Vol6 1 2008-Libre

Psihologia Resurselor Umane is the official journal of the Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Association (APIO).

Founder: Horia D. Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca
Editor in Chief: Horia D. Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca

Managing Editor: Andrea Budean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca

Editorial Staff:
Rbert Balzsi, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Smaranda Boro, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Andrea Budean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Roxana Capotescu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Ctlina Ciuce, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Dorina Coldea, Serviciul Romn de Informaii, Bucureti
Doru Dima, Dima Consulting Group, Braov
Anca Dobrean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Drago Iliescu, D&D Research, Bucureti
Daniela Onac, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Filaret Sntion, Ovidius University, Constana

Editorial Board:
Natalie J. Allen University of Western Ontario, Canada
Adalgisa Battistelli Universit degli Studii di Verona, Italy
Zoltn Bogthy West University, Timioara, Romania
Jean-Luc Bernaud Universit de Rouen, France
Dana H. Born United States Air Force Academy, USA
Paula Caligiuri Rutgers University, USA
Jeffrey M. Conte San Diego State University, USA
Cary Cooper Lancaster University Management School, UK
Petru Cureu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Mark Griffin The University of Sheffield, UK
Remus Ilie Michigan State University, USA
Rick Jacobs Penn State University, USA
Timothy A. Judge University of Florida, USA
Nicolae Jurcu Technical University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Laura L. Koppes University of West Florida, USA
Rmi Kouabenan Universit Pierre Mends, Grenoble, France
Frank J. Landy Landy Litigation Support Group, USA
Janice H. Laurence Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Personnel and Readiness, USA
Claude Lemoine Universit Charles de Gaule Lille 3
Jacques Leplat Directeur Honoraire LEcole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France
Thomas Li-Ping Tang Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Nicolae Mitrofan University of Bucharest, Romania
Adrian Neculau Al. I. Cuza University, Iai, Romania
Michael P. ODriscoll University of Waikato, New Zeeland
Deniz S. Ones University of Minnesota, USA
Adrian H. Pitariu - University of Toronto, Joseph L. Rotman School of Management, Canada
Ioan Radu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Ivan Robertson Leeds University Bussiness School & Manchester Business School, UK
Andr Savoie University of Montreal, Canada
Philippe Sarnin Universit Lyon 2, France
Paul E Spector - University of South Florida, USA
Charles D. Spielberger University of South Florida, USA
Anne Marie Vonthron Universit Victor Segalen-Bordeaux II, France
Zissu Weintraub Department of Defence, Israel

Psihologia Resurselor Umane is published twice a year, in April and October by the Romanian Cognitive
Sciences Association Press (ASCR), Cluj-Napoca

INDEXING: This journal is indexed in PsychINFO and National Council of Research (CNCSIS)

Psihologia Resurselor Umane: ISSN: 1583-7327

COPYRIGHT:
All rights reserved to Psihologia Resurselor Umane, Industrial and Organizational Psychology Association (APIO).
The publisher assures the protection of authorship according to the current legislation. Except as permitted under
copyright legislation, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any
means without the prior permission of the publisher.

PSIHOLOGIA RESURSELOR UMANE

HUMAN RESOURCES PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGIE DES RESSOURCES HUMAINES

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Centrul de Monitorizare Profesional n
Psihologia Muncii Organizaional

Universitatea "Babe-Bolyai", Cluj-Napoca

Volumul 6, nr. 1/2008

Asociaia de tiine Cognitive din Romnia
Cluj-Napoca

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional
Facultatea de Psihologie i tiinele Educaiei, Secia Psihologie
Cluj-Napoca, Str. Republicii 37
Tel./ fax: 0264-598751
Adresa web: www.apio.ro
E-mail: office@apio.ro

Copyright 2008 Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Publicarea de articole n Revista ,,Psihologia Resurselor Umane e avizat de doi recenzori.

Abonamente:
Pentru membrii APIO abonamentul este inclus n cotizaia anual.
Pentru nonmembri, abonamentul anual (2 numere) cost 35 lei (taxe potale incluse)
Pentru abonamente, v rugm s ne contactai la adresa: office@apio.ro
CONT IBAN: RO38 BTRL 0130 1205 9213 60xx

Director tehnic: Daniel Paul

Editura:
Asociaia de tiine Cognitive din Romnia
Str. Republicii, nr. 37, Cluj-Napoca
Email: ascr@psychology.ro

Tiprit n Romnia

3
Psihologia Resurselor Umane
Volumul 6, nr. 1, 2008

CUPRINS

Editorial
Horia D. Pitariu, Ioan Radu
Psihologia ca profesie i deontologia interveniilor psihologice n managementul resurselor umane

6

Studii i Cercetri

Dan Ispas, Walter, C. Borman
Dincolo de performana n sarcin: conceptul de comportament cetenesc organizaional
Adrian H. Pitariu
ncrederea i coordonarea echipei n situaii critice
Roxana I. Capotescu
Managementul stresului n organizaii
Horia D. Pitariu, Coralia Sulea, Ctlina Zboril, Laureniu Maricuoiu
Justiia organizaional i afectivitatea negativ: o metaanaliz a relaiei acestora cu comportamentele
contraproductive
Drago Iliescu, Rare Mocanu, Felicia Beldean
MLQ (Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership). Date preliminare pentru Romnia
Elisabeth Doutre
Angajamentul fa de organizaie n contextul schimbrii: care sunt perspectivele ntlnite n cadrul unui spital
public?
Rlea Veronica
Efecte ale stilului de leadership asupra performanei n mediul organizaional
Mihai Aniei, Cornel L. Mincu, Mihaela Popa Chraif
Aspecte ale relaiei dintre procesarea stimulilor n cmpul perceptiv periferic i central

12

19

25

34

47

64

80

94

MRU n practic
Barbara Nett, Angie Rosenbaum
Consultana industrial/organizaional n Statele Unite: cteva provocri

107

Despre metod
Florin A. Sava, Laureniu P. Maricuoiu PowerStaTim 1.0 un nou program statistic de calcul a mrimii efectului i
a puterii statistice
109
Rbert Balzsi Corelaii, corelaii, corelaii... perspectiva SEM asupra msurrii n psihologie 114

Legislaie
Interviul psihologilor practicieni sub supervizare pentru trecerea la stadiul de psiholog practician autonom 118

Figuri de psihologi
Bernard M. Bass (1925-2007) 120

Recenzii i Note Bibliografice

MR, L. (2007). Logica (i)raionalitii: teoria jocurilor i psihologia deciziilor umane. Cluj Napoca: Editura RTS
(Renata Heilman)
SNTION, F. (2007). Introducere n psihologia social. Constana: Editura Ovidius University Press
(Ioana Vasiu)
AVRAM, E. (Coord.) (2007). Psihologie organizaional-managerial perspective aplicative. Bucureti: Editura
Universitar
(Claudia Rus)
STOICA, M. (2007). Elemente de psihologie managerial. Cluj Napoca: Editura Risoprint
(Claudia Rus)

122

123

125

127
Informaii 129

4
Human Resources Psychology
Volume 6, nr. 1, 2008

SUMMARY

Editorial
Psychology as a profession and the deontology of psychological interventions in the human resources management

6

Studies and Research

Beyond task performance: the concept of organizational citizenship performance
Adrian Pitariu
Trust and team coordination in critical situations
Roxana I. Capotescu
Stress Management in Organization
Organizational justice and negative affectivity: a meta-analysis of their relationship with the counterproductive work
behaviors.
MLQ (Multifactorial Leadership Questionnaire). Preliminary data for Romania
Elisabeth Doutre
Organizational commitment during organizational change: what are the perspectives in a public hospital?
Rlea Veronica
The effects of the leadership style on performance in the organizational environment
Aspects of the relationship between the processing of stimuli in the peripheral field and in the perceptual central field

12

19

25

34

47

64

80

94

HRM in practice
Industrial/Organizational Consultancy in the United States: A Few of the Challenges

107

About Methods
Florin A. Sava, Laureniu P. Maricuoiu PowerStaTim 1.0 a new statistical software for computing effect size and
statistical power indicators
109
Rbert Balzsi Correlations, correlations, correlations...the SEM perspective on measurement in psychology 114

Legislation in Psychological Field
The content of the interview the practitioner of psychology under supervision needs to pass to advance to the rank of
an autonomous practitioner of psychology.
118

Psychologists Figures
Bernard M. Bass (1925-2007) 120

Book Reviews and Bibliographical Notes
MR, L. (2007). The Logic of (I)rationality: Game Theory and the Psychology of Human Decisions. Cluj Napoca:
RTS
(Renata Heilman)
SNTION, F. (2007). Introduction to Social Psychology. Constana: Ovidius University Press
(Ioana Vasiu)
STOICA, M. (2007). Elements of Managerial Psychology. Cluj Napoca: Risoprint
(Claudia Rus)
AVRAM, E. (Coord.) (2007). Organizational-managerial psychology applied perspectives. Bucureti: Editura
Universitar
(Claudia Rus)

122

123

125

127
129
Informations

5
La Psychologie de Ressources Humaines
Volume 6, 1er numro, 2008

SOMMAIRE

Editoriale
La psychologie comme profession et la dontologie des interventions psychologiques dans la gestion des ressources
humaines.
6

Etudes et recherches

Au-del des rsultats lis la tche: le concept de la rentabilit de la citoyennet organisationnelle.
Adrian Pitariu
La confiance et la coordination des quipes dans les situations critiques.
Roxana I. Capotescu
Le management du stress dans les organisations.
Justice organisationnelle et affectivit ngative: une mta-analyse de leur relation avec les comportements
contreproductifs dans le travail.
MLQ (Questionnaire Multifactoriel du Leadership). Donnes prliminaires sur la population roumaine.
Elisabeth Doutre
Engagement organisationnel en situation de changement: quelles perspectives dans un hospital public? Revue de
question
Rlea Veronica
Les effets du style de leadership sur le climat organisationnel
Quelques aspects de la relation entre le traitement des stimuli dans le champ perceptuel priphrique et le champ
perceptuel central

12

19

25

34

47

64

80

94

MRU en practique
Consultation industrielle et organisationnelle aux Etats-Unis: quelques dfis.

107

Mthodologie
Florin A. Sava, Laureniu P. Maricuoiu PowerStaTim 1.0 une nouvelle statistique pour valuer la taille des effets
et les indicateurs statstistiques de puissance.
109
Rbert Balzsi Des corrlations, des corrlations, des corrlationsla perspective SEM dans lestimation en
psychologie.
114

Lgislation
Lentretien de promotion comme patriciens autonomes des psychologues praticiens en supervision 118

Personnalits de la Psychologie
Bernard M. Bass (1925-2007) 120

Recensions et notes bibliographiques

MR, L. (2007). La logique de lirrationalit (la rationalit): la thorie des jeux et la psychologie de la dcision
humaine. Cluj Napoca: Editura RTS
(Renata Heilman)
SNTION, F. (2007). Introduction la psychologie sociale. Constana: Editura Ovidius University Press.
(Ioana Vasiu)
STOICA, M. (2007). Des lments de psychologie managriale. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Risoprint
(Claudia Rus)
AVRAM, E. (Coord.) (2007). La psychologie organisationnelle managriale des perspectives applicatives.
Bucureti: Editura Universitar
(Claudia Rus)

122

123

125

127
Renseignements 129

6

Psihologia ca profesie i
deontologia interveniilor
psihologice n managementul
resurselor umane

Horia D. Pitariu
Ioan Radu
Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca

Psihologia ca tiin i profesia de
psiholog
Profesia de psiholog, la fel ca oricare
alta, presupune respectarea unor norme
deontologice, aceasta cu att mai mult cu ct
obiectul principal al interveniilor psihologilor l
formeaz fiina uman. Or, psihologii, prin
natura profesiei lor, trebuie s se implice activ
n respectarea intimitii i a integritii psihice
a fiecrei persoane, s promoveze i s
protejeze drepturile fundamentale ale omului.
Psihologii, prin profesia pe care o practic,
sunt preocupai de mbogirea cunotinelor
despre comportamentul uman, de nelegerea
propriilor manifestri i ale altora, de utilizarea
cunotinelor tiinifice de psihologie pentru
promovarea unei integrri optime socio-
profesionale. Dei psihologia este considerat
o tiina relativ tnr, ea a realizat, in cei
peste 100 de ani de existen progrese
remarcabile, dovedindu-i utilitatea oriunde
este prezent omul: la locul de munc, n
coal, n clinic, n viaa politic, n armat
etc. De-a lungul timpului s-au conturat
numeroase fundamentri teoretice cu
consecine aplicative sau structuri
interpretative care au revoluionat societatea.
Psihologia stucturalist, freudismul,
behaviorismul, i mai recent psihologia
cognitiv s-au dovedit a fi modaliti de
abordare a psihicului i a comportamentului
uman cu repercusiuni benefice asupra calitii
vieii psihice a oamenilor. Dar, poate ceea ce
este demn de subliniat este faptul c psihologii
prin aplicaiile practice n care s-au implicat,
ntotdeauna i-au fixat ca obiectiv fundamental
optimizarea aciunilor factorului uman,
sprijinirea nemijlocit a oamenilor, indiferent n
ce postur ar fi ei: elev, muncitor, militar,
manager sau client. O intervenie de natur
psihologic, oricare ar fi natura ei, de orientare
profesional, consiliere psihologic, selecie
profesional, evaluarea profesional etc.
rmne imprimat in mintea beneficiarului
muli ani dup epuizarea evenimentului
respectiv. Campbell (1974) a artat c o
aciune de consiliere de orientare profesional,
nu numai c marcheaz viaa profesional a
unui tnr, dar constituie un eveniment pe care
acesta i-l amintete i dup 20 de ani cu o
fidelitate destul de mare. Autorii acestui studiu
s-au confruntat adesea cu situaii n care
persoanele cu care au interacionat au povestit
despre iniiativele Oficiilor de Orientare
Profesional din anii 1940, la distan de 30 de
ani. Se sublinia att profesionalismul cu care
Editorial

7
au fost conduse interveniile psihologice, ct i
obiectivitatea psihologului n luarea unor
decizii legate de rezultatele examenului de
orientare i selecie profesional sau de
optimizri de natur ergonomic.

Pericole prezente cu care ne
confruntm
n ultima perioad de timp, practicile
de psihologie aplicat din ara noastr au
cunoscut o expansiune foarte mare. Acest
lucru a fost determinat, n mare msur, de
procesul tranziiei socio-economice prin care
trecem, de cerinele obiective de schimbare a
mentalitilor i structurilor social-economice
depite, precum i de expansiunea
industrial, penetrarea pe piaa romneasc a
capitalului strin i integrarea noastr n
procesul de internaionalizare economic i
implicit a forei de munc. Anii receni ne-au
confruntat cu numeroase probleme de natur
social cum ar fi creterea masiv a prezenei
companiilor multinaionale, o migraie masiv a
forei de munc n contextul n care a crescut
impactul cu tehnologiile noi i a companiilor
dotate cu o infrastructur modern. Deci,
condiiile unei solicitri n sfera psihologiei
aplicate sunt prezente, dar specialitii sunt
puini i profesionalismul lor este adesea
lacunar, chiar submediocru. Desigur, aici o
contribuie semnificativ o are sistemul de
nvmnt universitar care este incapabil s
asigure o pregtire eterogen, de calitate
absolvenilor din domeniul psihologiei. Acest
aspect a fost relevat de ctre Colegiul
Psihologilor care face eforturi s suplineasc
lipsa de profesionalism a psihologilor
practicieni instituind o serie de trepte de
acreditare i de formare profesional prin
sisteme de supervizare. Au fost organizate n
acest sens cursuri de perfecionare
postuniversitar, un sistem de supervizare a
debutanilor n psihologia muncii i
organizaional, s-a stimulat participarea la
conferine i workshop-uri etc.
n intervenia de fa ne vom restrnge
atenia numai la aplicaiile psihologiei n aria
industrial/organizaional, sau a resurselor
umane, domeniu care a fost supus n ultimul
timp unor deformri conceptuale i
metodologice flagrante. Fenomenul nu este
nou. Pecaud (1959) meniona c n Frana
postbelic, firmele de consultan i psihologii
de ocazie au aprut ca ciupercile dup
ploaie. Paterson (1930), la timpul su,
meniona c n lupta cu arlatanii care profit
de fisurile psihologiei tiinifice i promoveaz
practici psihologice de estrad, lipsite de
fundamentare tiinific (frenologia,
morfopsihologia, psihobioritmurile, astrologia,
horoscopul etc.), este important s se lupte cu
armele pe care psihologia tiinific le pune la
dispoziie. Despre aceti pseudopsihologi
discut i Anastasi (1979), care atrage atenia
ntr-o manier foarte serioas asupra
pericolului pe care acetia l reprezint pentru
societate. La noi n ar s-a luat nc de mult
atitudine fa de imixtiunile nespecialitilor n
psihologie i fa de practicile diletante (Pitariu,
Botenaru, Lucaciu, Oachi, 1982; Podin,
1992). Firete, Asociaia Psihologilor din
Romnia, prin statutul su i Colegiul
Psihologilor, promoveaz o psihologie
tiinific, astfel au fost elaborate o serie de
norme deontologice care reglementau
modalitile de practicare a psihologiei i
exigenele de utilizare a instrumentarului
psihodiagnostic (Herseni, 1969; Radu, 1976,
vezi i colecia Psihologia Resurselor Umane).
Din nefericire, multe din aceste realizri au fost
date uitrii sau pur i simplu neglijate cu bun
tiin, aplicaiile psihologice fiind invadate de
pseudopsihologi. (Este regretabil c mijloacele
mass-media, n special televiziunea, acord,
de pild, astrologiei un spaiu prea mare care
nu are nimic de-a face cu unul din obiectivele
majore ale acesteia, educarea maselor. n
aceeai msur, popularizarea unor practici
netiinifice de genul paranormalului sau
calitilor unor ghicitoare considerm c
reprezint o limit serioas i o abatere
flagrant de la principiile normelor tiinifice
despre lume i via). Acetia, din nefericire,
nu pot fi stopai prin nici un act juridic. Erorile
care se fac n prezent pe aceast linie sunt
grave, iar repercusiunile n timp vor fi
dezastruoase. O meniune n ce privete
practicarea psihologiei de ctre psihologi.
Profesia de psiholog este protejat de Legea
psihologului. Dar acest lucru oblig psihologul
i la o justificare tiinific a aciunilor pe care
le ntreprinde. De pild, selecia profesional,
examenul psihologic, n general, indiferent c
se face pe baza unui interviu sau teste
psihologice, trebuie fundamentat tiinific.
Orice persoan care a fost supus unui
examen psihologic are dreptul s cunoasc
rezultatul deciziei psihologului. O decizie pe
baz de teste sau alte instrumente de predicie
psihologice, poate fi atacat n instan,
psihologul fiind dator s justifice validitatea
instrumentelor utilizate. Auzim deseori c la un
examen psihologic de selecie a managerilor s-
a utilizat ca prob desenul unui copac i testul

8
culorilor al lui Lscher (ierarhizarea a opt culori
n ordinea preferinei), prob contestat
datorit absenei unor studii serioase de
validare, dar i a unor probe nerelevante cu
funcia de manager sau alta (mai recent, la
interviuri li se cere candidailor s relateze
cum se vor vedea peste cinci ani ne
ntrebm ce predictivitate are un rspuns la
aceast ntrebare?). Indiferent de proba
psihologic utilizat, psihologul trebuie s
cunoasc i s-i bazeze decizia pe calitile
predictive ale acesteia, adic s demonstreze
c ntre rezultatele la proba/testul utilizat i
performana profesional exist o relaie
corelaional. Simpla utilizare a unor probe
psihologice selecionate pe baz de etichet
este o eroare grav. Flerul psihologului este
un mit.

Managementul Resurselor Umane
o abordare multidisciplinar
Psihologia aplicat la nivel
organizaional este adesea considerat ca o
parte a managementului resurselor umane
(MRU). Este necesar aceast subliniere
deoarece la noi n ar se consider greit c
MRU este o problem aferent exclusiv
tiinelor economice, treptat universitile
politehnice ncep s dezvolte i ele seciile lor
de MRU. n acest sens au fost editate o serie
de cri care analizeaz problema MRU de pe
poziii adesea strict teoretice, din care reiese
diletantismul autorilor n problemele de selecie
profesional, evaluarea personalului sau
instruirea profesional. Realitatea este c
MRU este o disciplin cu conotaii
multidisciplinare; problemele salarizrii, ale
planificrii forei de munc sau de structur a
companiilor este firesc s le discute
economitii. Orientarea i reorientarea
profesional, selecia, evaluarea sau instruirea
profesional, motivaia i satisfacia cu munca
aparin psihologiei personalului. Aici pot fi
incluse i problemele de psihologie
organizaional, de fapt, departamentul de
resurse umane al unei organizaii trebuie s
includ un personal mixt, economiti, psihologi
i persoane de alte specialiti, n funcie de
specificul organizaiei respective. Acest
personal poate acoperi fiecare segment de
activitate n care este pregtit.

Situaii contestate de psihologie si
psihologi
Literatura de specialitate din domeniul
MRU este vast, o dovad a interesului pe
care un domeniu l solicit ntr-o economie de
pia i un cadru capitalist n care se pune
problema gestionrii personalului. Puinele
lucrri de care dispunem n momentul de fa
n acest domeniu consider necesar apelarea
la traduceri. Din nefericire, unele traduceri de
cri cu coninut MRU sunt de neneles din
cauza terminologiei psihologice deformate.
Astfel, lucrarea prestigioas a lui Johns (1998)
utilizeaz un limbaj psihologic inedit, de
neptruns pentru psihologi i specialitii din
resurse umane, periculos pentru cititori
(feedback = consolidare, validitate =
valabilitate, fidelitate=reliabilitate etc.).
Recomandarea acestei traduceri ca material
bibliografic va duce la formarea unui specialist
al crui limbaj tiinific pentru a fi neles va
solicita o adevrat munc de decriptare.
Desigur, o mare vin aparine n acest caz
editorului care a renunat la prerile unor
refereni. Cazul citat nu este unic.
Firmele de consultan pe probleme de
resurse umane sunt o necesitate i o practic
rspndit pe plan internaional. Printre
activitile pe care aceste firme le promoveaz,
exist pachete de oferte cu coninut specific
psihologic. Faptul c personalul acestor firme
este adesea colarizat n strintate, urmnd
cursuri intensive, este un aspect important, dar
cnd acest personal (ingineri, economiti .a.)
se crede apt s fac o selecie profesional cu
o metodologie specific universal valabil, este
un abuz sau, simplu spus, o impostur. Un
psiholog este colarizat n prezent timp de trei
ani i poate s-i continue studiile n cadrul
unui program de master sau alte cursuri
speciale postuniversitare sau doctorale. Cu
toate acestea, adevraii psihologi care sunt
angajai ntr-o astfel de firm, sunt adesea
tratai ca neexperimentai sau lipsii de
experien i sunt pui n situaia s suporte o
serie de sugestii i ndrumri care
exceleaz prin incompeten (nesupunerea
are ca i consecin renunarea la serviciile
lor).
n mod obinuit oferta firmelor de
consultan se rezum la urmtoarele
activiti:
Recrutarea i selecia profesional ;
Cursuri de instruire pe diferite teme ;
Diagnoze organizaionale ;
Proiectarea de sisteme de evaluare a
personalului.
Cele mai acute probleme se ridic n
legtur cu recrutarea i selecia profesional
unde asistm la un abuz de teste psihologice
i practici netiinifice. Muli dintre
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9
pseudopsihologii de care vorbeam, dac au
reuit s achiziioneze unul sau mai multe
teste psihologice ori chestionare de
personalitate, au impresia ca acestea sunt
suficiente, c au dreptul s le utilizeze (uneori
intr-o manier strict personal), fr s ia n
considerare problemele de validitate, fidelitate
sau de normare. Din nefericire chiar muli
psihologi au fcut rabat de la utilizarea
tiinific a instrumentarului psihodiagnostic.
Anastasi (1979), autor al unor lucrri de
referin de psihodiagnostic, observa: testele
psihologice nu pot fi aplicate corect n afara
contextului psihologic. Instrumentul uneori uitat
al cunoaterii psihologice este psihologul
nsui. Testul aduce informaii despre subiect
ntr-o form codificat. Cotele sau indiciile
calitative obinute in cadrul unei examinri nu
explic un nivel de performan, un fapt de
conduita. Psihologul urmeaz s desprind din
datele brute informaiile relevante. Esenial
este s nu se desprind nici mai multe, nici
mai puine informaii dect cele reale, cuprinse
n datele obinute. Utilizarea de probe
psihologice i, cu att mai mult, elaborarea
unor noi teste presupune o competen
precis, care mbin o anumit tehnicitate cu
fineea observaiei. Ne vom atepta ca n viitor
s ne confruntm cu o adevrat revolt
antitest (este ceva similar cu ceea ce s-a
ntmplat n prin anii 50 n unele ri
occidentale. Interviul de selecie a ajuns
instrumentul preferat al diletanilor n MRU.
Soarta unui candidat oarecare rmne la
latitudinea dispoziiilor i subiectivismului unui
selecioner obscur, lipsit adesea de cele mai
elementare cunotine psihologice i de
tehnica de derulare a unui interviu. Interviul de
selecie este considerat n literatura
psihologic drept un mijloc de selecie care n
anumite cazuri are o validitate mai redus. El
posed ns calitatea de a fi utilizat n prezent
cu frecvena de cea mai mare. Valoarea
interviului de selecie este apreciabil numai in
situaii bine determinate i alturi de alte
mijloace de psihodiagnoz. Dar, fenomenul cel
mai condamnabil apare n situaia n care
firmele de consultan i unii psihologi
utilizeaz instrumentarul psihologic pentru a
disponibiliza personalul unei organizaii. Astfel,
se ncalc unul din principiile cele mai
elementare ale codului deontologic al
psihologilor. Psihologul are ca principal
obiectiv sprijinirea oamenilor n a se integra
ntr-un anumit loc de munc, optimizarea
participrii la munc, medierea conflictelor
dintre patronat i ceilali salariai etc. De-a
lungul timpului, psihologii i-au bazat
interveniile de optimizare a serviciilor i de
sprijin al angajailor pe date tiinifice. Printre
primii care au srit n ajutorul celor care lucrau
la banda rulant sau pe care se experimentau
metode tayloriene de munc, mrirea arbitrar
a zilei de munc etc., au fost psihologii care
prin studiile pe care le-au efectuat au
demonstrat aportul incontestabil al umanizrii
muncii.
Despre cursurile de instruire oferite de
ctre firmele de consultan putem afirma,
desigur fr a generaliza, faptul c de cele mai
multe ori acestea ofer teme de curs de
genul Cum motivm angajaii, Cheia
succesului n afaceri, Tehnici de evaluare a
personalului etc. Rareori oferta are la baz o
analiz a trebuinelor de instruire, neinteresnd
nici maniera de receptare (evaluare) a cursului
i a efectelor acestuia. Frecvent, la astfel de
cursuri ntlnim prezentarea unei teme al crei
suport de curs a fost tradus mai mult sau mai
puin corect i care este prezentat sumar,
lectorul confundnd suportul de curs cu cursul
propriu-zis. Indicaia preioas este pentru a
fi mai avizai n problem, citii suportul de
curs. Alteori, dup cteva exerciii puerile,
crora li se mai spune joc de rol (jocul de rol
este o tehnica de instruire, dar care se
desfoar dup anumite reguli), se consider
c s-au format deprinderi manageriale, de
vnzare etc. (uneori termenul de deprindere
nu este cunoscut, formatorii susinnd c
formeaz skilluri!).
Schimbarea organizaional, fenomen
specific dinamicii oricrei organizaii
presupune realizarea unei diagnoze
organizaionale. Aceasta nseamn o abordare
sistemic a organizaiei, realizat de o echip
multidisciplinar de specialiti. Diagnoza
organizaional include, ca parte component
a analizei, segmentul uman al organizaiei,
acesta fiind privit ca unul dintre cele mai
importante. Exist n acest context o
metodologie de analiz complex bazat pe
modele, teorii i realizat prin interviuri i
chestionare consacrate. Dar, evaluarea
resurselor umane este cu totul impropriu, de-a
dreptul revolttor, s se fac pe baza unor
puncte sau note, aa cum pretind unele
metodologii. Nu putem nota nivelul de
motivaie al angajailor cu un calificativ de 6
sau sistemul de conducere cu nota 3, acesta
cu att mai mult cu ct nu exist nici un cadru
de referin. Este bine s se neleag c astfel
de investigaii presupun existena unei
metodologii de lucru care poate varia de la o

10
organizaie la alta i se face cu un
instrumentar specializat.
Despre aprecierile de personal,
evaluarea performanelor profesionale ale
salariailor, se pot spune multe. Aceasta este o
practica mai veche, astzi peste 90% din
companiile occidentale au n aplicare unul din
sistemele de apreciere propuse de ctre
psihologi. Acest lucru este specific i rii
noastre, multe companii utiliznd un anumit
sistem de apreciere anual sau bianual a
salariailor. La noi in tara a existat o lege in
acest sens si mai recent o serie de hotrri
guvernamentale (HG) care ncearc sa
revigoreze aceast practic att de util
conducerii eficiente a unei companii. Trecnd
peste erorile coninute de HG-urile respective
i care le fac adesea neoperaionale, aceasta
pentru c psihologii specializai pe
problematica evalurilor nu au fost consultai,
s-a ajuns la soluii de-a dreptul hilare. O idee
bun i necesar s-a transformat ntr-o aciune
de un formalism acut. Un sistem de apreciere
a personalului este o investiie serioas,
implementarea sa fiind dependent de
specificul companiei, a locului de munc
ocupat si nu o msur cu aplicabilitate
universal. Iat, se prevede n normativele n
circulaie s se noteze cantitatea i calitatea
muncii. Acestea sunt dou dimensiuni care
trebuie evaluate separat. Apoi, se pretinde
notarea creativitii- dimensiune profesional
care nu se poate nota ntr-un loc de munc n
care se cere respectarea cu strictee a unor
instruciuni de execuie (ce ar fi dac un pilot al
unui avion de pasageri s-ar abate de la traseul
de zbor pentru c este o zi cu soare si
privelitea din avion ar ncnta pasagerii?
Pasagerii ar aprecia pozitiv ideea pilotului, dar
acesta s-ar alege cu o sanciune sever pentru
aciunea sa creativ). Odat cu msura de a
evalua performanele angajailor, numeroase
firme de consultan au obinut subvenii de pe
proiecte finanate din exterior pentru a-i nva
pe alii cum s-i construiasc sistemul de
evaluare respectiv. Eroarea aparine n primul
rnd celor care au evaluat aceste proiecte,
apoi celor care le-au obinut i care nu tiu
cum se realizeaz un astfel de proiect. A
dezvolta un proiect de evaluare a personalului
nseamn a declana o aciune de investigare
dup o metodologie bine pus la punct.
Psihologul este chemat s fac investigaiile
necesare pe teren, sistemul de evaluare fiind
concluzia unor intervenii succesive. In niciun
caz sistemul de evaluare nu trebuie s fie doar
creaia unui director de departament de
resurse umane sau a unui inginer ori
economist. Acetia vor fi eventual instruii ca
evaluatori i vor fii invitai ca experi n
construirea sistemului de evaluare a
personalului.

Experiena altor ri

Abuzurile pseudopsihologilor, a
diletanilor n managementul resurselor umane
i chiar a unor psihologi incompeteni sunt o
realitate recunoscut de numeroase ri.
Acesta este motivul pentru care n ultimul timp
asociaiile naionale ale psihologilor,
organismele internaionale care au fost create,
psihologii nii, acord o importan din ce in
ce mai mare implementrii unui cadru absolut
legal aciunilor pe care le ntreprind. Discuii
ample au fost purtate de ctre Asociaia
Psihologilor Americani in reviste ca American
Psychologist i Asociaia Psihologilor din
Frana (1996). Codurile deontologice ale
acestor asociaii ne pot servi ca punct de
plecare n ntregirea a ceea ce a fost realizat i
la noi in ar ntr-un timp nu prea ndeprtat
(Herseni, 1969; Radu, 1976).
Asociaia Psihologilor Americani a
adoptat n anul 1992 ceea ce a devenit Ethical
Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct (1992). Altfel, psihologii americani au
subscris la respectarea unor principii
profesionale grupate in urmtoarele domenii:
Responsabilitate, Competen, Moralitate i
standarde legale, Declaraii publice,
Confidenialitate, Mulumirea beneficiarilor,
Relaiile profesionale, Tehnici de evaluare,
Cercetarea cu subieci umani, Precauii i
Utilizarea animalelor n cercetri. Aceste teme
de interes surprind drepturile i ndatoririle
psihologilor, principiile dup care acetia
trebuie s-i deruleze activitatea lor
profesional. Abaterile de la aceste norme
sunt pedepsite att de asociaiile profesionale
ct i pe cale juridic instituionalizat.
Asociaia Psihologilor Francezi are un
cod deontologic propriu i specificaii pentru
fiecare ramur mare a psihologiei: Psihologia
muncii, Psihologia educaional, Psihologia
clinic i Psihologia social aplicat. Leplat
(1971) a sintetizat codul etic a psihologilor
industriali.

Cteva recomandri:
n exercitarea profesiei sale psihologul
i interzice orice act sau cuvnt care aduce
atingerea demnitii persoanei umane. El
trebuie s fie contient de necesitatea de a fi
Editorial

11
obiectiv i circumspect cnd aciunea sa
opereaz cu noiuni ca normal-anormal,
adaptat-dezadaptat etc., care afecteaz
persoane i relaii interpersonale.
Psihologul este supus regulii secretului
profesional; aceast regul privete
concluziile, rapoartele, documentele redactate
n codul deontologic al profesiei sale. Toate
demersurile sale se fac cu respectul demnitii
persoanei care face obiectul interveniei sale.
Munca psihologului practician se face
in spiritul datelor cercetrilor din domeniu; el
trebuie s caute i s aplice criterii i metode
controlabile din punct de vedere tiinific. De
asemenea, psihologul trebuie s refuze orice
angajament pe care starea prezent a
tehnicilor de lucru nu i-ar permite s i-o
asume.
Practic, psihologul opereaz ntr-un
mediu tehnic n care trebuie s posede
orientarea necesar. Aciunea sa vizeaz
adaptarea angajatului la mediul su, artndu-i
limitele personale care l-ar expune la riscuri de
accident, dar i capacitile sale care-i asigur
promovarea, succesul. Psihologul trebuie s
ajute pe cel examinat s-i dea seama de
propriile sale obiective i s le realizeze n
timp. Clasificnd mpreun cu subiectul datele
situaiei noteaz Leplat (1971) l va ajuta
s-i adapteze deciziile i s le compatibilizeze
cu obiectivele urmrite. Se nelege c
psihologul garanteaz calitatea metodelor i
tehnicilor utilizate i cunoate limitele acestora.
n ultimul timp se discut tot mai
frecvent despre o simbioz practic-tiin sub
formula scientist-practitioner. tiina lumineaz
practica, iar aceasta produce tiin.
Practicianul nu este doar deintorul unei
colecii de reete sau rutine pe care doar
deintorul le aplic indefinit. Aceasta rmne
o imagine de istorie.

Bibliografie

Anastasi , A. (1979). Fields of Applied Psychology.
NY: McGraw-Hill.
Campbell, D.P. (1974). Give me one of those
interest tests so I can see what I should be.
In: Measurement for Self Understanding and
Personal Development (9-13). Proceedings
of the 1973 Invitational Conference on
Testing Problems. Educational Testing
Service, Princeton, New Jersey.
*** Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct. (1992). American Psychologist, 47,
12, 1597-1611.

Herseni, T. (1969). Laboratorul uzinal de psihologie,
sociologie si pedagogie. Editura tiinific,
Bucureti.
Johns, G. (1998). Comportament organizaional.
nelegerea i conducerea oamenilor n
procesul muncii. Bucureti: Editura
Economic.
Leplat, J. (1971). Deontologie de la psychologie du
travail. In: M. Reuchlin (coord.), Traite de
psychologie appliqu (183-194). Paris:
Boulevard Saint-Germain.
Pacaud, S. (1959). La selection Professionnelle.
Paris: P.U.F.
Paterson, D.G. (1930). Psysique and intellect. NY:
The Century Co.
Pitariu, H., Botenaru, N., Lucaciu, L., & Oachi, A.
(1982). The theory and practice of
biorhythms are not confirm. Revue Roumaine
des Sciences Sociales. Serie de
Psychologie. 26, 2, 149-154.
Podina, V. (1992). Justific horoscopul ncrederea
ce i se acord? Psihologia, 21-23.
Radu, I. (1976). Principii metodologice n elaborarea
i utilizarea probelor psihologice. Revista de
psihologie, 22, 1-33

12
Beyond task performance: the concept of organizational citizenship performance

Dan Ispas
1

Walter C. Borman
University of South Florida

Abstract

In this paper, we describe the construct of citizenship performance and briefly review some of the
industrial and organizational psychology research on organizational citizenship. We discuss the
history, the dimensionality, the antecedents, consequences and implications for practice, and also
provide a critical analysis. The conclusions of this review are that citizenship performance is
important for contemporary organizations and contemporary trends suggest it will continue to be
important in the future. We encourage further research in the area of citizenship performance in
other cultures beyond the US.

Key words: citizenship performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, job performance, industrial-
organizational psychology.

Rezumat

n cadrul acestei lucrri ne propunem s realizm o descriere a constructului de performan
contextual i s trecem n revist pe scurt cteva dintre cercetrile din psihologia industrial i
organizaional asupra comportamentului cetenesc organizaional. Vom aborda istoria,
dimensionalitatea, antecedentele, consecinele i implicaiile pentru practic ale conceptului de
performan contextual, prin prisma unei analize critice a literaturii de specialitate. Concluziile
acestei treceri n revist susin nsemntatea comportamentului cetenesc pentru organizaiile
contemporane, iar tendinele actuale susin c importana acestuia va crete n viitor. ncurajm
cercettorii ca n studiile viitoare asupra performanei contextuale s abordeze problematica i n
alte culturi dect Statele Unite.

Cuvinte cheie: performana contextual, comportament cetenesc organizaional, performana n
munc, psihologie industrial-organizaional.

1
Introduction

Job performance is probably the most
important variable in industrial and
organizational psychology and is sometimes
referred to as the criterion or as the the
ultimate dependent variable (Organ & Paine,
1999). Early research on job performance has
focused on task performance (e.g., identifying
the tasks and their importance and frequency).
Task performance can be defined as the
proficiency with which the tasks are performed.
However, in the past 20 years or so,
considerable research has been devoted to
another class of job performance that falls
outside the domain of task performance:
contextual or citizenship performance. In this

1
Adresa de coresponden: dispas@gmail.com
paper, well present the concept of citizenship
performance, a short history of the concept,
well briefly review some of the research
findings (antecedents and consequences), and
provide a critical analysis with a focus on
future research directions.

Definition of citizenship
performance

Citizenship performance is defined as
activities (that) support the organizational,
social, and psychological environment in which
the technical core must function (Borman &
Motowidlo, 1993, p. 73). Citizenship
performance differs from task performance in
three ways (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993): task
behaviors vary across jobs, whereas
contextual behaviors are similar across jobs;
Studii i Cercetri

13
task behaviors are more likely to be formally
expected as a job requirement than contextual
behaviors (which usually go above and beyond
the call of duty); and the antecedents of task
performance are more likely to involve
cognitive ability, whereas the antecedents of
citizenship performance are more likely to be
dispositional or personality related.

A brief history and the
dimensionality of citizenship
performance

Trying to explain the relatively low
correlation between satisfaction and
performance, Organ (1977) suggested that the
reason might be that performance had been
defined too narrowly. Based on early work by
Barnard (1938) and Katz & Kahn (1966),
Organ and colleagues (Bateman & Organ,
1983; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983) proposed a
construct called organizational citizenship
behavior initially defined as discretionary
behavior that goes beyond ones official role
and is intended to help other people in the
organization or to show support and
conscientiousness toward the organization.
Building on an earlier model of soldier
effectiveness (Borman, Motowidlo, Rose, &
Hanser, 1985), early literature on
organizational citizenship behavior (OCB;
Organ, 1988) and prosocial organizational
behavior (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986), Borman &
Motowidlo (1993) proposed a theory of work
performance and made the distinction between
task and contextual performance.
In their review of the organizational
citizenship literature, Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Paine, and Bachrach (2000) identified 30
potential kinds of citizenship performance but
they note that there is a great deal of overlap
between many of these constructs. Organ &
Paine (1999) describe the distinction between
citizenship performance directed at individuals
and citizenship performance directed at the
organization as the most consistent and
interpretable distinction in the citizenship
literature.
In an effort to summarize and parsimoniously
integrate all the concepts proposed in the
literature, Coleman & Borman (2000)
generated a set of 27 unique performance
dimensions and asked a group of industrial
and organizational psychologists to sort them
into categories based on conceptual similarity.
Using exploratory factor analysis and
multidimensional scaling they found three
broad dimensions, each with several
subdimensions (Borman, 2004, Borman et al.,
2001, Coleman & Borman, 2000). Their
findings are presented in Table 1. They note
however, that the model lacks more assertive,
challenging elements of citizenship
participation such as Civic Virtue (Graham,
2000) also called Advocacy Participation
(Van Dyne et al., 1994). They also note that
there probably is no best configuration for the
citizenship domain, and the models should be
chosen based on purposes and applications.
An in-depth review of the history of the concept
is beyond the scope of this article, the
interested reader should refer to Borman &
Motowidlo (1993), Organ, Podsakoff,
&MacKenzie (2006) and Podsakoff et al.
(2000).

Antecedents of citizenship
performance

Most of the research conducted on
citizenship performance has been aimed at
identifying its antecedents. We can divide the
antecedents of citizenship performance into
four separate categories: situational, attitudinal
/ affective, dispositional, and motivational.
The situational antecedents can be divided into
organizational factors and job characteristics.
Some of the situational factors are:
organizational justice (the perceived fairness of
interactions between individuals and the
organization), leader behavior (the quality of
the relationship), and organizational culture
(e.g., organizational politics). The
characteristics of the jobs themselves may
inhibit or encourage citizenship performance.
Although only a few studies have examined
the relationship between citizenship
performance and job characteristics, the
results of reviews (e.g., Podsakoff et al., 1996)
suggest that jobs providing greater autonomy,
feedback, and task variety may encourage
more employee citizenship performance.

14
Table 1. Dimensions and subdimensions of citizenship performance

(1) Personal support: Helping helping others by offering suggestions, showing them how to
do the work and how to accomplish different tasks, providing emotional
support.
Cooperating accepting suggestions, informing them of events they
should know about, putting team objectives above personal interests.
Courtesy showing consideration, courtesy, and tact in relations with
others.
Motivating motivating others by applauding their achievement and
success, showing confidence in their abilities.
(2) Organizational support: Representing representing the organization favorably to outsiders by
defending it when its criticized and by promoting its positive attributes.
Loyalty showing loyalty by staying with the organization despite
temporary hardships and by tolerating occasional difficulties, supporting
the organizations mission and objectives.
Compliance complying with reasonable organizational rules and
procedures, and suggesting improvements.

(3) Conscientious initiative Persistence persisting with extra effort despite difficult conditions
Initiative taking the initiative to do all that is necessary to accomplish
objectives even if not normally part of own duties and finding additional
productive work to perform when own duties are completed
Self development developing own knowledge and skills by taking
advantage of opportunities within the organization and outside the
organization, using own time and resources, when necessary.

Job satisfaction and organizational
commitment have also been considered as
potential antecedents of citizenship
performance. Results of meta-analyses (Organ
& Ryan, 1995, LePine et al., 2002) suggest a
positive correlation between satisfaction and
citizenship performance and also between
commitment and citizenship performance
(population correlations corrected for
unreliability of .24 and .20).
The dispositional antecedents of
citizenship performance have been widely
investigated (Borman et al., 2001). The
personality constructs that show the strongest
correlations with citizenship performance are
conscientiousness (one of the big five traits)
and two constructs that measure the prosocial
personality orientation (Penner et al., 1995):
other-orientated empathy and helpfulness
(Borman et al., 2001).
More recently, researchers tried to
predict citizenship performance by
understanding and identifying the role of
individuals motives for engaging in this
behavior. A promising line of research by
Penner and his colleagues (e.g., Penner et al.,
1997; Rioux & Penner, 2001) tries to identify
the motives for citizenship performance using
a functionalist approach (Snyder, 1993). Rioux
& Penner (2001) developed a scale to
measure peoples motives for engaging in
citizenship performance, and found three
distinct factors: organizational concern (e.g., I
care what happens to this company), prosocial
values (e.g., It is easy for me to be helpful),
and impression management (e.g., I try to
avoid looking bad in front of others). Two of the
three motives showed differential relationships
with dimensions of the predictors and the
criteria: the organizational concern motive was
most highly correlated with conscientiousness
and the prosocial values motive was most
strongly correlated with altruism. Also, concern
for the organization was associated with
citizenship performance toward the
organization, and concern for other people was
associated with citizenship performance
directed at individual. Since very little research
has been conducted in this area, we
encourage future investigations, for example to
understand how individual motives operate to
influence behavior. Also, most of the studies
have been correlational and cross-sectional;
using experience sampling methodology or
qualitative methods (participant-observation
studies or in-depth interviews) can help us
Studii i Cercetri

15
better understand the role of motives in
citizenship performance. Examining the
motives for citizenship performance may also
provide an explanation for the inconsistent
relationships between personality traits and
citizenship performance dimensions: different
personality traits may be relevant in different
situations, depending on the functions of
citizenship behaviors and on the motives for
engaging in citizenship behaviors.

