili2ation 1-- 1-- 1-- 1-- 1--
/apacity "'A! 15,-- 15,-- 15,-- 15,-- 15,--
Sales 313- 313- 313- 313- 313-
@ross /ost of 'rodn. 383- 383- 383- 383- 383-
@ross 'rofit 3:% 3:% 3:% 3:% 3:%
Binancial 4xpenses 5,.3 ,1.5 38.: 23.1 1-.3
?epreciation S60! 212 238 2:3 31: 3,3
?epreciation .?G! 2%1 3-5 31: 328 333
;perating profit 112 %-.3 5:.% 38.2 2,.8
"axable 'rofit 33., 31.5 33.5 3:.3 3,.5
/orporate "ax 1-.- %.38 1-.1 11., 13.8
'rofit after tax 23.3 22.1 23., 25.% 31.%
'rofit for ?ividend 1-2 :-.% ,:.: 3,.8 12.-
'rofit after ?ividend :1., 53.: 38.- 2:.5 %.,%
Het /ash Accruals 2%3 312 33- 338 353
!2
CONCLUSION
"he .ac$er process for manufacture of acetaldehyde via ethylene is a +ell
established technology +hich is still carried out commercially in the ASA, @ermany
and 9apan. &n &ndia, acetaldehyde is manufactured from ethyl alcohol.
"he pre-preliminary feasibility study carried out for the manufacture of acetaldehyde
via .ac$er process sho+s it to be an attractive project. *o+ever there are certain
factors +hich affect the project profitability and re#uire serious consideration.
1. "he price of acetaldehyde depends upon the cost of ethylene. &n reality,
ethylene prices are highly fluctuating and not al+ays lo+-priced as assumed
here.
T(en t(e a&etal!e("!e manuDa&ture! Drom et("lene &annot &om)ete
wit( a&etal!e("!e manuDa&ture! Drom et("l al&o(ol%
2. A major outlet for acetaldehyde is acetic acid. Since the development of the
0onsanto methanol carbonylation process, the acetaldehyde route is
progressively losing ground.
So t(i$ )ro3e&t i$ not re&ommen!e! iD a&etal!e("!e i$ Eein1
manuDa&ture! to Ee $ol! a$ a raw material Dor a&eti& a&i!%
!3
A !etaile! mar'et $tu!" Dor a&etal!e("!e i$ require! to Ee &on!u&te!
EeDore t(i$ )ro3e&t &an Ee )ronoun&e! a$ )roDitaEle%
RE0ERENCES
1. -guilR -. and Penrod &.5.8 M-cetalde./deN in 0nc/clo7aedia of C.emical Proce,,ing
and 5e,ignN8 18 Fc. "etta &.&. and Cunning.am +.-. (0d,.)8 >e: Gor% and ;a,el8
Farcel 5e%%er Dnc.8 77. 114$1)2 (1*))
2. -llen 4.8 MC.emical 2afet/ 5ata 2.eet, 3 Jol.3< Corro,i(e, and Drritant,N8 4o/al
2ociet/ of C.emi,tr/8 77. 1$58 10
3. -r7entinier P.8 Ca(ani 6.8 9rifiro 6.8 M9.e 9ec.nolog/ of Catal/tic Oxidation,N8
0dition, 9ec.ni78 6rance8 77. 3$)8 2001
4. ;.att ;.D. and Jora 2.F.8 M2toic.iometr/N8 9ata FcBra: PuCli,.ing Com7an/
Iimited8 77. 4*$2048 1*)
5. Centi%a/a8 H2 Patent 540)*28 (15)
). C.andalia 2.;.8 MOxidation of lo:er al%ene, to CarCon/l com7ound,< Part D$
Oxidation of 0t./lene to -cetalde./deN8 +ndian !, -echnol.8 48 2)0$2)4 (1)))
*. C.andalia 2.;.8 MOxidation of H/drocarCon,N8 2e(a% PuClication,8 ;omCa/8 77 1)5$
1*8 1**