Critical analysis of citizenship
performance research

An area of research that has received
little attention from researchers is the negative
consequences of citizenship performance.
Bolino, Turnley, & Niehoff (2004) theorized that
citizenship performance can lead to more role
ambiguity (the employees may have a hard
time distinguishing between in-role and extra-
role behaviors), less accurate performance
appraisals, higher levels of stress, overload,
work-family conflict and conflict among
employees. Bolino & Turnley (2005) found in a
sample of 98 couples that higher levels of
individual initiative (a form of citizenship
performance) were associated with higher
levels of role overload, job stress, and work-
family conflict. As they mention, this is a cross-
sectional study and we dont know whether
individual initiative causes employee stress
and strain or the other way around. A
longitudinal study or a study using experience
sampling methodology could be more helpful
in examining causality.
In a recent meta-analytic study,
Chang, Johnson, and Yang (2007) examined
the relationship between emotional strain and
OCB. They found a population correlation of -
.16. Although they consider emotional strain an
antecedent of citizenship performance, they
acknowledge that the design of most of the
studies included does not allow drawing causal
conclusions. It is also possible that performing
citizenship behaviors can lead to experiencing
more strain. This would also be consistent with
the conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll,
1988, 1989). According to the conservation of
resources theory, individuals seek to acquire
and maintain resources (such as objects,
personal characteristics, conditions and
energies). Hobfoll and Freedy (1993) proposed
that job demands threaten ones resources,
and continued exposure to demands will result
in strain in the form of emotional exhaustion.
This could be a useful framework to examine
performance and strain.
Most of the research on contextual
performance has used a social exchange
framework (Zellars & Tepper, 2003). Based on
the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), social
exchange theory posits that the employees
and the organizations engage in relationships
(social exchanges) outside the formal
contracts that exist between them. Zellars and
Tepper (2003) criticize this overreliance on
social exchange theory. They argue that by
focusing on social exchange theory the
amount of variance explained has remained
constant, i.e. there is little improvement in the
amount of variance by the various proposed
predictors of citizenship performance. They
outline several new possible antecedents of
citizenship performance: self-efficacy, the
opportunity to perform, egoistic motivations
(impression management and coping with
work stress) and identity management.
Researchers have begun to empirically
examine the proposed predictors. For
example, Bolino et al. (2006) found that
supervisor focused impression management
tactics (self-reported by the employee) are
associated with citizenship performance
(supervisor ratings). Their finding has
important implications for the choice of the
rating source for citizenship performance: it
appears that supervisor reports may not be the
best source due to the likelihood of being
impacted by the employees impression
management. We encourage more research
on the proposed antecedents, especially using
longitudinal and experimental designs.
Another are in need of more research
is the measurement of citizenship
performance. A variety of measures have been
proposed and used in the literature (Podsakoff
et al., 2000). A more careful inspection of
some of the items suggests that for some
measures, items that are supposed to
measure citizenship performance are in fact
items measuring the employees not engaging
in counterproductive work behaviors (CWB),
called antithetical items (Dalal, 2005). This
may have implications for the relationship
between citizenship performance and other
variables. For example, Dalal (2005) found that
performance and CWB is strong only when the
measures include antithetical items.
Very little research has examined
actual interventions designed to increase
citizenship performance among employees.

16
The only attempts we are aware of have been
made by Skarlicki and Latham (1996, 1997).
They trained managers in the principles of
organizational justice and found that improving
fairness perceptions leads to increased levels
of citizenship performance. More research is
needed, and other organizational interventions
should be examined (e.g., increasing
participation in decision making).

Consequences and implications for
practice

Citizenship performance also has
important consequences and implications for
practice. For example, research has shown
that managers do consider citizenship
performance when rating employee
performance (Johnson, 2001; Werner, 1994).
There is also empirical evidence that
citizenship performance is related to the
effectiveness of the organization (for a review
see chapter 7 of Organ, Podsakoff, &
MacKenzie, 2006).` Some of the reasons that
citizenship performance might influence
organizational effectiveness are (Borman,
2004; Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006):
it may enhance coworker and managerial
productivity, it may help coordinate activities, it
may help the organizations ability to attract
and retain employees and it may increase the
stability of organizational performance.
However, there is a need for further research
in this area in order to clarify the direction of
causality, to identify potential moderators, and
to better understand the mechanism through
which citizenship performance influences
organizational performance. Citizenship
performance also has implications for
personnel selection: if citizenship performance
is related to organizational effectiveness than
we might select job candidates based on their
predisposition to engage in citizenship
performance. Research shows that, for the
most part, personality tends to predict
citizenship performance better than task
performance, and thus using personality
measures to select people may have some
merit. The relationship between citizenship
performance and overall performance and
between personality and citizenship
performance may also have an impact on the
interpretation of the Barrick and Mount (1991)
meta-analysis (Borman, 2004). They found a
moderate correlation between
conscientiousness and job performance
(mostly ratings of overall performance) which
may reflect primarily a relation between
conscientiousness and citizenship
performance.

Conclusions

The empirical evidence suggests that
citizenship performance is important for
contemporary organizations. Most of the
research on citizenship performance has
occurred in the past 15 years or so. Four
contemporary trends suggest that the three
dimensions of citizenship performance are
likely to be important in the future:
1. organizational support and
conscientious initiative will become
more important as global competition
continues to raise the effort level
required by organizational members,
2. the personal support component will
be needed as the number of team
based organizations increases.
3. conscientious initiative will be needed
to make adaptability and willingness to
exhibit extra effort more critical as
downsizing continues.
4. all three dimensions will be more
important as customer service and
client satisfaction are increasingly
emphasized.
Also, as is the case with most areas of
industrial and organizational psychology, we
need more research done in cultures beyond
the US. There have been some studies that
suggest that citizenship performance may
have different structure and meaning in other
cultures. For example, Turnipseed & Murkison
(2000) found different factor structures of an
OCB scale in Romania and US. Work by Farh
and colleagues (Farh, Early, & Lin, 1997; Farh,
Zhong, & Organ, 2004) in China has
uncovered two dimensions of citizenship
performance not found in US studies:
interpersonal harmony and social welfare
participation. Paine & Organ (2000) proposed
that two of Hofstedes (1980) dimensions of
culture are linked to citizenship performance:
individualism-collectivism and power distance.
Another possible cultural framework for
examining differences in citizenship
performance is the nine dimensions of culture
found by researchers form the GLOBE project
(House et al., 2004). We encourage more
research using non-US samples and going
beyond simply examining the dimensionality of
citizenship performance to identify possible
culture specific antecedents and moderators.
Studii i Cercetri

17
Further readings

Borman, W.C., & Motowidlo, S.J. (1993). Expending
the criterion domain to include elements of
contextual performance. In N. Schmitt & W.
C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel selection (pp.
7198). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hanson, M.A., & Borman, W.C. (2006). Citizenship
performance: An integrative review and
motivational analysis. In W. Benett, Jr., C. E.
Lance, & D. J. Woehr (Eds.), Performance
measurement (pp. 141173). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
LePine, J.A., Erez, A., & Johnson, D.E. (2002). The
nature and dimensionality of organizational
citizenship behavior: A critical review and
meta-analysis. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 87, 5265.
Organ, D.W., Podsakoff, P.M., & MacKenzie, S.B.
(2006). Organizational citizenship behavior:
Its nature, antecedents, and consequences.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Penney, L.M. & Borman, W.C. (2005). The
prediction of contextual performance. In A.
Evers, O. Voskuijl, & N. Anderson (Eds.),
Blackwell handbook of personnel selection
(pp. 376398). Blackwell Publishers

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Authors note: This paper is based on material
presented in Borman (2004), Hanson & Borman
(2006), and Penney & Borman (2005).

Studii i Cercetri

19
Trust and team coordination in critical situations

Adrian H. Pitariu
1

University of Toronto, Canada

Abstract

In this paper I explore the process of team coordination. I propose a model by which team
coordination emerges as a function of team mental models and team trust. Furthermore, I
introduce a hierarchical approach to team mental models, and propose a framework that provides
a better understanding of team processes and opens new avenues of research in the area of
team cognition. I conclude with implications for future research and practice.

Key words: team processes, team mental models, trust, coordination.

Rezumat

Acest studiu exploreaz procesul coordonrii echipelor. Se propune un model pe baza cruia
coordonarea echipelor emerge ca o funcie a modelelor mentale ale echipei i ale ncrederii n
echip. De asemenea, se introduce o abordare ierarhic a modelelor mentale ale echipei i se
propune un cadru care furnizeaz o mai bun nelegere a proceselor din cadrul echipei i care
deschide noi direcii de cercetare n domeniul cogniiei n echipe. n concluzie, articolul prezint
implicaii pentru cercetrile viitoare i pentru practic.

Cuvinte cheie: procese de echip, modele mentale ale echipei, ncredere, coordonare.

1
Introduction

Teams are in these days becoming a
fundamental component of most organizations
due to their increased flexibility, capacity to
adapt under pressure, and ability to provide a
quick and flexible response to external
demands (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003).
Consequently, over the past three decades
researchers have dedicated increasingly more
time and effort to understanding teams and
developing models of team effectiveness (e.g.
McGrath, 1964; Hackman, 1983; Guzzo, 1984;
Gladstein, 1984). Most of these models have
a common trait in relying on an input-process-
output (I-P-O) framework proposed by
McGrath (1964).
A particular type of team that plays a
significant role in our lives is referred to by the
literature as the action team (Sundstrom et al,
1990). Sundstrom and his colleagues describe

1
Adresa de coresponden:
adrian.pitariu@utoronto.ca
action and performing teams as being
composed of members with highly specialized
roles, who cooperate for brief periods of time,
in order to complete a task that requires a
close synchronization of individual team
members actions. Examples of such teams
are flight crews, firefighters, emergency/rescue
teams, military units and surgical teams. For
these teams, working conditions such as task
interdependence, time pressure and operating
in a high risk environment make it imperative
that team members interact and coordinate
their actions effectively in order to avoid a
potentially disastrous outcome.
While most models of team
effectiveness acknowledge, either directly or
indirectly, team coordination as being a key
process for team effectiveness, the literature,
however, lacks in empirical data regarding
coordination mechanisms and factors that
affect this particular team process (Kozlowski
& Bell, 2003). One concept that emerged from
the cognitive psychology literature (Rouse &
Morris, 1986) and that is often times linked to

20
coordination, is the team mental model or
shared mental model construct (Klimoski &
Mohammed, 1994; Cannon-Bowers & Salas,
1992). Due to the equivalence of the two
terms I will use in this paper team and shared
mental models alternately. While current
research findings do provide empirical
evidence for the importance of shared mental
models to team coordination (e.g. Marks et al,
2002), there is still much unexplained variance,
leaving open the question regarding types of
coordination mechanisms affected as well as
conditions that facilitate or obstruct
coordination behaviors and team performance.
The way Simons and Peterson (2000)
defined trust suggests that team trust could be
a part of a team mental model, or even a team
mental model per se, which will affect a teams
processes and performance. Team or
intragroup trust refers to trust among team
members, which, at the group level, has been
described by Simons and Peterson (2000) as a
generalized expectation among group
members with regard to their benevolence,
honesty and competence. The purpose of this
study is to investigate the effect of team trust
on coordination processes. By this means I
seek to establish a stronger link between team
mental models and team coordination and,
thereby look at team level conditions that may
increase a teams overall performance.

Team coordination and Team
Mental Models

Coordination is a central concept to
the functioning of any organization (Van de
Ven, Delbecq & Koenig, 1976). Malone &
Crowston (1991) define coordination as
managing interdependencies between
activities. While good coordination is said to
almost never be noticed in day-to-day life, the
contrary is true about poor coordination, which
has notable and unwanted effects most of the
time, state the same authors.
Team coordination is critical to team
effectiveness especially when the teams are
engaged in interdependent tasks (Kozlowski &
Bell, 2003). Task interdependence refers to
the extent to which a team members
performance is dependent upon anothers
performance (van de Ven et al, 1976). With
regard to coordination taxonomies there are
two main streams. According to Zalesny et al
(1995) coordination has four components:
coordination of goals, activities/tasks,
actors/team members, and of
interdependencies. Goal coordination refers to
the process of selection between a number of
possible goals through processes such as
decision making and communication. Activities
or task coordination is about mapping goals to
activities/tasks, which is done through task
analysis and strategy development. Team
member coordination involves the process of
mapping activities to actors or task
assignment. Lastly, coordination of
interdependencies refers to the management
of all possible interdependencies in a team,
such as resource allocation, sequencing and
synchronizing.
While the previous model takes a
functional perspective on coordination, the
literature also describes a more formal model
which consists of two components: explicit
coordination and implicit coordination (Entin &
Serfaty, 1999). Explicit coordination is related
to existing work organization/procedures and
explicit communication. Implicit coordination is
a form argued to rely on the existence of
shared mental models among team members
regarding task and team work (Cannon-
Bowers & Salas, 1992). For the purpose of the
current investigation I will only look at implicit
coordination processes.
Although direct and indirect empirical
evidence of the effect of team coordination on
team effectiveness is abundant in the literature
(e.g. Brannick et al, 1993; Dirks, 1999; Marks
et al, 2002; Marks & Panzer, 2004), the effect
sizes vary considerably. The differences in
results may be due to differences in measures
employed (e.g. expert raters assessing teams
on behaviorally anchored rating scales versus
self-administered questionnaires, or specific
coordination processes vs. global measures).
Another explanation for the differences in team
effectiveness variance explained by
coordination may be due to the fact that most
studies do not clearly distinguish between
implicit and explicit coordination. For example,
Marks et al (2002) test a model in which
shared mental models are an antecedent of
coordination. However, when measuring
coordination, they rely on expert raters
assessing observable behavior, which is
evidence of explicit coordination.
Implicit coordination is a form of
coordination without overt communication, and
relying on shared mental models. Mental
models are defined as knowledge organized
in structured, meaningful patterns that are
stored in memory and allow individuals to
understand the environment, make inferences,
Studii i Cercetri

21
predictions and take appropriate action (Rouse
& Morris, 1986; Johnson-Laird, 1983). Shared
mental models are characterized as structured
information patterns that are stored in the
memory and which provide a set of organized
mutual expectations to team members
(Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994). Cannon-
Bowers and colleagues (1993) describe in
detail how mental models can relate to team
processes such as communication,
coordination and compensatory behavior,
which in turn have an influence on team
effectiveness. They also bring into discussion
the issue of multiple mental models that can
exist at the same time and they describe four
distinct categories: equipment model, task
model, team interaction model, and team
model. Furthermore, these metal models can
be envisaged as models relative to the task
and models relative to the team (Mathieu et al,
2000). It is the latter category that is of interest
for this paper. Team interaction models can be
described in terms of knowledge content as
models about roles/responsibilities, information
sources, interaction patterns, communication
channels and role interdependencies. While
team interaction models are procedural in
nature, team models contain knowledge about
teammates knowledge, skills, abilities,
preferences and tendencies (Cannon-Bowers
et al, 1993). A clear distinction between the
two types of models can be seen here in that
team interaction models have unique object
which is the team as a whole, whereas in team
models each team member can be identified
as a subunit of the team and thus the team
models is a summation of those subunits.
Empirical evidence of the differential
effects of these different types of mental
models on coordination is limited. For
example, Stout et al (1999) found that the
existence of a shared mental model about
information sources and interaction strategies
resulted in improved coordinated team
performance. Another recent study (Mathieu
et al, 2000), while relying on the mental model
types proposed by Cannon-Bowers and her
colleagues, argue that the operationalization
of four different types of mental models
becomes unwieldy in a single study and end
up using a task versus team mental model
paradigm. Their study however makes an
important point in proving that team mental
models are an important contributor to team
coordination. Consistent with these findings I
propose the following:
Proposition 1a: The presence of
mental models about the team members will
have a positive effect on implicit team
coordination.
Proposition 1b: The presence of
mental models about team interaction will have
a positive effect on implicit team coordination.
Theoretical models about team/group
effectiveness relying on the input-process-
output framework (McGrath, 1964; Hackman,
1983; Gladstein, 1984) consider team member
characteristics, such as KSAs, attitudes,
personality, and motivation, as input variables
and communication, interaction, decision
making and conflict resolution as group
processes and task characteristics as
moderators of the effect of processes on team
effectiveness. Obviously, in this case, we can
treat variables that are in the input category as
antecedents of group processes. We could
think in an analogous way about shared mental
models. Since in this case I am only looking at
mental models about the teamwork, let us
consider the case of team models and team
interaction models. As I mentioned earlier,
according to Cannon-Bowers et al (1993) team
interaction or teamwork models are models
about roles/responsibilities, information
sources, interaction patterns, communication
channels and role interdependencies. These
are the models that will enable teams to
perceive, interpret and respond to dynamic
environments in a synchronized, adaptive
fashion (Salas et al 2004) based on a
common/compatible framework about
teamwork.
Based on the I-P-O framework as well
as previous empirical data there are a number
of factors that will facilitate the development of
teamwork models. Rentsch and Klimoski
(2001) provide evidence for team member
schema agreement being a mediator between
team composition, membership acquisition
mode and size, and team effectiveness. In
another study Stout et al (1999) found
evidence that activity planning facilitated the
development of teamwork models.
Furthermore, Marks et al (2002) showed that
cross-training had a significant positive effect
on shared mental models. In line with these
arguments I propose that:
Proposition 2: Teamwork mental
models will mediate the relationship between
team mental models and team effectiveness.

22
Team Trust and Team Coordination

Trust is a central concept in social life
in general and organizational behavior in
particular. The construct of trust has been
widely researched thus far and its beneficial
effect on individual behavior, interpersonal
relations as well as team and organizational
level outcomes has been established by a
number of researchers (e.g. Dirks & Ferrin,
2001, 2002; Simons & Peterson, 2000). Trust
develops through repeated social interaction.
Trustworthiness of a trustee is the result of a
trustors perceptions of the trustee as being
competent, acting benevolently and
possessing integrity (Meyer, Davis &
Schoorman, 1995). Also, Deutsch (1958)
included a motivational component in his
definition of trust, and described trust as the
expectation that the occurrence of an event will
lead to behavior which the individual perceives
to have greater negative motivational
consequences if the expectation is not
confirmed than positive motivational
consequences if it is confirmed. The classic
example in this case is that of the babysitter,
i.e. parents trust a babysitter with their child
while they are enjoying a movie, expecting that
nothing bad will happen. In this case the
positive outcomes (spending an enjoyable
evening) are by far outweighed by the potential
negative consequences of the babysitter
betraying the parents trust and consequently
something bad happening to the baby.
At the team level, trust has been
described as an attitude or generalized
expectation towards the collective shared by
the group members (Simons & Petersen, 2000;
Korsgaard, Sapienza & Brodt, 2003). For
example, in the case of firefighters, during the
process of extinguishing a fire each individual
trusts the rest of the team to act in a
synchronized manner such that his life will not
be endangered. While the confirmation of this
expectation will lead to the positive outcome of
the firefighter and his team successfully
completing another mission, the potential
downside, if this expectation is not confirmed,
could be of catastrophic consequences.
Based on the definitions of Deutsch (1958),
Meyer, Davis and Schoorman (1995), and
Simons and Petersen (2000), I define trust as
ones willingness to rely on the teams actions
in a situation involving high risk and
vulnerability, based on a set of positive
expectations with regard to the teams actions.
Dirks & Ferrin (2001) find that the
direct effects of trust on workplace behaviors
and performance outcomes are quite
inconsistent throughout the literature and that
just like other positive attitudes such as
satisfaction and commitment the general thesis
that a positive attitude will lead to greater
performance is not supported by empirical
data. Consequently they propose an
alternative approach to trust research, where
trust serves as a moderator for the effects of
other work performance determinants. This
approach relies on two assumptions: one is
that trust affects an actors assessment of
another partys behavior with whom the actor is
in an interdependent relationship, and the
second is that trust affects an actors
interpretations of the other partys behaviors. If
we put these statements in the context of
mental models the moderation proposition of
Dirks & Ferrin (2001) could be restated. Since
teamwork or team interaction mental models
deal with perception and interpretation of
environmental and team specific cues (Salas
et al 2004) a logical conclusion is that these
mental models will be affected by trust.
According to Cummings and Bromiley
(1996) collective trust is "a common belief
among a group of individuals that another
individual or group a) makes good-faith efforts
to behave in accordance with any
commitments both explicit or implicit, (b) is
honest in whatever negotiations preceded such
commitments, and (c) does not take excessive
advantage of another even when the
opportunity is available." Along the same line
of thinking Meyer, Davis and Schoorman
(1995) specify trust as being a consequence of
the trustors attributions of ability, benevolence
and integrity towards the trustee. Thus, in
order for an actor (team member) to trust
another party (team/teammate), the actor must
rely on a set of existing information patterns
about that other party, such as knowledge
about skills, abilities, preferences and
tendencies. This information is exactly what
Cannon-Bowers et al (1993) described as
team models, which will vary as a function of
the individuals who comprise the team. As I
proposed earlier team models are an
antecedent of team interaction mental models,
being that different perceptions about
individual team members will lead to specific
expectations about team behavior that is
appropriate or effective in certain situations
and the amount of risk that one can assume in
his own actions. However, since the
Studii i Cercetri

23
knowledge/information encrypted in these
team models has been identified as typical
antecedent of trust (Meyer et al, 1995) the
main effect of this information is trust
development. Trust, in this case, is an attitude
towards the team and will act as a driver for
the generation/production of team interaction
models (see Figure 1). Considering these
facts, I propose the following relationship:
Proposition 3: Team trust will mediate
the relationship between mental models
regarding the members of the team and mental
models about teamwork.

Figure 1. Overall model

Implications and Future Directions

The main focus of this paper is to
provide a better understanding of the process
of team coordination and its antecedents. In
explaining team coordination I take a shared
mental model approach, which is not new,
since mental models have been proven to be
antecedents of team coordination (Marks et al,
2002). The novelty in this approach, however,
is in looking at the possibility of the different
types of mental models interacting with each
other and further influencing team level
processes.
Because, up to this point, research
involving shared mental models has focused
on proving that shared mental models are an
important antecedent of team processes, little
attention has been given to differentiating
between the different types of mental models
as they were described by Cannon-Bowers,
Salas and Converse (1993). One of the
expressed reasons for doing so was the
difficulty to operationalize different mental
models in one study (Mathieu et al, 2000).
Furthermore, even when empirical evidence for
such distinction was found, the proposed
theoretical models were tested under the
assumption that the different mental models
were independent from each other. By
relaxing this assumption and entering trust as
a mediating variable, I am introducing the
possibility of dependence between shared
mental models. Thus I am providing an
alternative way of thinking about the role of
shared mental models and their interplay in
team processes.
From a practical perspective this
approach suggests a prioritization in the team
training sequence, such that training focusing
on knowledge of team members strengths and
weaknesses (e.g. team-building interventions)
precedes training on procedures. Furthermore
team member selection and placement must
be made with a careful consideration of the
balance of KSAs in the team in order to
maximize team potential.
In sum, by introducing a hierarchical
approach to shared mental models within
teams, the proposed framework provides a
better understanding of team processes and
opens new avenues of research in the area of
team cognition.

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Team Mental
Model
Teamwork
Mental Model
Team
Coordination
Team Trust

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Studii i Cercetri

25
Stress Management in Organizations

Roxana Capotescu
1

Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca

Abstract

Employee stress has increasingly become a concern for many organizations. Although it is not
possible to eliminate stress entirely, people can learn to manage it. Many organizations have
adopted occupational stress management programs to try and reduce the stress levels of their
workforce. The high cost of work stress related problems highlights the need to spend more time
evaluating work stress interventions and publishing the findings so that other organizations can
gain insight into programs of merit. This article explore the three major approaches in stress
management primary, secondary and tertiary prevention and outline the importance of an
evidence-based approach to stress management interventions. It is argued that an evidence-
based approach will lead to advances in intervention practices. We also outline recommendations
regarding planning and interpreting occupational stress management research in order to improve
stress management interventions.

Key words: occupational stress, primary prevention, secondary prevention, tertiary prevention,
evidence-based interventions.

Rezumat

n prezent stresul ocupaional a devenit o preocupare pentru tot mai multe organizaii. Dei stresul
nu poate fi eliminat n totalitate, oamenii pot nva s l gestioneze. Numeroase organizaii au
adoptat programe viznd managementul stresului ocupaional, n ncercarea de a reduce nivelul
de stres al angajailor. Costurile crescute generate de problemele relaionate cu stresul
ocupaional evideniaz nevoia de a acorda o atenie crescut evalurii interveniilor de
management al stresului n organizaii i publicrii rezultatelor pentru a oferi o imagine asupra
meritului acestor programe. Acest articol exploreaz cele trei abordri majore n managementul
stresului prevenia primar, secundar i teriar i susine importana unei abordri
fundamentate empiric n domeniul managementului stresului. Sunt aduse argumente n sprijinul
ideii c o abordare fundamentat empiric va conduce la mbuntirea practicii n domeniu. Sunt
oferite de asemenea recomandri utile n planificarea i interpretarea cercetrilor din domeniul
managementului stresului, n vederea mbuntirii interveniilor de management al stresului.

Cuvinte cheie: stres ocupaional, prevenie primar, prevenie secundar, prevenie teriar,
intervenii fundamentate empiric

1
Introduction

Organizations provide a major portion
of the total stress experienced by a person as
a result of the amount of time spent on the job,
the demands for performance, and the
interaction with others in the workplace.
Stress at work is claimed to have
increased in most of the developed and
developing world. The drive toward manpower

1
capotescu_roxana@yahoo.com
cost-cutting has led to fewer people doing
more work and feeling more insecure in their
jobs. The rapid expansion of information
technology through the Internet has meant the
added burden of information overload, the
accelerating pace of work, and demands for
immediacy of response in 7 day24 hour work
cultures (Kenny & Cooper, 2003). Hours of
work have also increased in many countries,
which has had adverse effects on the work-life
balance of the employees.
Stress and health have become
important topics in modern society. According

26
to research cited by the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 40%
of employees believe their jobs are very or
extremely stressful and at least 26% of
employees feel burned out at work (Grawitch,
Trares, & Kohler, 2007). The American
Psychological Association (APA) reports that
job stress costs U.S. companies about $300
billion a year in absenteeism, productivity loss,
turnover, and health care costs (Grawitch,
Trares, & Kohler, 2007). In light of such
statistics, it is not surprising that companies
have begun to focus more and more on
developing workplace preventive programs
that target the physical and mental health of
their employees.
Although stress is somewhat
stigmatized, people find it easier to talk about
stress than psychological issues or mental
health. Employers and employees generally
view stress as related in some way both to
work and to non-work life. The question What
stress do you experience? is meaningful and
relevant for adults in every demographic and
occupational category. Given an appropriate
setting, many if not most adults are interested
in considering whether their stress situation
could be improved (Martin, 1992).

Stress prevention in organizational
context

Although it is not possible to eliminate
stress entirely, people can learn to manage it.
Many organizations have adopted stress
management training programs to try and
reduce the stress levels of their workforce.
Preventive stress management helps
one convert stress from a threat into an
opportunity for health and achievement. The
knowledge and understanding of the
physiological and psychological elements of
stress have been advanced dramatically over
the past 40 years. The field of stress is still an
active and fertile one, and the concerns
centered on preventive stress management in
organizations are also active (Quick, Quick,
Nelson, & Hurrell,1997). Therefore, the
questions for those in the field are as follows:
Where do we go from here? How do we turn a
potential threat into an opportunity? We believe
there is an active agenda for at least seven
constituencies concerned with stress in
organizations. These constituencies include:
scientists and researchers, executives and
leaders, educators and trainers, physicians,
psychologists, employees, and public health
officials.
Prevention is always the best public
health strategy for any disease epidemic.
Quick, Quick, Nelson, and Hurrell (1997) have
translated and applied the public health notions
of prevention to organizational stress, framing
the theory of preventive stress management. If
job stress has become an epidemic in America
and other industrialized nations, then
prevention holds the best hope for addressing
this epidemic. Using the public health and
preventive medicine model, Quick and
colleagues (1997) classified prevention
strategies into primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Primary prevention aims to modify and
manage the demands of the work environment.
Secondary prevention aims to modify and
manage the individual's response to these
demands. Tertiary prevention aims to help and
provide aid to those in frank distress.
Scientific inquiry into stress has been
inhibited by the lack of a clear, generally
accepted definition of what we mean by stress.
Fortunately, there is at least modest
agreement that stress involves a combination
of one or more of the following: an
environmental stimulus, or stressor, often
described as a force applied to the individual;
an individual's psychological or physical
response to such forces; or, the interaction
between these two (Jex, Beehr & Roberts, &
1992; Schonfeld, Rhee, & Xia, 1995; Le Blanc,
Jonge, & Schaufeli, 2000). The existing
research on stress has focused on the
physiological, psychological, or behavioral
outcomes resulting from exposure to stressors
that are appraised as aversive or unpleasant
(Capotescu, 2006). Much of this research is, in
turn, devoted to the ways in which individuals
cope with these stressful experiences
(Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman, & Gruen, 1985).
In addition, there has been an interest in
preventive actions designed either to reduce
the presence of stressors or neutralize their
stress-producing potential (Ivancevich,
Matteson, Freedman, & Philips, 1990).
Our understanding of occupational
stress has been shaped and changed by the
powerful political, cultural, social, and
economic forces in which work occurs and in
which people respond to their work
experiences. Our way of constructing
occupational stress has a direct influence on
how it is managed. The two competing
constructions of occupational stress as either a
personal trouble related to personality
Studii i Cercetri

27
characteristics or a public concern related
primarily to work characteristics and the
epidemiology of occupational health underpin
very different stress management interventions
in occupational settings (Kenny & Cooper,
2003).
These observations provide a strong
mandate for conducting research into the
factors that precipitate occupational stress and
to identify effective interventions that can be
implemented to treat, manage, and, we hope,
prevent the occurrence of this phenomenon.

Types of occupational stress
management interventions

Occupational stress management
interventions have been defined as any
activity, program, or opportunity initiated by an
organization, which focuses on reducing the
presence of work-related stressors or on
assisting individuals to minimize the negative
outcomes of exposure to these stressors
(Briner, 1997).
The general aims of occupational
stress management interventions are: to
reduce the presence of work-related stressors,
to assist individuals to minimize the negative
outcomes of exposure to these stressors, and,
from an organizations point of view, to improve
the levels of those phenomena which are
assumed to be caused by stress, including
absence, turnover and lowered performance
and motivation. Before discussing in detail
some of the ways in which stress management
interventions can be made more valid, the
characteristics of the three types of
management interventions will be considered.
Interventions in occupational stress
management are typically classified into
primary, secondary, or tertiary approaches.
Primary approaches include strategies that aim
to prevent the occurrence of work stress,
secondary approaches are activities designed
to change an individuals reaction to stressors
(e.g., by means of relaxation training and team
building), and tertiary approaches are those
that are used to treat the symptoms of stress
and strain after they have been identified
(Caulfield, Chang, Dollard, and Elshaug,
2004). Preventive intervention is, in fact, an
integrated set of three levels of action.
Primary prevention is concerned with
taking action to modify or eliminate sources of
stress inherent in the work environment and
thus reduce their negative impact on the
individual. The "interactionist" approach to
stress depicts stress as the consequences of
the "lack of fit" between the needs and
demands of the individual and his/her
environment (French, Caplan, & Harrison,
1982, in Le Blanc, de Jonge & Schaufeli,
2000). The focus of primary interventions is in
adapting the environment to "fit" the individual.
Elkin and Rosch (in Cooper &
Cartwright, 2001) summarize a useful range of
possible strategies to reduce workplace
stressors:
Redesign the task.
Redesign the work environment.
Establish flexible work schedules.
Encourage participative management.
Include the employee in career
development.
Analyze work roles and establish
goals.
Provide social support and feedback.
Build cohesive teams.
Establish fair employment policies.
Share the rewards.
It must be noted that primary
prevention efforts at work, in the form of job or
task redesign or modifications of organizational
structure or function, can themselves create
stress in workers. This can occur for two
reasons: (a) change of any kind, even positive
change, produces new demands that require
adaptation on the part of the worker and (b)
changes made at one level in the organization
often have unintended and negative
consequences at other levels (Quick, Murphy,
Hurrell, & Orman, 1992).
Primary prevention is the preferred
point of action. Elimination or amelioration of
the occupational mental health risk minimizes
the need for using either secondary or tertiary
prevention, although both must be available.
In organizational settings, secondary
prevention plays a role in easing the adjunctive
stress effects of primary prevention efforts.
There are individuals who will exhibit some
early warning signs of distress as well as
unique stress responses regardless of how
aggressively primary prevention is pursued.
Secondary prevention is essentially
concerned with the prompt detection and
management of experienced stress by
increasing awareness and improving the stress
management skills of the individual through
training and educational activities (Cooper &
Cartwright, 1997). It is particularly useful in
helping individuals deal with stressors inherent
in the work environment that cannot be
changed and have to be "lived with" like, for

28
example, job insecurity or non-work related
aspects of life.
Individual factors can alter or modify
the way employees exposed to workplace
stressors perceive and react to this
environment. Some key factors or "moderator"
variables that influence an individual's
vulnerability to stress include their personality
(Bruck & Allen, 2003; Contrada, 1989; Daniels
& Guppy, 1997) , their coping strategies
(Krajewski & Goffin, 2006), age (Gross,
Carstensen, Tsai, Skorpen & Hsu, 1997),
gender (Long, Kahn & Schultz, 1992 ; Long &
Schultz, 1995 ; Shaffer, Bell, Joplin, Lau &
Oguz, 2000 ; Portello & Long, 2001 ;
Eddleston, Veiga & Powell, 2006), attitudes
(Atella, 1999; Best, Stapleton & Downey, 2005;
Cassidy & OConnor, 2004; Peake & Harris,
2002) and the degree of social support
available from family, friends, and work
colleagues (Aryee, Luk, Leung, & Lo, 1999;
Hochwarter, Witt, Treadway & Ferris, 2006;
Hudek-Knezevic & Kardum, 2000).
Secondary prevention can focus on
developing self-awareness and providing
individuals with a number of basic relaxation
techniques. Health promotion activities and
lifestyle modification programs also fall into the
category of secondary level interventions.
Stress education and stress
management training serve a useful function in
helping individuals to recognize the symptoms
of stress, and to overcome much of the
negativity and stigma still associated with the
stress label. Awareness activities and skills
training programs designed to improve
relaxation techniques, cognitive coping skills,
and work/lifestyle modification skills (e.g., time
management courses or assertiveness
training) have an important part to play in
extending the individual's physical and
psychological resources (Cooper & Cartwright,
1997).
Tertiary prevention is concerned with
the treatment, rehabilitation, and recovery
process of those individuals who have suffered
or are suffering from serious health related
problems as a result of stress. Even in
circumstances in which the adverse effects of
occupational mental health risks are minimized
and individuals awareness levels as well as
strengths are enhanced, unanticipated crises
occur or peculiar individual vulnerabilities are
exploited by environmental events. Hence,
mental health practitioners and stress experts
must be prepared to heal those in distress
through a range of treatment and therapeutic
interventions. The implementation of
comprehensive systems and procedures to
facilitate and monitor the rehabilitation and
return to work of employees who have suffered
a stress-related illness is another aspect of
tertiary prevention.
Tertiary prevention programs, usually
in the form of an employee assistance program
(EAP), traditionally have offered counseling for
alcohol related and personal problems, but in
the 1980s they became broader and expanded
their programs to include stress-management
programs. However, these EAP-based stress
management programs typically do not seek to
identify organization-centered problems, in part
because EAP counselors lack training in
organizational behavior and occupational
stress. Rather, EAP-based programs offer
counseling techniques used in community
programs that emphasize personal or
individual solutions to stress reduction (Quick,
Murphy, Hurrell, & Orman, 1992).
In practice, tertiary prevention
programs in the workplace are far more
common than primary prevention programs,
with secondary prevention programs
intermediate in frequency (Reynolds, 1997;
Cooper & Cartwright, 2001; Cartwright &
Cooper, 1996). Organizations tend to prefer to
introduce secondary and tertiary level
interventions for several reasons: (i) There is
relatively more published data available on the
cost benefit analysis of such programs,
particularly EAPs; (ii) Those traditionally
responsible for initiating interventions, that is,
the counselors, physicians, and clinicians
responsible for health care, feel more
comfortable with changing individuals than
changing organizations;
(iii) It is considered easier and less disruptive
to business to change the individual than to
embark on any extensive and potentially
expensive organizational development
program, the outcome of which may be
uncertain; (iv) They present a high profile
means by which organizations can "be seen to
be doing something about stress" and taking
reasonable precautions to safeguard employee
health (Cooper & Cartwright, 2001).

Towards an evidence based
approach of occupational stress
management interventions

A number of theories have been
developed to conceptualize the problem of
occupational stress and to explain and predict
Studii i Cercetri

29
when work stress will occur. Depending on the
emphasis of the theory, different implications
for interventions result. Some of these theories
concentrate on the stressors within the work
environment (e.g., the demandcontrol/support
model; Theorell & Karasek, 1996), some focus
on the mismatch between organizational
requirements and rewards (e.g., the effort
reward imbalance model; Siegrist, 1996), some
have a greater focus on the resources
available to employees to cope with demands
(e.g., the conservation-of-resources model;
Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll & Spielberger, 1992;
Best, Stapleton & Downey, 2005; Hall, Royle,
Brymer, Perrewe, Ferris, & Hochwarter, 2006),
and others focus on appraisal and coping to
explain individual differences in reactions to
stress at work (e.g., cognitive theory; Lazarus,
DeLongis, Folkman & Gruen, 1985; Folkman,
Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen,
1986).
The above theories and
conceptualizations provide a complex macro-
framework for delineating the phenomenon
that is occupational stress. However, there is a
considerable gap between postulating a
descriptive theory and building a credible case
for the allocation of resources to address
stress in the workplace. As the type of action
required by an organization will vary according
to the kinds of stressors operating, any
intervention needs to be guided by some prior
diagnosis or stress audit or risk assessment to
identify the organizational-, site-, or
departmental-specific stressors responsible for
employee stress (Capotescu, 2007).
As the push for evidence-based
practice becomes stronger, there is a need for
research to converge on evidence-based
solutions to the strain experienced in the world
of work. To establish a clear mandate for
action, there is a need to identify not only the
factors that affect occupational stress but also
the effectiveness of specific interventions
through empirical research (Caulfield, Chang,
Dollard, and Elshaug, 2004). According to
Briner (1997), by evidence-based we mean
that the nature of causal relationships between
the phenomena of interest are first established.
The central premise of work on organizational
stress is that there are causal links between
work conditions and employee well-being. An
evidence-based approach would in each case
examine the nature and truth of such a
premise by first conducting a thorough
research.
Recent research has focused on
stress management interventions. Nicholson,
Duncan, Hawkis, Belcastro and Gold (1988)
described and summarized the methods and
results of 62 published reports on stress
management programs from numerous fields.
Programs crossed all levels of prevention, and
most often took place in university, medical, or
worksite settings. A meta-analysis of the
quantitative results of a sample of these
studies yielded mildly encouraging results. A
meta-analysis conducted by Richardson and
Rothstein (2008) to determine the
effectiveness of stress management
interventions in occupational settings
suggested that intervention type played a
moderating role. Cognitive behavioral
programs consistently produced larger effects
than other types of interventions, but if
additional treatment components were added
the effect was reduced. Within a sample of 55
studies, relaxation interventions were most
frequently used, and organizational
interventions continued to be scarce. Effects
were based mainly on psychological outcome
variables, as opposed to physiological or
organizational measures. The examination of
additional moderators such as treatment
length, outcome variable, and occupation did
not reveal significant variations in effect size by
intervention type.
Generally, evidence as to the success
of stress management interventions is
confusing and imprecise (Bunce &
Stephenson, 2000), which possibly reflects the
idiosyncratic nature of the form and content of
this kind of training.
Overall, evidence as to the success of
interventions which focus at the individual level
in isolation suggests that such interventions
can make a difference in temporarily reducing
experienced stress (Cooper & Cartwright,
1997). Work-directed interventions showed the
most consistent effects on job stress (Taris,
Kompier, Geurts, Schreurs, Schaufeli, de Boer,
Sepmeijer, & Watterz , 2003).
Some recent studies that have
evaluated the outcome of stress management
interventions have found a modest
improvement in self-reported symptoms and
psychological indices of strain, but little or no
change in job satisfaction and motivation
(Bond & Bunce, 2000). Saunders, Driskell,
Johnston, & Salas (1996) conducted a meta-
analysis to determine the overall effectiveness
of stress inoculation training in workplace
settings and to identify conditions that may

30
moderate the effectiveness of this approach.
The analysis was based on a total of 37
studies with 70 separate hypothesis tests,
representing the behavior of 1,837 participants.
Results indicated that stress inoculation
training was an effective means for reducing
performance anxiety, reducing state anxiety,
and enhancing performance under stress.
Furthermore, the examination of moderators
such as the experience of the trainer, the type
of setting in which training was implemented,
and the type of trainee population revealed no
significant limitations on the application of
stress inoculation training to applied training
environments.
Evidence as to the success of
interventions which focus at the individual level
in isolation suggests that such interventions
can make a difference in temporarily reducing
experienced stress. In a study conducted by
Reynolds (1997), an individual-level
intervention was compared with an
organizational-level intervention aimed at
increasing employees' participation and
control. The individually oriented intervention
proved clearly superior.
Caulfield, Chang, Dollard and Elshaug
(2004) investigated empirical research into
occupational stress interventions conducted in
Australia within the past 10 years. Most
interventions were individually focused, despite
the preponderance of research identifying risky
work environment stressors. Results suggest a
paucity of published information regarding
what works with occupational stress
interventions in Australia and an urgent need
for further research in the area, particularly
focusing on the private sector, rural workers,
and scientific evaluation.
While it is important to develop
workplace practices that promote positive
health outcomes and remediate negative
stress and health outcomes, it is also important
that organizations focus on the needs of
employees in developing such programs
(Munz & Kohler, 1997). Employees in
organizations do not all have the same values,
expectations of work, backgrounds, and family
arrangements. If programs do not align with
the needs of employees, then it would be
expected that employees would not use them,
thus reducing the positive benefits of such
programs (Grawitch, Gottschalk, & Munz,
2006). Therefore, it is important to assess not
only actual practices, but also the extent to
which employees value and are satisfied with
those practices.
An evidence-based approach would
also include treating the stress claims made by
organizations with caution. Stress is often
treated as though it is a purely scientific
phenomenon, somehow immune from cultural
and social influence. The reason employees
make complaints about stress may often be
highly symbolic (ex. in response to feeling
undervalued or politically powerless).

Concluding remarks and future
directions

Generally, evidence as to the success
of stress management interventions is
confusing and imprecise, which possibly
reflects the idiosyncratic nature of the form and
content of this kind of interventions. The level
of research activity in the area of occupational
stress and stress prevention varies
considerably from country to country, as does
the level of organizational activity.
Organizational intervention studies
have reported several problems in acquiring
controlled evidence on the effects of the
actions. Flexibility of modern organizations
rapidly destroys experimental conditions and
weakens or complicates the interpretation of
results. In addition, when planning a field-
experimental study design, external and
internal validity pull in different directions. A
single study design does not offer optimal
grounds for drawing both theoretical and
practical conclusions (Elo et al., 2008). Much
more research is needed, particularly studies
that evaluate the long-term effectiveness of
stress intervention strategies. There is also
much to be learned from the dissemination of
more practical case studies of organizational
practice and experience in stress prevention.
Stronger industrial links between the business
community and academic institutions can
promote this type of activity, particularly when
there is some joint investment.
There are clearly a number of issues in
this field that need urgent resolution. First,
there are major logistic difficulties that arise in
attempting to assess organizational-level
stress interventions. Research with adequate
methodology involving scientific evaluations is
extremely rare in this field. Moreover,
programs introduced by organizations vary
widely in terms of their objectives, structure,
and target groups. Internal and external threats
to validity are often difficult to manage and may
obscure the real effects of these programs.
Alternatively, the paradigms underpinning
Studii i Cercetri

31
current stress intervention programs may be
fundamentally flawed.
As Martin (1992) suggested, although
stress is a complex phenomenon, any
discussion of it is necessarily framed in a
specific, usually limited context. In designing
occupationally appropriate stress training, we
need a range of perspectives varying from the
individual/subjective to a societal/objective
point of view. Indeed, the physical reality of the
individual stress response, with its cascading
physiological, psychological, and behavioral
effects as mediated by the presence and role
of others, underlines the objective reality of our
mental and physical interdependence on each
other. Thus, dealing with stress inevitably
requires dealing with self, others, and an
external world beyond relationships. Given this
view of stress, the pivotal issue for stress
training is the way a person learns, especially
from her or his own experience, and applies
these learnings to competently deal with her or
his situation. This puts the focus of stress
training on experiential learning, the primary
means by which almost all of us learn about
our selves and develop our skills for managing
self and situation.
The high cost of work stress related
problems highlights the need to spend more
time evaluating work stress interventions and
publishing the findings so that other
organizations can gain insight into programs of
merit. As Kompier et al. (2000) suggested,
there exists at present a large gap between
theory and practice. Without further research,
our knowledge of what works with regard to
occupational stress will remain stunted.
Questions surrounding the issue of whether
stress prevention actually works; which
interventions are most effective, and why; and
the costs and limitations of various
interventions need to be explored further.
Future work in this area should focus on
intervention studies or programs that have not
been published and delving into the gray area
of work stress interventions to find out what
industry is actually doing to tackle the work
stress situation.

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Justiia organizaional i afectivitatea negativ: o metaanaliz a relaiei acestora cu
comportamentele contraproductive

Horia D. Pitariu
1

Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca

Coralia Sulea
Ctlina Zaboril
Laureniu Maricuoiu
Universitatea de Vest din Timioara

Abstract

We present here a meta-analysis carried on a number of 21 empirical studies including 5678
participants from 23 independent samples with an average of 276,86 subjects per sample.
Individual and organizational predictors related to counterproductive work behaviors were
investigated. The variables taken into account as predictors of counterproductive work behaviors
were: organizational justice (interactional, procedural and distributive) and negative affectivity.
The results indicate a negative association between justice dimension and counterproductive
work behaviors and a medium positive association between negative affectivity and
counterproductive work behaviors, as predictors. The best predictor of these behaviors is
procedural justice. Negative affectivity is influencing directly and proportionally the employees
counterproductive behavior mainly directed towards organization. The authors describe
implications for future research and suggestions regarding managers behavior.

Key words: meta-analysis, counterproductive work behaviors, organizational justice,
negative affectivity

Rezumat

n cadrul articolului de fa s-a efectuat o metaanaliz pe 21 studii empirice incluznd 5678
participani din 23 de eantioane independente cu o medie de 276,86 subieci pe eantion. Au
fost investigai predictori individuali i organizaionali afereni comportamentului contraproductiv la
locul de munc. Variabilele luate n considerare au fost: justiia organizaional (interacional,
procedural i distributiv) i afectivitatea negativ, ca predictori ai comportamentului
contraproductiv.
Rezultatele indic o asociere negativ ntre dimensiunile justiiei i comportamentele
contraproductive i o asociere medie pozitiv ntre afectivitatea negativ i comportamentele
contraproductive. Cel mai bun predictor al comportamentelor contraproductive este justiia
procedural. Afectivitatea negativ influeneaz direct proporional comportamentul
contraproductiv al angajatului, acesta fiind ns preponderent direcionat spre organizaie i nu
spre colegi. Autorii descriu implicaiile pentru cercetri ulterioare i sugestiile cu privire la
comportamentul managerilor.

Cuvinte cheie: metaanaliz, comportament contraproductiv, justiie organizaional, afectivitate
negativ.

1
Comportamentele contraproductive
reprezint o preocupare important a
cercettorilor din domeniul organizaional,

1
horia_pitariu@yahoo.com
managerilor i consultanilor datorit
implicaiilor pe care acestea le au pentru
organizaie i membrii acesteia. n cadrul
acestui articol vor fi analizate aceste tipuri de
comportamente i dou categorii de predictori
Studii i Cercetri

35
situaionali i personali: justiia organizaional
i afectivitatea negativ.

Comportamentul contraproductiv

Comportamentele contraproductive la
locul de munc constau n acte voluntare care
duneaz sau au intenia de a afecta
organizaia i persoanele din organizaie sau
care au legturi cu aceasta (clieni, colegi,
supervizori) (Spector & Fox, 2005).
Comportamentele contraproductive sunt
regsite i sub denumirea de devian la locul
de munc sau deviana angajailor, definit ca
un comportament voluntar care ncalc norme
semnificative organizaionale i amenin astfel
bunstarea unei organizaii i/sau a membrilor
acesteia (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Ambele
abordri subliniaz caracterul voluntar al
comportamentelor i potenialul duntor
pentru mediul organizaional. n cadrul acestui
articol, termenii de comportament
contraproductiv la locul de munc i deviana
angajailor vor fi folosii n mod interanjabil.
Definirea devianei este realizat n
funcie de standardele unui grup social specific
(normele, politicile, procedurile
organizaionale) i nu este legat n mod
nemijlocit de un sistem de standarde morale
absolute (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Folosind
scalarea multidimensional, aceleai autoare
ajung la o soluie bidimensional:
prima dimensiune (a gravitii) reflect
un continuum de comportamente,
pornind de la acte relativ minore, pn
la acte grave;
cea de-a doua dimensiune (a intei)
reflect un continuum care descrie
gradul n care comportamentele
deviante sunt interpersonale i
duntoare indivizilor versus
comportamentele care nu sunt
interpersonale i care sunt duntoare
organizaiei.
ncrucind aceste dimensiuni, autoarele au
ajuns la patru cadrane ale comportamentelor
deviante:
cadranul 1. care conine
comportamente grave i duntoare
pentru organizaie (deviana fa de
proprietate);
comportamente relativ minore i
duntoare fa de organizaie
(deviana legat de producie);
comportamente relativ minore i
duntoare la nivel interpersonal
(deviana politic);
comportamente grave i duntoare la
nivel interpersonal (agresivitatea
personal).
n baza acestor rezultate, Bennett i Robinson
(2000) au dezvoltat i validat un instrument, de
tip auto-raportare, al devianei la locul de
munc. Acesta conine dou subscale,
bazndu-se pe dimensiunea intei a
cercettoarelor o subscal care msoar
deviana interpersonal i alta care msoar
deviana orientat spre organizaie. i Spector,
Fox, Penney, Bruursema, Goh i Kessler
(2006) au identificat de asemenea
dimensiunile organizaional i interpersonal
ale comportamentelor contraproductive,
precum i cinci tipuri de categorii ale acestor
comportamente: abuz mpotriva celorlali,
deviana legat de producie, furt, retragere i
sabotaj, construind i validnd un instrument
pentru surprinderea acestora.
n continuare va fi prezentat o
clasificare general a predictorilor
comportamentelor contraproductive precum i
definirea principalilor predictori analizai n
lucrarea de fa.
Bennett i Robinson (2003),
menioneaz trei categorii de poteniali
predictori ai comportamentului contraproductiv:
1. Deviana, ca reacie la experienele
angajatului n organizaie: deviana ca
reacie la frustrare,
injustiia/incorectitudinea perceput, lipsa
controlului, ameninri la propria identitate
(sporirea comportamentelor de furt sau
sabotaj ca reacie la injustiia procedural
sau distributiv) (Greenberg, 1993;
Ambrose, Seabright & Schminke, 2002);
2. Deviana ca reflectare a unor trsturi de
personalitate. Anumii autori au evideniat
existena unei relaii ntre deviana
organizaional i nivelele sczute ale
factorului contiinciozitate, precum i
dintre deviana interpersonal,
extraversiune i nivelele sczute ale
agreabilitii (Lee, Ashton & Shin, 2005).
Metaanaliza realizat de Salgado (2002)
a confirmat c Big Five este un instrument
util de predicie pentru comportamentele
contraproductive, relevnd c factorul
contiinciozitate este unul dintre cei mai
buni predictori ai acesteia. Tot n
categoria trsturilor de personalitate este
luat n considerare i dimensiunea
afectivitii negative, precum i a furiei ca

36
trstur de personalitate. Persoanele cu
scoruri mari pe o scal care msoar furia
ca trstur se implic mai mult n
devian interpersonal, iar cei care au
scoruri mari pe o scal care msoar furia
ca stare sau reacie situaional, se
implic mai mult n comportamente
deviante orientate ctre organizaie (Fox
& Spector, 1999).
3. Deviana ca adaptare la un context social:
este analizat rolul normelor sociale,
comportamentul colegilor care realizeaz
comportamente deviante i care pot
constitui modele pentru ceilali, datorit
mecanismelor nvrii sociale.

Justiia/injustiia organizaional

Injustiia, n general, se refer la
convingerea unui angajat c el (sau altcineva)
a fost tratat n mod incorect. Dintre numeroii
predictori ai comportamentului contraproductiv,
perceperea incorectitudinii este unul din cei
mai puternici (Robinson & Bennett, 1995).
Colquitt (2001) a artat n studiile sale c
justiia organizaional este cel mai bine
conceptualizat prin prisma a patru dimensiuni
distincte: procedural, distributiv,
interpersonal i informaional, ultimele dou
tipuri fiind faete ale justiiei interacionale.
Modelul cu patru dimensiuni al autorului este
susinut de analiza factorial realizat,
argumentnd c o astfel de abordare este mai
bine susinut de date dect abordrile cu doi
sau trei factori ai justiiei.
Justiia distributiv e recunoscut
atunci cnd rezultatele sunt consistente cu
normele implicite de alocare a acestora, cum
ar fi echitatea sau egalitatea. Se refer la
corectitudinea perceput a rezultatelor, gradul
n care recompensele sunt alocate ntr-o
manier corect. Cercetri mai recente
s-au centrat pe corectitudinea proceselor care
conduc la rezultate pozitive i care se
regsesc sub denumirea de justiie
procedural (Colquitt, 2001). Acest tip de
justiie se refer la corectitudinea perceput a
procedurilor, msura n care cei afectai de
deciziile de alocare a recompenselor i
procesul de luare a deciziilor sunt percepute ca
fiind realizate n conformitate cu metode i
demersuri corecte.
Cea de-a treia component a justiiei
organizaionale este justiia interacional, care
este conceptualizat ca tratamentul
interpersonal de care oamenii au parte atunci
cnd anumite proceduri sunt puse n aplicare.
Acest tip de justiie este perceput atunci cnd
persoanele care sunt responsabile de luarea
deciziilor trateaz oamenii cu respect i
sensibilitate (aspectul interpersonal) i explic
procedurile i motivele ce susin deciziile luate
(aspectul informaional). Unii autori au abordat
acest tip de justiie ca fiind un al treilea tip de
justiie (Aquino, 1995; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997)
iar alii au considerat-o ca fiind un subset al
justiiei procedurale (Moorman, 1991; Niehoff &
Moorman, 1993).
Studiile au demonstrat c deviana
poate fi precedat de experiene ale injustiiei
percepute la locul de munc, artnd cum
furturile se nmulesc ca reacie la injustiia
procedural sau distributiv (Greenberg,
1993); la fel i sabotajul (Ambrose, Seabright &
Schminke, 2002) i agresivitatea (Skarlicki &
Folger, 1997). Pornind de la analiza unor
forme izolate de comportament
contraproductiv, cercetrile s-au orientat apoi
spre analiza impactului diferitelor faete ale
justiiei asupra dimensiunii interpersonale sau
organizaionale a comportamentelor
contraproductive.
Un angajat care se simte tratat ntr-un
mod incorect poate ncerca s egaleze scorul
prin comiterea unui sabotaj. Spre exemplu, un
angajat care nu a fost tratat cu respect, nu a
fost promovat, i s-au dat responsabiliti
adiionale fr ca acestea s fie nsoite de o
mrire de salariu, cruia nu i se ofer resurse
adecvate pentru a-i face munca sau care nu a
primit ceea ce consider a fi adecvat pentru
munca realizat, se ncadreaz n profilul unui
angajat nemulumit. Aceast nemulumire
legat de injustiie poate constitui un predictor
important pentru anticiparea direciei n care va
evolua comportamentul organizaional al unui
angajat.
n ceea ce privete justiia distributiv,
Ambrose i colab. (2002) au obinut n studiul
lor o confirmare a ipotezei conform creia
indivizii care simt c au fost tratai incorect din
punct de vedere al distribuiei resurselor se vor
angaja ntr-un comportament de sabotaj n
ncercarea de a restabili echitatea. Aquino,
Lewis i Bradfield (1999) au artat c
percepiile favorabile ale justiiei distributive
sunt negativ legate de deviana interpersonal
i nu sunt semnificativ legate de deviana
orientat spre organizaie. Fox, Spector i
Miles (2001) au artat c justiia distributiv
este semnificativ corelat cu comportamentul
contraproductiv organizaional. La fel, cu
referire la justiia procedural, s-au gsit
Studii i Cercetri

37
corelaii negative puternice cu deviana
organizaional i interpersonal.
Studiul realizat de Bennett i Robinson
(2000) a relevat c scorurile devianei
interpersonale i organizaionale au fost
corelate negativ cu justiia procedural i
justiia interacional. Scorurile legate de
justiia distributiv nu au corelat cu nici una
dintre scale.
Analiznd justiia interpersonal,
Ambrose i colab. (2002) au artat c
persoanele care simt c nu au fost respectate
sau tratate cu consideraie se vor angaja ntr-
un comportament de sabotare de tipul
rzbunrii. Aquino i colab. (1999) au
evideniat faptul c percepiile asupra justiiei
interacionale au fost predictori puternici ai
comportamentului deviant orientat spre
organizaie i alte persoane. Tot ei au subliniat
i faptul c percepiile favorabile ale justiiei
interacionale sunt negativ legate att de
deviana interpersonal, ct i de cea orientat
spre organizaie.
Amintim i rezultatele lui Gallperin
(2002) care prezint date ntr-o perspectiv
general conform creia percepiile asupra
justiiei coreleaz negativ cu deviana
destructiv, att cu cea interpersonal ct i cu
cea organizaional (folosim n mod specific
termenul de devian destructiv pentru c unii
autori, cum ar fi Warren (2003), au adus n
discuie partea constructiv a devianei, care
presupune comportamente adaptative n care
angajaii se implic pentru a restabili echilibrul
ntre ateptrile personale i standardele de
comportament ale organizaiei). Percepiile
asupra justiiei sunt predictori importani ai
devianei destructive. Cnd angajaii percep c
au fost tratai incorect, va exista o mai mare
probabilitate de a nclca normele
organizaionale i de a se implica n acte
deviante ndreptate nemijlocit spre organizaie
i spre ali indivizi. E important s amintim i
constatarea lui Ambrose i colab. (2002) care
au artat n studiul lor c indivizii se vor angaja
n forme mai serioase de sabotaj cnd
experimenteaz mai multe tipuri de injustiie.
Aceste rezultate sunt argumente
pentru ipotezele noastre care urmresc
legtura dintre justiia organizaional n
general dar i a faetelor acestora cu
dimensiunile comportamentului contraproduc-
tiv.

Afectivitatea negativ

Afectivitatea negativ este considerat
a fi o tendin dispoziional generalizat
pentru individul care experimenteaz emoii
negative de-a lungul timpului i situaiilor (Fox
& colab., 2001). Aceiai autori au artat c n
cazul indivizilor care nregistreaz scoruri mari
pe trstura furie, nivele nalte ale conflictului
sunt asociate cu nivele nalte ale
comportamentului contraproductiv interperso-
nal. Afectivitatea negativ reflect msura n
care indivizii experimenteaz emoii stresante
cum ar fi ostilitate, fric, anxietate (Watson &
Clark, 1984). Dintre indicatorii unui nivel nalt al
afectivitii negative, furia ca trstur este
analizat n numeroase studii pe marginea
comportamentului contraproductiv la locul de
munc (Douglas & Martinko, 2001; Hepworth &
Towler, 2004; Miles, Borman, Spector & Fox,
2002; Penney & Spector, 2005). Furia ca
trstur (engl. trait anger) este predispoziia
de a rspunde la situaii cu ostilitate. Fox i
Spector (1999) au artat c trstura furie este
n mod particular asociat cu comportamentul
contraproductiv interpersonal. n studiile
realizate de Fox i colab. (2001), Miles i
colab. (2002), comportamentele contra-
productive au fost legate de msuri mai
generale ale emoiilor pozitive i negative la
locul de munc, corelaiile cu emoiile negative
au fost semnificative n toate cazurile iar
comportamentul contraproductiv a fost asociat
negativ cu experiena emoional pozitiv.
Studiile au relevat c la indivizii care au un
nivel nalt de afectivitate negativ se
evideniaz o mai mare probabilitate de a
experimenta stri emoionale n diferite situaii,
indiferent de stimulul specific. n ceea ce
privete legtura dintre afectivitatea negativ i
comportament ntr-un context de lucru se
constat faptul c un nivel crescut al
afectivitii negative este legat de stabilirea
unor scopuri minimale i o probabilitate mai
mare de a se implica n comportamente de
retragere, de a avea un nivel mai mare de
ostilitate, pretenii i o conduit distant
(Necowitz & Roznowski, 1994).
Studiile privind afectivitatea negativ
au fost n general orientate pe o percepie
dimensional asupra emoiilor, ca experiene
nespecifice, susinnd c rapoartele
individuale privind trirea furiei i fricii sunt
puternic corelate. Acest lucru conduce la
concluzia c aceste emoii nu sunt aa de clar
difereniate una de cealalt n viaa de zi cu zi
(Russell & Feldman Barrett, 1999; Watson &

38
Tellegen, 1985). Cele mai vehiculate modele
dimensionale prezente n literatura
organizaional asupra emoiilor sunt:
modelul circumplex al emoiilor propus
de Russell (1980) care include strile
emoionale ca puncte n interiorul unui
cerc, ntr-un spaiu bidimensional
bipolar descris de dimensiunea
valenei emoionale a acestor stri
(satisfacie insatisfacie) pe care este
orientat perpendicular cea de-a doua
dimensiune, reflectnd nivelul de
activare (activare puternic activare
slab);
modelul bidimensional al lui Watson i
Tellegen (1985) care organizeaz
strile emoionale de-a lungul a dou
dimensiuni nespecifice: stri afective
pozitive/trsturi temperamentale
pozitive (engl. positive
affect/temperament) (ex., fericirea,
interesul, ncrederea, agreabilitatea,
starea de bine, activismul) i stri
afective negative/trsturi
temperamentale negative (engl.
negative affect/temperament) (cum ar
fi frica, furia, vinovia, iritabilitatea,
anxietatea, depresia, ostilitatea).
Martinko, Gundlach i Douglas (2002)
realizeaz o analiz a diferenelor individuale
care sunt legate de variate forme ale
comportamentului contraproductiv i
investigheaz afectivitatea negativ. Conform
datelor colectate de autori, cei care prezint un
nivel ridicat al afectivitii negative au tendina
de a avea un nivel mai sczut de satisfacie
fa de viaa lor i se centreaz pe aspecte
negative legate de propria persoan i mediul
lor, fiind deseori percepui ca fiind ostili i
distani. Aceti indivizi percep ntr-o mai mare
msur dezechilibrul i fac atribuiri pesimiste.
Astfel, la ei se ntlnete o mai mare
probabilitate de a etala mai multe
comportamente contraproductive.
Cercetrile asupra afectivitii pozitive
i negative n termenii dispoziiilor care
influeneaz atitudinile i conduita oamenilor la
locul de munc indic faptul c afectivitatea
negativ este asociat unor niveluri crescute
ale stresului, simptomelor depresive,
atitudinilor negative fa de locul de munc i
fa de via, n general (George, 1990; Staw,
Bell & Clausen, 1986). n plus, se pare c
angajaii cu afectivitate dominant negativ sunt
cu predilecie gsii n posturi caracterizate prin
autonomie redus, identitate slab a sarcinii,
abiliti reduse i absena feedbackului din
partea managementului (Spector, Fox & Van
Katwyk, 1999).
Aquino i colab. (1999) au relevat c
exist o relaie direct ntre afectivitatea
negativ i comportamentele contraproductive,
afectivitatea negativ fiind pozitiv legat att
de deviana interpersonal ct i de cea
organizaional.
Lee i Allen (2002) au argumentat c
emoiile legate de munc (engl. job affect) pot
constitui predictori pentru deviana
interpersonal, iar cogniia fa de munc
(engl. job cognition) prezice deviana
organizaional.

Relaia dintre justiia
organizaional si emoiile negative

Comportamentele contraproductive pot aprea
ca rspuns la stresorii legai de locul de munc
i alte condiii care induc emoii negative.
Modelul lui Spector i Fox (2005) presupune o
legtur cauzal ntre mediu, percepia
(evaluarea) mediului, emoie i comportament.
Se pornete de la ideea c n mediu exist un
factor stresor care, n funcie de felul n care
este evaluat, determin un tip de percepie a
stresorului care mai departe conduce la emoii
negative ce determin comportamentul
contraproductiv. Controlul perceput
influeneaz nu numai modul n care stresorul
e perceput, ci i emoiile negative i realizarea
efectiv a comportamentului contraproductiv.
Fox i colab. (2001) au demonstrat c
stresorii legai de locul de munc (conflicte cu
alte persoane i constrngeri interpersonale)
sunt legai de o msur compozit a emoiilor.
Aceast msur a fost, de asemenea, legat
de percepia injustiiei (care este considerat
un tip de stresor legat de munc).
Skarlicki i Folger (1997) au explorat
cercetrile care indic faptul c angajaii pot
rspunde la percepii ale unui tratament
incorect cu emoii negative (furie, resentiment)
i cu o serie de rspunsuri comportamentale
directe sau indirecte cum ar fi furtul,
vandalismul, sabotajul, retragerea, rezistena.
Skarlicki, Folger i Tesluk (1999) au
demonstrat c relaia dintre injustiia perceput
i comportamentele de rzbunare este
moderat de factori de personalitate cum ar fi
afectivitatea negativ i agreabilitatea.
Spector i colab. (1992, 1999, 2001)
au adus un suport empiric considerabil pentru
ideea c deviana angajailor constituie un
rspuns emoional la stresorii frustrani ai
postului de munc.
Studii i Cercetri

39
Analiza cercetrilor din domeniul
afectivitii negative susin demersul nostru
metaanalitic pentru evidenierea rolului de
predictor al afectivitii negative n producerea
comportamentelor contraproductive, punnd
accentul pe relevana acesteia asupra
dimensiunilor interpersonal i organizaional
ale comportamentelor contraproductive.

Obiectivul i ipotezele cercetrii

n studiul metaanalitic pe care l-am
proiectat au fost luai n considerare doi dintre
predictorii semnalai de Bennett i Robinson
(2003): justiia organizaional (cu cele trei
faete ale sale) i emoiile negative trite la
locul de munc. Se urmrete att analiza
comportamentului contraproductiv ca un
construct general, ct i legtura dintre faetele
comportamentelor contraproductive
(organizaional i interpersonal) i relaia
acestora cu afectivitatea negativ. Am ales
aceti predictori pentru cercetarea de fa
pentru a analiza impactul unei variabile
situaionale i al uneia individuale asupra
comportamentelor contraproductive, urmnd
ca n cercetrile ulterioare s analizm i
implicaiile altor predictori. Ipotezele cercetrii
urmresc: 1.Care este magnitudinea relaiei
dintre faetele justiiei organizaionale i
dimensiunile comportamentelor
contraproductive? i 2.Care este
magnitudinea relaiei dintre afectivitatea
negativ i dimensiunile comportamentelor
contraproductive?

Metoda

Identificarea studiilor
Cutarea articolelor s-a realizat prin
folosirea unor cuvinte cheie n baza de date
PsychInfo, ProQuest, Ebsco, Science Direct,
PsychArticles, JSTOR, ScienceDirect (folosind
cuvinte cheie: workplace deviance,
counterproductive work behavior,
organizational misbehavior, interpersonal
workplace deviance, organizational workplace
deviance, antisocial behavior at work,
employee deviance). Au fost cutate n special
articolele care au folosit scala lui Bennett i
Robinson (2000) sau Robinson i Bennett
(1995) i au fost luate n considerare doar
articolele care au folosit aceste scale sau scale
care au la baz acest model bidimensional
al devianei organizaionale i interpersonale.
De asemenea, au fost identificate i lucrrile
prezentate la diferite conferine n domeniul
psihologiei organizaionale. O alt modalitate
de cutare a articolelor a fost reprezentat de
analiza bibliografiei metaanalizelor anterioare
(Dalal, 2005; Salgado, 2002; Lau, Au & Ho,
2003; Herschovis, Turner, Barling, Arnold,
Dupre, Inness, LeBlanc & Sivanathan, 2007).
Au fost reinute studiile care au
respectat simultan condiiile minimale pentru
includere n studiul metaanalitic:
articole care au folosit scale de
msurare pentru comportamente
contraproductive de tip auto-raportare
i care s aib la baz dimensiunea
interpersonal i dimensiunea
organizaional (Spector & colab.,
2006; Bennett & Robinson, 2000;
Robinson & Bennet, 1995);
articole care au folosit scale de
msurare a afectivitii negative
(JAWS - Van Katwyk, Fox, Spector &
Kelloway, 2000; PANAS Watson &
Clark, 1994). Nu au fost luate n
considerare acele articole care au
msurat aspecte asociate afectivitii
negative (de exemplu, furia ca
trstur);
articole care s raporteze cel puin
coeficientul de corelaie liniar r
(Pearson) dintre o form sau alta a
comportamentului contraproductiv sau
acesta luat ca un construct global i
unul dintre predictorii de interes ai
acestei metaanalize i numrul de
subieci.
Nu au fost luate n considerare studiile
care investigau aspecte singulare ale
comportamentelor contraproductive (de
exemplu, absenteismul) sau variabile
psihologice asociate acestor comportamente
(de exemplu, agresivitatea la locul de munc).

Procedura
Demersul de fa este o metaanaliz a
corelaiilor, derulat n conformitate cu
recomandrile oferite de Hunter i Schmidt
(2004). Prin aceasta, ne-am propus
identificarea intervalelor de ncredere a
coeficienilor de corelaie dup eliminarea
influenelor erorilor de eantionare a studiilor
analizate i a influenelor erorilor de msurare
datorate variaiei consistenei interne a scalelor
aplicate. Controlul statistic al acestor influene
s-a realizat utiliznd metodele de corecie prin
distribuia artefactelor deoarece nu toate
studiile au coninut un set complet de
indicatori.

40
Din studiile gsite au fost selectate
urmtoarele informaii: caracteristici ale
eantionului utilizat (N, distribuie de gen,
medie i abatere standard vrst, medie i
abatere standard vechime n munc,
naionalitate), indicatori descriptivi ai
variabilelor de interes (medie i abatere
standard a scalelor), coeficienii de corelaie
dintre dimensiunile comportamentale
contraproductive i predictorii de interes pentru
aceast metaanaliz, precum i consistena
intern a scalelor respective (comportamente
contraproductive i predictori).

Rezultate

Pentru a facilita citirea variabilelor
utilizate n studiul prezent, s-au folosit
urmtoarele prescurtri: JDjustiie
distributiv, JPjustiie procedural, JI
justiie interacional, CCO comportament
contraproductiv orientat spre organizaie,
CCIcomportament contraproductiv
interpersonal, CCcomportament
contraproductiv n general, ANafectivitatea
negativ.

a. Relaia dintre comportamentele
contraproductive i justiia
organizaional
Diferitele tipuri de injustiie
(procedural, distributiv, interpersonal i
informaional) sunt relaionate de variate
forme de comportament contraproductiv
(deviana organizaional vs. deviana
interpersonal). Sursa justiiei procedurale este
n mod tipic organizaia, n timp ce sursa
justiiei interacionale este deseori un superior,
sursele transformndu-se apoi n inte ale
comportamentului contraproductiv (Colquitt,
2001).
Rezultatele prezentate n Tabelul 1
arat c relaia dintre justiia procedural i
comportamentul contraproductiv este, n
general, negativ, de intensitate medie i
omogen. Variaiile observate la nivelul
rezultatelor studiilor analizate sunt explicate
preponderent de erorile de eantionare i n
mai mic msur de variaiile consistenei
interne ale scalelor utilizate. Cu alte cuvinte,
variaiile consistenei interne a scalelor joac
un rol mai puin important n determinarea
intensitii relaiei dintre variabilele incluse n
studiul prezent.
Tabelul 1. Relaia comportamente contraproductive i justiia procedural.

Relaie N k r(obs) r(aj) AS(r.aj) r(min) r(max) % er.esant. % consist % total
JP-CCO 2012 7 -0.257 -0.359 0 -0.359 -0.359 100.00% 14.20% 100.00%
JP-CCI 2012 7 -0.226 -0.307 0.041 -0.387 -0.226 77.53% 8.85% 86.38%
JP-CC 1289 5 -0.303 -0.389 0.045 -0.478 -0.301 76.31% 9.42% 85.73%

Legend: N=numrul cumulat de subieci din toate studiile luate n considerare; k=numrul de studii luate n considerare;
r(obs)=media ponderat a coeficienilor de corelaie; r(aj)=media ajustat a coeficienilor de corelaie, dup eliminarea
influenelor erorilor datorate consistenei interne a scalelor; SD(r.aj)=abaterea standard a lui r(aj); r(min)=limita inferioar a
intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); r(max)=limita superioar a intervalului de ncredere al
coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); %er.eant.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de eantionare;
%consist.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de msurare a variabilelor; %total=procentul total de
varian explicat de artefacte.

Analiznd comparativ rezultatele
relaiei dintre justiia procedural i
dimensiunile comportamentului contraproduc-
tiv putem spune c legtura dintre acest tip de
justiie i comportamentele contraproductive
organizaionale este mai puternic dect
legtura acesteia cu comportamentele
contraproductive interpersonale.
n ceea ce privete relaia dintre
comportamentele contraproductive i justiia
interacional, articolele analizate nu ne-au
permis analiza pe faetele comportamentului
contraproductiv datorit faptului c au preferat
studierea unei abordri general a devianei
organizaionale. Tabelul 2 prezint rezultatele
obinute n urma analizei relaiei dintre
comportamente contraproductive i justiia
interacional.

Studii i Cercetri

41
Tabelul 2. Relaia comportamente contraproductive i justiia interacional.

Relaie N k r(obs) r(aj) SD(r.aj) r(min) R(max) %
er.esant.
% consist % total
JI-CC 776 6 -0.298 -0.389 0.14 -0.68 -0.097 49.71% 1.08% 50.79%


Relaia JICC este n general
negativ, de intensitate medie i eterogen.
Variaiile rezultatelor raportate de studiile
analizate sunt n mic msur explicate de
consistena intern (doar 1,08% din varian)
sau de erorile de eantionare ale studiilor (doar
49,71% din varian), dei o putere explicativ
de 50% din varian poate prea una
acceptabil. Hunter i Schmidt (2004) susin c
n situaii n care variana explicat este mai
mic de 75% se poate vorbi de existena unor
variabile moderatoare care nu au fost luate n
considerare. Datorit varianei mari
neexplicate, intervalul de ncredere al mediei
coeficientului de corelaie se apropie foarte
mult de valoarea 0 (r(max)=-0.097), ceea ce
ne indic faptul c aceast relaie nu a aprut
n mod constant ca fiind semnificativ.
Relaia justiiei distributive cu
dimensiunile comportamentului contraproductiv
este prezentat n Tabelul 3. Datorit faptului
c autorii studiilor identificate de noi au
preferat s analizeze comportamentul
contraproductiv din perspectiva sa
bidimensional, nu s-a putut calcula un
coeficient de corelaie mediu pentru relaia
justiie distributiv-comportament
contraproductiv (n general).

Tabelul 3. Relaia dintre comportamentele contraproductive i justiia distributiv.

Relaie N k r(obs) r(aj) SD(aj) r(min) r(max) % er.esant. % consist % total
JD-OCC 1660 6 -0.177 -0.246 0 -0.246 -0.246 100% 0 100%
JD-ICC 1763 7 -0.148 -0.201 0 -0.201 -0.201 100% 0 100%


n relaia JD i dimensiunile CC,
coeficientul de corelaie este negativ, de
intensitate slab, dar constant de la un studiu
la altul. Aceasta nseamn c, n studii viitoare,
pentru obinerea unei corelaii semnificative
statistic este necesar un volum mai mare al
eantionului.

Relaia dintre comportamentele
contraproductive i afectivitatea
negativ

Studiile care analizeaz emoiile
specifice cu impact asupra comportamentelor
contraproductive susin n special ideea c
afectivitatea negativ (furie, fric, tristee) are
impact asupra comportamentelor
contraproductive (Martinko, Gundlach &

42
Douglas, 2002). Un nivel crescut al afectivitii
negative conduce, prin diferite mecanisme, la
etalarea unui comportament contraproductiv,
n special datorit ostilitii (furiei) resimite la
locul de munc (Watson & Clark, 1994).
Tabelul 4 prezint relaia dintre
comportamentele contraproductive i
afectivitatea negativ.

Tabelul 4. Relaia comportamentelor contraproductive i afectivitatea negativ.

Relaie N k r(obs) r(aj) SD(r.aj) r(min) r(max) % er.eant. % consist % total
AN-CCO 1271 6 0.349 0.509 0.094 0.325 0.693 28.02% 13.81% 41.83%
AN-CCI 1496 8 0.241 0.341 0 0.341 0.341 99.02% 16.13% 100%
AN-CC 2017 6 0.359 0.458 0.079 0.301 0.615 21.41% 9.95% 31.36%


Relaia afectivitate negativ-
comportamente contraproductive este n
general pozitiv, de intensitate medie. S-a
constatat o omogenitate foarte bun a
rezultatelor la nivelul relaiei afectivitate
negativ-comportamente contraproductive
interpersonale, dar pentru relaia afectivitate
negativcomportamente contraproductive
organizaionale i afectivitate negativ-
comportamente contraproductive n general,
omogenitatea las de dorit. Este foarte
probabil ca aceast relaie s fie aib
moderatori care nu au fost luai n considerare
n acest studiu.
Relaia afectivitate negativ-
comportament contraproductiv organizaional
este mai puternic dect afectivitate negativ-
comportament contraproductiv interpersonal,
cel puin la nivelul relaiei observate. Media
ajustat a coeficientului de corelaie dintre
afectivitatea negativ i comportamentul
contraproductiv organizaional a relevat relaii
de intensitate similar. Spre deosebire de
relaiile prezentate anterior (justiie
proceduralcomportament contraproductiv),
erorile de msurare a variabilelor au o pondere
mai mare n a explica diferenele dintre studii.
Acest aspect este important deoarece ne
indic faptul c obinerea acestei relaii este
influenat n mai mare msur de calitatea
instrumentelor folosite.

Comparaii cu metaanalize
anterioare

n metaanaliza realizat de Herschovis
i colab. (2007) nu s-au evideniat diferene
ntre justiia procedural i distributiv n
predicia celor dou tipuri de agresivitate, n
sensul c ambele tipuri de justiie sunt n relaii
negative cu ambele tipuri de agresivitate.
Menionm c acest autor a folosit conceptul
de agresivitate la locul de munc, definit ca
orice comportament iniiat de ctre angajai
pentru a face ru unui individ din cadrul
organizaiei sau organizaiei n sine, inta fiind
motivat s o evite (Neumann & Baron, 2005).
Afectivitatea negativ, dei coreleaz cu cele
dou tipuri de agresivitate, nu s-a dovedit a fi
un predictor al acestora n momentul n care a
fost inclus ntr-o analiz de regresie mpreun
cu ali predictori. Din moment ce nu am realizat
o astfel de regresie pornind de la rezultatele
metaanalizei noastre, este dificil de estimat ce
se poate ntmpla n astfel de ecuaii de
regresie cu variabilele identificate n acest
studiu ca fiind asociate comportamentului
contraproductiv.
n studiul lui Dalal (2005) a obinut
corelaii similare cu cele din studiul de fa
ntre justiia organizaional i
comportamentele contraproductive ca i
constructe globale, precum i ntre afectivitatea
negativ i comportamentele contraproductive.

Discuii i implicaii practice
Studii i Cercetri

43

Scopul acestei metaanalize a fost
acela de a analiza tipul i intensitatea relaiei
dintre comportamente contraproductive i
anumii predictori ai acesteia (justiia
organizaional i faetele ei i afectivitatea
negativ).
Pe baza studiului ntreprins se poate
afirma c dintre faetele justiiei organizaionale
cel mai bun predictor al comportamentelor
contraproductive este justiia procedural,
deoarece rezultatele indic un efect mediu
constant, indiferent de caracteristicile studiului.
Dac angajaii percep corectitudinea n
aplicarea procedurilor, se vor implica ntr-o
mic msur n comportamente
contraproductive la locul de munc. Aceast
relaie este mai puternic pentru
comportamentele contraproductive orientate
ctre organizaie. Rezult c atunci cnd
angajaii percep c procedurile folosite n
organizaie sunt aplicate n mod constant, fr
distorsiuni, fiind totodat fundamentate pe
informaii corecte, respectnd standarde etice
i cu posibilitatea exprimrii punctului propriu
de vedere cu referire la aplicarea procedurilor
pentru luarea deciziilor, scade semnificativ
riscul implicrii lor n comportamente
contraproductive.
Afectivitatea negativ la nivelul
angajatului crete probabilitatea implicrii
acestuia n comportamente contraproductive la
locul de munc. Afectivitatea negativ are o
influen mai mare asupra comportamentelor
contraproductive orientate spre organizaie.
Predispoziia angajailor de a experimenta
emoii negative sau de a gestiona dificil
aceast experien poate constitui un predictor
al frecvenei comportamentelor
contraproductive la locul de munc. Cum
afectivitatea negativ este o dimensiune a
personalitii, aceasta caracteristic poate fi
investigat i identificat de angajatori nc din
faza primelor proceduri de selecie a
candidailor pentru o poziie (n acest scop se
pot utiliza o serie de probe psihologice de
profil). Aceast informaie poate fi ulterior
utilizat n cadrul programelor de dezvoltare
organizaional (training, team-building,
consiliere, coaching), pentru a asigura o
intervenie util din perspectiva mbuntirii
climatului organizational.
Important pentru manageri este s
acorde o mai mare atenie modului n care sunt
aplicate procedurile n cadrul organizaiei,
datorit riscului crescut ca acestea s conduc
la realizarea comportamentelor contraproducti-
ve n ncercarea de a restabili o anume
echitate, avnd n vedere c justiia
procedural este cel mai important predictor al
comportamentelor contraproductive organizai-
onale. i, indiferent de comparaie, aceast
relaie rmne una semnificativ. Legtura
semnificativ negativ ntre comportamentele
contraproductive n general i justiia
interacional, relev importana ca angajaii s
se simt tratai corect, cu respect i sinceritate
i s le fie explicate deciziile luate de superiorii
lor, avnd n vedere cele dou faete ale
justiiei interacionale (interpersonal i
informaional). De asemenea, important este
i relaia dintre justiia distributiv, echitatea
recompenselor i cele dou faete ale
comportamentului contraproductiv. Angajaii au
nevoie ca rezultatele/recompensele pe care le
primesc s reflecte efortul depus de ctre ei n
munca lor, s fie adecvate muncii realizate i
sa fie justificate n raport cu performana de
care dau dovad.

Implicaii pentru cercetri viitoare

Metaanaliza de fa i-a propus
includerea doar a acelor articole care au
msurat comportamentul contraproductiv cu
ajutorul chestionarelor special dezvoltate n
acest sens. Aceast abordare reprezint un
punct forte al studiului de fa, dar i o limit a
lui: n baza rezultatelor prezentate este dificil
de identificat intensitatea relaiei dintre
comportamentele contraproductive specifice
(de exemplu, furt) i variabilele corelate
evideniate n acest studiu.
O alt limit a demersului prezentat
const n faptul c, n situaiile n care am
ajuns la relaii eterogene ntre variabilele
investigate, nu am reuit s analizm posibilele
variabile moderatoare. Aceast limit se
datoreaz numrului relativ redus de studii
existente n acest moment n literatura de
specialitate, studii care s respecte toate
condiiile de selecie a articolelor. Totui,
considerm c relaiile evideniate sunt cu att
mai valoroase, cu ct studiile incluse n
metaanaliz prezent sunt similare din punct
de vedere metodologic.
Cercetrile metaanalitice ulterioare
trebuie s ia n considerare i ceilali predictori
importani ai comportamentelor contra-
productive, cum ar fi factorii de personalitate,
variabilele demografice i factori situaionali
precum satisfacia la locul de munc sau
factorii stresori organizaionali.

44
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D&D Consultants, Bucureti
www.ddconsultants.ro

Instrumente psihometrice publicate de D&D Consultants/TestCentral

CPI (California Psychological Inventory (462, 434, 260))
NPQ (Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire)
FFNPQ (Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire)
SWS (Survey of Work Styles)
STAXI-2 (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory)
FPI (Freiburg Personlichkeitsinventar (Formele G i R))
LSI (Learning Styles Inventory)
MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Forma 5X))
STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory)
STAIC (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children)
JVIS (Jackson Vocational Interest Survey)
AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory)
FJAS (Fleishman Job Analysis Survey)

Instrumente psihometrice n curs de apariie:

ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool)
EPQ-R (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Revised)
IVE (Eysenck's Impulsiveness Questionnaire)
BFQ-2 (Big Five Questionnaire)
BFA (Big Five Adjectives)
GAMA (General Ability Measure for Adults)
MAB-II (Multidimensional Aptitude Battery)
NEO-PI-R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory)
BASC-2 (Behaviour Assessment System for Children, Second Edition)
MSCEIT (Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test)
EO-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory)
TEDE6 (Test dvaluation dynamique de lducabilit)
DDDI (Dula Dangerous Driving Index)

Studii i Cercetri

47
MLQ (Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership).
Date preliminare pentru Romnia

Drago Iliescu
1

D&D Research, Bucureti

Rare Mocanu
SNSPA/FCRP, Bucureti

Felicia Beldean
Target Romania, Bucureti

Abstract

The Multifactorial Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), in its latest version (5X), is a complex
instrument, created in order to offer (1) a valid measurement of the transformational, transactional
and passive components of leadership and also (2) as accurate a profile as possible for a persons
leadership potential and leadership-related behavior. The MLQ has been often used in laboratory
and field researches, being an adequate, very useful tool for selection, transfer, promotion,
development and counseling of individuals, groups or organizations. Various forms of the MLQ
have been used in more than 30 countries, in industrial organizations, hospitals, religious
institutions, military organizations, governmental agencies, universities, primary and secondary
schools. It has been demonstrated that the efficiency of the MLQ remains constant, no matter if the
leader is evaluated by his direct superiors, subordinates, co-workers or customers. An outstanding
advantage of the MLQ is thus the possibility of 360usage (with parallel forms of for self-
evaluation and peer-evaluation).
The adaptation of the MLQ started in Romania in 2005. This paper presents a pilot study on the
self-evaluation form of the MLQ. A pilot sample of 229 participants was used, comprising medium-
level and top managers, recruited from different corporations in Bucharest. Primary statistics,
reliability, interscale correlations and the factor analysis of the MLQ are being presented and
discussed, contrasted with the results reported by the original authors on USA samples. The
results of these preliminary studies are encouraging, indicating that, in spite of an obvious need of
extra research, the Romanian MLQ is an effective tool so far.

Key-words: transformational leadership, transactional leadership, Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ)

Rezumat

Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership (MLQ), n versiunea sa cea mai recent (Forma 5X)
este un instrument complex, dezvoltat att cu scopul de a oferi o dimensiune clar a
componentelor transformaionale, tranzacionale i celor de tip pasiv/evitant ale leadershipului,
ct i pentru a oferi un profil ct mai complet al performanelor unui candidat i al potenialului su
de leadership. MLQ este unul din instrumentele de leadership cel mai des folosite n cadrul
cercetrilor de teren i de laborator, fiind un instrument adecvat i foarte util n activiti de
selecie, transfer, promovare, dezvoltare i consiliere individual, de grup sau organizaional.
Numeroase forme ale MLQ au fost folosite n peste 30 de ri n organizaii industriale, spitale,
instituii religioase, organizaii militare, agenii guvernamentale, faculti, coli primare i
gimnaziale. S-a demonstrat c MLQ este la fel de eficient, indiferent dac leaderul este evaluat
de superiori direci, colegi, subordonai direci sau colaboratori (inclusiv clieni). Un avantaj
marcant al MLQ l constituie faptul c poate fi administrat n forma 360, pentru acest c hestionar,
existnd forme paralele de auto-evaluare i de hetero-evaluare.