!. a. Coul,on &.F. and 4ic.ard,on &.6.8 MC.emical 0ngineering 3 Jolume )N8 Pergamon
Pre,,8 77. *14$*248 1!3
C. Coul,on &.F. and 4ic.ard,on &.6.8 MC.emical 0ngineering 3 Jolume )N8 Pergamon
Pre,,8 77. *)5$*!58 1!3
c. Coul,on &.F. and 4ic.ard,on &.6.8 MC.emical 0ngineering 3 Jolume )N8 Pergamon
Pre,,8 77. 30$4!8 1!3
d. Coul,on &.F. and 4ic.ard,on &.6.8 MC.emical 0ngineering 3 Jolume )N8 Pergamon
Pre,,8 77. )22$*138 1!3
. 5orai,:am/ I.". and 2.arma F.F.8 MHeterogeneou, 4eaction, 3 Jolume 2N8 &o.n
+ile/ and 2on,8 77. 4!8 1!4
10. Brate &.8 Hamm 5.8 "lingman ".8 2axton 4. and 5o:ne/ 2.8 H2 Patent 555*0148
(1))
11. Hatc. I.6. and Fatar 2.8 M6rom H/drocarCon, to Petroc.emical,N8 Bulf PuCli,.ing
Co.8 77. $1028 1!1
!4
12. &.a(eri -.2. and 2.arma F.F.8 M"inetic, of aC,or7tion of ox/gen in a=ueou,
,olution, of cu7rou, c.lorideN8 Chem, .ng, /ci,, 228 1$) (1)*)
13. &ira 4.8 ;lau +. and Brimm 5.8 M-cetalde./de (ia -ir or Ox/genN8 Hydrocarbon
Processing8 38 *$1008 (1*))
14. &ira 4.8 IaiC 4.&. and ;olt H.F.8 M-cetalde./deN in HllmannQ, 0nc/clo7aedia of
Dndu,trial C.emi,tr/8 Jol. -18 Ber.artO +. and Gamamoto G.2. (0d,.)8 JCH
PuCli,.er,8 77. 31$44 (1!5)
15. &o,.i F. J.8 and Fa.aLani J.J.8 MProce,, 0=ui7ment 5e,ignN8 3
rd
0d.8 Facmillan
Dndia Iimited8 Dndia8 77.3)*$30481).
1). "eit. I.H. and +alter, 5.;.8 MCom7endium of 2afet/ 5ata ,.eet, for 4e,earc. and
Dndu,trial c.emical, 3 Part DDDN8 JCH PuCli,.er, Dnc.8 77. 1300$13018 1!5
1*. IonOa -B8 Breat ;ritain Patent !03018 (1)5)
1!. Filler 2.-.8 M0t./lene and it, Dndu,trial 5eri(ati(e,N8 0rne,t ;enn Iimited8 Iondon8
77. )3$)!8 1)
1. FouliLn &.8 MC.emical Proce,, 9ec.nolog/N8 &o.n +ile/ and 2on,8 77. 221$22!8 2001
20. O7a(,%/ +.8 4ei,ner &. and Faier -.8 H2 Patent 430)028 (1!1)
21. O7a(,%/ +.8 4ei,ner &. and Faier -.8 H2 Patent 43115)38 (1!2)
22. Perr/ 4. H.8 Breen 5. +. and Falon/ &. O.8 MPerr/Q, C.emical 0ngineer, HandCoo%N8
,e(ent. edition8 FcBra: Hill Dnternational 0dition,8 2/dne/8 (1!)
23. Peter, F.2. and 9immer.au, ".5.8 MPlant 5e,ign and 0conomic, for C.emical
0ngineer,N8 77. 5!$)28 1)!
24. 4ag.(an 4.8 MC.emical +ee%l/ ;u/erQ, BuideN8 C.emical +ee%l/ 5ataCa,e P(t.
Itd.8 2000
25. 4a/ F.2. and &o.n,ton 5.+.8 MC.emical 0ngineering 5e,ign ProLectN8 Bordon and
;reac. 2cience PuCli,.er,8 77.10)$13*8 1!
2). 2midt &.8 Hafner +.8 &ira 4.8 2ieCer 4.8 2edlmeier and 2aCel -.8 M9.e Oxidation of
Olefin, :it. Palladium c.loride catal/,t,N8 0ngew, Chem.8 18 !*$!! (1)2)
2*. 2te7.ano7oulo, B.8 MC.emical Proce,, ControlN8 Prentice$Hall
2!. 2te77ic. +. and 2artoriu, 4.8 H2 Patent 423*0*38 (1!0)
2. a.Hlric. B.5.8 M- Buide to C.emical 0ngineering Proce,, 5e,ign and 0conomic,N8
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