1
Adresa de coresponden: dragos.iliescu@ddresearch.ro

48
n Romnia, adaptarea MLQ a nceput n anul 2005. Prezentul studiu este o pilotare a
chestionarului n forma sa de auto-evaluare, pe un eantion pilot de 229 de participani, cu funcii
de conducere, plasai la nivel mediu i de top n corporaii din Bucureti. Sunt prezentate,
comparativ cu aceleai statistici raportate de autori pe eantioane din SUA, indicii statistici
primari, caracteristicile de fidelitate ale scalelor, corelaiile interscale i analiza factorial a itemilor
testului. Rezultatele acestei pilotri i cercetri preliminarii sunt ncurajatoare, semnalnd, n
ciuda necesitii clare de efort suplimentar dedicat adaptrii finale a chestionarului n Romnia,
faptul c traducerea i adaptarea MLQ este pn la acest moment un succes.

Cuvinte cheie: leadership transformaional, leadership tranzacional, Chestionarul Multifactorial
de Leadership, MLQ

Introducere

n ultimii 40 de ani, cercetrile care
explic fenomenologia leadership-ului i,
subsecvent, teoriile rezultate din aceste
cercetri, s-au centrat preponderent pe
descrierea eficienei n conducere ca
manifestare a comportamentului corect dintr-
o diad de posibile comportamente. Discutm
astfel de leadership autocrat sau democrat, de
luarea deciziilor n mod directiv sau
participativ, de centrarea pe sarcin sau
centrarea pe relaie, comportament de iniiere
sau comportament de apreciere etc. n ciuda
succesului lor parial de a explica leadershipul
i de a prezice i dezvolta eficiena leaderilor,
aceste explicaii par astzi nu doar incomplete
ci poate i uor simpliste. O concesie trzie a
fost fcut n aceste aprecieri extremizate
variabilelor situaionale, care ar putea fixa
cadrul pentru a considera una sau alta dintre
entitile unei diade ca fiind cea corect:
situaia dicteaz dac un stil autocrat sau
unul democrat este mai eficient i astfel poate
fi considerat corect. Aceast schimbare de
perspectiv dinspre stil pur nspre un stil
adaptat situaiei, a marcat nceputul noilor
teorii n leadership (Bass, 1990).
Tendina de a nelege
comportamentul managerial centrat pe o gam
mai larg de stiluri de leadership, numit de
ctre House i Podsakoff (1994) leadership
excepional, coincide nu doar cu o schimbare
natural n paradigma n care se realizeaz
studiile n domeniul conducerii, ci i cu
mutaiile radicale care au loc n natura muncii.
Aceste schimbri n natura sarcinilor de
munc, au transformat cerinele pe care
organizaiile le au de la leaderi, astfel nct
conductorului actual i se cer nu doar lucruri
fundamental diferite dect n urm cu una sau
dou decade, ci i comportamente mai variate
i mai versatile.

Chiar dac asupra modalitilor de manifestare
a acestui stil de leadership se poart n
continuare discuii extensive, care genereaz
un volum impresionant de cercetri empirice,
exist astzi totui consens n comunitatea
tiinific privind cel puin denumirea i
fundamentul acestui comportament: leadership
transformaional. Aceast denumire
(leadership transformaional) fixeaz n
acelai timp ruptura paradigmatic fa de
practicile de leadership preferate i promovate
n trecut, bazate pe conducere ca tranzacie i
numite n consecin leadership tranzacional.
n aceast lucrare va fi prezentat pe
scurt modelul teoretic al leadershipului
tranzacional, dup care analiza se va
concentra pe MLQ, care este instrumentul
consacrat pentru msurarea componentelor
acestui model, vizualiznd caracteristicile
psihometrice care sunt asociate msurrii
componentelor modelului leadershipului
transformaional, cu un accent deosebit pe
situaia acestor indici pentru populaia
Romniei.

Leadership transformaional vs.
tranzacional

Leadership-ul transformaional a fost
prima oar difereniat de leadership-ul
tranzacional de ctre Downton (1973), pentru
a explica diferenele dintre leaderii
revoluionari, rebeli, reformatori i cei obinuii.
Totui, conceptualizarea propus de Downton
nu a fost remarcat pn n momentul apariiei
n 1978 a lucrrii lui Burns despre leaderii
politici. Conform lui Burns (1978), leaderii
politici tranzacionali i motivau colaboratorii i
electoratul dndu-le recompense n schimbul
serviciilor prestate:

Studii i Cercetri

49
[Leaderii tranzacionali] i abordeaz asociaii din
perspectiva schimbului: se urmrete schimbarea
unui lucru pe altul - a locurilor de munc pentru
voturi sau a subveniilor pentru contribuii la
campanii. Asemenea tranzacii nglobeaz
majoritatea relaiilor dintre leaderi i asociai, n
special n grupuri politice, n parlament i partide (p.
3).

O conceptualizare similar cu cea a lui
Burns a realizat Zeleznik (1977) privitor la
managerii din organizaii comerciale.
Concluziile analizei lui Zeleznik (1977) cu
privire la manageri au concordat i cu
diferenierea fcut de Burns ntre liderii
transformaionali i cei tranzacionali. Conform
acestui autor, managerii/leaderii tranzacionali
analizeaz nevoile colaboratorilor lor i
stabilesc pentru ei eluri bazndu-se pe ceea
ce se poate atepta n mod raional de la
acetia.
Bass (1985a, 1985b) a extins definiia
leaderului tranzacional de la mediul politic i la
alte sectoare (militar, industrial, public i
educaional). Urmnd cadrul trasat de Burns,
el i-a descris pe aceti leaderi ca fiind cei care
identific ceea ce ateapt de la munca
subalternilor i ncearc s se asigure c
primesc acele lucruri, adecvnd aceste cerine
i ateptri la performanele care pot fi
ateptate n mod realist de la cei din jur; ofer
recompense i promisiuni de recompens n
schimbul unor eforturi corespunztoare i nu
neaprat n schimbul rezultatelor ateptate. Ei
rspund nevoilor i dorinelor celor cu care
lucreaz atta timp ct acetia i ndeplinesc
sarcinile.
Spre deosebire de cel tranzacional,
leaderul transformaional nu doar recunoate
nevoile subalternilor, ci i ncearc s le
dezvolte de la niveluri inferioare ctre niveluri
superioare de maturitate i integrare a eului.
Leaderii transformaionali implic
persoana din toate punctele de vedere, n aa
fel nct angajaii sunt ei nii dezvoltai pentru
a deveni leaderi. Acest tip de leadership poate
aprea ca o influen manifestat de sus n jos
(cel mai uor de perceput), dar apare i la
acelai nivel ntre doi angajai care se afl pe
aceeai treapt ierarhic i, de asemenea, de
jos n sus, de exemplu atunci cnd o persoan
i influeneaz superiorul ierarhic n aa fel
nct acesta s-i reconsidere obiectivele
imediate, sau chiar aspecte mai profunde, cum
ar fi misiunea sau viziunea pe care le
urmrete.
n concordan cu cercetrile lui Burns
(1978), Bass (1985a, 1985b) a descris leaderii
transformaionali ca fiind aceia care cresc la
nivelul celorlali (subordonai, colegi, efi)
gradul de contientizare a importanei atingerii
obiectivelor i a importanei strategiei utilizate
pentru atingerea respectivelor obiective. De
asemenea, aceti leaderi ncurajeaz angajaii
s treac de interesul lor individual i s vad,
dincolo de acesta, binele echipei, al
organizaiei sau al politicii generale n care se
ncadreaz (accentul fiind pus pe interese i
scopuri supraordonate). Totodat, leaderul
transformaional este cel care dezvolt nevoile
angajailor legate de realizri, autonomie,
afiliere, mpingndu-le spre niveluri mai nalte
att n plan profesional ct i extraprofesional.
Leadershipul transformaional i
ncurajeaz pe ceilali s se dezvolte i s
obin performane dincolo de ateptrile
normale, fcnd posibil acest lucru i printr-un
exemplu personal de efort susinut i sacrificiu
n realizarea misiunii. De asemenea,
subordonaii ajung s se identifice mult mai
mult cu urmrirea misiunii i cu sprijinul pe
care l primesc pentru realizarea acesteia. n
cadrul acestui proces de identificare personal,
nivelul lor motivaional este crescut,
autoeficacitatea este mrit i disponibilitatea
lor de a accepta provocri ieite din comun
este mult mai mare (Shamir, 1990).
Leadershipul transformaional
genereaz astfel ncredere, respect i o dorin
de a lucra n echip, alturi de ali oameni, cu
scopul realizrii acelorai obiective.
n continuare va fi prezentat diferena
ntre concluziile asupra leadershipului
transformaional i cel tranzacional ntre Burns
(1978) i Bass (1985), considernd absolut
necesar parcurgerea celor dou viziuni
asupra acestui fenomen pentru a nelege
fundamentele teoretice ale MLQ.
Inspirat de cercetrile lui Burns (1978)
asupra leadershipului, Bass (1985) a transferat
conceptul de leadership transformaional n
context organizaional susinnd, n contrast cu
prerile lui Burns, c leadership-ul
transformaional completeaz leadership-ul
tranzacional.
Autorul a propus un model (Bass,
1985) pentru relaia dintre leadership-ul
transformaional i cel tranzacional, ncercnd
s ofere o modalitate de predicie a efectelor
comportamentului leaderului asupra satisfaciei
angajailor i asupra altor rezultate
organizaionale. Mai exact, s-a ncercat
demonstrarea concluziei c manifestrile

50
transformaionale nu pot nlocui complet pe
cele tranzacionale, dar c, atunci cnd ele
sunt prezente, sunt responsabile de variaii
unice n nivelurile de performan, care se
prezint astfel mai ridicate, i deseori chiar cu
mult, peste acelea cauzate de leadership-ul
tranzacional activ. Dovezi empirice ale acestei
ipoteze de lucru au nceput s apar cu
rapiditate, fiind oferite pentru prima dat de
Waldman i Bass (1986), care au evideniat
statistic acest efect de completare n cadrul
unor eantioane variate de manageri industriali
i de ofieri ai armatei americane.
n baza acestei noi paradigme, mai
complete i mai versatile, despre duetul
tranzacional/transformaional n comporta-
mentul de leadership, acesta a fost analizat la
aproape toate nivelurile organizaionale, n
domenii industriale, educaionale, guverna-
mentale i militare (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002;
Avolio, Bass & Yung, 1996; Avolio & Bass,
1988a; Bass & Avolio, 1993, 1994; Boyd,
1988; Deluga, 1988; Koh, 1990). Evident,
aceste studii au demonstrat existena ntr-o
anumit msur att a leadership-ului
transformaional, ct i a celui tranzacional, la
toate nivelurile diferitelor organizaii private,
nonprofit i militare. O rezultant interesant i
neateptat a acestor studii a fost aceea a
identificrii unor leaderi transformaionali nu
doar la nivel de top management, ci i printre
managerii de proiect fr funcie de
supervizare i a celor din cadrul nivelurilor
celor mai de jos ale managementului.
Important este ns c studiile demonstreaz
posibilitatea ca deseori, n situaii diferite,
acelai leader s manifeste att un leadership
tranzacional, ct i unul transformaional,
punnd astfel bazele empirice pentru a
considera c aceste dou tipuri de conducere
se manifest n grade diferite de-a lungul
timpului.
n consecin, modelul integrativ
propus de Avolio i Bass (1988) i Bass i
Avolio (1990) nu vine s nlocuiasc pleiada de
concepte propuse de studiile n leadership, ci
ofer cadrul integrativ al acestor concepte,
stipulnd o eficien superioar nu pentru un
tip sau altul i nici pentru un tip sau altul ntr-o
situaie sau alta, ci artnd c eficiena
superioar a comportamentului de conducere
apare atunci cnd leaderul este suficient de
versatil nct n situaii diferite s-i poat
asuma roluri diferite, din ntreaga gam (full
range) a acestor posibile manifestri. Autorii
amintii au numit aceast situaie full range
leadership - "o gam complet de leadership".
n urma stipulrii formale a acestei noi
paradigme, au nceput cu rapiditate s apar
instrumente psihometrice pentru msurarea
"gamei complete" de stiluri de leadership
(Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam, 2003;
Bass & Avolio, 1994). n acest context a fost
dezvoltat i MLQ.

Cercetarea pentru pilotarea primar
a MLQ n Romnia

Studiile preliminare de adaptare a
MLQ au demarat n anul 2005, prin prima
ncercare de traducere. n aceast prim
variant de traducere a MLQ s-a apelat la o
traducere a itemilor n contextul scalei,
efectuat de ctre experi, nefiind utilizat
procedura clasic de traduceri i retroversiuni
consecutive de ctre subieci naivi. De
asemenea, adaptarea s-a concentrat ntr-o
prim faz doar asupra formei de auto-
evaluare a chestionarului, numit i forma
leader.

1. Instrument utilizat: Chestionarul
Multifactorial de Leadership (MLQ)

Conceptualizarea iniial a modelului
leadershipului tranzacional/transformaional
prezentat de Bass (1985) includea apte
factori de leadership (Carisma, Leadershipul
Inspiraional, Stimularea intelectual,
Aprecierea Individual, Recompensa
Situaional, Managementul prin Excepie i
Laissez-Faire). Factorii Carismatic i
Inspiraional corelau puternic, dar erau diferii
din punct de vedere conceptual. Corelaia
acestor doi factori a infirmat la nivel empiric
modelul, iar dovezi pentru o structur de cinci
factori care s combine Carisma i Leadership-
ul Inspiraional au fost prezentate de Bycio,
Hackett i Allen (1995) pentru prima form a
Chestionarului Multifactorial de Leadership
(MLQ Forma 1). Totui, Bycio, Hackett i Allen
(1995) au notat cteva rezerve privitoare la
descoperirile lor care indicau c: Dei per
ansamblu analiza factorial tinde s susin
existena a cinci componente de leadership,
factorii transformaionali coreleaz puternic i,
mai important, ei nu au, n general, relaii de
difereniere puternic cu variabilele rezultat (p.
474).

Versiunile anterioare ale MLQ au fost
criticate de o seam de autori (Hunt, 1991;
Smith & Peterson, 1988; Yuki, 1994, 1999) i
pentru c structura factorial propus de autori
Studii i Cercetri

51
nu a putut fi reprodus de toate cercetrile
ulterioare. Bass i Avolio (1993) au
concluzionat, dup trecerea n revist a
studiilor empirice anterioare realizate cu MLQ,
c:
Structura factorial iniial prezentat de Bass
(1985) reprezint, totui, att din punct de vedere
conceptual, ct i, n mare msur, din punct de
vedere empiric, factorii leadership-ului
transformaional, tranzacional i laissez-faire. A
devenit ns evident c structura conceptului este
mai complex dect a fost propus iniial, ceea ce va
duce curnd la mbuntiri ale instrumentului (p.
61).
La aceste presiuni, din 1985 s-au
operat mai multe actualizri ale MLQ. De la
modelul iniial cu apte factori propus de Bass
(1985) s-a ajuns la evidenierea ctorva factori
adiionali i astfel au aprut versiuni actualizate
ale MLQ, mult mai robuste din punct de vedere
factorial (Bass i Avolio, 1993, 1994). Unii
factori noi, care se regsesc n scalele noi ale
chestionarului, acoper elementele atributive
legate de stilul transformaional al leaderului,
fiind bazai pe distincia dintre
comportamentele carismatice idealizate i
caracteristicile atribuite leaderului. De
asemenea, Managementul prin excepie este
mprit n dou scale difereniate:
Managementul prin Excepie Activ (MBEA) i
Managementul prin Excepie Pasiv (MBEP).
Dup o munc susinut, forma
actual a MLQ are nou scale de evaluare a
caracteristicilor leaderului i, ntr-adevr, din
punct de vedere empiric, aceste nou scale se
evideniaz cu mare claritate ntr-o structur
factorial cu nou factori. Ele reprezint mai
degrab o ncercare de a defini ntr-un mod
mai clar constructele asociate cu stilul i
comportamentele de leadership care
reprezint ceea ce Avolio i Bass (1991) au
numit o gam complet de leadership.
Aceast gam complet include la un pol
aspecte ale leadership-ului transformaional,
adugndu-le celor care sunt evitante sau
transformaionale, la cellalt pol.
Forma 5X a MLQ a fost utilizat n
peste 300 de programe de cercetare, dizertaii
doctorale i teze de masterat peste tot n lume.
Versiunea curent a MLQ a fost tradus, de
asemenea, n spaniol, portughez, italian,
francez, german, norvegian, suedez,
ebraic, turc, arab, chinez, tailandez i
coreean pentru utilizri n diverse evaluri i
n proiecte de cercetare i dezvoltare. Utilitatea
adaptrii acestui chestionar pentru utilizatorii
de limb romn este evident, MLQ
reprezentnd un instrument extrem de util att
n detectarea leaderilor eficieni, performani,
ct i n dezvoltarea de astfel de leaderi n
contextul organizaional romnesc.
Chestionarul Multifactorial de
Leadership (MLQ) n versiunea sa cea mai
recent (Forma 5X forma scurt) conine 45
de itemi, care se scoreaz n 12 scale: nou
scale i subscale evalueaz comportamentele
de leadership, iar trei scale msoar
performana i rezultatele asociate acestor
comportamente.
Primele nou scale conin fiecare cte
patru itemi, care identific i msoar
comportamente de leadership i de eficien
fundamentale, despre care s-a stabilit n
cercetri anterioare c sunt strns legate de
succesul individual i de cel organizaional.
MLQ surprinde astfel o arie mai vast de
comportamente de leadership, de la cel de tip
laissez-faire pn la cel idealizat. n cadrul
primelor nou scale ale MLQ, itemii din cadrul
aceleiai scale coreleaz puternic ntre ei, dar
coreleaz ct se poate de puin cu itemii
celorlalte opt componente.
MLQ difereniaz ns, n acelai timp,
leaderii eficieni de cei ineficieni, cci conine
de asemenea nou itemi, mprii pe trei
scale, care evalueaz rezultatele leadership-
ului asupra subordonailor. Puine instrumente
de leadership includ att itemi pentru
leadership, ct i pentru rezultatele acestuia.
Includerea ambelor aspecte permite
compararea, pe baza aceluiai instrument, a
aptitudinilor de leadership demonstrate de o
persoan, cu performanele manageriale
obinute de respectiva persoan,
Exist o serie de diferene ntre forma
scurt i cea lung a MLQ. Varianta extins a
MLQ (5X forma lung) are 63 itemi, adic doi
itemi n plus pentru fiecare component, care
tind s se rsfrng asupra a mai mult de un
singur stil, de exemplu itemii transformaionali
din cadrul unei scale coreleaz i cu alte scale
transformaionale. Dei MLQ (5X forma
lung) este un instrument foarte util pentru
training i coaching, forma scurt a MLQ este
mai util pentru studii empirice i de cercetare.
Pentru evaluarea itemilor MLQ,
evaluatorul utilizeaz o scal cu cinci puncte,
de la 0 la 4, care estimeaz frecvena
comportamentului descris prin fiecare item pe
baza unei liste de ancore care a fost testat
iniial i furnizat de Bass, Cascio i O'Connor
(1974). Ancorele pentru cei cinci pai ai scalei
de evaluare din MLQ sunt prezentai astfel:

52
0=Deloc, 1=Foarte rar, 2=Cteodat, 3=Destul
de des, 4=Frecvent sau chiar ntotdeauna.

n medie, completarea chestionarului dureaz
aproximativ 15 minute. Respondenii ar trebui
s aib o aptitudine de a citi comparabil cu
cea a unui adolescent de clasa a noua (14-15
ani), cu toate c MLQ a fost folosit de-a lungul
timpului i n organizaii cum ar fi instituiile de
corecie, unde unii respondeni aveau o
aptitudine de a citi mai mic dect cea indicat
de autori (Crookall, 1989). n aceste cazuri,
personalul care administreaz MLQ, poate citi
itemii testului cu voce tare.

Scalele Chestionarul Multifactorial
de Leadership (MLQ)

Aa cum anticipam mai sus, scalele
MLQ sunt structurate in patru categorii
primele trei msoar comportamentul
leaderului, cea de-a patra evalueaz
rezultatele leadershipului, fiecare scal
grupnd, n componena sa un anumit numr
de scale/subscale. Avem astfel, ca i categorii
distincte, urmtoarele:
1. scalele transformaionale (includ cinci
scale/sub-scale);
2. scalele tranzacionale (compuse din
dou scale);
3. scalele de comportament pasiv/evitant
(dou scale);
4. scale care msoar rezultatele
leadershipului (integreaz trei scale
distincte).

SCALELE TRANSFORMAIONALE msoar
caracteristicile de leadership transformaional,
care este neles ca proces de influenare, de
schimbare a modului n care angajaii (colegi,
subordonai) contientizeaz ceea ce este
important i de determinare a acestora de a
avea o nou perspectiv asupra propriei
persoane, asupra sarcinilor de munc i
oportunitilor i provocrilor din cadrul
mediului lor.

II. Influena Idealizat: atribute i
comportamente (Idealized Influence:
Attributes and Behaviors). Scala, notat cu
II, identific prin scorurile sale mari leaderii
admirai, respectai i crora li se acord
ncredere. Cei care-i urmeaz, se identific cu
astfel de leaderi i doresc s fie ct mai
asemntori cu ei. Printre lucrurile pe care un
leader le face pentru a ctiga ncredere din
partea subordonailor este i tendina de a
pune nevoile acestora naintea nevoilor sale
personale. Leaderul mprtete riscurile cu
subordonaii i este consecvent n
comportamentele sale care se bazeaz pe
etic, principii i valori mprtite. Aceasta
scal este mprit n dou subscale, anume
Atribute Idealizate (IA) i Comportamente
Idealizate (IB).

II(A). Atribute Idealizate (Idealized
Attributes). Scala de Atribute Idealizate
detecteaz prin scorurile sale mari capacitatea
unei persoane de a exercita influen,
inspirnd putere, trezind mndrie n rndul
adepilor si, asigurnd i oferind ncredere,
trecnd peste interesele individuale n
favoarea celor de grup i servind drept model
de referin celor care-i urmeaz. Scala pune
accent pe faptul c scorurile mari identific
persoane crora cei din jur le atribuie caliti
idealizate i nu neaprat pe faptul c ele ar
poseda respectivele caliti. Aceste persoane
trezesc mndrie n alii, acioneaz n aa fel
nct s trezeasc respectul celorlali pentru ei
i afieaz un sentiment de ncredere i
putere.

II(B). Comportamente Idealizate (Idealized
Behaviors). Aceast scal evideniaz prin
scorurile sale mari tendina de a manifesta
comportamente ideale, cum ar fi ascendena,
dominana, contiinciozitatea, autocontrolul,
judecata moral nalt, optimismul, eficiena.
Persoanele cu scoruri mari la aceast scal
vorbesc despre valorile i credinele lor cele
mai importante, accentueaz necesitatea
atingerii unei finaliti (dezirabile), iau n calcul
aproape ntotdeauna consecinele morale i
etice ale deciziilor lor i accentueaz, de
asemenea, importana construirii unui sens
colectiv, mprtit de toi, privind misiunea
echipei sau grupului.

IM. Motivaia inspiraional (Inspirational
Motivation). Leaderii cu scoruri mari la
aceast scal se comport ntr-o manier
motivatoare pentru cei din jur, dnd
semnificaie muncii i descoperind provocarea
n activitatea proprie i a celorlali. Ei
stimuleaz spiritul individual, i cel de echip,
sporesc entuziasmul i, mai ales, optimismul n
rndul echipei; leaderul insufl tuturor
ncredere ntr-un viitor pozitiv i i stimuleaz i
pe ceilali s se raporteze pozitiv la viitor.
Aceti leaderi vorbesc cu optimism despre
viitor, au o viziune plin de ncredere asupra
viitorului, i exprim ncrederea n faptul c
Studii i Cercetri

53
obiectivele vor fi realizate, accentund
importana fiecruia n atingerea acestora.

IS. Stimularea intelectual (Intellectual
Stimulation). Scorurile mari la aceast scal
identific persoanele care stimuleaz i cultiv
inovaia i creativitatea celor din jurul lor. De
obicei reuesc acest deziderat prin ncurajarea
celor din jur de a chestiona i pune la ndoial
presupuneri i concluzii, de a reanaliza i
reformula problemele cu care se confrunt, de
a aborda situaiile vechi din noi perspective, de
a privi orice situaie din mai multe
unghiuri/puncte de vedere. Aceste persoane
evit ironizarea sau critica public a greelilor
membrilor echipei, ncurajndu-i astfel s
experimenteze i s fie creativi. Aceti leaderi
solicit n continuu subordonailor lor s
gseasc noi idei i soluii creative pentru
problemele uzuale, fiind antrenai n mod
continuu n procesul rezolutiv.

IC. Aprecierea individual (Individual
Consideration). Persoanele cu scoruri mari la
scala de Apreciere Individual (IC) acord
atenie nevoilor de realizare i dezvoltare ale
fiecrui individ, acionnd ca un mentor i un
coach (antrenor), alocnd timp, efort i resurse
individuale pentru a-i ajuta pe cei din jurul lor
s creasc, s se dezvolte. Subordonaii lor i
dezvolt astfel potenialul individual la niveluri
tot mai nalte, cci li se creeaz noi oportuniti
de a nva i sunt parte a unui climat orientat
spre sprijin, n care au toate condiiile pentru a
evolua. Astfel de leaderi tind s recunoasc
diferenele individuale la cei din jur, sub
aspectul nevoilor i dorinelor fiecruia,
abordeaz fiecare subordonat n concordan
cu potenialul i capacitile sale, petrec timp
prednd i antrennd pe ceilali n dezvoltare
continu cu accent pe competenele
cheie/punctele forte, tratndu-i difereniat pe
cei din jurul lor, ca indivizi i nu doar ca
membri ai grupului.

SCALELE TRANZACIONALE msoar
caracteristicile tranzacionale la persoanele
evaluate i anume, comportamentele asociate
cu tranzacii constructive (de exemplu
recompens situaional) i corective (de
exemplu management prin excepie).

CR. Recompensa situaional (Contingent
Reward). Leaderii cu scoruri mari la aceast
scal manifest comportamente caracteristice
unei tranzacii eficiente, i anume tind s
discute n termeni clari cine este responsabil
pentru realizarea obiectivelor de performan,
clarific ceea ce o persoan se poate atepta
s primeasc atunci cnd obiectivele de
performan sunt realizate i i exprim
satisfacia atunci cnd ceilali ndeplinesc ceea
ce se atepta de la ei. Aadar, aceti leaderi
obinuiesc s clarifice ateptrile i s
recunoasc meritele celorlali la atingerea
obiectivelor. Recompensele situaionale
reprezint un instrument important al
leadershipului tranzacional i constau n
rsplata acordat doar atunci cnd obiectivele
sunt atinse. Rezultatul obinut n urma unei
astfel de abordri const n realizarea nivelelor
ateptate de performan de ctre indivizi i
grupuri.

MBEA. Management prin excepie: Activ
(Management-by-Exception: Active).
Persoanele cu scoruri mari la aceast scal
sunt acei leaderi care specific clar att
standardele pentru complian, ct i ceea ce
reprezint performana ineficient, i care se
rezum ulterior la a sanciona subalternii
pentru posibila nerespectare a acestor
standarde. Acest stil de leadership presupune
monitorizarea atent a deviaiilor, a greelilor i
a erorilor i apoi luarea de msuri corective ct
mai rapid cu putin, atunci cnd sunt comise
greeli sau abateri de la standard. Leaderii
care practic un management prin excepie
activ obinuiesc s in evidena tuturor
greelilor, i concentreaz atenia asupra
neregulilor, erorilor, excepiilor i deviaiilor de
la standarde, precum i asupra tratrii acestor
greeli, plngeri i eecuri.

SCALELE DE COMPORTAMENT
PASIV/EVITANT (PASSIVE/AVOIDANT
BEHAVIOR). Cealalt form de management
prin excepie este mai pasiv i reactiv, ea
descrie leaderi care nu reacioneaz sistematic
la situaiile i problemele cu care se confrunt.
Leaderii pasivi evit s clarifice nenelegerile,
s enune ateptrile i s stabileasc
obiective i standarde care s fie realizate de
ctre subalterni. Acest stil are de cele mai
multe ori un efect negativ asupra rezultatelor
dorite - opus celui intenionat de leaderul
respectiv. Din acest punct de vedere este
asemntor stilului numit laissez-faire, numit i
fr leadership. Ambele aceste tipuri de
leadership pasiv prin excepie au un impact
negativ asupra subalternilor i angajailor. n
consecin, ambele stiluri pot fi grupate n
categoria leadership pasiv-evitat.

54
MBEP. Managementul prin excepie pasiv
(Management-by-Exception: Pasive). Dac
stilul de leadership activ prin excepie
presupune monitorizarea atent a deviaiilor,
greelilor i erorilor i apoi aplicarea, ct mai
rapid cu putin, a msurilor corective, leaderul
care ader la un management pasiv prin
excepie nu ateapt doar ca aceste erori s
apar, ci ateapt efectiv ca problemele s
devin serioase i grave pentru ca el s
acioneze. Adeptul convingerii dac nc nu s-
a rupt, nu reparm acioneaz doar atunci
cnd lucrurile merg prost i cnd problemele
devin cronice.

LF. Management permisiv (Laissez-faire).
Acest stil de leadership poate fi definit mai
degrab ca stil de non-leadership i se afl la
cealalt extrem de (in)eficien a stilului
transformaional. n cazul leadershipului
permisiv, practic leaderul evit s-i asume
comportamentul de conducere: nu ofer
informaii subalternilor, nu ofer feedback, este
incapabil de a recunoate sau satisface
dorinele angajailor. Persoanele identificate
prin scorurile mari la aceast scal evit s se
implice atunci cnd apar probleme importante,
sunt absene atunci cnd este nevoie de ele,
evit s ia decizii i obinuiesc s aib o
reacie ntrziat la probleme urgente.

SCALELE CENTRATE PE REZULTATELE
LEADERSHIP-ULUI. Att leadership-ul
transformaional ct i cel tranzacional sunt
relaionate cu succesul grupului. Eficiena
leadershipului este evaluat de MLQ pe baza
modului n care evaluatorii i percep leaderii
ca fiind buni motivatori, ca fiind eficieni n
interaciunile de la deferite niveluri ale
organizaiei i ca genernd satisfacie cu
metodele de lucru.

EE. Efortul suplimentar (Extra Effort). Efortul
suplimentar, ca efect al unui leadership
eficient, este acea dorin a subordonailor de
a realiza o performan superioar prin eforturi
mult mai mari, fiind convini s fac mai mult
dect se poate atepta n mod legitim de la ei.
Leaderii cu scoruri mari la aceast scal
amplific dorina celorlali de a reui i cresc
disponibilitatea acestora de a se strdui mai
mult.

EFF. Eficiena (Effectiveness). Scala de
Eficien identific prin scorurile ei nalte
leaderii eficieni, judecai astfel prin prisma
satisfacerii nevoilor profesionale ale celorlali, a
reprezentrii grupului lor n faa unei autoriti
superioare, n satisfacerea cerinelor
organizaionale i, nu n ultimul rnd, prin
eficiena ntregului grup coordonat.

SAT. Satisfacia legat de leadership
(Satisfaction with the Leadership). Scala de
satisfacie legat de leadership conine doar
doi itemi i identific prin scorurile sale nalte
leaderi care genereaz satisfacie
interpersonal n interaciunea cu ceilali.
Aceti leaderi sunt persoane deschise,
autentice, calde i oneste, capabile s
genereze i s dezvolte sentimente de
mulumire la nivelul celor cu care lucreaz.

Scalele MLQ sunt construite n concordan cu
modelul propus de autori (Bass & Avolio, 1990;
Avolio & Bass, 1988) model care ofer o
viziune integrativ asupra numeroaselor
concepte din problematica leadershipului,
accentund necesitatea flexibilitii i a
versatilitii leaderului n asumarea rolurilor
diferite n situaii diferite i practicarea unui
leadership complet, adoptnd comportamente
din ntreaga gam (full range) a posibilelor
manifestri de leadership.

2. Participani

n primvara anului 2006 (aprilie-mai) au fost
culese datele aferente unei prime pilotri n
Romnia. Eantionul este unul de pilotare,
compus dintr-un numr de 229 de subieci cu
funcii de conducere, plasai la nivel mediu i
de top n corporaii din Bucureti. Din aceti
229 de subieci, 91 (39.74%) sunt femei i 138
(60.26%) sunt brbai. Media de vrst este de
42.6 ani.

3. Rezultate i discuii

Vom prezenta n cele ce urmeaz date
psihometrice, rezultate din aceast pilotare n
Romnia a traducerii preliminare a MLQ,
comparativ cu datele desprinse de pe urma
eantionului normativ american i prezentate
de autori n ultima versiune a manualului MLQ
(Avolio & Bass, 2004).
Tabelul 1 prezint mediile i dispersiile
celor 9+3 scale ale MLQ, calculate pentru
eantionul normativ american i respectiv
pentru eantionul romnesc, pentru acesta din
urm au fost evideniate i mediile i dispersiile
calculate pe baza sub-eantioanelor de gen.
Se poate observa c n cazul Romniei femeile
Studii i Cercetri

55
au n medie scoruri mai mari dect brbaii la
scale precum MBEA - Management prin
excepie activ, MBEP - Managementul prin
excepie pasiv i LF - Management permisiv, la
toate celelalte scale scorurile mai mari fiind
cele prezentate de leaderii de sex masculin.

Tabelul 1. Indici statistici de start pentru scalele MLQ, n SUA (N=27285) i Romnia (N=229)

Scalele
MLQ
Eantion SUA

(N=27285)
Eantion Romnia
Masculin
(N=138)
Feminin
(N=91)
Total
(N=229)
m m m m
II(A) 2.94 .76 2.71 .59 2.47 .67 2.57 .65
II(B) 2.77 .72 3.1 .54 2.96 .57 3.02 .56
IM 2.92 .76 3.07 .58 3.01 .62 3.04 .61
IS 2.78 .71 3.27 .45 3.17 .54 3.21 .51
IC 2.85 .78 2.97 .61 2.74 .67 2.83 .65
CR 2.87 .7 3.1 .59 2.95 .57 3.01 .58
MBEA 1.67 .88 2.38 .81 2.44 .71 2.41 .75
MBEP 1.03 .75 1.01 .6 1.27 .68 1.16 .66
LF .65 .67 .65 .51 .87 .51 .78 .52
EE 2.74 .86 3.03 .6 2.93 .65 2.97 .63
EFF 3.07 .72 2.99 .53 2.93 .49 2.95 .51
SAT 3.08 .83 2.86 .74 2.65 .81 2.73 .79

De principiu se arat astfel c, cel
puin n eantionul nostru, comportamentul
femeilor din poziii manageriale este mai
nclinat spre componenta tranzacional a
leadershipului dect este cazul pentru
managerii brbai. Femeile sunt mai nclinate
spre a meniona cu claritate standardele pentru
complian i comportamentele indezirabile i
spre a sanciona ulterior subalternii pentru
nerespectrile acestor principii. De asemenea,
tot femeile manageri par a fi mai nclinate spre
a renuna la monitorizarea atent a deviaiilor,
greelilor i erorilor i la impunerea din timp a
unor msuri corective, amnnd deseori
nejustificat de mult deciziile care se impun ntr-
o anumit situaie. Ele sunt i mai nclinate
dect managerii brbai s decad ntr-un stil
de management permisiv, n care evit s-i
asume comportamentul de conducere, evit s
se implice atunci cnd apar probleme
importante, evit s ia decizii i obinuiesc s
aib o reacie ntrziat la probleme urgente.
Tabelul 2 expune semnificaia
diferenelor dintre mediile scalelor MLQ,
calculate pe eantioanele american i
romnesc. Se poate observa ca exist un
avantaj pentru managerii romni n ceea ce
privete prezena comportamentelor
transformaionale comparativ cu cei americani,
n special la scale precum II(B) -
Comportamente Idealizate, IM - Motivaia
inspiraional, IS - Stimularea intelectual; de
asemenea, tot la managerii romni, se
constat i prezena n mai mare msur a
comportamentelor caracteristice leadershipului
tranzacional i a celui pasiv (scalele CR -
Recompensa situaional, MBEA -
Management prin excepie Activ, MBEP -
Managementul prin excepie Pasiv i LF -
Management permisiv). Am putea spune, pe
baza acestor date c managerii romni au n
general scoruri mai mari att la scalele
transformaionale ct i la scalele
tranzacionale, dect cei americani, ns
atragem atenia asupra faptului c n cazul
SUA scorurile scalelor sunt calculate pe un
eantion normativ naional, pe cnd eantionul
romnesc este un eantion de necesitate,
selectat din cele mai competitive industrii i
companii romneti. Diferenele n favoarea
managerilor romni sunt de ateptat, n acest
caz. Cu toate acestea, este interesant c
scorurile scalelor de eficien managerial,
anume EFF - Eficiena i SAT - Satisfacia
legat de leadership sunt mai mici pentru
leaderii romni, n ciuda faptului c provin din
industrii foarte competitive.
Semnificaia celei mai mari pri a
acestor diferene este relevant din punct de
vedere statistic, singura scal la care putem

56
spune c leaderii romni au scoruri
nedifereniate de cei americani ar fi scala de IC
- Apreciere individual. Avansm cu titlul de
ipotez explicaia c, dei provin din zone
foarte competitive ale economiei, managerii din
eantionul romnesc nu au comportamente de
valorizare ale celor din jur dect la media
intensitii eantionului american, care conine
de bun seam i indivizi din zone mai puin
competitive dect mediul de afaceri:
management educaional, carier militar,
management sanitar etc.

Tabelul 2. Semnificaia diferenelor ntre mediile pe scale calculate pe eantioanele american (N=27285) i
romnesc (N=229)

Scalele MLQ SUA Romnia Semnificaie
m m t p
II(A) 2.94 .76 2.57 .65 7.34 .0001
II(B) 2.77 .72 3.02 .56 5.24 .0001
IM 2.92 .76 3.04 .61 2.38 .0172
IS 2.78 .71 3.21 .51 9.14 .0001
IC 2.85 .78 2.83 .65 .38 .6988
CR 2.87 .7 3.01 .58 3.01 .0025
MBEA 1.67 .88 2.41 .75 12.68 .0001
MBEP 1.03 .75 1.16 .66 2.61 .0089
LF .65 .67 .78 .52 2.92 .0034
EE 2.74 .86 2.97 .63 4.03 .0001
EFF 3.07 .72 2.95 .51 2.51 .0118
SAT 3.08 .83 2.73 .79 6.35 .0001

Rezultatele obinute sunt contradictorii fa de
datele anterioare obinute de autori pe subieci
americani, rezultate care indicau faptul c
liderii femei sunt mai transformaionali dect
omologii lor masculini, evalurile acestora fiind
nsoite i de o mai mare satisfacie i eficien
n rndurile subordonailor (Bass, Avolio &
Atwater, 1996). Ele pot fi explicate pe baza
unei experiene reduse pentru femeile director
din Romnia, sau prin prisma procentului
redus de manageri femei (mai ales de vrf) in
Romnia sau printr-o multitudine de ali factori
explicativi care transced scopul nostru actual,
fcndu-ne s lansm aceast provocare
pentru studii ulterioare.

Tabelul 3. Fidelitatea scalelor MLQ, calculat pentru SUA i Romnia

Scalele
MLQ
SUA
(N=3755)
Romnia
(N=229)
II(A) .70 .65
II(B) .64 .54
IM .76 .69
IS .64 .62
IC .62 .59
CR .60 .63
MBEA .75 .78
MBEP .64 .65
LF .60 .58
EE .79 .77
EFF .67 .67
SAT .78 .81

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57
Tabelul 3 prezint indicii Alpha de consisten
intern, calculai pentru cele 12 scale ale MLQ
n Romnia. n paralel sunt prezentai indicii de
consisten intern indicai de autori n ultima
versiune a manualului testului (Avolio & Bass,
2004). Se poate observa c indicii obinui n
Romnia sunt comparabili din toate punctele
de vedere cu cei americani. n SUA indicii de
fidelitate sunt cuprini ntre un minim de .60
(pentru scalele CR - Recompensa situaional
i LF - Management permisiv) i un maxim de
.79 (pentru scala EE - Efort suplimentar), cu o
median de .66. n Romnia indicii Alpha sunt
cuprini ntre un minim de .54 (pentru scala
II(B) - Comportamente Idealizate) i un maxim
de .81 (pentru scala SAT Satisfacia legat
de leadership), cu o median de .65.

Tabelul 4. Corelaii interscale pentru scalele MLQ, calculate pentru eantioane din SUA (N=3755) i Romnia
(N=588)

II(A) II(B) IM IS IC CR MBEA MBEP LF EE EFF SAT
II(A) - .50** .64** .59** .57** .66** .20** -.38** -.51** .66** .72** .63**
II(B) .49** - .53** .56** .53** .59** .24** -.25** -.32** .56** .50** .52**
IM .54** .58** - .67** .49** .56** .21** -.33** -.39** .61** .64** .64**
IS .39** .44** .43** - .69** .66** .16** -.32** -.32** .68** .62** .68**
IC .46** .42** .41** .45** - .60** .06 -.41** -.31** .56** .53** .62**
CR .45** .43** .45** .38** .44** - .14* -.43** -.47** .74** .57** .63**
MBEA -.01 .01 -.08** .02** -.13** .06* - .10* -.02 .11* .26** .20**
MBEP -.16** -.13** -.19** -.17** -.16** -.13** .11** - .49** -.40** -.30** -.45**
LF -.25** -.17** -.25** -.15** -.20** -.24** .07** .46** - -.51** -.57** -.51**
EE .55** .46** .56** .45** .47** .45** -.02 -.22** -.24** - .63** .69**
EFF .53** .37** .50** .37** .44** .47** -.05* -.25** -.38** .56** - 71**
SAT .52** .35** .43** .36** .46** .39** -.07** -.20** -.27** .53** .60** -

Not: Datele rezultate din SUA sunt prezentate sub diagonal, iar datele rezultate din Romnia sunt prezentate deasupra
diagonalei.
* p<.01; **p<.0001.

Tabelul 4 prezint corelaiile ntre
scalele MLQ, aa cum au rezultat ele dintr-un
eantion SUA de N=3755 subieci (dup Avolio
& Bass, 2004) i un eantion romnesc de
N=588 subieci. Acest eantion a fost utilizat
datorit volumului superior, fa de eantionul
de manageri discutat anterior, completnd cu
un numr de 359 subieci lotul experimental.
Aceti 359 de subieci provin dintr-un program
experimental de training n leadership, iar
datele au fost culese n aa fel nct nu a fost
posibil pentru noi dect accesul la scorurile
scalelor i nu la scorurile itemilor individuali;
din acest motiv singura statistic n care se
poate utiliza viabil acest lot suplimentar este
corelaia interscale.
Se poate observa o evoluie a
corelaiei foarte similar pentru cazul
Romniei, fa de cazul SUA. de principiu se
semnaleaz corelaii mari ntre toate scalele
transformaionale i ntre cele trei scale de
rezultate ale chestionarului. Exist corelaii
aproape nule ntre cele dou scale
tranzacionale (CR - Recompensa situaional
i MBEA - Management prin excepie Activ), o
corelaie medie dar semnificativ (r=.29) ntre
cele dou scale de comportament pasiv/evitant
(MBEP - Managementul prin excepie pasiv i
LF - Management permisiv). Semnalm de
asemenea corelaii pozitive puternice ntre
scalele tranzacionale i cele
transformaionale, corelaii negative, de
intensitate sczut i medie, ntre scalele
transformaionale i cele de leadership
pasiv/permisiv i corelaii pozitive i foarte
puternice ntre scalele transformaionale i cele
de rezultat.
Interpretarea acestei constelaii este
relativ simpl, ea indicnd c se ntmpl de
cele mai multe ori ca manifestrile
transformaionale s fie nsoite i de
comportamente tranzacionale; ambele aceste
comportamente sunt principial legate de o
asumare a poziiei de leader i stau n
contradicie cu refuzul de asumare a acestei
poziii i cu evitarea responsabilitilor
aferente, descrise de scalele de comportament
pasiv/evitant. Eficiena leadershipului, evaluat
prin prisma unui efort suplimentar depus de
angajai, a unei eficiene sporite n satisfacerea

58
nevoilor profesionale ale celorlali i a
capacitii de a genera satisfacie n
interaciunea cu ceilali, este strns legat de
comportamentul tranzacional dar mai ales de
cel transformaional.

Tabelul 5. Structura factorial n nou factori, pe un eantion SUA de N=3755 subieci

Scala Factori
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
II(A) - item 1 .69
II(A) - item 2 .73
II(A) - item 3 .44
II(A) - item 4 .81
II(B) - item 1 .55
II(B) - item 2 .45
II(B) - item 3 .75
II(B) - item 4 .73
IM - item 1 .70
IM - item 2 .73
IM - item 3 .74
IM - item 4 .76
IS - item 1 .74
IS - item 2 .52
IS - item 3 .76
IS - item 4 .60
IC - item 1 .79
IC - item 2 .67
IC - item 3 .59
IC - item 4 .65
CR - item 1 .57
CR - item 2 .51
CR - item 3 .64
CR - item 4 .69
MBEA - item 1 .61
MBEA - item 2 .66
MBEA - item 3 .65
MBEA - item 4 .70
MBEP - item 1 .34
MBEP - item 2 .62
MBEP - item 3 .80
MBEP - item 4 .73
LF - item 1 .64
LF - item 2 .65
LF - item 3 .68
LF - item 4 .52
* Dup Avolio i Bass (2004), p. 76.

Tabelul 5 i Tabelul 6 prezint structura
factorial n 9 factori, obinut prin factorizarea
primilor 35 de itemi ai MLQ, anume a itemilor
care determin stilurile de leadership. Tabelul
5 prezint structura raportat de Avolio i Bass
(2004) pentru SUA, iar Tabelul 6 prezint
structura obinut pentru Romnia, printr-un
procedeu de analiz factorial confirmatorie.
Menionm n acest context c studii diferite
realizate cu ajutorul MLQ prezint un numr
diferit de factori rezultai prin procedee de
analiz factorial exploratorie, din itemii MLQ.
Chiar i Avolio i Bass (1995, 2000, 2004)
prezint structuri factoriale cu 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, i 9
factori. Analiza exploratorie, cu extracie n
componente principale, realizat pentru primii
Studii i Cercetri

59
35 de itemi ai MLQ, pentru eantionul
romnesc a rezultat, la un criteriu de stopare a
extraciei bazat pe inspecia vizual a
saturaiilor (scree-test), n 6 factori, acoperind
52.70% din varian, iar la un criteriu de
stopare bazat pe saturaia supraunitar n 11
factori, acoperind 58.91% din varian.

Tabelul 6. Structura factorial n nou factori, pe un eantion din Romnia de N=229 subieci

Scala Factori
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
II(A) - item 1 .29* .42
II(A) - item 2 .63*
II(A) - item 3 .54* .31
II(A) - item 4 .32* .32
II(B) - item 1 .64 .34*
II(B) - item 2 .28*
II(B) - item 3 .22* .48
II(B) - item 4 .32*
IM - item 1 .36*
IM - item 2 .41*
IM - item 3 .45* .49
IM - item 4 .43* .31
IS - item 1 .46*
IS - item 2 .39 .11* .56
IS - item 3 .44* .35
IS - item 4 .55*
IC - item 1 .45 .49*
IC - item 2 .36 .34* .31
IC - item 3 .19*
IC - item 4 .35*
CR - item 1 .31*
CR - item 2 .38 .45*
CR - item 3 .60*
CR - item 4 .37 .25*
MBEA - item 1 .34 .42* .34
MBEA - item 2 .50* .39
MBEA - item 3 .51*
MBEA - item 4 .31 .47* .35
MBEP - item 1 .46 .46*
MBEP - item 2 .23*
MBEP - item 3 .45 .51*
MBEP - item 4 .50*
LF - item 1 .34 .55*
LF - item 2 .31 .43*
LF - item 3 .49*
LF - item 4 .20*
* Marcajele indic poziia factorial indicat de cheia de scorare.

n Tabelul 6 sunt prezentate scorurile fiecrui
item, fiind indicat scala din care face parte pe
baza cheii de scorare, saturaia obinut pe
respectiva scal, precum i saturaiile
semnificative obinute de respectivul item n ali
factori. Au fost suprimate toate saturaiile mai
mici de .30, cu excepia celor prescrise de
cheia de scorare a respectivului item.
Se poate observa cu uurin un
numr destul de mare de itemi care au
probleme de integrare coerent n factorul de
care aparin. n total semnalm 7 itemi din 35

60
(20%) n care saturaia maxim este n alt
scal dect prescrie cheia de scorare a MLQ i
6 itemi din 35 (17.14%) n care ncrcarea pe
factorul corect este mai mic de .25, fiind
nsoit de scoruri mai mari pe ali factori.
Dintre aceti din urm 6 itemi, 4 itemi sunt
aceiai cu cei menionai ca avnd scorul
maxim n alt scal dect prescrie cheia de
scorare. n total nregistrm aadar 9 itemi din
35 (25.71%) cu probleme. Aceti itemi cu
probleme se mpart pe scale dup cum
urmeaz: cte un item pe scalele II(A), IM, IS,
CR i MBEP i cte doi pe II(B) i IC.
Soluia factorial este n genere un
indicator foarte bun al performanei coerente a
unui test i descrie felul n care itemii testului
surprind constructe care exist latent la nivel
empiric. O soluie factorial care nu confirm
performana similar a testului n alt cadru
cultural dect cel original, indic n genere
probleme de semantic sau de adaptare
cultural pe o parte din itemi. Considerm c
rezultatele analizei factoriale, mai mult dect
orice alt statistic, ndreptesc continuarea
muncii de adaptare a MLQ, cci structura este
suficient de apropiat de cea indicat de Avolio
i Bass (2004) nct s fie ncurajatoare, iar
diferenele sunt suficient de bine conturate
nct s arate cu claritate zonele care necesit
atenie n continuare.
Dorim s menionm n acest context
faptul c n cazul MLQ apar unele probleme
principiale n ceea ce privete utilitatea unei
analize factoriale exploratorii. Este vorba n
primul rnd despre multicolinearitatea
constructelor transformaionale, care sunt
puternic interrelaionate. Faptul c aceste
scale msoar constructe similare s-ar traduce
ntr-un model factor-analitic prin identificarea
unei singure variabile latente care s explice
variana tuturor celor cinci scale
transformaionale (Bycio, Hackett & Allen,
1995; Carless, 1998). Argumentul autorilor
MLQ de a pstra totui cele cinci scale
independente ine de sinergia acestor cinci
scale i de plusul pe care existena lor ca scale
separate l aduce n nelegerea analitic a
fenomenului msurat (Bass, 1985a, 1998;
Bass & Avolio, 1994). ns multicolinearitatea
ar sugera c factorii rezultai sunt oblici
(corelai) i nu ortogonali, aa cum se
presupune n genere n analiza factorial
exploratorie.

Tabelul 7. Indicii de potrivire generali n cazul ctorva modele factoriale, pentru Romnia

Indice de potrivire Modelul cu
1 factor
Modelul cu
2 factori
Modelul cu
3 factori
Modelul cu
6 factori
Modelul cu
9 factori
GFI* .74 .79 .82 .84 .87
AGFI** .71 .76 .80 .81 .83
CFI*** .71 .75 .80 .79 .82
RMSEA**** .084 .081 .063 .057 .053
* GFI este indicele gradului de potrivire (Goodness of Fit Index).
** AGFI este indicele ajustat al gradului de potrivire (Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index).
*** CFI este indicele comparativ de potrivire (Comparative Fit Index).
**** RMSEA este rdcina ptratelor medii reziduale (Root Mean Square of Approximation).

Din toate aceste motive, adaptarea
MLQ 5X n Romnia a presupus i rularea unui
set de analize factoriale confirmatorii, pentru
testarea modelelor factoriale explicate i
analizate i de autorii MLQ. n mod specific a
fost analizat potrivirea datelor din eantionul
normativ romnesc cu modelele de 1, 2, 3, 6 i
9 factori, explicate de Avolio i Bass (2004).
n Tabelul 7 pot fi observai cei mai
uzuali indici de potrivire pentru aceste cinci
modele. Se poate observa c modelul cu trei
factori are indicii GFI i AGFI peste pragul
acceptat de .80, dar o rdcin a ptratelor
(RMSEA) plasat semnificativ peste nivelul
acceptat de .05. Modelul cu ase factori este
ceva mai apropiat de acceptabilitate, iar
modelul cu nou factori poate fi considerat a
ilustra o potrivire bun, chiar dac indicele
RMSEA se plaseaz cu .003 asupra pragului
acceptat de teorie.
Putem aadar afirma c analizele
confirmatorii rulate asupra instrumentului
rezult ntr-o imagine mult mai coerent dect
cele exploratorii, ceea ce poate fi explicat pe
baza multicolinearitii scalelor MLQ. Dei
indicii prezentai n aceast analiz nu se
plaseaz la nivelul acceptabilitii, chiar dac
sunt foarte aproape de acesta, ele sunt
Studii i Cercetri

61
ncurajatoare i arat c MLQ este un
instrument robust i c eforturile de adaptare a
sa n Romnia sunt foarte aproape de succes.

Concluzii

Liderii transformaionali, susin nume-
roase studii, genereaz o implicare mai mare
n munc a celor din jurul lor (Avolio, 1999;
Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Bass, 1998a) i
produc o mai mare eficien i satisfacie n
rndul celor din jur dect o face orice alt
comportament de leadership (tranzacional sau
pasiv). Totui, accentul n comportamentul de
conducere trebuie s se pun pe practicarea
unui leadership complet, prin adoptarea
comportamentelor din ntreaga gam (full
range) a posibilelor manifestri de leadership.
Organizaiile actuale, denumite drept
"organizaii inter-relaionate" (Drucker, 1988),
sau "ntreprinderi inteligente (Quinn, 1992),
fac presiuni asupra managementului n
vederea ctigrii n adaptabilitate i
competitivitate; o alternativ cert pentru
leaderul modern este aceea de a explora o
gam mai larg de stiluri de conducere i de a-
i dezvolta competene de leadership
transformaional (Cascio, 1995). n acest
context, MLQ apare ca un instrument extrem
de util i uzitat n detectarea, dezvoltarea i
corectarea comportamentului leaderului. De
aici rezult i importana adaptrii MLQ la
contextul romnesc, pentru a furniza
specialitilor din domenii diferite ale
managementului resurselor umane un
instrument foarte bun pentru identificarea i
optimizarea aptitudinilor i a rezultatelor de
leadership, viznd, ca obiectiv ultim, succesul
organizaional.
Scalele MLQ pot ajuta la msurarea
impactului diferit pe care tipuri diferite de
leaderi l au asupra colegilor lor, asupra
echipelor conduse i asupra eficienei
organizaiilor n care activeaz. Putem astfel
cuantifica aria de influen a modelului de
leadership al managerilor din domenii diferite
(afaceri, industrie, militar, educaional, religios,
administrativ, guvernamental, sportiv) i la a
vedea n ce msur acest model afecteaz
satisfacia subordonailor i colegilor, eficiena
echipei i succesul organizaional (Bass &
Avolio, 1993a).
Scorurile MLQ pot fi utilizate i pentru
a nelege mai bine factorii care contribuie la
dezvoltarea timpurie a aptitudinilor de
leadership i a preferinelor pentru anumite
stiluri, precum i experienele care contribuie la
crearea gamei att largi de stiluri de leadership
care poate fi observat n organizaii. Rolul
diagnostic al MLQ poate fi aprofundat, cu
ajutorul metodologiei calitative, n care datele
legate de experienele timpurii din dezvoltarea
unui leader pot fi culese prin interviuri de
profunzime sau prin interpretarea informaiilor
biografice. Leaderul devine apoi contient de
experienele personale care pot limita
leadership-ul eficient (Avolio, 1994; 2004), aici
intervenind utilitatea formativ a MLQ,
instrumentul fiind o bun baz de pornire
pentru dezvoltarea ulterioar prin training,
coaching sau consiliere. Trainingul sau
consilierea individual se pot ocupa de acele
aspecte marcate de experienele anterioare de
dezvoltare ale individului, care l-au lsat pe
acesta nepregtit pentru provocrile cu care se
confrunt ca leader.
Scorurile MLQ de dinainte i de dup
training pot constitui baza pentru cercetri
evaluative. Ele pot fi utilizate i pentru a
reflecta schimbrile de politic din organizaie,
i evoluiile aprute n timp. MLQ poate analiza
att profilurile de leadership ntr-o analiz de
ansamblu, ct i pe cele individuale ale
leaderilor dintr-o organizaie. Raportul MLQ a
fost folosit pentru a arta felul n care
leadershipul se rsfrnge de la un nivel al
organizaiei asupra urmtorului nivel, ori
superior ori inferior. Se pot de asemenea
compara i departamentele diferite din cadrul
unei organizaii, pe baza unor criterii specifice
de performan, prin confruntarea leaderilor
individuali cu scorurile cumulate de leadership.
Astfel, MLQ poate fi folosit att la un nivel de
analiz individual ct i, atunci cnd acest
lucru e posibil, combinat pentru realizarea unor
comparaii interesante ntre grupuri (Avolio &
Bass, 1995).
Utilitatea chestionarului este foarte
mare i a fost punctat pe tot parcursul acestei
lucrri. Datele preliminarii obinute pentru
Romnia ne indic faptul c adaptarea
cultural a chestionarului evolueaz n direcia
corect, chiar dac mai necesit munc
susinut i pilotri viitoare. Semnalm ca o
limit a prezentului studiu calitatea special a
eantionului de necesitate utilizat, precum i
lipsa datelor rezultate din hetero-evaluare, pe
lng datele rezultate din auto-evaluare.
Cercetri ulterioare realizate n Romnia cu
ajutorul MLQ vor aduce cu siguran un plus
de rigoare n acest plan, consacrnd
instrumentul ca o parte important n trusa cu
scule a psihologului industrial i
organizaional.

62
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Articolul a fost acceptat spre publicare in 2007.

64
Engagement organisationnel en situation de changement:
quelles perspectives dans un hpital public?
Revue de question

Elisabeth Doutre
1

Universit Pierre Mends France

Abstract

This study aims to identify which variables are presents in a context of organizational change and
to examine how they are antecedents of the leaders organizational commitment (EO), either
separately or jointly. These variables can also have some effects on the collaborators affective
commitment to the supervisor. The case of a French public hospital will betaken as an example
to develop the context of these perspectives of research and application.

Key words: Organizational commitment, affective commitment, commitment towards the
supervisor, organizational change, public organization.

Rezumat

Acest studiu i propune identificarea variabilelor prezente ntr-un context de schimbare
organizaional i investigarea manierei n care acestea se constituie ca antecedente ale
angajamentului organizaional al liderului, fie idependent unele de altele, fie n interaciune.
Aceste variabile pot de asemenea influena angajamentul afectiv al colaboratorului fa de
supervizor. Cazul unui spital public din Frana va fi luat ca i exemplu pentru dezvoltarea
contextului acestor perspective de cercetare i aplicaii.

Cuvinte cheie: angajament organizaional, angajament afectiv, angajament fa de superior,
schimbare organizaional, organizaie public.

1
Obtenir lengagement des salaris
pourrait-il tre aujourdhui considr comme
lune des conditions de russite des
changements introduits dans lorganisation de
travail? Certains auteurs le laisseraient penser
(Fisch, Weakland & Segal, 1982; Hersey &
Blanchard, 1987; Fiedler, 1986; Bandura,
2001; Brasseur & Mzabi, 2003, Paill, 2006).
Sil apparat vident que sans les acteurs
organisationnels, aucune pratique nest
envisageable, certaines formes dengagement
ne pourraient elles pas favoriser la
concrtisation de projets de changement, et
auquel cas, quel modle permettrait-il le
mieux de le faire?
Notre objectif ici est de raliser un tat de lart
pour comprendre comment sorganisent et se
structurent les mcanismes dengagement
organisationnel. Quelles sont les diverses
variables, comment sarticulent leurs effets

1
Elisabeth.doutre@upmf-grenoble.fr
lorsquelles jouent conjointement sur
lengagement organisationnel du chef et de
ses collaborateurs dans une dmarche de
changement, notamment dans un contexte
organisationnel de service public. Ce dernier a
fait lobjet de nombreuses tudes par diffrents
experts. Ces tudes montrent la difficult
dobtenir cet engagement en situation de
modernisation organisationnelle notamment
lhpital. Certains auteurs expliquent cela par
une inertie bureaucratique (Warin, 2004),
dautres par une inadaptation des mthodes
utilises (Franois, 2003; Meyer, & al, 2002).
Nous tenterons de clarifier le concept
dengagement dans un premier temps, celui de
changement ensuite et enfin nous tenterons
une analyse explicative des difficults
rencontres ce sujet dans le cadre de
lintroduction dun changement tel que la
modernisation dun service public.

Studii i Cercetri

65
Lengagement: un concept multi
objet et multiforme

Si lengagement au travail a suscit de
nombreux travaux de recherche, sa
clarification se heurte la coexistence de
multiples approches. Morrow (1983) a ainsi
recens plus de trente dfinitions diffrentes
de ce concept dans la littrature anglo-
saxonne travers le terme de commitment .
Deux courants cependant prdominent la
recherche, celui de lengagement
comportemental li aux travaux de Festinger
(1957) et se traduisant par une implication
dans les actes, un passage aux actes
selon Joul & Beauvois (1984) en tant au
cur de la thorie de la rationalisation
(Beauvois & Joul, 1985), et celui de
lengagement attitudinal. Ce dernier, plus
connu sous le terme dengagement
organisationnel, est associ une relation
entre deux entits, un sujet, et une
composante de la situation de travail, un objet.
Cet engagement organisationnel part du
principe que lon ne peut tre membre dun
groupe sans construire progressivement avec
lui une relation et sans tre construit en partie
soi-mme dans cette relation (Thvenet,
1993, p.33).

Lengagement attitudinal

Dans ce courant thorique, ce rapport
sujet-objet est toujours dfini comme une
attitude (Lincoln & Kalleberg, 1996). Trois
points essentiels concernant lattitude
permettent de dfinir les approches sur
lengagement organisationnel: lattitude est
interne au sujet, elle a un objet et elle
comporte trois dimensions (Brasseur & Mzabi,
2003).
Lattitude est interne: que ce soit un
mcanisme psychologique, un tat mental ou
une tendance psychologique (Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993), lattitude est un processus
quil est impossible dobserver directement
puisque interne au sujet (Tafani & Souchet,
2001, p.59). Cet engagement des sujets nest
alors jamais vraiment acquis car il nest
identifiable que par son expression ou son
extriorisation: il y a l un lien, certes
complexe mais rel, entre attitude et
comportement. Nos actes peuvent construire
ou modifier nos attitudes (Beauvois & Joul,
1985) et ne relvent pas du mme indicateur
mais ce rapport de cause effet peut tre
aussi invers: des travaux attribuant
lengagement organisationnel labsentisme, le
turn over ou la performance considrent le
comportement comme la rsultante de
lattitude (Wierner & Vardi, 1980; Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990; Blau, 1999; Cohen, 2000). Nos
attitudes peuvent donc transformer nos
comportements (Brown, 1996);
Lattitude a un objet: si les attitudes
spcifiques un contexte ont toujours un objet,
cela signifierait aussi quun sujet ne serait
jamais pour dans labsolu (Fisbein & Ajzen,
1975). Par exemple, le sujet pourra adhrer
la finalit dun projet donn, mais il pourra tre
oppos ses modalits de mise en uvre.
Son adhsion ponctuelle ne pourra pas, par
ailleurs, sappliquer systmatiquement tous
les projets futurs. Les recherches les plus
dveloppes et les plus frquentes sont celles
qui abordent le rapport entre le sujet et sa
situation de travail par le biais de son attitude
vis--vis de son organisation, de ses valeurs,
de ses buts ou encore de son systme
hirarchique. Cet engagement organisationnel
pourra tre compromis par des conflits
identitaires ou par des relations discordantes
dans le groupe de travail (Angle & Perry, 1983;
Reichers, 1985; Yoon, Baker & Ko, 1994).
Enfin, lattitude prsente trois
dimensions: une dimension cognitive,
associe la pense, au jugement ou encore
aux croyances du sujet, une dimension
affective, qui renvoie ses motions et
sentiments, et une dimension conative, qui
regroupe les intentions daction (Rosenberg &
Hovland, 1960). Ces trois dimensions
permettent de diffrencier les processus
internes luvre dans lengagement
organisationnel.

Lengagement organisationnel (EO)

Les recherches sur lEngagement
Organisationnel sont centres essentiellement
sur ces trois dimensions.
Les premires tudes se sont tout
dabord situes sur la dimension affective et
ont pris essentiellement en compte
lattachement affectif, motionnel du salari
(Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982): cest une
relation entretenue entre les membres de
lquipe, avec un partage des objectifs sous
langle de lattachement affectif. Cet
attachement dveloppe une identification son
travail et une identification aux valeurs de
lorganisation. Reli au sentiment
dappartenance, lEngagement Affectif (EA)
reste toujours dfini comme un attachement

66
psychologique ressenti par le sujet (Lincoln &
Kalleberg, 1996; Cohen, 2000; Meyer &
Herscovitch, 2001). La dimension affective a
t la plus tudie, car elle semble tre la plus
prdictrice de comportements.
Concernant la dimension cognitive, les
chercheurs vont dfinir ce type dengagement
comme une dynamique rationnelle interne aux
sujets, parfois qualifie dEngagement Calcul
(EC) (Commeiras, 1994). Inspirs par la
thorie des avantages comparatifs (Becker,
1960), ces chercheurs considrent que les
salaris procdent une valuation des
bnfices et des cots professionnels et
personnels de leur implication. Kanter (1968)
introduit le concept dengagement de
continuit ( continuance commitment )
associ la dcision de partir ou de rester
dans lorganisation; lengagement du sujet est
alors fonction de ce quil considre percevoir
mais aussi de ses attentes vis--vis de sa
situation professionnelle voire mme de ses
idaux. Gaertner et Nollen (1992) montrent
que les employs, qui croient quil existe des
opportunits de carrire et qui pensent que
lentreprise essaie de garantir la scurit de
lemploi, sont plus engags dans lentreprise
que ceux qui ne le croient pas. Des recherches
prennent en compte la fois la dimension
affective et la dimension cognitive et montrent
le lien avec lthique du sujet (Morrow, 1983;
OReilly & Chatman, 1986): la conviction que le
travail est un bien en soi, ou que la valeur
morale se mesure aux efforts que lon y fournit.
Cette forme dengagement fait intervenir soit la
raison soit les sentiments ou les motions
dans une complexe articulation. Ainsi, lindividu
pourra se contraindre de travailler en dpit de
ce quil ressent, ou loppos, prouver de la
joie en concordance avec ses valeurs et ses
croyances.
Enfin, lEngagement Normatif (EN) fait
rfrence lensemble des pressions
normatives internalises qui poussent un
individu agir dans le sens des objectifs et des
intrts de lorganisation, non pas pour en
retirer un bnfice, mais parce quil est
normal dagir ainsi (Wiener, 1980; Meyer &
allen, 1997). Cette dimension contribuerait au
renforcement du sentiment didentit ou encore
du sentiment dappartenance.
Des approches tridimentionnelles vont dfinir
lengagement organisationnel comme un tat
psychologique rsultant dun processus
complexe darticulation et de priorisation (Allen
& Meyer, 1991, 1996). Ce processus
rsulterait la fois des dsirs, de la volont,
des devoirs, des intrts du sujet, des
intentions daction dans lorganisation ou/et
des intentions de quitter lentreprise. Ces
auteurs proposent de dfinir lengagement
organisationnel comme une attitude de
lindividu correspondant dune part son
attachement affectif lorganisation dans
laquelle il travaille, et au partage des valeurs
communes, et dautre part, son choix
raisonn de lui rester fidle en fonction des
cots associs son dpart, et enfin,
lobligation morale quil ressent daccomplir son
devoir (Varona, 1996; Meyer & al, 2001;
Durrieu & Roussel, 2002). Cest un tat qui
traduit finalement tout autant lattitude que le
comportement (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990,
Herrbach & Mignonac, 2002; Meyer & al,
2002). Tous les auteurs semblent saccorder
sur ces concepts de base.

Des mcanismes efficaces

Lidentification (la relation gratifiante
avec lorganisation) et linternalisation
(congruence entre valeurs du sujet et objectifs
de lorganisation) peuvent tre considrs
comme les meilleurs mcanismes par lequel
lEngagement Affectif (EA) se dveloppe.
Contrairement lEngagement calcul, lEA
oriente positivement les comportements
individuels lgard de lorganisation (Meyer &
al, 2002). Cependant, ces composantes
attitudinales pourraient diverger: le sujet en
dsaccord avec les valeurs de son
organisation ne partira pas ncessairement car
ce nest pas son intrt ou parce quil ne pense
pas pouvoir trouver un autre travail dans une
autre organisation, ou encore parce quil est
fonctionnaireCe sujet sera alors engag
par dfaut (Becker, 1960). Cette
particularit de lengagement calcul doit donc
tre prise en compte dans llaboration des
programmes de changement dans les services
publics.

Les recherches sur lEngagement
Organisationnel

Nombre de recherches se sont alors
orientes soit sur les antcdents de
lengagement organisationnel (Allen & Meyer,
1990; Simard, 2000), soit sur ses
consquences sur le comportement des sujets
(Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Palmero, 2000), soit
encore sur les deux la fois (Meyer & al
2002).
Studii i Cercetri

67
Les recherche nombreuses sur les
antcdents ont montr diffrents liens
significatifs: le lien avec lintention de dpart a
t tudi (Hartman & Bambacas, 2000): les
dimensions affective et calcule sont
significatives dans leur relation avec lintention
de dpart. LEA serait aussi associ une
meilleure performance individuelle et collective
(Meyer, Allen & Smith, 1993), la rduction
des retards et de labsentisme (Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990). Les variables organisationnelles
semblent plus prdictibles dengagement
organisationnel que les variables individuelles:
la dcentralisation des dcisions, la dlgation
de responsabilits, lautonomie au travail, le
climat de soutien, semblent avoir un impact
significatif dans le dveloppement de
lengagement affectif (EA). Des perceptions
ngatives de la justice et liniquit des
pratiques dvaluation, de rmunration, et de
promotion peuvent endommager la nature de
lengagement affectif et normatif des salaris
envers lorganisation (Meyer & Smith, 2000).
Certaines tudes se sont intresses
lengagement organisationnel de sujets hauts
potentiels: le rle des pratiques de
dveloppement des comptences, de
participation la dcision et de rmunration
individualise semblent dterminants
(Mannheim, Baruch & Tal, 1997; May,
Korczynski & Frenkel, 2002) de mme que la
relation groupe/leader. Des tudes rcentes
ce sujet (Paill, 2006) ont vrifi le lien
significatif de la pratique de la
responsabilisation et de la gestion des
carrires sur lengagement affectif (EA), de la
rmunration et des pratiques de recrutement
sur lengagement normatif (EN), et enfin des
pratiques de formation et de responsabilisation
sur lengagement calcul (EC) ( El Akremi &
Trabelsi, 2003). Enfin, il a t dmontr que
les trois dimensions sinfluencent entre elles,
lengagement affectif influence lengagement
normatif (Meyer & Smith, 2000) qui lui-mme
semble influencer lengagement calcul
(Delobbe & Vandenberghe, 2000).
Lvolution du concept dEO vers
lengagement vis--vis du suprieur
Plus rcemment, le modle de lEO a
t appliqu au concept dengagement vis--
vis du suprieur. Meyer et Herscovitch (2001)
ont propos une gnralisation du modle
partant de lide que les trois dimensions de
lEO prenaient leurs racines dans des tats
mentaux diffrents. Selon eux, les tats
mentaux du dsir (EA) dobligation perue
(EN) et de cot peru (EC) pouvaient tre le
terreau dengagement envers de nombreuses
entits ou objets tel notamment le suprieur.
Plusieurs recherches empiriques ont mis en
vidence que les trois dimensions de lEO
pouvaient dpeindre un engagement envers
le suprieur . Ce report dengagement sur le
suprieur rsulterait dune diminution de la
relation identitaire entre lemploy et son
organisation due notamment aux
bouleversements conomiques (Eisenberger &
al, 2002, Stinglhamber & al, 2002). Dans ce
cas l, lengagement affectif envers le
suprieur rsulterait du sentiment didentit
partage et dadhsion ses valeurs, du
sentiment de loyaut son gard et du
sentiment de reconnaissance que pratiquerait
le suprieur vis--vis des investissements
personnels raliss par lemploy. LEN
envers le suprieur se dfinirait comme la
consquence de bnfices reus du suprieur
et lEC envers le suprieur serait la
consquence psychologique des
investissements raliss par lemploy dans sa
relation de travail avec son chef (Stinglhamber
& al, 2002, p.141).
A la lecture du tableau, on constate
une influence largement dmontre des
variables organisationnelles et managriales
sur lEngagement Affectif (EA). En effet, on
peut compter 6 variables uniquement
antcdentes de lEA, et 6 autres variables
antcdentes de lEA et lEngagement calcul
ou de continuit (EC). On montre que ces
variables organisationnelles sont prdictibles,
notamment dans leur capacit explicative du
degr dengagement (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Il
est donc possible de penser que linfluence
des variables individuelles reste encore un
champ explorer notamment dans leurs liens
avec ces variables organisationnelles.
La relation employ/leaders qui a t
explore dans le cadre de lEO envers le
suprieur peut sexpliquer par le dsir de croire
quune relation identitaire entre le collaborateur
et son chef est essentielle au maintien dune
motivation extrinsque des employs,
notamment dans les grands groupes (De Cotiis
& Summers, 1987; Stinglhamber & al, 2002).
Esprer voir se dvelopper un
engagement affectif envers le suprieur ne
pourrait-il pas aussi laisser esprer une
moindre rsistance au changement des
employs? En maintenant un engagement
envers le suprieur, lorganisation ne pourrait-
elle pas alors compenser les pertes de repres
que les changements gnrent? Ces pertes

68
de repres, naurait-elles pas un lien avec le sentiment didentit ou dune identit menace?

Tableau 1. Liens significatifs entre les diffrentes variables

Variables antcdentes lengagement
organisationnel
Type dengagement:

E0: engagement
organisationnel
EA: engagement affectif
EC: engagement de
continuit ou calcul
EN: engagement
normatif
Variables dpendantes
Reconnaissance du suprieur immdiat
(Simard, 2000)
Reconnaissance du leader (De Cotiis &
Summers, 1987)

EO
Variables individuelles:
Anciennet (Meyer & al, 2002)
Auto valorisation des composantes identitaires
(Herrbach & Mignonac, 2002)

EA

Performance individuelle (Meyer & al, 1993)
Performance collective (Meyer & al, 1993)
Adoption de comportement de citoyennet
organisationnelle (Meyer & Allen, 1997)
Mobilisation (Simard, 2000)
Rduction des retards (Mathieu & Zajac,
1990)
Rduction de labsentisme (Mathieu & Zajac,
1990)
Rduction du turn over (Mathieu & Zajac,
1990)
Variables organisationnelles
Type dorganisation et dimension du pouvoir du
chef
(Meyer & al, 2002)
Justice interactionnelle (Meyer & a, 2002)
Justice distributive (Meyer & al, 2002)
Lautonomie dans le travail (Matieu & Zajac,
1990; Simard, 2000)
Partage de linformation (Varona, 1996)

EA

Le dveloppement des comptences des
employs (Simard, 2000)
Les pratiques de formation (Brasseur & al,
2003)
La perception daccs la formation (Baling &
al, 2000)
Les opportunits dapprentissage au travail
(Meyer & al, 2001)
La perception de justice (Meyer & Smith, 2000)
La reconnaissance par le suprieur (Decotiis &
Summers, 1987)

EA + EC
Partiques de rmunration (El Akremi &
Trabelsi, 2003)
Les pratiques de recrutement (El Akremi &
Trabelsi, 2003)
Dimension du pouvoir (Meyer & al, 2002)
La justice interactionnelle (Meyer & al, 2002)

EN

Studii i Cercetri

69
Le sentiment didentit

Il faut se connatre (concept de soi ou
identit) avant de se reconnatre (estime de
soi). En effet, tout individu doit connatre ses
forces, ses habilets, ses qualits, ses
difficults et ses limites personnelles pour qu'il
puisse poser un jugement positif sur cette
connaissance qu'il a de lui-mme. Acqurir un
sentiment d'identit positive est synonyme
d'une bonne estime de soi car les repres sont
stabiliss et donnent confiance en soi
lindividu. Le sentiment d'identit positive
rfre l'estime de soi globale. La
connaissance de soi et l'identit personnelle
qui en rsultent, constituent les fondements de
l'estime de soi. Ce sentiment didentit est une
des variables anticipatrices de lEngagement
Affectif (Herrbach & Mignonac, 2002). Les
dfinitions du concept didentit doivent partir
dun modle double entre : dun ct il
est ncessaire davoir la perspective
individuelle (le soi) qui concerne la structure
organise de lidentit personnelle, et de
lautre la vision sociale qui se rattache la
culture et au sentiment dappartenance qui fait
rfrence la structure organise de lidentit
collective.
Le sentiment didentit se consolide si
on augmente les relations avec le groupe. On
voit bien les liens qui peuvent se faire entre
lidentit, notamment lidentit sociale ou
collective et lengagement: lidentit est
prcisment le chemin de la sociabilit.
Lensemble des mcanismes relationnels qui
soutiennent lidentit de soi dun individu et sa
projection sur une identit sociale est un des
lments fondamentaux des conduites
humaines. L'identit sociale comprend les
attributs catgoriels et statutaires qui se
rfrent des catgories sociales o se
rangent les individus (groupes, sous-groupes:
jeune , femme , cadre , pre ).
C'est souvent une identit prescrite ou
assigne, dans la mesure o l'individu n'en fixe
pas, ou pas totalement, les caractristiques.
Cette identit sociale situe l'individu
l'articulation entre le sociologique et le
psychologique. Elle envisage, comme le
souligne Tajfel et al (1999) le rle jou par la
catgorisation sociale qui selon lui comprend
les processus psychologiques qui tendent
ordonner l'environnement en termes de
catgories: Groupes de personnes, d'objets,
d'vnements [] en tant qu'ils sont
quivalents les uns aux autres pour l'action,
les intentions ou les attitudes d'un individu
(p.165). Ce sentiment didentit est donc une
variable importante dont les effets sont
prendre en compte dans leur capacit
accompagner ou inhiber un engagement
organisationnel. Et notamment en cas de
changement organisationnel, dans lequel, des
rsistances attitudinales vont apparatre.

Le changement organisationnel et
lengagement organisationnel: un
lien dintrts communs

Le changement organisationnel est
une dmarche aujourdhui courante dans
toutes les organisations de travail, et les
diverses recherches faites ce sujet montrent
la complexit des mcanismes en jeu et les
difficults contourner les rsistances qui
apparaissent (Cornet, 1999; Rondeau, 1999;
2002). Ces chercheurs montrent que les
processus de transformation doivent sajuster
continuellement aux contraintes de
lenvironnement. Dans cette perspective, un
certain nombre de contraintes ont t
explores: la pression des groupes dintrt, le
leadership des dirigeants, le type
dorganisation du travail, et les ressources
disponibles. Les diffrents travaux ce sujet
suggrent lexistence dtapes logiques par
lesquelles passer afin dobtenir des
changements comportementaux gages des
transformations attendues (Lewin, 1951;
Judson, 1991; Kotter, 1996; Mintzberg,
Ahlstrand & Laampel, 1999). On parle alors
dun processus de changement. Des
recherches rcentes ont identifi des variables
juges les plus significatives dans le succs
dun processus transformationnel, ces
variables permettraient de rduire notamment
la rsistance au changement et le dlai de
mise en uvre des transformations (Rondeau,
1999; Paill, 2006). Quatre familles de
variables ont ainsi t constitues: des
variables lies au contexte, dautres lies au
scnario de changement lui-mme, celles lies
aux acteurs, enfin, des variables lies la
progression du changement.

Les variables contextuelles

La complexit du changement est
dterminante. Si le changement remet en
cause la structure de lorganisation, les modes
de gestion, les pratiques et les rles, on est en
face dune situation complexe qui va
ncessiter une vritable stratgie de mise en
uvre (un scnario) et ce dautant plus si la

70
lgitimit de ces changements napparat pas
suffisamment dans le projet.

Le scnario

Deuxime dimension, les variables
lies au scnario apparaissent
consquemment aux tapes choisies pour
mettre en uvre les transformations: le
management participatif par la consultation
rgulire des acteurs, permet de conduire
souplement ce changement et de raliser des
ajustements nombreux en cours de route.
Lutilisation de lencadrement comme
animateur de la dmarche est un des lments
significatifs du succs (Doutre & Kouabenan,
1998). Enfin, le rythme, la planification elle-
mme est importante, elle doit tenir compte
des variables contextuelles.

Les acteurs du changement

La direction (les dirigeants) tout
dabord a son importance, elle doit dterminer
le contenu du projet et le lgitimer. Elle doit
aussi montrer lexemple, c'est--dire
simpliquer dans les actions changer. Les
chefs de service ensuite, par leur fonction de
relais de la direction, sengagent en
sappropriant en premier les transformations.

La progression du changement

La mobilisation de la base, c'est--dire
leur engagement organisationnel, employs et
excutants, nest obtenue quen dernier lieu.
On a constat quils sapproprieront dautant
plus les changements si pralablement
lencadrement a montr lexemple. Le
processus de changement doit donc tre
pens avec diverses tapes progressives, de
nature complmentaire, et dont lefficacit
apparat au final, lors de limplication des
acteurs les moins gratifis. Ces tapes suivent
un processus descendant (top down) de la
direction au personnel dexcution via un
programme compos de formation suivies
dactions permettant au projet de changement
dtre pris en compte par lensemble du
personnel afin de rendre ce dernier contributif
des actions nouvelles mettre en uvre. On
demandera au personnel dexcution dtre
force de proposition dans la concrtisation des
diffrents projets. Et cette participation se fera
de manire remontante (bottom up).
Diverses tudes (Rondeau, 1999) ont permis
didentifier une vingtaine de variables
diffrentes prsentes dans le tableau 2.

Tableau 2. Les variables significatives dans la conduite du changement

Le contexte Le scnario Les acteurs La progression
Complexit du
changement
lgitimit du
changement
Inertie de
lorganisation
disponibilit des
ressources
pressions de
lenvironnement
soutien des
groupes intresss

Le plan
Le rythme
Les cibles atteindre
laide dun expert
extrieur
(laccompagnement)
le comit de direction
lencadrement
les quipes porteuses
daction
les engags
lorientation
La sensibilisation
lhabilitation
lintgration
la rgnration

Changer, exige donc que
lorganisation elle-mme, ses systmes, ses
faons de faire et ses acteurs voluent. On
saperoit que le dveloppement de cette
capacit se cre grce des activits qui vont
permettre aux acteurs de comprendre la nature
des changements viss et surtout qui vont leur
permettre de sengager dans les
transformations.
Ces acteurs vont devoir dvelopper de
nouvelles comptences, sadapter et ajuster
leurs comportements aux nouveauts.
On comprend alors le lien dintrt qui
existe entre la conduite du changement
organisationnel et lengagement
Studii i Cercetri

71
organisationnel: ce sont des liens interactifs.
Lengagement organisationnel impacte sur les
succs du changement. On peut comprendre
que la force, ou la ralit dun engagement
organisationnel est significatif dans lvaluation
dune conduite de changement. Il a t aussi
montr que le changement provoque une
mobilisation des acteurs qui vont sengager
dans des actions (Paill, 2006; Neves, 2003;
Huy, 1999). Il y a donc des interdpendances
entre toutes les variables en jeu, quelles
soient dengagement et/ou de changement.
Cette imbrication explique pourquoi il est
important de comprendre leurs mcanismes
dinteraction et didentifier les modles en
prsence. Cependant, nous ne savons pas
encore de faon consistante quel type
dengagement est le plus explicatif de la
russite dun changement organisationnel. Il y
a l des perspectives relles de recherche,
notamment dans les organisations publiques
o le type dorganisation bureaucratique peut
renforcer les rsistances des acteurs
changer.

Le changement dans le service
public: des particularits
organisationnelles

La question de la modernisation des
services publics entame depuis maintenant
plusieurs annes en France (Weller, 1998) a
permis lmergence de questionnement autour
des problmatiques defficience, de
performance et de qualit de service. La
perception nave nest pas toujours favorable
vis--vis des fonctionnaires. On leur reproche
un manque dengagement (Warin, 2004).
On peut le comprendre par une relecture des
travaux de Weber (1900, 1917, in crits de
1957). Cest le premier avoir analys
systmatiquement le concept dorganisation. Il
a identifi deux forces primordiales qui la
composent et qui sopposent, la division du
travail et la centralisation de lautorit. La
division du travail fragmente les organisations
en les traduisant en lments simples et de
plus en plus spcialiss. A loppos, la
centralisation de lautorit va tendre unifier et
Weber parle de coordination . Le but de la
centralisation de lautorit est de synchroniser
les parties fractionnes de faon quelles
fonctionnent en harmonie pour servir les
objectifs de lorganisation.
Une des difficults majeures est donc dtablir
un quilibre entre ces forces: plus la
spcialisation augmente, plus lamlioration
des techniques de coordination doit tre plus
grande. La rationalit lintrieur des
organisations, dbat des thoriciens et des
organisateurs, repose sur leffet rciproque des
forces de spcialisation et de coordination.
(Warin, 2004).

Les principes qui rgissent le
Service Public

Urwick (1937) a structur les caractristiques
de la thorie bureaucratique de Weber en
mettant en vidence les trois lments
essentiels, spcialisation, coordination et
distribution rationnelle des tches, et il tablit
que ses principes sont universels. Cest sur
ces bases quaujourdhui fonctionne le service
public selon six principes fondamentaux:
- un principe de continuit permettant la
rgularit de fonctionnement par exemple,
des horaires de travail, et des procdures
dlimitant les tches accomplir -. Ce
principe de continuit ne peut avoir le mme
contenu pour tous les services, il existe donc
une chelle de continuit selon la nature du
service rendre, le but de ce principe est
dobtenir une rgularit de fonctionnement.
- Un principe dgalit, qui sest
dvelopp partir de la dclaration des droits
de lhomme de 1789 (article 6) et qui conduit
la standardisation des services publics pour
assurer un niveau gal de service pour tout le
monde. Il ne doit pas y avoir de diffrenciation
de prix et de qualit entre chacun des services
publics de mme type.
- Un principe de mutualit: principe
dadaptation, les services publics sont appels
voluer en fonction des besoins et en
fonction de lapprciation de ces besoins par
les autorits publiques. Ladaptation du service
public consiste gnralement en une
amlioration du service par une simplification
des procdures, une modification des
conditions daccs ou, la limite, par une
suppression du service. Ladaptation du
service public est donc ralise habituellement
par voie unilatrale, les usagers ne pouvant
pas se prvaloir dun droit au maintien dune
rglementation dtermine travers des
accords avec les collectivits locales.
- Un principe de transparence, les
services publics doivent donner la possibilit
aux usagers de sinformer sur lactivit de
certains services, notamment sur lutilisation
des fonds financiers. Cependant, cette
demande de transparence pour les usagers

72
nexiste pas dans lenseignement suprieur par
exemple..
- Un principe de spcialisation,
englobant la division du travail et la
spcialisation des tches, les employs tant
recruts sur concours par rapport des
standards objectifs dfinis. Ce principe ayant
pour but de rationaliser la gestion du
personnel administratif.
- Enfin, un principe de coordination par
la centralisation de lautorit afin dtablir un
quilibre entre les diffrentes forces qui
peuvent sopposer.

Les paradoxes

On comprend lorigine dun premier
paradoxe dans la mise en perspective des
consquences de cette organisation du travail
et les principes qui fondent le service public et
lui donnent son essence, crant la culture
bureaucratique considre comme un modle
de qualit, voir comme le modle pour ses
agents (Warin, 2004): pourquoi changer
puisque ce modle est le meilleur !
Le deuxime paradoxe se trouve dans
la logique floue du fonctionnement des
services publics. Une des illustrations par
exemple peut se trouver dans la mise en place
de la rduction du temps de travail 35
heures: alors que les organisations prives,
particulirement lindustrie, ont reconfigur
leurs processus pour gagner des postes, le
public passe aux 35 heures sans avoir
envisag les consquences de cette
diminution des heures travailles, laissant ainsi
supposer, que les agents travaillant peu,
peuvent se permettre une augmentation de
productivit sans changement dorganisation
du travail ni de comportement ! Cette
conviction qui rejoint la pire des
reprsentations du service public nest pas
sans consquence sur la qualit du service
rendu et la rsistance des agents (Franois,
2003).

Les consquences du modle
public

Le secteur public est rigide, il y a peu
de mesure ni dvaluation relle car il est rgi
par une autorit lointaine et diffuse qui peut
radicalement changer dorientation puisquelle
est politique et lue, et qui, pour assurer cette
continuation se rfre ses principes de
fonctionnement immuables. Il ny a pas de
problmatique de jugement, mais seulement
un contrle de respect des procdures.
Cette absence dvaluation est lun
des freins la performance (Beauvois, 1994),
et peut expliquer les difficults rencontres
dans diffrents services publics lorsque des
dcisions damlioration sont prises: la
question pose a toujours t de savoir sur
quels rfrentiels se comparer, et non pas de
se poser la question de sa performance
propre, de sa capacit se remettre en cause
(Tarquinio & Lochot, 2000).

La difficile mise en uvre du
changement dans le service public:
succs et checs

La notion de service dans le sens
de service rendu prsente plusieurs
spcificits comme lintangibilit (il est
immatriel et rarement spcifi, il est difficile
mesurer et, isoler son efficacit est complexe),
la simultanit de la production et de la
consommation (le service nest ni stockable ni
transportable, il se consomme en mme temps
quil se produit, il est donc difficile contrler),
lhtrognit (il est rarement reproduit
lidentique, il est difficile formater et
talonner) (Argyris, 1995).
Il est alors possible de dire que
le service public est intangible, lusager
consomme le service en mme temps quil se
produit. Par contre, cest un service homogne
o cependant, on rencontrera aussi des suites
de comportements difficilement matrisables et
provoquant un vcu motionnel fort (Warin,
2004).
Enfin le mode de gouvernance
gnralement peu participatif et dlgatif ne
favorise pas lengagement des personnes.
Dans ce contexte, lengagement
organisationnel peut-il tre un levier
daccompagnement du changement, peut-il
tre mis en jeu pour diminuer les forces de
rsistances que lon vient dvoquer?

Lengagement organisationnel dans
un contexte de changement: les
diffrentes perspectives et le cas de
lhpital public

Les hpitaux Franais sont confronts
depuis quelques annes de multiples
changements appels rformes hospitalires
(1996), dmarche qualit (2002), mise en
oeuvre des 35 heures (2003), mise en place
des ples de sant (2006)... Il est normal et
Studii i Cercetri

73
mme ncessaire que les organisations
changent. Cependant, en moins de dix ans,
lhpital public a t le lieu de processus si
rptitifs et rapides que lon est en droit de se
demander comment le personnel se sent
toujours engag envers lui, et quels pourraient
en tre les modles les plus prdicteurs face
ces altrations de lquilibre fonctionnel du
systme de travail: le changement est devenu
la fois le dcor, le sujet et lobjet de la
pice qui se joue dans les organisations
hospitalires (Ribau, Fraisse & Bayad, 2003,
p.2106). Ce mouvement continu demande
donc de la part des acteurs une capacit
rester matre de soi, et ce dautant plus que
lon sait quune des ractions des individus est
de rsister au changement (Angle & Lawson,
1993; Argyris, 1995).
Engage en 1996, la rforme
hospitalire a quelque peu chang les rles et
missions des chefs de service de soins au
patient en rduisant la dimension
hirarchique au profit de la dimension
danimation . Lintroduction des dmarches
qualit (accrditation) va demander aux
mdecins dtre efficaces, c'est--dire de
soigner au mieux le patient compte tenu de
ses symptmes, mais aussi, dtre efficient,
c'est--dire de soigner le patient au moindre
cot. Ces exigences introduisent une notion de
performance conomique et de performance
collective. Nous savons que cette performance
peut se dvelopper grce un engagement
affectif envers lorganisation (Meyer & al,
1993). Cependant, cette performance risque
de se dtriorer en situation de changement
car linfluence de lenvironnement sur les
comportements reste essentielle, linteraction
entre facteurs personnels et environnementaux
est dterminante (Bandura, 1993). Pour
soutenir cette performance, et permettre aux
personnes dagir sur lenvironnement afin de
reconstruire des points de repre (Ribau & al.,
2003), des formations accompagnent
lintroduction de ces dmarches. Elles ont pour
buts de favoriser un changement des attitudes
afin de maintenir une double implication, celui
du suprieur, le mdecin chef de service, et
celui des autres membres de lquipe (cadre
de sant, infirmires, aides soignantes) (Ribau
& al., 2003). Or, la littrature semble indiquer
que les employs simpliqueraient dans des
relations dchange avec lorganisation de
manire distinctes de celles quils
entretiendraient avec leur suprieur (Meyer &
al., 2001, Stinglhamber & al, 2002). Un
contexte de changement amnerait-il dautres
processus dengagement?
Lordonnance 96 346 de 1996 fait obligation
aux tablissements de sant de procder
une valuation rgulire de la satisfaction des
patients. La ralisation de ce type dvaluation,
en gnral des questionnaires de satisfaction,
est cense susciter ou renforcer limplication
des quipes mdicales dans une dmarche
qualit. La diffusion des rsultats de ces
questionnaires devrait avoir pour effet la mise
en place dactions correctives visant par voie
de consquence lamlioration de la
satisfaction des patients. Or, une revue de
littrature notamment en la matire ne
constate pas deffet significatif de ces
nouvelles pratiques (Parker & Kroboth, 1991;
Dull, Lansky & Davis, 1994; Scott & Smith,
1994; Tasa, Baker & Murray, 1996; Rogers &
Smith, 1999; Cohen & Buchan, 2001; Greco &
al, 2001; Ribau & al, 2003). Une tude
exploratoire rcente sur cette question a
permis de mettre en vidence un lien entre
des variables personnologiques et
comportementales des chefs de services et
leur implication dans ces dmarches qualit
considres comme introductives de
changement. Deux variables ont t isoles: le
style de leadership et le Locus of Control
(ou degr de contrle) (Franois & Doutre,
2004). Il semblerait quun style de leadership
soit plus particulirement prdicteur
dengagement des collaborateurs: le style
transformationnel cre un terrain favorable
pour la diffusion et lutilisation de ces
enqutes. Ce rsultat confirmerait ce que lon
savait par ailleurs: le style transformationnel
serait le plus adquat pour obtenir une
motivation et une mobilisation du personnel
compar aux deux autres styles, le
transactionnel et le passif vitant (Hetland &
Sandal, 2003, Bass, 1998, Bass, &
Steidlmeier, 1999, Barling, Slater, & Kelloway,
2000). Concernant la deuxime variable, le
LOC interne serait prdictible dun passage
aux actes, et sinscrirait dans ce qui a t dj
mis en vidence par des tudes sur
lengagement interne aux sujets (Rotter, 1966,
Pansu, 1997, Tafani & Souchet, 2001, Spector
& al, 2002). Les liens de ces deux variables
avec lEO ne sont pas nouveaux, mais nont
pas fait lobjet dune publication consistante
(Meyer & al, 2001, Meyer & al, 2002).
Cependant ces deux variables, combines,
nont pas encore t tudies dans leurs effets
sur un EO. Concernant lengagement envers le
suprieur pour les membres de lquipe de

74
soins, de nombreuses tudes sur lhpital ont
galement soulign limportance de la
collaboration infirmires/mdecins pour
lobtention de rsultats positifs en terme de
performance rduction du taux de dcs, de
la dure du sjour, du turnover infirmier et
amlioration de la capacit des infirmires
rpondre aux besoins des patients et de leurs
familles (Knaus & al, 1986, Mitchell & al, 1989,
Stordeur & al, 2003). Ces travaux confortent
lhypothse de linfluence de la personnalit et
du comportement du chef mdecin dans leur
double effet sur son Engagement
Organisationnel et sur celui de ses
collaborateurs (lEO des collaborateurs ne se
dveloppant pas vers lorganisation mais
envers leur suprieur) dans un contexte de
changement.

Limportance des variables
individuelles comme variables
antcdentes lengagement
organisationnel dans un contexte
de changement organisationnel de
service public

La littrature suppose quun leader efficace,
celui qui influence ses collaborateurs, sadapte
son environnement, sache ngocier -
leadership transactionnel (Bass, 1985)-, et
cherche le transformer leadership
transformationnel (Bass, 1999) cette vision
systmique du leadership sintresse son
action en deux temps sur lquipe de travail, et
propose un modle managrial. Le premier
temps met en adquation le style de
leadership les conduites du chef vis--vis de
ses collaborateurs, leurs comptences
acquises et leur niveau de confiance en
lorganisation. Cette adquation situationnelle
sentend dans un contexte stable o des
transactions sont possibles entre les objectifs
atteindre et les renforcements obtenus.
Cependant, long terme, cette premire
dimension du leadership ne semble plus
prdictible de russite faute de provoquer chez
les collaborateurs des changements dordre
suprieur comme les attitudes, les croyances
et les valeurs. Aussi, le leader doit transformer
lenvironnement de ses collaborateurs en leur
donnant du pouvoir de faon ce quils
deviennent des agents de changement dans
lorganisation. Ce style de leadership va
sappuyer sur le partage des actions qui
engagera les deux parties, le chef et les
collaborateurs. Ce leader transformationnel
dveloppe des qualits charismatiques, il sait
parler et enthousiasmer, il pratique la
considration individuelle, et il provoque la
stimulation intellectuelle. Ce type de leader voit
se dvelopper dans son quipe de
nombreuses innovations et de limplication
(Bass & al, 1991; 1998; 1999). On peut
lgitimement valider le choix de cette variable
dans un contexte de changement
organisationnel.

La combinaison des variables
Le comportement du chef, que lon
appellera style de Leadership, permettrait alors
de crer les conditions favorables dans un
groupe sengager vis--vis du suprieur. Et
ceci, notamment dans un contexte de
changement parce qualors, le chef permettrait,
par son comportement, de compenser la
diminution de la relation identitaire de ses
collaborateurs envers lorganisation.
Paralllement, le LOC serait prdictible
dengagement personnel passer aux actes.
Nous pensons que ces deux variables
combines peuvent tre antcdentes de
lengagement organisationnel. La variable
leadership ayant un effet prdictible dinfluence
sur le groupe et la variable LOC tant
prdictible dengagement personnel, il serait
pertinent de les lier afin de reprer si elles sont
prdictibles lune vis--vis de lautre et si elles
peuvent avoir le double effet attendu: sur le
chef et sur ses collaborateurs en contexte de
changement.

Perspectives de recherche
Si limplication dans la dmarche qualit (ayant
pour effet, dans un contexte de changement,
dexploiter des questionnaires de satisfaction
des patients) est attendu de la part des
mdecins chefs de service (variable
dpendante), peut-on admettre que plus un
chef sera interne plus on obtiendra cette
implication (Beauvois, 1994, Doutre, 2003)?
Par ailleurs, lengagement organisationnel
dans sa dimension affective (EA) attendu de la
part des mdecins chefs de service pour
exercer leurs rles, permet desprer quun
chef interne peut avoir un sentiment
dappartenance lorganisation (EA) plus
important quun externe, et qu il simpliquera
plus. Cette implication lamnerait exploiter
les questionnaires de satisfaction des patients.
Par ailleurs, on peut aussi admettre quun chef
interne saurait pratiquer la reconnaissance des
investissements personnels de ses
collaborateurs et, par consquent, leur
permettrait de sattacher lui et de dvelopper
Studii i Cercetri

75
de la loyaut. Le LOC interne du chef pourrait
avoir alors une antcdence sur lengagement
affectif de ses collaborateurs via la pratique de
la reconnaissance et le dveloppement de la
loyaut. Cet EA envers le suprieur permettrait
alors aux collaborateurs de simpliquer, en
participant des actions correctives. Le LOC
aurait donc une influence sur les deux types
dengagement, organisationnel et envers le
suprieur dans un contexte de changement.
Enfin, le lien entre un LOC interne et un
style de leadership transformationnel paratrait
alors prdictible de conduites responsables
dun chef qui dbattra des problmes
rencontrs, (le contenu des questionnaires de
satisfaction des patients), et prendra une
dcision de manire concerte avec ses
collaborateurs en les amenant raliser des
actions correctives. On peut donc supposer
que les collaborateurs engags affectivement
envers leur chef accepteront de raliser ces
actions correctives.

Conclusion

Lengagement affectif des salaris est
il un moyen de contourner la rsistance au
changement? Tout dpend du contexte
environnemental et des typologies dacteurs en
prsence: nous avons vu que lEA semble
permettre de contourner cette rsistance.
Cependant, ces connaissances restent
vrifier dans le domaine de lorganisation
publique et notamment lhpital. Dans ce
travail, nous avons tent de comprendre
comment sorganisent et se structurent les
mcanismes dengagement organisationnel.
Nous avons pu mettre en vidence lintrt
dutiliser le type dengagement effectif envers
le suprieur comme variable ayant un effet sur
la diminution de la rsistance au changement.
Cette variable est pertinente car si elle se
rencontre dans une situation de travail
concomitamment lexistence dun chef
transformationnel et interne, on obtiendra, peut
tre, un engagement des collaborateurs dans
laction. Cet engagement dans laction peut
tre entendu comme la preuve dune
diminution de la rsistance au changement.
La rsistance au changement est certes
contournable autrement. Les diffrents
programmes mis en uvre ici ou l (Rondeau,
1999) montrent cependant les difficults
rencontres, notamment en matire de temps.
En effet, le temps pour obtenir une diminution
de la rsistance au changement est long,
demande trs souvent de laccompagnement
(Rondeau, 2002; Paill, 2006). La perspective
dobtenir un engagement organisationnel, dans
les conditions que nous supposons, peut
vraisemblablement aussi jouer sur la variable
temps: la rsistance au changement pourrait
diminuer de manire plus significative et plus
rapidement. Cest une hypothse que cette
revue de question rend lgitime.
Enfin, ce travail prend un intrt
supplmentaire lorsque lon sintresse au
service public: malgr ses paradoxes et sa
rigidit, la diminution de la rsistance au
changement pourrait aussi sobtenir dans un
contexte dengagement organisationnel.

Rsum

Ce travail a pour but de reprer quelles sont les
variables organisationnelles mises en jeu en
contexte de changement et comment elles
sorganisent et sarticulent entre elles. Notamment
lorsquelles jouent conjointement sur lengagement
organisationnel du chef et de ses collaborateurs et
ceci dans le contexte spcifique du service public
Franais. Le cas de lhpital public servira
identifier quelques perspectives de recherches et
dapplication.

Mots cls: Engagement organisationnel,
engagement affectif, engagement envers le
suprieur, changement organisationnel, service
public.

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80
Efecte ale stilului de leadership asupra performantei n mediul organizational

Veronica - Stvil Rlea
1

Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca

Abstract

Based on the transformative theory of leadership, the present research examines the predictive
value of the process of Leadership on organisational citizenship behaviour, counterproductive
work behaviour, and the performance of supervisors as it is perceived by subordinates. 138
subordinates form different organisations participated in this study. The participants were asked
to complete several questionnaires: MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire), OCBS
(Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Scale), and IODS (Interpersonal and Organizational
Deviance Scale).
The results indicate that leadership style predicts organizational citizenship behaviour and
counterproductive work behaviour. Furthermore, leadership style was related to the performance,
extra-effort, and satisfaction with supervisor.
The results support those of other researches in this field.

Keywords: Transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership, organizational
counterproductive behavior organizational citizenship behavior, satisfaction with supervisor,
performance, and extra-effort.

Rezumat

Bazndu-se pe teoria leadershipul-ui transformaional; studiul de fa investigheaz tipul de
leadership ca predictor al performanei manifestat prin tipurile de comportamente la locul de
munc a 60 de manageri din mediul organizaional. Pentru evaluarea acestor leaderi au fost
implicai n cercetare 138 de participani subalterni ai acestor manageri. Acestora li s-au aplicat,
pentru msurarea predictorilor, chestionarul de personalitate BFQ i chestionarul hetero-
evaluator a tipului de leadership MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionaire). Pentru msurarea
variabilelor criteriu s-au aplicat urmtoarele instrumente: IODS ce msoar comportamentele
contraproductive la locul de munc, Scala CCO care evalueaz comportamentul cetenesc
organizaional manifestat la locul de munc, i MLQ prin intermediul cruia s-a evaluat efortul
suplimentar depus de ctre subordonai, satisfacia cu managerul i eficiena superiorului.
Rezultatele obinute n urma acestui studiu, indic faptul c comportamentelele prosociale sunt
relaionate pozitiv cu un stil de leadership Transformaional i negativ de stilul de leadership
Laissez-Faire. Comportamentele contraproductive sunt asociate pozitiv cu un stil de leadership
Laissez-Faire i negativ cu Leadership-ul Transformaional. Conform rezultatelor obinute n
studiul de fa efectele leadershipului tranzacional asupra comportamentelor prosociale i
deviante manifestate de ctre subalterni la locul de munc sunt nesemnificative.

Cuvinte cheie: leadership transformaional, tranzacional, laissez-faire, comportament
contraproductiv, comportament cetenesc organizaional, satisfacia cu superiorul, efort
suplimentar i eficien.

1
Hogan & Kaiser (2005) afirm c
procesul de leadership este probabil cea mai
important problem existent n tiinele
umaniste. Acesta este procesul cu
consecinele cele mai vaste i hotrtoare
asupra organizaiilor, de el depinznd

1
Adresa de coresponden: ralea24@yahoo.com
dezvoltarea, supravieuirea sau dispariia unei
organizaii.
De competena unui leader depinde
eficiena echipei de munc n realizarea
obiectivelor organizaionale, care are ca i
consecine creterea bunstrii tuturor celor
implicai (Schaubroeck, Lam & Cha, 2007,
Chemers, 2000; Fuqua, & Newman, 2005).
Studii i Cercetri

81
Una dintre consecinele stilului de
leadership este performana profesional.
Abordarea tradiional restrnge spaiul
performanei organizaionale la ceea ce
Borman i Motowidlo (1997) numeau
performan n sarcin, definit ca eficiena cu
care deintorii posturilor de munc realizeaz
activitile ce contribuie la componenta tehnic
de baz a organizaiei.
Dei este larg recunoscut faptul c
performana n munc este multidimensional,
doar recent n literatura de specialitate a fost
recunoscut rolul comportamentelor angajailor
care nu se integreaz n dimensiunea
performanei n sarcin, de exemplu,
comportamentele ceteneti organizaionale i
cele deviante (Dalal, 2005). Borman i
Motowidlo (1997) au argumentat c acest tip
de comportamente sunt importante deoarece
contureaz contextul organizaional, social i
psihologic servind drept catalizator pentru
sarcinile i procesele de munc. Unii autori
(Rotundo & Sackett, 2002, Viswesvaran &
Ones, 2000) sugereaz existena a trei
domenii largi de performan: performana n
sarcin, comportamentul cetenesc (CCO),
comportamentul contraproductiv (CCp).
n aceast ordine de idei, rezultatele
studiilor pe tematica performan i leadership
sunt diverse. Ca o sintez a studiilor realizate,
s-a constatat c tipul de leadership are un rol
hotrtor asupra performanelor i dezvoltrii
organizaionale att prin prisma unor criterii
obiective (realizarea sarcinilor i activitilor)
(Liao & Chuang, 2007; Bono et al., 2007;
Schaubroeck et al., 2007; Howell, & Avolio,
1993), ct i a unora subiective cum ar fi:
satisfacia cu munca, climatul organizaional
sau calitatea relaiilor dintre subalterni (Arnold,
et al., 2007; Dierendonck, et al., 2005;
Epitropacki & Martin, 2005; Sy, et al., 2005),
relaia acestora cu leaderul (Offerman, &
Hellman, 1996; Bono & Judge, 2004; Bass, et
al., 2003), absenteism, fluctuaie,
comportamente contraproductive
organizaionale (CCpO), comportamentelor
ceteneti organizaionale (CCO) (McCarthy
Veach, 2001; Pearce & Sims, 2002).
Studiul de fa are la baz teoria
transformaional a leadershipului. Ca urmare
vom face o scurt caracterizare a acesteia. n
plus, dat fiind faptul n acest studiu urmrim s
testm legtura cauzal dintre stilul de
leadership i CCO, CCp, Satisfacia cu
Leaderul (SatL), Efortul suplimentar (ES) i
Eficiena superiorului (Ef), se va realiza o
scurt prezentare a acestora, apoi se vor
specifica ipotezele de cercetare i modul de
testare a acestora, dup care se va trece la
analiza i discutarea rezultatelor obinute.
Dei s-au realizat cercetri ce au
relaionat supervizarea cu CCO i CCp
(McCarthy Veach, 2001), practic nu exist
studii care s fi relaionat modul n care teoria
transformaional are o valoare predictiv
asupra acestor comportamente.

Scurt descriere a teoriei
transformaionale
Teoria transformaional este
structurat pe trei stiluri de leadership:
Leadership Tranzacional, Transformaional i
Laissez-Faire (sau absena procesului de
leadership). Leadershipul transformaional
ncorporeaz dimensiunile celui tranzacional.
Ca urmare un leader eficient este cel ce poate
integra n stilul su de conducere ambele tipuri
(Avolio & Bass, 1999).
Bass, Jung, Avolio, Berson, (2003)
definesc leadershipul tranzacional (LTz) ca un
stil ce identific trebuinele subalternilor pentru
a le satisface n schimbul performanelor
obinute n sarcini. n contrast, leadeshipul de
tip transformaional (LTf), merge ceva mai
departe de aceast relaie de schimb dintre
leader i subaltern. LTf inspir subordonaii
pentru a-i transcede propriile interese i
percepii vizavi de limitele personale, cu scopul
de a urmri realizarea obiectivelor comune
benefice organizaiei i colectivului. Acesta
furnizeaz subalternilor o viziune clar asupra
viitorului, fornd oarecum identificarea
acestora cu organizaia, dezvoltndu-i pe plan
profesional i stimulndu-i intelectual pentru a
aborda soluii multiple inovative la problemele
ce apar n decursul realizrii muncii (Kara et
al., 2007; Schaubroeck et al., 2007; Bycio,
Hacket, Allen, 1995, Den Hartog et al., 1997 ;
Kark, et al., 2003).
Leadership-ul transformaional
cuprinde 4 componente:
Influena idealizat se refer la leaderii
care sunt vzui de ctre angajai ca fiind
modele, ca urmare subordonaii se identific
cu acetia.
Motivaia Inspiraional manifestarea
de expectane mari fa de angajai i
motivarea acestora pentru a deveni mai
implicai n sarcinile pe care le au de ndeplinit.
Stimularea intelectual se refer la
comportamente din partea superiorului care
stimuleaz angajaii s devin creativi i
inventivi, n sensul c acesta sprijin inteniile
subordonailor atunci cnd vor s ncerce noi

82
direcii de abordare a problemelor (Northouse,
2001; Keller, 2006; Kelloway, et al., 2006).
Consideraia individualizat
presupune oferirea unui climat suportiv i
atenie la problemele i necesitilor
angajailor. De exemplu, managerii pot folosi
delegarea responsabilitilor pentru
subordonaii care au nevoia accentuat de
actualizare (motivaie de autorealizare) (Kark,
et al., 2003).
Componentele leadershipului
tranzacional (LTz):
Recompensa contingent presupune
ca leaderul s ofere recompense corecte i
adecvate subalternilor n schimbul realizrii
sarcinilor la nivelul standardelor ateptate.
Management prin excepie activ
implic monitorizarea performanei
subordonailor i luarea de msuri corective n
cazul apariiei neregulilor, precum i
anticiparea deviaiilor posibile de la
standardele acceptate (Bono, & Judge, 2004).
Management prin excepie pasiv se
refer la un comportament ce are scopul de a
interveni cnd deja au aprut probleme,
oferind feedback negativ i pedepse.
Stilul de leadership Laizez faire (LLf),
se caracterizeaz prin evitarea
responsabilitilor i obligaiilor precum i
eecul de a exercita ambele tipuri de
leadership: tranzacional i transformaional
(Sosik, Avolio & Kahai, 1997; Northouse,
2001).
Referitor la validitatea teoriei
transformaionale, unii autori au gsit 8
dimensiuni ale leadershipului tranzacional i
transformaional, n timp ce ali cercettori au
afirmat c ar exista doar 6, trei dimensiuni
aparinnd celui tranzacional iar celelalte trei,
celui transformaional (Avolio i Bass, 1999).
Avolio i Bass (1999) au afirmat c exist un
model n 6 factori, n loc de 8: astfel motivaia
inspiraional i influena idealizat sunt
combinate ntr-un singur factor, stimularea
intelectual, consideraie individualizat,
recompensa contingent, managementul prin
excepie activ, iar managementul prin excepie
pasiv i tipul laissez-faire sunt unul i acelai
factor. El a susinut c acest model n doar 6
factori ar reprezenta mai bine structura
leadershipului transformaional i tranzacional.
In plus, factorii ncadrai la tipul
transformaional au obinut o validitate mai mare
dect cei corespunztori tipului tranzacional,
unde cel mai bun coieficient de validitate a
obinut-o factorul recompens contingent (.40).
Lowe et al. (1996) au raportat o corelaie ntre
dimensiunile leadershipului transformational de
peste 0,70 (citat n: Bono, & Judge, 2004)
Intr-o metaanali realizat de Judge &
Piccolo (2004), rezultatele arat c
leadershipul transformaional are o validitate
general de .44, recompensa contingent a
leadershipului tranzacional - (.39), iar celelalte
dou componente s-au dovedit instabile n a
prezice criteriile: performan, satisfacia cu
munca, satisfacia cu superiorul (Judge &
Piccolo, 2004). n plus, s-au gsit corelaii de
0.80 ntre leadershipul transformaional i cel
tranzacional. Leadershipul laissez faire a
obinut o corelaie negativ cu celelalte dou
tipuri (-0.37 cu LTz i -.65 cu LTf). Corelaiile
obinute pe celelalte 2 componente ale
leadershipului tranzacional au demonstrat o
validitate relativ sczut (sub 0.30) (Judge, &
Piccolo, 2004; Judge et al., 2004).
Autorii au mai constatat c validitatea
teoriei transformaionale este influenat de
design-ul cercetrii i de sursele datelor.
Acestea au o validitate mai mare n design-uri
transversale dect n cele longitudinale.
Validitatea leadershipul-ui transformaional
pare a se generaliza de-a lungul diferitor
situaii; evalurile realizate n medii de afaceri,
n nvmnt, n sectorul militar i public, nu
au dus la diferene la semnificative. n ceea ce
privete validitatea componentei leadershipului
tranzacional - recompensa contingent, s-au
obinut urmtorii coieficieni de validitate:
mediu de afaceri (.51), nvmnt (.19),
mediul militar (.32), i sectorul public (.27)
(Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Judge, Piccolo, &
Ilies, 2004).

Comportament cetenesc
organizaional (CCO) i
comportament contraproductiv
(CCp)
Comportamentul contraproductiv a fost
definit ca i comportamente intenionate (i nu
accidentale) care au consecine duntoare
att asupra organizaiilor ct i asupra
persoanelor implicate, indiferent dac ne
referim la angajai, clieni sau manageri (Dalal,
2005; Spector & Fox, 2002; Rotundo &
Sackett, 2002). Acestea au fost difereniate de
ctre autori n CCp orientate asupra indivizilor
din mediul organizaional (CCp-I) i
comportamente duntoare orientate asupra
organizaiei (CCp-O) (Levine et al., 2005).
Pn n prezent, exist puine studii
asupra relaiei dintre leadership i CCpO, iar
cele realizate au fost derulate n mediul
organizaional educaional sau clinic i mai
Studii i Cercetri

83
puin cel industrial (McCarthy Veach, 2001;
Cobia & Boes, 2000).
CCpO a fost relaionat cu diferii factori
cauz, ca eventuale conflicte cu superiori,
colegi (Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006), abiliti
cognitive (Dilchert, et al., 2007), factori de
personalitate (Salgado, 2002), stres i
satisfacia cu munca (Colbert, et al., 2004;
Hurz, & Donovan, 2000).
CCO sunt comportamente intenionate
i discrete manifestate la locul de munc care
au efecte pozitive asupra organizaiei i asupra
membrilor acesteia, acestea nu sunt
recompensate de ctre manageri deoarece nu
intr n atribuiile sarcinilor de munc ale
subalternilor. Exist dou tipuri de CCO, cele de
ajutor (CCO-A) i cele de exprimare (CCO-E).
Cercetrile au indicat c angajaii care
sunt satisfcui cu munca lor, consider c
sunt tratai corect de organizaie i beneficiaz
de mai mult autonomie n ndeplinirea
sarcinilor de munc, sunt mai predispui s se
implice n astfel de comportamente (Moorman,
1991; Tepper, Lockhart & Hoobler, 2001;
Bachrach, Powell, Bendoly, Richey, 2006). In
plus, alte cercetri au indicat c angajaii
implicai n sarcini care le aduc satisfacii i
sunt condui de lideri transformaionali i
suportivi sunt de asemenea predispui s
manifeste CCO (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine
& Bachrach, 2000). ntre motivaiile care stau
la baza CCO se remarc i valorile prosociale,
preocuprile legate de organizaie i
managementul impresiei (Rioux & Penner,
2001), factorii de personalitate (Salgado, 2002)
i abilitile cognitive (Dilchert, Ones, Davis,
Rostow, 2007), etc.
Efortul suplimentar (ES)
ES ca efect al unui leadership eficient,
este acea dorin a subordonailor de a realiza
o performan superioar prin eforturi mult mai
mari, fiind convini s fac mai mult dect se
poate atepta n mod legitim de la ei. Leaderii
cu scoruri mari la aceast scal amplific
dorina celorlali de a reui i cresc
disponibilitatea acestora de a se strdui mai
mult. (Avolio et al., 2007; Sntion & Iliescu,
2007).
Eficiena (EF)
Scala de Ef identific prin scorurile ei
nalte leaderii eficieni, judecai astfel prin
prisma satisfacerii nevoilor profesionale ale
celorlali, a reprezentrii grupului lor n faa
unei autoriti superioare, n satisfacerea
cerinelor organizaionale i, nu n ultimul rnd,
prin eficiena ntregului grup coordonat. (Avolio
et al., 2007; Sntion & Iliescu, 2007).
Satisfacia legat de leadership
(SatL)
Scala de SatL conine doar doi itemi i
identific prin scorurile sale nalte leaderi care
genereaz satisfacie interpersonal n
interaciunea cu ceilali. Aceti leaderi sunt
persoane deschise, autentice, calde i oneste,
capabili s genereze i s dezvolte sentimente
de mulumire la nivelul celor cu care lucreaz
(Avolio et al., 2007; Sntion & Iliescu, 2007).
Studiul de fa are ca scop testarea
msurii n care stilul de leadership manifestat
de ctre manageri prezice comportamentele
contraproductive, comportamentele ceteneti
organizaionale, satisfacia cu managerul,
disponibilitatea angajailor de a depune efort
suplimentar n realizarea sarcinilor, precum i
msura n care superiorul este perceput ca
fiind eficient n atingerea obiectivelor
organizaionale.

Ipoteze de cercetare:
1. a. LTf manifestat de ctre superior
prezice n sens negativ CCp.
b. LTz manifestat de ctre superiori
prezice n sens negativ rata de
manifestrii CCp.
c. Manifestarea unui stil LLf prezice
scoruri nalte la CCp.
2. a. Un scor nalt la scala LTf prezice
n sens pozitiv manifestarea CCO.
b. Manifestarea LTz de ctre
superior prezice n sens pozitiv apariia CCO.
c. LLf manifestat de ctre manager
are impact negativ asupra manifestrii CCO
din partea subalternilor.
3. Subalternii ce percep managerii ca
manifestnd LTf sunt mai predispui n
a depune ES n realizarea sarcinilor,
dect n cazul celorlalte dou tipuri de
leadership.
4. Angajaii ce beneficiaz de LTf sunt mai
satisfcui cu managerul dect
subalternii managerilor ce manifest
predominant celelalte tipuri de
leadership.
5. Managerii care manifest
comportamente predominant de tip
transformaional sunt percepui de
ctre subalterni ca fiind mai eficieni n
comparaie cu cei ce manifest
predominant LTz sau LLf.

84
Metod

Participani
n cercetarea de fa au fost inclui
141 de voluntari angajai n organizaii din
sectorul public i privat (10 organizaii), dintre
care 54,3% dintre participani sunt femei i
45,7% brbai. Media de vrst este de 37.53
ani (AS = 11,88). Majoritatea participanilor la
cercetare au studii superioare - 65%, 20%
studii medii i 15% au absolvit doar gimnaziul.
Rata rspunsurilor la chestionare a fost de
98% (138).
Instrumente
Chestionarul de personalitate BFQ
(Big Five Questionnaire) este alctuit din 5
mari scale ce evalueaz cinci factori generali:
Extraversie, Agreabilitate, Contiinciozitate,
Neuroticism, Deschidere spre experien.
Acesta cuprinde 156 itemi i a fost adaptat pe
populaia romneasc (Caprara et al., 2008).
MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionaire)
Chestionarul este tradus i adaptat pe
populaia romneasc i este compus din 45
itemi, grupai n 12 scale. Primele 9 scale
evalueaz stilul de leadership, celelalte trei au
rolul de a diferenia leaderii eficieni ce cei mai
puin eficieni (Avolio et al., 2007, Sntion &
Iliescu, 2007).
Scalele MLQ: LTf cu subscalele:
Influen idealizat, Motivaie inspiraional,
Stimulare intelectual, Consideraie
individualizat.
Leadershipul LTz: subscala
Recompens contingent, Management prin
excepie activ, Management prin excepie
pasiv i scala LLf.
Scalele ce reflect rezultatele tipului de
leadership sunt: Scala ES, Ef i SatL.
Pentru msurarea Comportamentelor
Ceteneti Organizaionale s-a utilizat
chestionarul OCBS (Organizational Citizenship
Behavior Scale) dezvoltat de ctre Van Dyne &
LePine (1998). Acesta conine 2 scale: scala
ajutor (CCOS-A), care cuprinde 7 itemi i cea
de exprimare (CCOS-E) alctuit din 6 itemi.
Pentru msurarea Comportamentelor
Contraproductive s-a utilizat IODS
(Interpersonal and Organizational Deviance
Scale) chestionarul a fost elaborat de ctre
Bennett & Robinson (2000) i conine 19 itemi.
Participanilor li se cere s evalueze pe o scal
Likert de 7 puncte, msura n care se
angajeaz ntr-o serie de CCp, primii 7 itemi
msoar CCp orientat asupra individului (CCp-
I) din organizaie, ceilali 12 itemi evalueaz
manifestarea comportamentelor CCp orientate
asupra organizaiei (CCp-O).
Procedur
Aplicarea instrumentelor s-a fcut
individual pentru chestionarul BFQ i colectiv
(cte 3 sau 4 persoane) pentru MLQ, IODS, i
OCB. Participanii au fost asigurai n prealabil
c rspunsurile la chestionare sunt strict
confideniale, de asemenea, li s-a sugerat ca
n loc de nume s specifice un numr sau un
semn dup care s-i poat identifica ulterior
rezultatele.
Ca o meniune special, n cazul
aplicrii MLQ fiecare manager a fost evaluat
de ctre 3 sau 4 subalterni, pe o scal de la 0
la 4, unde 0 nseamn absena total al unui
tip de comportament manifestat de ctre
superior, 4 nsemnnd manifestarea de zi cu zi
a unui anumit comportament.
Metoda statistic utilizat pentru
testarea ipotezelor a fost regresia multiliniar
ierarhic. Motivul alegerii acestei metode este
controlul i evitarea erorii de specificare (Sava,
2004), deoarece numeroase studii au
demonstrat o influen definitorie a factorilor de
personalitate asupra comportamentelor
deviante i prosociale (Jackson & LePine,
2003; Colbert, et al., 2004; Salgado, 2002,
etc.). Factorii de personalitate introdui sunt :
Agreabilitate (Ag), Contiinciozitate (Cs) i
Stabilitate Emoional (StEm). Criteriul dup
care s-au ales aceti factori a fost corelaiile
nalte i semnificative ale acestora cu
variabilele criteriu.

Rezultate

Statistici descriptive
In tabelul 1, sunt prezentai indicatorii
tendinei centrale, indicatorii de oblicitate i
boltire, coieficienii de consisten intern i
coieficienii de corelaie dintre variabilele
predictor (Leadership i Personalitate) i criterii
(CCO i CCp, ES, Ef i SatL).
Pe baza rezultatelor prezentate n
tabelul 1, coeficienii de consisten intern iau
valori ce se ncadreaz n limitele general
admise. Corelaiile dintre scalele predictor i
criteriu sunt semnificative, mai puin cazul
relaiei dintre predictorul LTz i criteriile CCO-A
i CCO-E, precum i relaia dintre scala CCO-
E i factorul de personalitate - StEm, unde
corelaiile sunt nesemnificative.

Studii i Cercetri

85

Tabel 1. Rezumat statistic al variabilelor incluse n studiu

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1 LTf (.86)
2 LTz .48** (.53)
3 LLF -.68** -.08 (.74)
4 CCO-A .28** .12 -.20* (.78)
5 CCO-E .14 .14 -.12 .43** (.76)
6 CCp I -.40** -.18* -.34** -.30** -.23** (.80)
7 CCp O -.48 ** -.11 -.44** -.37** -.25** .65** (.87)
8 ES .80** .31** -.60** .35** .16 -.32** -.36** (.83)
9 Ef .85** .41** -.67** .31** .17* -.41** -.40** .80** (.84)
10 SatL .75** .32** -.62** .20* .20* -.38** -.36** .76** .80** (.73)
11 Ag .40** .16* -.42** .38** .34** -.33** -.32** .44** .50** .43** (.73)
12 Cs .42** .08 -.43** .20* .30** -.36** -.39** .39** .48** .44** .48** (.81)
13 StEm .28** .00 -.28** .30** .15 -.47** -.44** .24** .28** .19** .18* .32** (.90)
Media 45.3 27.2 3.77 35.28 28.39 15.09 25.34 8.39 11.83 5.74 139.7 84.3 149.4
AS 10.03 5.6 3.2 6.1 6.56 6.63 12.38 2.72 3.41 1.97 12.2 7.84 22.82
** p< 0.01, * p< 0.05, N=138, coieficienii Alpha Cronbach sunt prezentai pe diagonal ntre paranteze.

Tabel 2. Estimarea CCp pe baza predictorului Leadership.

LTf i CCO-A LTf i CCO-E
R R F schimbare R R F schimbare
Pasul I .18** .18** F (3,135)= 10,07; p<.00 .10** .10** F (3,135)= 4.9; p<.05
Ag . 34* . 24*
Cs -.03 .03
StEm .23 ** .00
Pasul II .22** .04* F (1,137)= 5,12; p<.05 .14** .04* F(1,137)=2,04; p<.05
Ag .31 ** .25**
Cs -.05 .05
StEm .22** .00
LTf .167* .166*
LTz i CCO-A LTz i CCO-E
Pasul II .18** .004 F (1,137)= 0,58; p>.05 .11** .01 F(1,137)=1.45; p>.05
Ag .33 ** .10
Cs -.03 .24*
StEm .23** .003
LTz .06 .10
LLF i CCO-A LLF i CCO-E
R R F schimbare R R e F schimbare
Pasul II .18** .00 F (1,137)= 0,01; p>.05 .12** .02* F(1,137)=0,35; p>.05
Ag . 34** .12
Cs -.03 .25**
StEm .23** .00
LLf .003 .05

Interpretarea rezultatelor prin
intermediul modelelor de regresie multiliniar
ierarhic
In primul pas al modelelor de regresie
au fost introdui cei trei factori de personalitate
Cs, StEm, i Ag, cu scopul, dup cum am mai
specificat mai sus, de a controla efectele
acestora asupra variabilelor criteriu CCO i
CCp, n pasul doi al modelelor de regresie au
fost introdui pe rnd predictorii LTf, LTz i LLf
(tabelul 2).

86
n modelele de regresie de mai jos
putem observa c factorul personalitate explic
ntr-adevr ntr-o mare msur evoluia
criteriului CCp (tabel 2). Mai precis, CCp-I este
explicat de ctre Ag i StEm n proporie de
30% (StEm : =-0.39, p<.01 i Ag : =-0.20,
p<.05), i respectiv acetia din urm explic
28% din evoluia CCp-O (StEm: =-0.35, p<.01
i Ag: =-0.17, p<.05).
n pasul doi al modelului, se observ
c dintre factorii inclui n model, cei ce
pstreaz nivelul de semnificaie sunt StEm i
Ag. Acetia cu mici excepii, au un impact
semnificativ asupra explicrii CCp n ambele
cazuri (tabel 2).
Prin introducerea LTf obinem un plus
de predicie semnificativ al CCp-I cu 7%
(R=0,07, p<.01 ) i de 8% al CCp-O
(R=.08, p<.01). Ca dovad, F schimbare n
ambele cazuri este semnificativ statistic (F
(1,137)= 7,06; p<.01; respectiv F (1,137) =
8.06, p<.01).
n consecin, LTf are un rol
semnificativ n prezicerea manifestrii CCp
(=-.27, p<.01, n cazul CCp-I, i =-.35, p<.01
n cazul CCp-O). Ca urmare rezultatele din
tabelul 2 confirm ipoteza 1.a.
n pasul doi am modelului de regresie
ce are ca scop testarea prediciei factorului
LTz, observm c acesta aduce un plus de
explicare, a evoluiei criteriului cu 5%
(R=.05, p<.05), F schimbare (F (1,137)=
5.06, este semnificativ statistic la p<.05.
Semnul minus al lui (-.17, p<.05) ne indic
faptul c LTz are o influen negativ asupra
CCp-I.
n cazul CCp-O, LTz are o valoare
predictiv nesemnificativ asupra acestuia
(R=.02, p>.05; =-.08, p>.05)
Ca urmare, factorul LTz are un impact
semnificativ asupra CCp-I i nesemnificativ
asupra CCp-O. Aceste rezultate confirm
parial ipoteza 1.b, conform creia un manager
ce manifest comportamente specifice LTz
descurajeaz manifestarea de ctre
subordonai a CCp de ambele tipuri (CCp-I i
CCp-O).
Vizavi de predictorul LLf i criteriul
CCp, predictorul prezice semnificativ evoluia
CCp, acesta explicnd 5% din variabilitatea
CCp-I (R=.05; F schimbare (1,137) este
5,12, semnificativ la p<.05; iar =.171, p<.05)
i respectiv 6% din cea a CCp-O (R=.06,
p<.00; iar =.28, p<.00) (tabelul 2).
Ca urmare ipoteza tiinific 1.c. va fi
acceptat.

Tabel 3. Estimarea CCO pe baza predictorului Leadership

LTf i CCO-A LTf i CCO-E
R R F schimbare R R F schimbare
Pasul I .18** .18** F (3,135)= 10,07; p<.00 .10** .10** F (3,135)= 4.9; p<.05
Ag . 34* . 24*
Cs -.03 .03
StEm .23 ** .00
Pasul II .22** .04* F (1,137)= 5,12; p<.05 .14** .04* F(1,137)=2,04; p<.05
Ag .31 ** .25**
Cs -.05 .05
StEm .22** .00
LTf .167* .166*
LTz i CCO-A LTz i CCO-E
Pasul II .18** .004 F (1,137)= 0,58; p>.05 .11** .01 F(1,137)=1.45; p>.05
Ag .33 ** .10
Cs -.03 .24*
StEm .23** .003
LTz .06 .10
LLF i CCO-A LLF i CCO-E
R R F schimbare R R are F schimbare
Pasul II .18** .00 F (1,137)= 0,01; p>.05 .12** .02* F(1,137)=0,35; p>.05
Ag . 34** .12
Cs -.03 .25**
StEm .23** .00
LLf .003 .05
Studii i Cercetri

87

n tabelul 3 s-a analizat msura n care
predictorul leadership prezice CCO. In primul
pas al modelului de regresie, ca i anterior, au
fost introdui factorii de personalitate, dup
care au fost introdui pe rnd predictorii LTf,
LTz i LLf.
Factorii de personalitate au o influen
semnificativ asupra CCO, putem vedea c i
n pasul doi acetia (sau cel puin doi dintre
acetia) i menin nivelul de influen asupra
ratei CCO, o excepie fiind factorul de
personalitate Cs (tabelul 3). Factorii de
personalitate explic variabilitatea CCO cu 18
% asupra CCO-A (R=.18, p<.00) respectiv
10% din variabilitatea CCO-E (R=.10, p<.00).
Vizavi de contribuia LTf acesta explic
CCO cu 4% n ambele cazuri, variana
explicat R fiind de .04, iar F schimbare este
5.12 i respectiv 2.04, semnificativ la p<.05
(tabelul 3).
n ceea ce privete LTz acesta prezice
nesemnificativ variabilitatea CCO n cazul
ambelor tipuri de comportamente prosociale
(CCO-A : R=.004, p>.05 ; =.06; p>.05; i
respectiv CCO-E : R=.01, p>.05; =.10;
p>.05) (tabelul 3).
Referitor la relaia dintre LLf i CCO,
conform datelor noastre LLf nu ar avea o
influen semnificativ asupra ratei manifestrii
ambelor tipuri de CCO (CCO-A: =.003; p>.05
i respectiv CCO-E: =.05; p>.05).
n consecin, ipotezele nule conform
crora LTz i LLf nu au nici un impact asupra
CCO, nu vor fi respinse.
n cele ce urmeaz, se va analiza n ce
msur tipul de Leadership are impact asupra
nivelului de ES, SatL, i asupra Ef sau a
msurii n care subalternii percep managerii ca
fiind sau nu eficieni n funcie de stilul de
conducere pe care acetia din urm l adopt.

Tabel 4. Estimarea ES, SatL i Ef pe baza predictorului Leadership

Leadereship i ES Leadership i SatL Leadership i Ef
Variabile R R R R R R
Pasul I .35** .35 ** .44** .44** .37** .37**
LLF -.59** -.66** -.61**
Pasul II .42 ** .07* .57** .13** .45** .07*
LLF -.57** -.63** -.59**
LTz .26** .35** 26.**
Pasul III .65 ** .23** .73** .16** .58** .13*
LLF -.06 -.20** -.20*
LTz -.07 .07 .09
LTf .79** .67** .61**
Pasul 1: F (1,136)=74,77; p<.00 1: F (1,136)=108.8; p<.00 1: F (1,136)=82,66; p<.00
Pasul II: F (2,135)= 49.81; p<.00 II: F (2,135)= 89.6; p<.00 II: F (2,135)= 55.1; p<.00
Pasul III: F (3,134)= 84.66; p<.00 III: F (3,134)=124.2, p<.00 III: F (3,134)=63.41;p<.00

n tabelul 4 avem modele de regresie
multiliniar n 3 pai. Suntem interesai n
special impactul stilului de LTf, i modul n care
interaciunea dintre cei trei subfactori prezic
evoluia variabilelor criteriu (ES, SatL i Ef).
n primul model s-a testat valoarea
predictiv a Leadershipului asupra ES.
n primul pas al modelului de regresie
s-a introdus LLF, vedem c acesta explic
35% din cauzele pentru care subalternii
manifest ES, acesta este un impact puternic
semnificativ, R fiind de .35 sau de 35% care
este semnificativ la p<.00, n consecin
prezena unui LLf prezice n sens negativ
manifestarea acestui tip de comportament din
partea subalternilor, deoarece coeficientul
este negativ (-.59, semnificativ la p<.00).
n pasul doi al modelului de regresie,
analiznd influena LLf i interaciunea
acestuia cu LTz asupra ES, putem meniona
c modelul de regresie i mbuntete
nivelul de predictivitate asupra ES cu 7 % (F
schimbare (1,135) fiind de 16.3; semnificativ la
p<.00) LTz spre deosebire de LLf are un
impact stimulator asupra criteriului.
n pasul trei al modelului constatm
urmtorul fapt: primii doi predictori LTz i LTf,
pierd din valoarea predictiv, atunci cnd
interacioneaz cu LTf, deoarece sunt
nesemnificativi statistic (=-.06, p>.05; i

88
respectiv =-.07, p>.05) spre deosebire cel de
al treilea factor LTf (=.79, p<.00), care
mbuntete eficiena modelului de regresie
n a prezice ES cu 23% (R = .23, F
schimbare (1,134)=89.2, p<.00). Aceasta
pierdere din semnificaie a factorilor LTz i LLf
ne ofer informaii vizavi de faptul c aa cum
se stipuleaz n teoria transformaional, LTf
se formeaz pe baza LTz, iar LLf mai este
numit i nonleadership. Ca urmare,
variabilitatea criteriului ES este explicat n
proporie de 23% de factorul Leadership n
general. Aceste rezultate confirm ipoteza 3,
conform creia LTf contribuie ntr-o mai mare
msur la explicarea evoluiei ES dect
celelalte dou stiluri de leadership.
n ceea ce privete tipul de leadership
i SatL, din tabelul de mai sus observm
urmtoarele: LLf explic 44% din evoluia
criteriului. LTz aduce un plus de explicaie,
cnd interacioneaz cu LLf, de 7% (R = .13,
F schimbare (1,135) ia valoarea 39,5; puternic
semnificativ la p<.00), iar LTf prezice evoluia
variabilei SatL cu 16%, (F schimbare
(1,134)=83.6; p<.00) (tabel 4). n pasul III al
modelului LTz n interaciune cu LTf i LLf este
nesemnificativ statistic (=.07, p>.05). Ca
urmare, SatL este prezis de Leadership n
proporie de 16%.
De asemenea, mrimea efectului este
de 73% (R=.73, p<.00) atunci cnd adugm
la modelul de regresie i LTf , care este
superior celor obinui n pasul unul i doi al
modelelor de regresie (R=.44, p<.00;
respectiv R=.57, p<.00).
n consecin, manifestarea
comportamentelor specifice LTf prezic ntr-o
mai mare msur SatL a angajailor dect
manifestarea celor tipice LTz sau LLf. LLf
conform rezultatelor din tabel prezice n sens
negativ SatL (=-.66, p<.00).
Vizavi de stilul de leadership i Ef,
constatm urmtoarele: LLF explic 37% din
evoluia criteriului, (=-.61, p<.00), coeficientul
beta avnd semnul minus. Atunci cnd se mai
adaug predictorul LTz obinem un plus de
explicaie a modelului de regresie de 7% (R
=.07, p<.01; =.26, p<.01), observm c F
schimbare este semnificativ F(1,135) =17.5;
p<.00.
n pasul trei al modelului s-a adugat
predictorul LTf (=.61, la p<.00), acesta
explic 13% din variabilitatea criteriului (F
schimbare este semnificativ statistic: F
(1,134)=44.4; p<.00). Ceea ce demonstreaz
c Leadershipul n general explic 13% din Ef
managerului perceput de ctre subalterni.
n concluzie vizavi de predictorul LTf,
din modelele de regresie reiese c acesta are
rolul cel mai semnificativ n prezicerea ES,
SatL i Ef. Prin urmare ipotezele tiinifice 3, 4,
i 5 vor fi acceptate.

Discuii i limite ale cercetrii

Din calculele statistice analizate
anterior s-a putut observa c tipul de
Leadership are ntr-adevr un rol considerabil
n prezicerea evoluiei comportamentelor
deviante, prosociale, satisfaciei cu superiorul,
eficienei procesului de leadership i a msurii
n care subalternii sunt dispui sa depun efort
suplimentar n realizarea sarcinilor, cei mai
puternici predictori n acest sens fiind
Leadershipul Transformativ i cel Laissez-
Faire. Leadershipul Tranzacional s-a dovedit a
avea o influen instabil asupra evoluiei
criteriilor mai sus menionate.
Astfel, putem afirma c n mare parte
ipotezele de cercetare tiinifice stabilite la
nceputul cercetrii se confirm, cele nule
putnd fi respinse.
ntr-adevr un leader Transformativ
este benefic pentru organizaie, deoarece
acesta joac rolul de model cu care subalternii
se identific i dovedete un interes veritabil
pentru problemele cu care se confrunt
angajaii, ceea ce duce la inhibarea
manifestrii de ctre angajai a
comportamentelor contraproductive
organizaionale att cele orientate spre individ
ct i cele orientate spre organizaie.
De asemenea, prin moralitatea i grija
manifestat vizavi de subalterni, superiorul
ncurajeaz manifestarea comportamentelor
ceteneti organizaionale de ajutor. Distana
fa de putere mica n organizaiile unde
superiorii manifest un astfel de leadership i
atmosfera mai degrab de colaborare dect de
concuren, sunt stimulative pentru
manifestarea comportamentelor prosociale de
exprimare, aceasta i datorit faptului c
subalternii se identific nu numai cu managerul
ci ntr-o oarecare msur i cu organizaia.
n schimb, un stil de leadership care
manifest predominant comportamente de
iresponsabilitate, evitarea lurii deciziilor,
indiferen fa de trebuinele subordonailor,
etc., va stimula apariia comportamentelor
contraproductive din partea angajailor i va
duce la o diminuare a celor prosociale n
mediul organizaional.
Contrar ipotezelor stabilite la nceputul
cercetrii, Leadershipul tranzacional pare a
Studii i Cercetri

89
avea un efect nensemnat asupra
comportamentelor manifestate de ctre
subalterni la locul de munca, att n cazul celor
de tip deviant ct i n cazul celor prosociale.
Acest lucru ns s-ar putea datora
coeficientului de consisten intern a scalei
Leadership Tranzacional care este destul de
redus ( =.53), i care are ca efecte rezultate
inconsistente dintre LTz i variabilele criteriu
incluse n studiul de fa, rezultate similare au
obinut i ali cercettori n studii anterioare
(Judge & Piccolo, 2004).
O alt explicaie posibil ar fi c
efectele LTz n cazul de fa sunt ceva mai
subtile, dect ale celorlalte tipuri de leadership.
Ne referim aici la faptul c, majoritatea
organizaiilor n care s-a realizat studiul sunt de
tip privat, iar comparativ cu alte organizaii de
stat cu acelai profil remunerarea este
satisfctoare, ca rezultat s-ar putea ca acest
aspect s fie mai puin important. De
asemenea, subalternii ar putea fi suficient de
experimentai n sarcinile de munc, n
consecin acetia ar avea nevoie de mai
puin supraveghere din partea managerilor.
De asemenea, Leaderhipul
Transformativ se formeaz pe baza celui
Tranzacional. Acesta din urm, integreaz
funciile de baz pe care le are de realizat un
manager. Leadershipul Transformativ are ntr-
adevr specifice anumite comportamente care
mbuntete nivelul de eficien al unui
manager, avnd un rol major n satisfacia
angajailor cu superiorul i cu munca (Judge &
Piccolo, 2004, Judge et al., 2004), dar acesta
nu este suficient pentru ca organizaia sa
lucreze la parametri normali sau chiar s
supravieuiasc. n aceast ordine de idei,
putem oferi motivaii inspiraionale, consideraii
individualizate, etc., la nesfrit, dac nu vom
oferi recompense materiale dup merit,
feedback obiectiv vizavi de ndeplinirea
sarcinilor, supraveghearea suficient a
mersului produciei, controlul calitii, etc.,
rezultatele vor fi departe de cele ateptate, mai
ales n cazul unor corporaii mari, unde
anonimatul este mai specific.
Ca urmare, manifestarea stilului
Tranzacional este o condiie absolut necesar
pentru supravieuirea unei organizaiei dar nu
i suficient pentru ca aceast s se dezvolte,
s se adapteze cu succes la mediul extern,
etc.
n ceea ce privete, celelalte 3
variabile dependente i anume Efortul
suplimentar, eficien i Satisfacia cu
managerul, n acord, cu ipotezele de la
nceputul cercetrii, LTf are un impact mai
puternic n comparaie cu celelalte dou tipuri
de leadership (LLf i LTz).
Mai specific, subalternii ce beneficiaz
de un leadership transformativ manifest o
disponibilitate mai mare de a depune efort
suplimentar n realizarea sarcinilor (sau dincolo
de expectanele managerului), dect n cazul
angajailor unde managerul manifest
predominant comportamente laissez-faire sau
specifice leadershipului tranzacional. Totui
nu trebuie uitat faptul c aceasta nu este o
msurtoare obiectiv, ca urmare ar putea fi
interpretat ca disponibilitatea subalternilor de
a depune eforturi suplimentare n realizarea
obiectivelor organizaionale, iar tipul de
Leadership ar influena aceast disponibilitate.
Subalternii unor astfel de superiori sunt mai
mulumii de comportamentul efului lor, lucru
care s-a demonstrat i n alte studii (Pearce &
Sims, 2002; Bono, et al., 2007; Bono & Judge,
2003; etc.). De asemenea, managerii ce
manifest LTf sunt percepui ca fiind mai
eficieni dect acei superiori ce manifest LTz
sau LLf. Aceste rezultate sunt n acord cu
rezultatele din cercetri anterioare (Bono et al.,
2007).
Factorii de personalitate, n studiul de
fa, au fost introdui cu scopul de a le controla
rolul acestora asupra variabilelor criteriu.
Conform rezultatelor noastre acetia au un rol
semnificativ n prezicerea evoluiei CCO i
CCp, s-au remarcat n special factorii
Agreabilitate i Stabilitate Emoional.
Nivelul de Stabilitate Emoional a
subalternilor s-a dovedit un predictor puternic
pentru comportamentele deviante la locul de
munc att cele orientate asupra indivizilor ct
i cele orientate asupra organizaiei. Ca
urmare un nivel ridicat al instabilitii
emoionale determin ntr-o oarecare msur
deviana de la locul de munc. Astfel de
subalterni sunt mai nclinai spre a se comporta
nepoliticos sau a-i jigni colegii sau dac este
cazul - clienii, precum i faptul c acetia sunt
mai predispui a manifesta comportamente
duntoare nsi organizaiei (tergiversarea
ndeplinirii sarcinilor, furturi, ntrzieri, etc.).
Factorul Agreabilitate explic i el ntr-o
oarecare msur astfel de comportamente,
doar c ceva mai puin, n schimb acesta din
urm are un rol considerabil n explicarea
comportamentelor prosociale din mediul
organizaional. Ca urmare angajaii ce
manifest scoruri nalte la acest nivel sunt
predispui spre a manifesta ntr-o mai mare
msur comportamente civic participative

90
dect cei ce obin scoruri mai joase la aceast
trstur. Factorul Contiinciozitate are un
impact nsemnat asupra comportamentelor
civic- participative de exprimare i parial
asupra comportamentelor deviante orientate
asupra organizaiei. Altfel spus, subalternii ce
manifest scoruri nalte la aceast trstur au
tendina de a manifesta comportamente
prosociale de exprimare, n schimb un scor
redus la acest factor determin
comportamente deviante orientate asupra
organizaiei.
Ca i limite ale cercetrii putem
meniona faptul c procedura de eantionare
este neprobabilist, deoarece alegerea
participanilor la studiu s-a fcut pe baz de
voluntariat (Trochim, 2004).
De asemenea, dat fiind faptul c
datele au fost culese prin intermediul
chestionarului, nu este exclus ca rezultatele s
fie distorsionate datorit celor trei mari
dezavantaje pe care le implic utilizarea
chestionarelor, i anume: dezirabilitate social
sau opusul acesteia (ncercarea participanilor
de a se pune ntr-o lumin mai puin favorabil,
fa de cercettor) precum i rspunsurile date
la ntmplare.
Rspunsurile subordonailor la
chestionare au fost strict confideniale i
anonime, deci nu se poate afirma c
rezultatele au fost obediente fa de superiori.

Concluzii i direcii noi de cercetare

n concluzie putem afirma c n mare
msur, ipotezele stabilite la nceputul
cercetrii se confirm.
Astfel teoria leadership-ului
transformaional explic ntr-o proporie
semnificativ comportamentele ceteneti
organizaionale i cele contraproductive
manifestate de ctre subalterni. Factorul
leadership transformaional contribuie cel mai
mult la explicarea variabilitii criteriilor.
Leadershipul laissez-faire are o
influen pozitiv asupra manifestrii
comportamentelor contraproductive i negativ
asupra celor ceteneti organizaionale.
n plus, angajaii ce beneficiaz de un
stil de leadership transformativ sunt mai
satisfcui de relaia lor cu superiorul, sunt mai
dispui de a manifesta efort suplimentar pentru
realizarea sarcinilor, i percep managerul ca
fiind mai eficient n atingerea obiectivelor
organizaionale. Acestea sunt n acord cu
rezultatele din studiilor anterioare pe teoria
transformaional, de ctre ali cercettori
(Keller, 2006; Kark, et al., 2003; Bass & Avolio,
1999, etc.).
Factorii de personalitate explic ntr-o
proporie foarte semnificativ comportamentele
manifestate la locul de munc. Astfel dintre cei
trei mari factori de personalitate introdui ca
variabile de control n cercetare, doi dintre
acetia (Agreabilitate i Stabilitate Emoional)
explic consistent manifestarea
comportamentelor contraproductive i
ceteneti organizaionale.
Ca i direcii ulterioare de cercetare
putem sugera studierea msurii n care
emoiile mediaz relaia dintre leadershipul
transformaional i comportamentele
manifestate n mediul organizaional din partea
angajailor, n spe cele deviante i
prosociale, deoarece o alt cauz a
comportamentelor deviante i prosociale, aa
cum s-a afirmat n mai multe cercetri, sunt
tipurile de emoii manifestate de ctre
subalterni (Offerman i Hellman,1996). De
asemenea, modul n care tipul emoiilor
prezente la locul de munc sunt influenate de
superiori sau predominana unui anumit tip de
leadership (Cobia & Boes, 2000; Bono, et al.,
2007; Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006).

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94
Aspects of the relationship between the processing of stimuli in the peripheral perceptual field
and in the perceptual central field

Mihai Aniei
1

Cornel Laureniu Mincu
Mihaela Chraif
Bucharest University

Abstract

As humans have limited information processing abilities and rely on three fallible mental functions:
perception, attention and memory, the driving error is easy to appear. The purpose of this paper is
to highlight the male/female differences in processing the perceptive information from the external
stimuli in the peripheral visual field and to demonstrate that the mean of the estimate errors in
evaluating the speed and distances in the central visual perceptual field is in inverse ratio to the
reaction time value at the visual stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks simulation. Between the
variables number of wrong reactions and number of omissions there has been obtained a
relatively high negative correlation (r=-0.728, p<0.001). The result has a strong implication in
visual stimuli processing during driving tasks.

Key words: peripheral stimuli processing, gender differences, perceptual visual central field,
central visual stimuli processing.

Rezumat

Datorit faptului c fiinele umane au o capacitate limitat de procesare a informaiilor, iar n
realizarea acestor procese se bazeaz pe funcii mentale imperfecte: percepia, atenia i
memoria, erorile pe parcursul condusului apar relativ uor. Scopul acestei lucrri este de a
sublinia diferene dintre brbai i femei aa cum apar n procesarea informaiei perceptive
furnizat de stimulii externi din cmpul vizual periferic i de a demonstra c media erorii estimate
n evaluarea vitezei i distanelor n cmpul vizual perceptiv central este n raport invers cu
valoarea timpului de reacie la stimulii vizuali din simulatorul de conducere. ntre numrul reaciilor
greite i numrul omisiunilor s-a obinut o corelaie negativ ridicat (r=-0.728, p<0.001).
Rezultatele au implicaii puternice pentru procesarea stimulilor vizuali n timpul sarcinii de ofat.

Cuvinte cheie: procesarea stimulilor periferici, diferene de gen, cmpul vizual perceptiv central,
procesarea stimulilor vizuali centrali.

1
Introduction

In this article, we provide an overview
of human information processing limitations
and explain how they can interact with
situational factors, to contribute to road
accidents. This represents an approach to
accident investigation because it draws on
knowledge of basic human psychological
processes, in particularly the cognitive
processing of peripheral perception in driving.

1
anitei_mihai@yahoo.com
Instead of looking at the driver from
the outside, we try to understand the mental
processes and how they interact with the
environment. Furthermore, gender differences
in the peripheral perceptive field represent an
important objective concerning the driving of a
vehicle, for this articles debate.
During driving a vehicle, people interact
with a steady flow of informational stimuli. Most
of the information represents visual input such
as: other vehicles, pedestrians, the road, traffic
signs and the passing scenery, and auditory
input like talking on a cell phone, CD-player,
radio, a conversation with the passengers, etc.
As long as the visual information stimuli flow is
Studii i Cercetri

95
low, there is enough mental resource to carry
out all tasks simultaneously, and to execute
the driving procedures safely. Whereas, a
higher level of information may appear under
the following circumstances: driving at a high
speed, poor visibility, a car driver stopping his
car ahead, the driver's capacity being lowered
by age, drugs, alcohol or tiredness. Thus, the
driver should only attend to a subset of the
available information, which could be used to
make decisions and to respond, and the rest of
the information can be ignored.

Driving and traffic accidents

The drivers as human beings are able
to see motion by registering the movement of
an object image projected on the retina, the
light-sensitive portion of the eye. When a driver
looking ahead on the road is on a collision
course with an object approaching from the
side, there is no retinal image motion (Green,
2000). In his studies, Green (2000, 2001)
revealed that if a vehicle driver is moving
forward towards a collision course with a train
while the train is in a leftward motion, three
situations may occur: 1)The driver arrives
before the train (in this case, the angle
increases, and the retinal image moves further
to the periphery); 2) The train arrives before
the driver (in this case, the angle decreases,
and the retinal image moves toward the fovea);
3)The driver and the train arrive at the same
moment. The car and train movements cancel
out, and the angle remains constant. There is
no retinal image motion, so the speed is more
difficult to judge accurately.
In order to better understand the driver
behavior and the sources of driver distraction,
researchers have attempted to develop
integrated driver models that capture driver
behavior in a computational manner (Aasman,
1995). These models provide insight into the
sources of distraction by elucidating the
processes by which a driver attends to the
external environment, cognitively processes
this information, and then reacts to the
information stimuli and manipulates the
environment. Thus, IT architectures could
provide an opportunity to handle multitasking
at the software level through new models
implemented as production rules and at the
hardware level through changes to the
architectures inner mechanisms.
The short-term memory (working
memory) plays a very important role for the
drivers in collecting information (visual,
auditory, and knowledge stored in the
permanent long-term memory) during
interpreting the sensorial input and taking
decisions. The working memory has two
severe limits that often play a role in vehicle
accidents: the information remains in the
working memory for a short time, if it is not
used or refreshed; older information may be
flushed out at any time by some newer input
(Smith, Fredrickson, Loftus, Noelen-
Hoeksema, 2004). Since working memory
records all sorts of information, stimuli received
from CD-player, radio or cell phone, it can also
be filled up and cause the ignorance of
important stimuli from the environment (traffic
signs, pedestrians, vehicles speeding).
The minimum contrast necessary to
see an object in a given set of circumstances is
affected by many factors. These can be
divided into two classes, environmental and
driver-related (Green, 1992).
The environmental class of factors is
represented by: the size (size as in visual
angle, rather than inches or centimeters,
which gives the size of the retinal image);
distance (the closer it is, the more visible it
becomes - it has a bigger visual angle); the
visual field location (vision is best when objects
are imaged in the fovea, the part of the eye
with the highest resolution); shape (objects are
easier to see when they are solid simple
figures such as blobs, disks, rectangles, etc);
duration (visibility increases with longer
duration); Motion/Flicker (these can make an
object more visible, the influence of motion on
visibility depends on size and velocity);
masking and camouflage (objects are also
harder to be seen when the background has
shapes or textures, and easiest when the
background isnt changing); glare (when a very
bright light, one that is far above the current
adaptation level, suddenly appears, it reduces
visibility); weather (rain, snow and fog all
decrease visibility).
The drivers class factors are: the age
(contrast sensitivity decreases with age);
adaptation status (visibility is best when the
driver is adapted to the same lighting as the
background); optical status (visibility decreases
when the driver is not wearing optical
correction for the viewing distance); arousal
level (alcohol, drugs and other medication can
affect arousal level); uncertainty (visibility is the
best when he knows when and where the
object will be located, any spatial or temporal
uncertainty raises threshold); expectation

96
(viewers can be greatly affected by their
expectations).
Research shows that some of the
objects properties make them pop out and
automatically attract attention ((Wang,
Cavanagh & Green 1994). Green (1992)
highlighted that objects are more likely to pop-
out and be conspicuous if they: are large, have
high brightness contrast, move or flicker rapidly
or suddenly appear, are meaningful and if they
are expected.
This automatic attraction of attention is
important in driving. Research shows that
drivers spend half or more of their time looking
directly ahead to the point where the road
meets the horizon (Green 1992).
Usually by driving performance, the
psychologists refer to the driver's knowledge,
skill, and perceptual and cognitive abilities.
This vision is distinct from the drivers vision as
the individual driving a car through the traffic
towards the destination.
The driving task represents a closed-
loop compensatory feedback control process,
meaning that the driver makes control inputs
(to the steering wheel, brakes, and accelerator
pedal), receives feedback by monitoring the
consequences of the inputs, and in response
to these consequences, makes additional
inputs (Wang, Cavanagh & Green 1994).
Broken up into fine details, the driving task is
very complex, involving the simultaneous
control of lateral and longitudinal position
through the use of the steering wheel,
accelerator, and brakes, together with many
pattern recognition and other higher level
cognitive skills, such as estimating future
situations based upon the present information.
While the basic skills required for driving a
vehicle are usually learned quickly and easily,
some of the higher-level skills that affect safety
can be acquired only after many years of
experience.
Numerous studies (Hakamies-
Blomqvist, 2002, Green 1992, 2000, 2001)
over many decades have failed to show any
clear relationship between the most basic
measure of visual performance, visual acuity,
and crash risk. Crash rates decline to a
minimum at about 45 years of age, by the time
which the visual acuity and contrast sensitivity
have already begun to decrease, such as other
visual capabilities relevant to driving, such as
the ability to withstand glare (Hakamies-
Blomqvist, 2002).
Changes in the higher-level visual
characteristics, in particular the useful field of
view, the area from which useful visual
information can be extracted in a single glance,
have been shown to be related to the crash
involvement risk. Pattern recognition skills are
essential to the driving task. From a stimuli-rich
visual environment, the driver must select the
information that is relevant from all the
information that is not relevant in any way.
During driving, each time a driver
consults the speedometer, the perceived
speed can be compared to the actual speed.
Those operations are additionally motivated by
the need to respect speed limits (traffic rules).
The repetitive practice, with feedback, of this
task might suggest that drivers can become
very good at estimating their speed.
The main cue for speed is related to
peripheral vision. When the peripheral vision is
eliminated, leaving only the central field of view
to determine speed, estimates become
inaccurate because the vehicle's forward
movement produces little change at the edge
of the visual field.
The reaction times play an important
role in safely driving. Reaction times are
influenced by many factors, but, for driving,
the two most important are first: the number of
stimuli and possible responses and second:
expectancy. Reaction times in driving involve
identifying a variety of events in a complex
environment, so it is not surprising that
reaction times bear little resemblance to the
minimum possible in laboratory tests.
Furthermore, age or body damages or
deficiencies can impact the driving ability.
Murray-Leslie (1991) highlighted in research
that arthritic drivers suffering of chronic joint
pains or deformed joints have problems with
driving. Many studies and researches have
shown that perceptual and psychological
mechanisms exist, in order to compensate for
the functional losses of auditory or visual
paths. Looms (1998), Klatzky (1990) and
Manton (1989) conducted different
experiments investigating the visual and
sound distance perception under full-cue
conditions and reduced-cue conditions. After
examining navigation ability in the absence of
the sight, Klatzky and collaborators (1990)
concluded that cognitive motor coordination
performance was quite accurate for simple
paths. Manton (1989) indicated that the
acceptance of age-related functional losses
can negatively impact actual abilities and
recommended a more active approach to
preserving functional abilities in order to be
Studii i Cercetri

97
adopted at later ages by reinforcing a positive
self-image to the elderly people.
Considering the technological
explosion within the last decade, the human
factor can easily compensate the physical and
physiological deficiencies using vehicle design
adaptation while driving. Many changes could
be made to standard vehicles including:
seating, seat and door dimensions, handles,
knobs, anti-glare adaptation, steering wheels,
and mechanical driving control. Thus, the anti-
glare adaptation provides non-glare panels and
day/night rearview and side mirrors. Haigh
(1993), based on the ideas of Pirkl and Babic
(1988), proposed design guidelines to improve
the visibility of the vehicle control panels and
dials: to ensure an adequate light level on text
and controls; to select appropriate color, size
and chromatic intensity for the symbols; to
eliminate the irrelevant information and
considering the advanced technologies many
others improvements could be made to aid
disabled drivers during driving: auditory
information systems, visual enhancement
devices, in-vehicle information, support
systems (developed to address decline in
perceptual, cognitive and physical
performance) and emergency aid networks.

Perceptual processing of the stimuli
in the peripheral and central visual
fields in driving

A person, interacting with others,
watches the others eyes for signs of attention
and understanding, for clues and indications.
Brebner and Welford (1980) reviewed
literature that shows that visual stimuli
perceived by different portions of the eye
produce different reaction times. The fastest
reaction time comes when a stimulus is seen
by the cones (when the person is looking right
at the stimulus). If the stimulus is picked up by
rods (around the edge of the eye), the reaction
is slower. Ando, Kida, and Oda (2002, 2004)
found that practicing a visual stimulus in the
central vision shortened the reaction time to a
stimulus in peripheral vision, and vice versa.
Pylyshyn (1998) suggested that many
of the apparent spatial and directional
properties of images could derive from real
space, providing a mechanism for associating
features or objects in images with
corresponding objects in real space. This view
has been developed in connection with a
theory of visual indexes, which provides a
mechanism for preconception links to objects
in the world (Pylyshyn, 2000, 2001a).
Some of the cortical activity observed
during both motor performance and the mental
transformation of visual images, may reflect
the fact that posterior parietal cortex area
compute higher-level functions required for
extrapolating trajectories, for tracking, for
planning, and for visual-motor coordination
(Anderson, Snyder, Bradley, & Xing, 1997).
The visual field is the area of extent of physical
space visible to an eye in a given position,
measured by plotting the ability of the eye to
discern motion, form or color at differing angles
from the eye (Anderson & Holliday, 1995).
There are significant individual differences in
the peripheral threshold for motion, and there
is more variability at the extreme points of the
periphery (at a greater peripheral angle). A
peripheral vision limitation occasionally
represents a problem with the particularly
complex junctions where the number of
directions from which traffic can potentially
approach is more than normal. Peripheral
vision is relied upon to a greater extent in
these situations and the safety of cyclists,
motorcyclists and pedestrians at junctions
often depends upon the drivers peripheral
vision, as the focus of his or her attention will
often be on other motor vehicles in the main
stream of traffic. Levi, Klein and Hariharan
(2002) highlighted in their research that
peripheral crowding is not scale invariant nor is
it attributable to simple contrast masking.
Rather, the results suggested that inhibitory
spatial interactions in peripheral crowding
extend over larger distances than in the fovea
for targets of the same size. In the peripheral
vision, the critical distance for crowding is
approximately 0.1 times the target eccentricity.
Observers can easily detect the features that
compose the authors targets (Gabor patches)
under conditions of intense crowding (Levi,
Klein, Hariharan, 2002).
Loke and Song (1991)

reported faster
detection times for peripheral, visual stimuli for
deaf than for hearing individuals. Thus, the

little
available evidence raises the possibility that
peripheral

processing is modified after early
deafness. In his study, Gilden, Blake and Hurst
(1995) used visual motor adaptation to study
how the visual system is involved in the
creation of mental images. This study was very
important considering that the motor
adaptation is retinotopic and because of this,
appears in the primary visual system. Thus,
when a region of the visual field receives an

98
extended motor stimulation, an object in that
region is seen as moving in the opposite way
from the inductive movement (the waterfall
illusion) and a mobile object is seen as if it
moved slower. The researchers have
conceived their study with the intention of
demonstrating that the movement of an
imaginary object is affected by the ulterior
effect of the moving field. Thus, they
discovered that when the point was imagined
as moving in the same direction as the
inductive moving field (contrary to the ulterior
moving effect), this appears to have slowed
down (it took it a long time to reach the other
part of the region). Moreover, the point
appeared to gain speed and reached the other
side in less time when the point was imagined
to move in the opposite direction from the
moving inductive field (in the same direction
with the ulterior moving effect). The conclusion
was that in the visual moving adaptation, the
moving seems to slow down in spite of the
direction in which the inductive moving field is
moving, probably because all the receptors
sensitive to movement have been made tired.
In another research, Pylyshyn and
Cohen (1999) asked their subjects to
extrapolate a small squares movement, which
disappeared behind an apparently opaque
surface. The subjects were asked to imagine
the slight movement of the square in a dark
room. At a certain unexpected time, the square
would appear again, as if from a crack of the
opaque surface, then disappear again through
another space, and the subjects would then be
told to indicate if the square reappeared before
or after their imagined square reached the
space. This task took place in several different
conditions. In one of them, the placement of
the space where the square was due to
appear and disappear was unknown (the
spaces were invisible). Both the discoveries
confirmed the idea that the subjects, when
reporting the image of the squares slow
movement, actually select places to calculate
the time until contact and they barely think that
the imaginary moving square is at the
designated places at the designated time.
According to this opinion, the subjects think
that here is now repeatedly for the different
moving objects and synchronized with the
arrival times calculated.
Bavelier and collaborators (2000) used
the functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) technique

to test the hypothesis that
allocating attention to the peripheral

visual
space is specifically enhanced after auditory
deprivation. They used structural equation
modeling to characterize how this

modulation
arises within the visual

pathway. The
participants included hearing and deaf
individuals who viewed alternating blocks of
static dots and flowing fields of moving

dots.
Visual

attention was engaged by requiring
participants to monitor the

display for
luminance changes. Changes in visual
attention with

eccentricity were tested by
contrasting runs in which subjects

had to
monitor luminance changes in the periphery
with those in

which subjects had to monitor the
luminance changes in the center

of the visual
field. Taken together, these results
demonstrate specific changes in the
organization of the motion pathway in
congenitally

deaf individuals. In all viewing
conditions, deaf individuals,

unlike hearing
subjects, displayed left lateralized MT/MST
activation.

When attending to the periphery,

deaf individuals displayed a larger recruitment
of the motion

pathway than hearing individuals,
whereas no population differences

were noted
when attending to the center. This result
implies that

peripheral space representation is
more dependent on, and

modifiable by, early
auditory deprivation than is the representation

of central visual space.
Other studies and research were
focused on highlighting if crowding in foveal
and peripheral vision appears to differ in two
important ways (Levi, Klein & Carney, 2000).
This view is consistent with the finding that
crowding in foveal and peripheral vision is
qualitatively different (Hess, Dakin, Kapoor, &
Tewfik, 2000).

The perceptual processing: Bottom-
up and top-down approaches

The top-down effects play a crucial
role in processing sensorial information.
Therefore, several effects have been
demonstrated by many anatomical and
psychophysical studies: priming (Stins & van
Leeuwen, 1993), stimulus context (Bar & Ulma,
1996), expectancy (Downing, 1988) and object
centered attention (Lavie & Driver, 1996; Driver
& Spence, 1998). All these results suggested
that the processing and subjective perception
of external stimuli to a passive bottom-up
process depending on the actual stimulus are
also determined by internal states like
expectation, attention or past experience.
Siegel et al. (2000) proposed a model
describing the interaction of bottom-up and
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99
top-down signals on a cellular level, leading to
experimental predictions. The results of the
experimental research evidenced that the
model demonstrates how computational
properties of somato-dendritic interactions
could play an important role in the integration
of bottom-up and top-down processing. Based
on further research and studies revealing that
in the hierarchy of areas in the visual system,
neurons have increasingly complex receptive
fields which establish an elementary form of
knowledge (Siegel et al., 2000) even if the
system receives no additional external top-
down signals, the reciprocal connectivity leads
to top-down signals based on the knowledge
of the higher areas.

The gender influences in stimuli
processing in the peripheral
perceptual field

There is considerable controversy over
both the existence and the magnitude of
gender differences in special abilities. Thus,
many studies and research have found no
gender differences (Caplan, MacPearson &
Tobin, 1985), while other studies have
revealed gender differences favoring males
versus female that have persisted across
development (Linn, Petersen & Sorby 1998).
There are several theories that attempt
to explain gender differences in spatial abilities
using both biologically based and non-
biologically based perspectives. Eals and
Silverman (1994) presented the Hunter-
Gatherer theory of spatial gender differences
based on the result of human-evolution.
According to this explanation, males were
hunters and therefore, they excelled in tasks
that used spatial abilities and females were
gatherers and they excelled in tasks related to
foraging, such as peripheral perception.
In order to support the biologically
based explanation, there are research and
studies showing different brain activation for
males and females. Aside from external
anatomical and primary and secondary sexual
differences, scientists know also that there are
many other subtle differences in the way the
brains from men and women process
language, information, emotion and cognition.
One of the most interesting differences appear
in the way human male and female estimate
time, judge the speed of objects, carry out
mental mathematical calculations, direct
themselves in space and visualize objects in
3D. In all these tasks, human male and female
are strikingly different, as they also are in the
way their brains process language (Smith et
all, 2004). On the other hand, females are
better than males in human relations,
recognizing emotional overtones in others and
in language, emotional and artistic
expressiveness, aesthetic appreciation, verbal
language and carrying out detailed and pre-
planned tasks (Kimura, 1999).

Left hemisphere versus right
hemisphere in peripheral and
central visual field stimuli
processing during driving tasks

The hemispheres of the cerebrum are
specialized for different tasks. The left
hemisphere is regarded as the verbal and
logical brain, and the right hemisphere is
thought to govern creativity and spatial
relations, among other things. Also, the right
hemisphere controls the left hand, and the left
hemisphere controls the right hand. This has
made researchers think that the left hand
should be faster at reaction times involving
spatial relations (such as pointing at a target).
The results of Bartlmy and Boulinquez
(2001, 2002) all supported this idea. Dane and
Erzurumluoglu (2003) found that in handball
players, the left-handed people were faster
than right-handed people when the test
involved the left hand, but there was no
difference between the reaction times of right
handers and lefthanders when using the right
hand. Finally, although right-handed male
handball players had faster reaction times than
right-handed women, there was no such
gender difference between left-handed men
and women. The authors concluded that left-
handed people have an inherent reaction time
advantage. Bryden (2002), using right-handed
people only, found that the difficulty of the task
did not affect the reaction time difference
between the left and right hands.
Analyzing Central versus Peripheral
Vision, Brebner and Welford (1980) cite
literature that shows that visual stimuli
perceived by different portions of the eye
produce different reaction times. According to
these findings, the fastest reaction time comes
when a stimulus is seen by the cones (when
the subject is looking right at the stimulus) and
when the stimulus is picked up by rods (around
the edge of the eye), the reaction is slower.
Ando et al. (2002) found that practice on a
visual stimulus in central vision shortened the

100
reaction time to a stimulus in the peripheral
vision, and vice versa.
In driving, the space-time coordination
is very important from a practical perspective.
A very important element is the ability to
estimate the speed and distance in a correct
manner, which is influenced by several
variables: visual, acoustic, kinesthetic and
emotional according to the width and the
length of the movement field, the size of the
moving object, the environment structure, the
approximate direction to the observer, the light
within the moving field, etc (Barthelemy &
Boulinguez 2001, 2002).

Objectives

The research objectives are the followings:
Outlining the differences between
genders in processing the perceptive
information from the external stimuli in
the peripheral visual field;
Studying the association between the
peripheral visual field stimuli
processing and the central visual field
processing stimuli during simulated
driving tasks;

Hypothesis

1. The gender differences influence
the performances of stimuli processing tasks in
the perceptive peripheral field in different ways.
We assume that male subjects will have better
performances than female subjects,
considering the reaction time in responding to
the stimuli and the number of stimuli detected
at the peripheral perception task.

2. The mean of the estimate errors in
appreciation of the speed and distances will be
in inverse ratio to the reaction time value at the
visual stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks
simulation.

Methodology

Participants
The participants were 164 students at
the Faculty of Electronics, Automatics,
Psychology and Educational Science (84
females and 80 males), the age between 21
and 27 years old (m= 24 SD= 3). The first step
of selection used the criteria of selection:
driving license for 1 year minimum and 5
years maximum. Using this criterion, a group
of 463 subjects were able to participate to the
research. We randomly selected 164
participants (84 female and 80 male), from the
subjects having a drivers license. These
subjects represented the group for testing the
first hypothesis regarding the gender
differences in visual peripheral field processing
stimuli.
A second group of subjects (43
subjects, males and females) was randomly
selected from the first group of 164 participants
in order to test the second hypothesis of the
research.

Experimental designs

The experimental design for the first
hypothesis: between subjects design, two
groups male (80) and females (84), in one
experimental condition (processing visual
stimuli in peripheral field) during simulated
driving tasks.
The experimental design for testing the
second hypothesis: within subjects design, one
group (43 subjects) in two visual stimuli
processing simulated driving situations. The
first simulated driving situation was the
peripheral visual field processing stimuli task
and the second simulated driving situation was
the central visual field processing stimuli task.

Instruments
1. The peripheral perception test
(Schuhfried, 1992) is destined to evaluate
ones abilities to perceive and process the
visual peripheral information, and mostly on
the rapid perception of the stimuli that enter the
visual field through the lateral sides.
The test can be administered as a
unique test or as a background test
simultaneously with a foreground test. In both
the testing versions, the subjects visual
attention is centered on the monitor, either on
the globe appearing in the center of the
screen, or on the foreground test. The test is
presented with a special testing machine,
incorporating a peripheral exposure consisting
in light-emitting diodes that are arranged on
horizontal and vertical and allow the luminous
stimuli to move from the edges to the center of
the visual field. The foreground test or the
globe is presented on the machines screen.
The DEST test (Schuhfried, 1992)
studies the subject's ability to estimate the
speed and distance, displaying a small
rectangle on the monitor that moves with a
constant speed from the left side to the right, in
a horizontal manner and represent a driving
Studii i Cercetri

101
simulation task regarding the central visual
field stimuli processing.
The central role of the DEST test is
played by the white spot (small rectangle)
which disappears after a certain distance
behind an invisible barrier. The subject has to
push a button when he thinks the rectangle
would reach the edge of the barrier, which is
signaled with a vertical line at the edge of the
screen.

Procedure
At the beginning of the Peripheral
Perceptual Test, the examiner verbally
informed the subjects in a different manner,
depending on the chosen test: a) for PPT as a
unique test: On the central screen of the
machine you will see a globe that you have to
gaze at during the whole test. During this time,
the luminous stimulus will move from the edge
of the machine to the center. Once you see
this type of light stimulus, push the yellow
pedal or b) for PPT as a background test The
text instructions appeared on the middle
screen of the machine. Go through the
instructions and once you understood
everything you can start the test. From the
moment the test has begun and while you work
with it, a light stimulus will move from time to
time from the edge of the screen to the center.
Once you are able to see such luminous
stimuli with the corner of your eye, press the
yellow pedal.
The participants are informed that they
have to focus on a white spot (small rectangle)
which disappears after a certain distance
behind an invisible barrier. The participants
have to push a button when he thinks the
rectangle would reach the edge of the barrier,
which is signaled with a vertical line at the
edge of the screen.
Following the procedures carrying out,
the results from both tests were computed
using t- test for independent groups
(male/female) in order to confirm the first
hypothesis and the Pearson correlation in
order to confirm the second hypothesis.

Results and discussion

Considering the first experimental
design (for the first hypothesis): between
subjects design (male and female), in one
experimental condition (processing visual
stimuli in peripheral field) during simulated
driving tasks it was applied t-test for
independent groups. The results can be
observed in table 1.

Table 1. The mean, Std. deviation, Std. Error mean and statistical significance of gender differences

The task
response
Gender N Mean Std.
Deviation
t p-value
Correct Female
Male
84
80
47.13
48.99
4.41
2.15
-3.42 0.001
Wrong Female
Male
84
80
5.78
3.18
6.78
3.39
3.10 0.002
Omitted Female
Male
84
80
2.87
1.02
4.41
2.16
3.38 0.001
Left average
reaction time
Female
Male
84
80
1.97
1.54
0.45
0.46
6.05 0.001
Right average
reaction time
Female
Male
84
80
2.05
1.60
0.44
0.48
6.37 0.001
Total average
reaction time
Female
Male
84
80
2.01
1.57
0.43
0.46
6.30 0.001
Left std. dev. Female
Male
84
80
0.73
0.54
0.21
0.18
5.94 0.001
Right std. dev. Female
Male
84
80
0.76
0.56
0.20
0.19
6.41 0.001
Total std. dev. Female
Male
84
80
0.75
0.56
0.19
0.17
6.83 0.0001

102
Following the data from the table 1 we
have made a few findings:
Women, as well as men have obtained
a smaller medium reaction time for the stimuli
entering the visual field from the left side,
comparative to the ones coming from the right
side.
The processing of the stimuli entering
the visual field is done differently according to
gender. Thus, the perceptive-peripheral
processing occurs faster at men (m=1.57),
then it does at women (m=2.01), regarding the
stimuli entering the visual field from the right
side as well as the ones entering from the left
side;
The value of the t test for independent
samples (t=6.30, p<0.001) indicates the fact
that the difference is significant;
Right average reaction time
(female/male) = 2.05/1.60, statistically
significant results (t=6.366, p<0.001) and for
Left average reaction time (female/male) =
1.97/1.54, statistically significance results (t=
6.053, p<0.001).
Giving an interpretation to the results,
we concluded that: The gender differences
influence the performances of the processing
stimuli tasks in the perceptive peripheral field
in a different way had been confirmed.
Furthermore, the assumption the male
subjects will have better performances than
female subjects, considering the time reaction
response to the stimuli and the number of
stimuli detected at the peripheral perception
task. it has been statistically confirmed by the
obtained results.
Considering the experimental design
for testing the second hypothesis: within
subjects design, one group (43 subjects) in two
visual stimuli processing simulated driving
situations; we used for analyzing the results
the t-test for paired groups and for the
correlative study the Bravais-Pearson linear
correlation coefficient. The first simulated
driving task situation was the peripheral visual
field processing stimuli task and the second
simulated driving situation was the central
visual field processing stimuli task.

The peripheral perception tests
results in processing visual stimuli
during a driving task simulation.

The shapes of the both empirical
distributions are quite normal (figure 1) thus,
we applied the parametric statistic for
significance tests.

Table 2. Central tendency and standard deviation values for the PP test indicators (N=43)

Mean Standard Deviation
Left average reaction time 1.87 0.487
Right average reaction time 1.99 0.511
Total average reaction time 1.93 0.492
Left standard deviation 0.66 0.194
Right standard deviation 0.68 0.200
Total standard deviation 0.69 0.168

3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00
Right average reaction time
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Mean = 1.9993
Std. Dev. = 0.51061
N = 43
3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00
Left average reaction time
10
8
6
4
2
0
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Mean = 1.8702
Std. Dev. = 0.48663
N = 43

Figure 1 The histograms of left and right average reaction time
Studii i Cercetri

103

Considering the dependent variable
Left average reaction time and Right
average reaction time, a t-test for paired
groups tested the statistically significant
differences. The results of t-test (t=4, 9,
p>0.01) confirm no significant difference
between the two variables.
The peripheral processing reflected by
the subjects reactivity to imperative stimuli is
differentiated in connection to the area in which
the stimuli are being administered.
The subjects reactivity for the stimuli
entering the visual field from the left side is
significantly (p<0.05) better (m=1.87) than the
ones entering from the right side (m=1.99)
(table 2).

The DEST Tests results for the
appreciation of speed and distances
in central visual field driving
simulation tasks

Considering DEST test as a visual task
driving simulation for the central field stimuli
processing, the descriptive statistics of the
dates obtained from the subjects performed
tasks can be seen in table 3.

Table 3. Central tendency and standard deviation
for the DEST test indicators (N=43)

Mean Standard
Deviation
Number of Correct
Estimations
2.26 21.39
Number of
underestimations
16.02 11.03
The tendency of
estimations
-4.86 20.98
The mean of
estimation error
30.01 12.72

Measures of central tendency and
variability are basic descriptive statistics that
summarize the distribution of the variables. In
order to test the second hypothesis which
assumes that the mean of the estimate errors
in evaluating the speed and distances in
central visual perceptual field will be in inverse
ratio to the time reaction value at the visual
stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks
simulation, the Bravais-Pearson linear
correlation coefficient was used.

20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00
Incorrect reactions
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

u
n
d
e
r
e
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n
s

Figure 2 The relationship between the number of
underestimations (DEST test) and the number of
wrong reactions (Peripheral perception), N=43

The graphic representation of the
bivariate distribution (figure 2) indicates a
medium negative correlation. The correlation
coefficients value (r = - 0.40, p<0,05)
indicates the fact that in the peripheral field
(left and right), the more wrong reactions to the
peripheral stimuli in driving simulation tasks,
the more the number of speed underestimates
tends to be reduced providing better stimuli
processing in the central visual perceptive
field.

20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00
Incorrect reactions
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
-10.00
-20.00
-30.00
T
h
e

t
e
n
d
e
n
c
y

o
f

e
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n
s

Figure 3 The relationship between the estimation
tendency variable (DEST test) and the number of
incorrect reactions (peripheral perception), N=43

104
Considering the estimation tendency
(in the speed and distance estimation test
represents the absolute difference between the
number of overestimation and
underestimations) and the number of incorrect
reaction to the peripheral stimuli (peripheral
perception test), the correlation coefficient
Pearson-Bravais (r=0.42, p<0.005), (N=43)
does not indicates a strong correlation
between the two variables. The graphic
representation (Figure 3) of the scatter plot
indicates the fact that the more errors in the
peripheral processing (between 0 and 10),
there is a tendency for a correct estimation of
the cinematic parameters on the basis of the
descending processing. Still, after passing a
certain number of peripheral errors (between
10 and 20), we can notice a significant
increase of the overestimating tendency for the
stimulis moving speed in the central
perceptive field. In this situation, the error is
present at the periphery and also in the
processing made by the central perceptive
field. This fact can be caused by the field
difference in which the perception is being
made, as well as other motivational,
temperamental etc. factors (there is not a
homogenous distribution of the scores).
Between the variables number of
wrong reactions and number of omissions
there has been obtained a relatively high
negative correlation (r=-0.728, p<0.001),
(N=43). It has to be said that for this
correlation, only the dates from the subjects
that omitted reactions in the speed estimation
test have been used.

Conclusions

Driving represents a multitasking
activity that requires drivers to focus their
attention towards environmental stimuli either
in peripheral visual field or in the central visual
field. The driving accidents are explained by
the cognitive processing of the peripheral and
central visual field stimuli in particular and by
the human psychological processes in general
as the reviewed research and studies were
presented in this paper.
Analyzing the results the mean of the
estimate errors in appreciation of speed and
distances has been confirmed as being in
inverse ratio to the time reaction value at the
visual stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks
simulation (between the variables number of
wrong reactions and number of omissions it
has been obtained a relatively high negative
correlation (r=-0.728, p<0.001), (N=43)).
Testing the influence of subjects
gender on the peripheral visual stimuli
processing, statistically significant difference
has been obtained using t-test for independent
groups (table 1).
Based on previous studies (Anitei,
Buzea, Chraif 2007 Anitei, Chraif 2007) the
present study highlights the importance of the
reaction time in peripheral processing visual
stimuli during driving task. During driving
simulation tasks were being carried out, the
subjects interact with the simulated
environment (external stimuli in peripheral and
central field as light stimuli) throw pedals and
buttons producing behavioral protocols similar
to those of the subjects during driving.
Nevertheless, we demonstrated in this
study that increasing the errors in peripheral
visual field correlate in inverse ratio with
decreasing the speed and distances
appreciation in the central visual field during
driving simulation tasks. Furthermore,
obtaining the Pearson negative correlation, it
has been confirmed that the mean of the
estimate errors in evaluating the speed and
distances in central visual field are in inverse
ratio to the time reaction value at the peripheral
visual stimuli driving simulation tasks.
Thus the results obtained could help
the subjects learn to focus their attention on
the peripheral/central visual field stimuli that
need attention during driving tasks. Also, they
can exercise responses to both stimulations
(from external stimuli) in central and peripheral
visual fields preventing the traffic accidents
based on stimuli detection in peripheral and
central visual field.

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in Vision and Ophthalmology, Ft. Lauderdale,
FL.
Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2000). Situating vision in the world,
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 5, 197-207.
Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2001a). Connecting vision and the
world: Tracking the missing link. In J.
Branquinho (Ed.), The Foundations of
Cognitive Science. Oxford, UK: Claredon
Press.
Schuhfried, G. (1992). Wienna Test System, GmB
Austria.
Shute, R.H. and Woodhouse, J.G. (1990) Visual
fitness to drive after stroke or head injury.
Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics . 10,
327-332.
Siegel, M., Kording, P.K., & Kording, P. (2000).
Integrating Top-Down and Bottom-Up
Sensory Processing by Somato-Dendritic
Interactions. Journal of Computational
Neuroscience, 8, 161-173.
Smith, E., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G. R., & Noelen-
Hoeksema, S., (2004). Introduction to
Psychology, Bucureti: Ed. Tehnic.
Stins, J.F., & van Leeuwen, C. (1993). Context
influence on the perception of figures as
conditional upon perceptual organization
strategies. Percept. Psychophysics. 53, 34-
42.
Wang, Q., Cavanagh, P., & Green, M. (1994).
Familiarity and pop-out in visual search.
Perception & Psychophysics, 56, 495-500.




Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic

107

Industrial/Organization Consultancy in the United States:
A Few of the Challenges

Barbara Nett
1

Angie Rosenbaum

1
As Industrial/Organizational (I/O)
consultants, we are normally hired by a human
resources department (e.g., staffing, talent
management) within a large organization or
the legal department. We are typically brought
in to deal with an organizational issue that the
internal staff cannot handle because they lack
the necessary staff, time, and/or technical
expertise. That means we are viewed as
people who have all the answers needed to
get the job done, and can get it done quickly.
By the time we are brought on board, the
clients are eager to get the project underway
and are thrilled to be able to ask their
questions and listen to our advice. However,
as the projects progress, any number of
challenges may arise.
Credibility. It is not unusual for the
clients project staff to be curious about our
credibility. Our Chief Executive Officer speaks
to their figure head to secure the contract, and
then we come in to assist with the work. We
may have met the executive staff and gained
their acceptance, but when we first meet the
project staff, they are inquisitive. They quiz us
with questions such as, How long have you
been doing this type of work? How many
similar projects have you worked on? What
other clients have you worked for? and so on.
Once we explain we have worked in the field
for a dozen or more years and have an
impressive list of clients, they feel they have
sufficiently vetted us and they become more at
ease partnering with us. We imagine this
establishes for them that we not only have the
necessary technical expertise, but that we
have also actually used it successfully and
we may actually be able to help them!
Eventually, a funny thing happens.
Once we have earned their trust and
confidence, the clients become so comfortable
relying on us to provide advice regarding their
dilemmas and answers to their questions that
they become reluctant to make routine
decisions for themselves even the decisions
they were making regularly before they
engaged us. For instance, after developing a

1
Adresa de coresponden: blnett@comcast.net
new selection process for a client, they asked
us Where should we post our openings?
Noting that recruitment had never been an
issue for them, we responded with Where
have you posted them in the past?
As another example, we often
recommend that clients use banding rather
than selection based on strict rank order. After
developing a new selection system for a large
public safety organization we recommended
they band the test scores. The client asked us
to then suggest how they should decide which
candidates to select from within the bands.
We advised that they could make selections
from within the bands using any number of job-
related criteria such as seniority, top-down
based on interview score, geographic
preference, etc. as long as the criteria were
consistently applied. Yet, the client kept
pressing us for a firm recommendation and
we kept insisting that it was ultimately their
decision to make based on what fit the needs
of their business.
Setting Limits. Our impression is that
organizations are slow to pull the trigger on
hiring external consultants. And once they do
they want the work completed at lightning
speed. The organizational issue at hand has
probably been lingering for some time and now
needs immediate attention. So in their haste
to accomplish the project clients try to push the
limits sometimes wanting to sacrifice sound
scientific methodology in the name of cost
containment and quick results. We try to be
amenable to making logistic concessions and
rearranging our schedules, but never bend to
the pressure if it means sacrificing
unassailable methodological practices.
Additionally, client questions frequently
segue into requests beyond the scope of the
initial work, with no mention of additional
compensation or flexibility of deadline. Clients
are tempted to sweep peripheral organizational
issues under the rug of our contract
agreement. We have to be willing to say no
sometimes and remain vigilant not to be taken
advantage of while not compromising our
relationship with the client.

108
Packaging Technical Expertise.
Hired for our expertise, challenges arise in
conveying that expertise to the client in an
understandable fashion. Issues such as
banding, setting effective and defensible cutoff
scores, why to use compensatory vs. multiple-
hurdle testing systems, and even what
constitutes a test can be surprisingly difficult
for clients to comprehend. One client, when
asked what type of test they used for selecting
clerical staff, said We dont use a test
instead, we just have them come in to provide
a typing sample. Many clients do not
understand that any mechanism used in a
pass/fail or recommend/not recommend
fashion is considered a test. Its also not
uncommon to encounter clients who still do not
understand that an interview is a test.
We also encounter clients who do not
understand that selection is an imperfect
science and that testing for each and every
competency may be both cost-prohibitive and
inefficient. They have trouble recognizing that
a parsimonious selection system is preferable,
and beyond incorporating those competencies
with the most predictive value, there is likely a
point of diminishing returns. Similarly, clients
may ask us to include selection measures for
competencies that either do not survive the job
analysis or that may be related to broad
business initiatives but arent necessarily job-
related for the job in question. Just this week a
client asked us to include measures for
initiative and leadership in a selection
procedure for an entry-level manufacturing
position two competencies not supported by
the job analysis undertaken for the position.
Organizational Dynamics. Recently,
we were hired by a large retailer to undertake
a massive job analysis and selection project.
We negotiated and agreed to an aggressive
timeline for the ambitious project. Then,
following disappointing quarterly results for the
retailer, they received pushback from the
executives to minimize costs. Their first
reaction was to try to persuade us to limit the
scope of the project implying we could cut
corners (by considerably reducing the job
analysis sample) and still achieve the same
results. We disagreed, citing the importance of
a solid job analysis for any subsequent
development of selection instruments. We
then renegotiated the project and agreed to a
modified fixed-price contract for the work.
Again, just before the project was set to
launch, they halted our efforts in favor of
having a sister group within the organization
help with the travel-intensive project in order to
further control costs.
Sometimes this on-again off-again
work is related to individuals, not resources.
Occasionally, an executive who brings us on
for a project exits the organization and support
for the project disappears as well. We have
learned to enjoy down-time and lenient
schedules when we can, because we can
never count on how long it will last and need to
be prepared to change gears on a moments
notice.
Schedules at the Mercy of the
Client. Given how quickly our projects may
come and go, we are required to be
exceedingly flexible in terms of schedule. A
project may arise quickly and have a very tight
deadline. In those instances, it may be
necessary to work weekends and holidays to
accomplish the project. Many of our projects
are also extremely labor-intensive and require
long and arduous hours at the client site. We
have spent as many as six consecutive weeks
at a client site (in another state) in order to
meet project deadlines. And on one particular
job analysis project, we worked 20-hour shifts
in order to adequately sample all shifts in the
24/7 production facility. The unpredictability of
our work and the frequent work/life imbalance
some of the greatest obstacles we encounter
in retaining staff. Consulting requires
tremendous dedication and commitment to the
work and many dont want the occasionally
demanding lifestyle.
Long-Term Client Relationships.
Ideally, we aim to secure the trust and
confidence of our clients so that we can
establish a long-term relationship and gain
repeat business with them. It is generally
advantageous for all parties involved.
Familiarity generally breeds efficiency in that
the parties involved already know one another,
we understand the organizational culture and
protocol, and we may be able to build on
earlier project work. One of the most
professionally gratifying feelings is to gain
repeated business with a client thats when
we know we have delivered solid work and
managed to successfully overcome any
challenges along the way.
Despre metod

109

PowerStaTim 1.0 un nou program statistic de calcul a mrimii efectului i a puterii statistice

Florin A. Sava
1

Laureniu P. Maricuoiu
Universitatea de Vest din Timioara

Abstract

The present paper presents the main characteristics of a new software for computing effect size
and statistical power indicators: PowerStaTim 1.0 (Maricuoiu & Sava, 2007). The first part of the
present paper presents the rationale for computing effect size and statistical power in
psychological research. The second part of the article introduces the reader to the technical
characteristics of PowerStaTim 1.0 and to the processing options of this software.

Key words: statistical power, effect size, sample size, software

Rezumat

Lucrarea de fa prezint principalele caracteristici ale unui nou program statistic de calcul al
indicatorilor mrimii efectului i puterii statistice: PowerStaTim 1.0 (Maricuoiu & Sava, 2007).
Prima parte a articolului prezint argumentele care explica necesitatea calculrii mrimii efectului
i a puterii statistice n cercetarea psihologic. A doua parte familiarizeaz cititorul cu
caracteristicile tehnice ale PowerStaTim 1.0 i cu opiunile de procesare oferite de acest program
statistic.

Cuvinte cheie: puterea statistic, mrimea efectului, dimensiunea eantionului, program statistic

1
Introducere

Probabil fiecare dintre cei care citesc
acest text s-a confruntat, n contexte de
cercetare, cu o serie de ntrebri fireti de
genul De ci participani am nevoie n
studiu?; De ce rezultatele mele sunt
nesemnificative statistic, dei literatura de
specialitate susine contrariul?; Ct de
eficient din punct de vedere practic este
intervenie psihologic studiat?; Care
tratament este mai bun?, Ce anse am s
obin un rezultat semnificativ statistic? etc.
n acest moment, practica editorilor din
reviste de specialitate de a ne pune ntrebri
legate de mrimea efectului sau de puterea
statistic a studiului (APA, 2001) este din ce n
ce mai rspndit. Dac n calitate de autori nu
ne-am pus nc asemenea ntrebri, cu
siguran o vor face aceti editori.
Pentru a rspunde la aceste ntrebri
va trebui s apelm la programe specializate
de genul G-Power (Faul & Erdfelder, 1992) sau

1
Adresa de contact: afsava@socio.uvt.ro
Power and Precision (Borestein, Rothstein &
Cohen, 2001), care ns prezint o serie de
neajunsuri detaliate n lucrri anterioare (Sava
& Maricuoiu, 2007).
Prin urmare, scopul lucrrii de fa
este de a prezenta succint principalele
caracteristici ale PowerStaTim 1.0 (Maricuoiu
& Sava, 2007), ce se constituie ntr-o
alternativ viabil la programele menionate
anterior.
Principalul avantaj al PowerStaTim 1.0
asupra competitorilor este orientarea spre
nevoile utilizatorilor i flexibilitatea input-ului.
Astfel, spre deosebire de celelalte software-uri,
acest program permite utilizatorilor posibilitatea
de a opta pentru una dintre urmtoarele trei
variante: (1) lucrul cu date primare (ex.: output-
uri oferite de programe precum SPSS-ul); (2)
lucrul cu date secundare complete (ex.:
utilizatorul gsete n articole de specialitate
informaiile necesare); (3) lucrul cu date
secundare incomplete (ex.: utilizatorul are
acces la informaii incomplete prezentate n
articole de specialitate).

110
Alte avantaje care merit reinute sunt:
- posibilitatea pentru a opta pentru
indicatorul mrimii efectului preferat;
- posibilitatea de a consulta o serie de
indicatori ajustai, ce permit comparaii
indiferent de tipul de design al
studiului, numrul de variabile
implicate etc.;
- cerina de a introduce informaii
statistice elementare (N, medii etc.)
spre deosebire de alte programe care
necesit cunotine avansate de
metodologie.
Module de calcul ale PowerStaTim 1.0
Din punctul de vedere al procesrii,
PowerStaTim 1.0 acoper toate tehnicile
statistice parametrice de baz:
- Corelaii i regresii liniare;
- Testele t;
- Testele ;
- Testul F (pentru toate formele de
ANOVA i ANCOVA)
Pentru oricare dintre aceste tehnici
statistice exist un formular pentru calculul a
posteriori a mrimii efectului i a puterii
statistice (pe baza rezultatelor obinute de
utilizator sau gsite n literatura de
specialitate), un formular pentru estimarea a
priori a numrului de subieci necesari (pe
baza efectului ateptat i a puterii statistice
vizate) i un formular de estimare a priori a
puterii statistice (pe baza efectului ateptat i a
numrului de subieci disponibili).
Caracteristici de utilizare a
PowerStaTim 1.0
nc din stadiul de proiectare,
PowerStaTim 1.0 s-a dorit a fi un software
educaional. Pentru atingerea acestui obiectiv,
o atenie special a fost acordat design-ului
aspectelor legate de input-ul i output-ul
acestui software, precum i a fiierelor de
asisten asociate software-ului (vezi Figura
1).

Figura 1. Sumar al caracteristicilor PowerStaTim 1.0

Caracteristici ale input-ului

Deoarece se adreseaz unor utilizatori
cu cunotine minime n ceea ce privete
mrimea efectului i puterea statistic, design-
ul input-ului se dorete a fi familiar studenilor
ce au parcurs un curs de statistic introductiv.
Astfel, PowerStaTim 1.0 nu solicit dect
informaii de baz precum: medii, abateri
standard, numr de subieci, valori ale testelor
statistice (t, r, F, beta) i gradele de libertate
ale acestor teste (df). Pornind de la aceste
valori, PowerStaTim 1.0 calculeaz automat
indici mai puin familiari precum abaterea
standard combinat a mai multor grupe
(pooled standard deviation n englez) sau
media armonic a numrului de subieci.
Aceti indici sunt solicitai de programe
similare (Gpower, Power and Precision)
deoarece intr n formulele de calcul a
indicatorilor de mrimea efectului.
Pentru a uura introducerea datelor,
fiecare fereastr PowerStaTim 1.0 pornete de
la informaii de baz ale design-ului (numrul
de variabile/grupe experimentale/predictori),
apoi solicit informaii privind numele grupurilor
(de exemplu: experimental vs. control), al
predictorilor sau al variabilelor dependente.
Odat introduse aceste informaii, formularul n
care trebuie introduse rezultatele obinute se
adapteaz design-ului definit anterior, oferind
utilizatorului indici privind locul specific n care
ne ateptm s introduc anumite informaii
(vezi Figura 2).
Despre metod

111

Figura 2. Exemplu de formular din PowerStaTim 1.0

n situaia n care utilizatorul are
nevoie de asisten, formularele PowerStaTim
1.0 conin unul sau mai multe butoane marcate
cu simbolul ?, precum i un buton marcat cu
textul Ajutor. Apsarea acestor butoane
deschide o pagin web care conine informaii
despre:
tehnica statistic respectiv;
modul n care se completeaz
formularul din PowerStaTim 1.0;
modul n care se pot interpreta
rezultatele oferite.
Fiierele de asisten sunt sub forma
unui website local, care este copiat la instalare.
Odat accesat, acest website permite
navigarea fr restricii prin toate topicile
abordate prin accesarea hyperlink-urilor
specifice.

Caracteristici ale output-ului

n cazul modulelor a posteriori,
rezultatele analizei sunt prezentate ntr-un
fiier MS Word. n momentul n care toate
calculele sunt realizate, PowerStaTim 1.0
deschide o fereastr de dialog care permite
utilizatorului s selecteze locaia i (eventual)
numele fiierului. Odat salvat, fiierul este
deschis automat de PowerStaTim 1.0.
Oferirea rezultatelor n acest mod prezint
dou mari avantaje, dup cum urmeaz:
este uor de utilizat, chiar i pe
calculatoare care nu au instalat
PowerStaTim 1.0;
permite transferul rezultatelor n
alte documente de tip MS Word:
tabelele pot fi transferate uor, fr
riscul unor conflicte de formatare.
De asemenea, rezultatul preia datele
introduse n formular i le ofer ntr-o manier
sintetic. n cazul exemplului din Figura 2,
dup completarea datelor legate de N, m i ,
acestea vor fi prezente n fiierul de rezultate
alturi de rezultatele legate de mrimea
efectului i puterea statistic. Mrimea
fiierelor poate varia de la 1 pagin pn la 3
pagini (n cazul regresiei ierarhice).
n cazul modulelor a priori rezultatele
analizei sunt prezentate n cadrul aceleiai
ferestre, sub forma unui text. Am optat pentru
aceast variant deoarece rezultatul poate fi
exprimat n cel mult o fraz, ceea ce nu ar fi
justificat crearea unui fiier MS Word.

112
Caracteristici tehnice ale
PowerStaTim 1.0.
PowerStaTim 1.0 a fost programat n
Visual Basic.NET 2005, construit pe tehnologia
Microsoft .Net Framework 2.0 . Din aceste
considerente, nu poate fi instalat dect pe
sisteme de operare Windows NT (Windows
2000, XP, Vista) care au instalat aceast
tehnologie. n plus, pentru funcionarea
PowerStaTim 1.0 este nevoie de MS Office XP
pentru a putea accesa funcii din MS Excel i
pentru a putea realiza fiierele de raport n MS
Word.

Calcularea indicatorilor de mrimea
efectului i putere statistic
Deoarece demonstraia este adesea
cel mai bun mijloc de exemplificare a utilitii
unui produs, n final ne vom focaliza asupra
unui exemplu relevant pentru utilitatea
PowerStaTim.
Dou departamente din cadrul
aceleiai firme desfoar o activitate similar,
singura diferen fiind tipul de management
practicat. n departamentul A s-a adoptat un
sistem de salarizare variabil n funcie de
performanele angajailor, n timp ce n
departamentul B se practic un sistem de
salarizare fix. Un psiholog este interesat s-i
fac disertaia pe acest subiect, fiind convins
c cel de-al doilea stil produce un nivel mai
ridicat de satisfacie printre angajai.
Prin intermediul PowerStaTim 1.0,
psihologul ar putea rspunde la o serie de
ntrebri att nainte de efectuarea studiului
(ex. De ci angajai am nevoie n studiu?
modulul N a priori din PowerStaTim; Dac am
acces doar la 40 de angajai ce anse am s
obin un rezultat semnificativ statistic?
modulul Power a priori), ct i dup finalizarea
studiului (Ct de important din punct de
vedere practic este diferena observat? sau
Ce probabilitate exist de a fi comis o eroare
n testarea ipotezei? modulul a posteriori). n
continuare sunt oferite rspunsurile
PowerStaTim 1.0 la cele patru ntrebri
ridicate.

1. De ci angajai este nevoie s fie inclui
ca participani n studiu?
Din datele problemei rezult cazului
testului t pentru 2 eantioane independente i
al unei ipoteze unilaterale. Din literatura
metodologic tim c un studiu optim
configurat ar trebui s aib o putere statistic
de .80, iar mrimea efectului de o intensitate
cel puin medie are valoarea de .50 n cazul
indicatorului d al lui Cohen. Introducnd aceste
date n PowerStaTim 1.0, rezult c am avea
nevoie de 50 de participani din fiecare
departament, ceea ce nseamn 100 de
angajai n total.

2. Dac am acces doar la 40 de angajai, n
total, ce anse am s obin un rezultat
semnificativ statistic?
Rspunsul la aceast ntrebare este
dependent de tipul de efect cutat. De pild,
pentru un efect de intensitate medie precum d
= .50 i pstrnd aceleai condiii prezentate
anterior, cu excepia numrului de participani,
vom observa o putere statistic a studiului de
.46 dac cei 40 de angajai sunt mprii n
dou grupe egale. O asemenea valoare indic
faptul c sunt ceva mai puin de 1 la 1 anse
(.46 / .54) de a obine un rezultat semnificativ
statistic chiar dac ar exista o diferen de
intensitate medie ntre cele dou departamente
cu privire la satisfacia n munc.
Dup finalizarea studiului, prin
PowerStaTim se poate rspunde la alte
ntrebri. S presupunem c au fost implicai n
studiu 60 de angajai, 27 din departamentul A
i 33 din departamentul B, iar indicatorii
descriptivi privind satisfacia au fost (mA =
12.23, sA = 4,28, respectiv mB = 14,56 i sB =
4,71).

3. n aceste condiii, diferena sesizat este
important din punct de vedere practic?
PowerStaTim ofer o serie de
indicatori ai mrimii efectului ce pot fi
interpretai n variate forme. De pild, valoarea
lui d Cohen este .52, ceea ce indic un efect
vizibil, de intensitate medie n plan practic
(Cohen, 1988), ce nu poate fi neglijat. O
asemenea valoare, transpus n termeni de
percentile, indic faptul c persoanele cu un
nivel mediu de satisfacie din departamentul B
au un nivel al satisfaciei similar cu cele din
departamentul A aflate n percentilul 70, ceea
ce indic faptul c majoritatea persoanelor din
A (70 de persoane dintr-o 100) au un nivel de
satisfacie sub nivelul mediu resimit n
departamentul B.
O alt interpretare posibil prin apelul
la PowerStaTim este oferit prin intermediul r
BESD. Astfel, utilizarea unui sistem de
salarizare fix fa de unul flexibil, induce o
cretere a ratei de succes cu privire la
satisfacia resimit n munc de la 37% la
63%. n sfrit, o alt interpretare clasic,
bazat pe procentul de dispersie explicat,
este posibil prin intermediul PowerStaTim 1.0.
Astfel, deoarece r = .0636, rezult c
aproximativ 6,36% din modul n care a variat
Despre metod

113
satisfacia angajailor din cele dou
departamente poate fi asociat diferenelor
existente n sistemul de salarizare.

4. Ce probabilitate exist de a fi comis o
eroare n testarea ipotezei?
Pornind de la rezultatele descriptive
prezentate mai sus, PowerStaTim 1.0 ofer, o
dat cu indicatorii de mrime a efectului,
valoarea a posteriori a puterii statistice a
studiului efectuat. n cazul dat, puterea
statistic, la un prag de .05 este .65, o valoare
considerat satisfctoare, dar nc sub nivelul
optim standard de .80 (Cohen, 1988). Din
perspectiva ntrebrii puse rezult c exist o
probabilitate de .35 (1 - .65) de a comite o
eroare de tip II, care transpus n termeni
simpli ar fi cazul n care am concluziona greit
c nu exist diferene semnificative statistic
ntre cele dou departamente. n termeni de
ans, acest lucru indic c avem 2 din 3
anse (.65 / .35) de a trage concluzii corecte i
1 din 3 anse de a comite o eroare de tip II.

Cititorii interesai de aceste aspecte
pot gsi mai multe detalii n manualul de
utilizare a programului (Sava & Maricuoiu,
2007), ct i n fiierele de asisten ce pot fi
instalate o dat cu PowerStaTim 1.0. Nu ne
rmne dect s v invitm s le citii!

Bibliografie

APA (2001). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (5th ed.).
Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Borenstein, M., Rothstein, H., & Cohen, J. (2001).
Power and Precision. Disponibil la:
www.poweranalysis.com.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the
behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale:
Erlbaum.
Faul, F., & Erdfelder, E. (1992). GPOWER: A priori,
post hoc, and compromise power analyses
for MS-DOS [Computer program]. Bonn
University, Dept. of Psychology, Bonn.
Maricuoiu, L.P, Sava, F.A. (2007). PowerStaTim
1.0 Analiza puterii statistice i a mrimii
efectului. Disponibil la: www.psihologietm.ro
ncepnd cu data de 1.07.2008.
Sava, F.A, & Maricuoiu, L.P. (2007). PowerStaTim
1.0. Manualul utilizatorului. Timioara:
Editura Universitii de Vest.

Brand Research

114

Corelaii, corelaii, corelaii ... perspectiva SEM
1
asupra msurrii n psihologie

Balzsi Rbert
2

Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca

12
Msurarea a reprezentat i
reprezint n continuare o problem esenial
att a cercetrii n psihologie, ct i a
psihologiei aplicate, astfel construcia unor
instrumente de msur, respectiv teste,
standardizate reprezint un imperativ al
ambelor domenii. Calitatea msurrii (implicit
calitatea testelor) se reflect n indicatorii de
validitate i fidelitate a instrumentelor de
msur. Exist i alte caracteristici importante
ale unui instrument de msur, oferite de
exemplu de analiza de itemi, dar n discuia din
acest numr ne vom limita doar la validitate i
fidelitate pentru c ele se bazeaz n general
pe valoarea indicilor de corelaie calculat ntre
dou sau mai multe variabile observate (sau
proceduri mai complexe bazate pe analiza
corelaional).
ntrebarea la care ncercm s oferim
un rspuns este, n ce msur interpretarea
efectuat n cadrul conceptual tradiional al
unor indici de corelaie ntre dou variabile
observate pot oferi, sau nu, informaiile
necesare n acest sens. Ceea ce ne face s ne
ndoim de eficiena practicilor efectuate n
spiritul psihometriei clasice este perspectiva,
relativ nou oferit de metodologia SEM. Nu
ne propunem s punem sub semnul ntrebrii
psihometria clasic n ntregimea ei (n acest
sens vezi asumpiile Teorie Rspunsului la
Item, Embretson & Hershberger, 1999), dar
vom discuta dou aspecte care s arate clar
cum modelarea prin ecuaii structurale, care i
ea se bazeaz pe analiza corelaiilor sau a
covarianelor, nuaneaz problematica
validitii i fidelitii.
SEM reprezint o modalitate de
analiz structural a covarianelor, avnd ca
scop verificarea ipotezei conform creia
matricea de covariane a populaiei variabilelor
observate este o funcie a parametrilor liberi
necunoscui ai modelului teoretic structurat
(Breckler, 1990; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1984).

1
SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) se traduce
Modelare prin Ecuaii Structurale.
2
robertbalazsi@psychology.ro
Modelul teoretic structurat practic specific
relaii ntre diferite variabile msurate i
variabile latente.
n general modelul SEM presupune
dou componente: componenta de msurare
i componenta structural. Componenta de
msurare specific relaiile existente ntre
variabilele latente i indicatorii acestora
(variabilele msurate), n timp ce componenta
structural specific relaiile existente ntre
variabilele latente (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).
De asemenea, se face o distincie ntre
variabile exogene i variabile endogene.
Variabilele exogene reprezint acele variabile
spre care nu indic nici o sgeat
unidirecionat n graficul modelului testat.
Variabilele endogene sunt cele spre care sunt
orientate sgei unidirecionate. n esen
sgeile unidirecionate n model sugereaz
faptul c variabilele exogene determin
variabilele endogene care la rndul lor pot, sau
nu, determina alte variabile endogene (Cohen
& Cohen, 1983).
Primul model, cel de msurare este de
obicei specificat prin urmtoarele dou ecuaii:

x =

+

x reprezentnd vectorul variabilelor exogene
msurate,

fiind matricea coeficienilor ce
indic influena variabilelor latente exogene
asupra variabilelor msurate. reprezint
matricea erorilor de msurare a variabilelor
exogene msurate. A doua ecuaie:

y = +

surprinde aceleai relaii n cazul variabilelor
endogene. y reprezint matricea variabilelor
msurate endogene, matricea coeficienilor
ce indic influena variabilelor latente
endogene, notate cu , asupra variabilelor
endogene msurate.

= + +

unde i reprezint influena variabilelor
latente endogene (notate cu ) i exogene
Despre metod

115
(notate cu ) asupra variabilei latente
endogene i marcheaz prezena altor
variabile externe care afecteaz variabila
latent endogen (Bollen, 1989).
Demersul SEM const n structurarea
unui model, stabilirea parametrilor liberi i
setai al acestuia urmnd ca pe baza matricei
de covarian a datelor i a matricii ipotetice
elaborate pe baza modelului structurat s se
calculeze valorile parametrilor modelului i
indicii de potrivire (Bentler & Bonett, 1980). S
vedem n continuare cum acest demers
schimb perspective noastr asupra
demersului de validare relativ la construct i a
demersului de evaluare a consistenei interne
ca indice al fidelitii testului.
Conform definiiei oferite de Anastasi
(1976) validitatea reprezint msura n care un
test msoar ntr-adevr ceea ce i propune
s msoare. Aceeai surs bibliografic ofer
o descriere detaliat a principalelor modaliti
de validare a unui instrument de msur.
Printre cele propuse un rol important l are
validarea relativ la construct. O procedur,
larg acceptat, de validare relativ la construct
o reprezint cea propus de Campbell i Fisk
(1959), validarea convergent i discriminant.
Cel mai frecvent aceasta presupune derularea
unui studiu MTMM
3
ce presupune msurarea a
mai multor variabile latente cu metode diferite
de evaluare (la nivel general am putea spune
c se msoar mai multe constructe prin scale
sau itemi diferii). Ulterior n matricea de
corelaie, dac testele implicate au validitate
convergent i discriminant, se observ
corelaii mai mari ntre diferitele msurri ale
aceluiai construct (ntre diferitele metode
aplicate aceleiai variabile latente) fa de
corelaiile nregistrate ntre aceeai metod
aplicat diferitelor trsturi (ntre aceeai
metod aplicat diferitelor variabile latente).
Criteriile de interpretare a matricii
oferite de Campbell i Fiske (1959) au fost
intens combtute ntr-o serie de articole
(Althauser & Heberlein, 1970; Alwin, 1974;
Widaman, 1985). n principal problema major
o reprezint faptul c valoarea calculat a unui
coeficient de corelaie este afectat n mare
msur de fidelitatea scalei. Or, aceste erori
de msurare, respectiv impactul acestora
asupra concluziilor studiului, nu pot fi detectate
printr-o singur inspecie a matricei de
corelaii.
O alt problem semnalat de Bollen
i Lennox (1991) este c analiza doar a

3
MTMM (Multi Trait Multi Method) se traduce
Metoda Trsturilor Multiple i Metodelor Multiple.
coeficienilor de corelaie nu ine cont de relaia
existent ntre diferitele modaliti de
operaionalizare ale aceluiai construct,
respectiv de relaiile existente ntre variabilele
latente implicate n studiu. Ca i criteriu
general este acceptat c diferitele msurtori
al aceluiai construct trebuie s coreleze mai
mult dect valorile pentru msurtorile prin
aceeai metod a dou constructe diferite.
n termeni formali putem afirma c,

y
1
=
11
1
+
1

y
2
=
21
1
+
2

scorul la o variabil msurat a unui construct
(ex. un item al unei scale de inteligen) este
determinat de puterea relaiei dintre item i
construct (
11
1
i
12
1
) i eroarea de
msurare asociat acelui item (
1
i
2
).
Conform psihometriei clasice media erorilor de
msurare este zero i acestea nu coreleaz cu
nivelul de abilitate (
1
i
2
) fiind independente
i ntre ele (Nunnally, 1978). Aceeai formul
poate fi scris i pentru un al doilea construct
(
2
).

y
3
=
32
2
+
3

y
4
=
42
2
+
4

n acest context corelaia dintre y
1
i y
2
este
determinat de produsul dintre
11
21
; acest
produs va determina valoarea corelaiilor ce
indic validitatea convergent. n schimb
corelaia dintre trsturile aparinnd de dou
variabile latente diferite (y
2
i y
3
) este
determinat de produsul
21
32
21
, adic
depinde de puterea relaiei fiecrui item cu
constructul care l determin dar i de puterea
relaiei dintre cele dou constructe (
21
).
n aceste condiii prescripia iniial a
psihometriei clasice, corelaii mari ntre diferite
metode de msurare ale aceluiai construct i
corelaii mici ntre valorile rezultate n urma
aplicrii aceleiai metode de msurare la
constructe diferite, este discutabil. Dac
11

este mai mic dect
32
21
atunci inevitabil
corelaia dintre diferitele msurtori ale
aceluiai construct va fi mai mic dect
corelaia dintre dou msurtori, cu aceeai
metod, ale unor constructe diferite.
S presupunem c ntre cele dou
variabile latente
1
i
2
exist o corelaie
redus
21
= 0.1 i c ncrcarea pe factor a
itemilor este
11
= 0.6,
21
= 0.6, respectiv
32
=
0.6,
42
= 0.6. n acest caz va fi adevrat
afirmaia, r
12
> r
23
. ns dac valoarea lui

116
crete (de ex.
21
= 0.5) i ncrcarea diferitelor
msurtori pe factori difer foarte mult
11
=
0.3,
21
= 0.3 i
32
= 0.8,
42
= 0.8 afirmaia r
12

> r
23
nu va mai fi adevrat. Aceasta nu se
datoreaz faptului c testul nu are validitate
convergent, ci se datoreaz legturii existente
ntre cele dou constructe.
Este clar c exemplul prezentat
opereaz cu valori extreme, valorile din
cercetrile reale situndu-se undeva ntre
aceste dou extreme. Ceea ce este important
de reinut este c asumpia psihometriei
clasice funcioneaz perfect doar n cazul n
care variabilele latente sunt necorelate (Bollen,
1984). Referindu-ne la constructele vizate prin
cercetrile psihologice ne este greu de
acceptm aceast asumpie, deoarece n
psihologie exist o oarecare corelaie ntre
marea majoritate a variabilelor (puine variabile
pot fi considerate perfect ortogonale). Eroarea
pe care o risc un cercettor limitndu-se doar
la analiza vizual a unei astfel de matrici de
corelaie depinde de fidelitatea msurtorilor i
de valoarea corelaiei existente ntre variabilele
latente. Din pcate niciuna dintre aceste dou
componente nu sunt direct prezente n
matricea de corelaie.
Fidelitatea reprezint gradul de
consisten al unui scor (Anastasi, 1976). Dac
azi msurm inteligena cuiva, ne ateptm ca
la o reluare a msurrii s obinem un scor
similar, asta n condiiile n care trstura
evaluat este una stabil. Exist mai multe
modaliti de estimare a fidelitii, printre care
cel mai frecvent utilizat este indicele de
consisten intern (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955).
Bollen i Lennox (1991) arat c
premisele procedurii de calcul i modul de
interpretare a indicelui de consisten intern,
reflect prescripiile psihometriei clasice i, ca
urmare, acord itemilor doar statutul de
variabile efect. Adic singura posibilitate luat
n considerare este ca variabila latent s
determine variabilele msurate. n acest sens,
exist o serie de studii care arat c, n
anumite situaii variabilele msurate determin
nivelul variabilei latente. Pentru a oferi un
exemplu pentru ambele situaii, s ne
nchipuim dou variabile latente: inteligena i
predispoziia spre discriminare (Bollen &
Lennox, 1991). n primul caz capacitatea
subiectului de a rezolva anumite probleme de
un anumit grad de dificultate se datoreaz
cantitii variabilei latente. Cu ct o persoan
este mai inteligent cu att este mai probabil
c va putea rezolva i itemii cu un grad ridicat
de dificultate. Aceasta este imaginea general
a psihometriei clasice asupra relaiei existente
ntre construct i diferitele modaliti de
operare a acestuia. n schimb variabilele care
determin predispoziia spre discriminare,
ras, vrst, gen i disabiliti nu sunt
determinate de variabila latent. Din contr,
acestea sunt cele care determin
probabilitatea de a fi victima unui act
discriminator.
Analiznd exemplul de mai sus nu ne
este greu de acceptat c indicele de fidelitate
are sens doar n cazul n care toate variabilele
msurate (itemii testului) reprezint indicatori
efect al constructului investigat. Dac n
schimb unele dintre ele reprezint indicatori
cauzali ai constructului, n cazul lor nu ne
putem atepta s existe corelaii prea ridicate,
aa cum nici ntre variabilele constructului
predispoziie spre discriminare nu ne ateptm
s existe corelaii.
n cercetrile reale este foarte probabil
s apar i variabile msurate care reprezint
efectul constructului (de ex. singurtatea ca
msur a depresiei) dar intervin i ca indicatori
cauzali (de ex. izolarea ca i cauz a
depresiei). n cazul acestor variabile latente
modelul de msurare ce urmeaz a fi supus
confirmrii trebuie astfel configurat nct s
reflecte i acest aspect al fenomenului (Bollen,
1984).

Concluzii

n acest studiu ne-am propus s oferim
o imagine foarte sumar asupra metodologiei
SEM i asupra modului n care aceast
metodologie schimb (sau trebuie s schimbe)
perspectiva noastr asupra procesului de
msurare n psihologie. Marele avantaj al
metodologie SEM este c impune specificarea
i testarea unui model explicit de msurare. n
psihometria clasic n majoritatea cazurilor
acest aspect este doar unul asumat, fr a fi
verificat. Din pcate utilizarea doar a
coeficienilor de corelaie nu ne ofer informaii
asupra relaiei existente ntre variabilele latente
(aspect ce influeneaz indicii validitii de
construct) i nici asupra naturii relaiei dintre
indicatori i variabil latent (ce va afecta
interpretarea indicelui de consisten intern).
n ambele cazuri specificarea unui model de
msurare i verificarea acestuia n cadrul
metodologiei SEM va duce la mbuntirea
msurrii i la creterea validitii concluziilor
cercetrii.
Despre metod

117
Bibliografie

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Alwin, D.F. (1974). Approaches to the interpretation
of relationships in the multitrait-multimethod
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Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Althauser, R.P, & Heberlein, T.A. (1970). A causal
assessment of validity and the multitrait-
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Sociological methods (pp. 151-169). San
Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
Anderson, J.C., & Gebing, D.W. (1988). Structural
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Recommended Two-Step Approach.
Psychological Bulletin, 103, 3, 411-423.
Bentler, P.M., & Bonett, D.G. (1980). Significance
tests and goodnessof-fit in the analysis of
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Bollen, K.A. (1984). Multiple indicators: Internal
consistency or no necessary relationship?
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Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent
variables. New York: Wiley.
Bollen, K.A. & Lennox, R. (1991). Conventional
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110, 2, 305-314.
Breckler, S.J. (1990). Applications of Covariance
Structure Modeling in Psychology: Cause for
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Campbell, D.T., & Fiske, D.W. (1959). Convergent
and discriminant validation by the multitrait-
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Cohen, J. & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple
regression/correlation analysis foe the
behavioral sciences. London: Lawrence
Elrbaum Associates.
Cronbach, L.J. & Meehl, P.E. (1955). Construct
validity in psychological tests. Psychological
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Embretson, S.S., & Hershberger, S.L. (1999). The
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Joreskog, K.G., & Sorbom, D. (1984). LISREL vi:
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Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd
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Measurement, 9, 1-26.

Brand Research

118

INTERVIUL PSIHOLOGILOR PRACTICIENI SUB SUPERVIZARE PENTRU TRECEREA LA
STADIUL DE PSIHOLOG PRACTICIANT AUTONOM

Perioada de supervizare are ca obiectiv consolidarea cunotinelor teoretice i a deprinderilor practice din
domeniul psihologiei muncii, industriale i organizaionale. Psihologii care parcurg acest stagiu pe o perioad de
un an sunt n final supui unui interviu dup care, ca psiholog practician autonom, poate s-i exercite
competenele n domeniul pentru care a optat.
Setul de subiecte pe care este organizat interviul, conine o problematic general pe care orice psiholog
practician trebuie s o cunoasc. Ea este extras din standardele de competen elaborate de Colegiul
Psihologilor, Comisia de Psihologia Muncii, Transporturilor i Serviciilor (Psihologia Resurselor Umane. 4(1),
2007, p.102-111). n cele ce urmeaz oferim psihologilor practicieni n supervizare, dar i supervizorilor,
subiectele asupra crora se concentreaz interviul la care vor fi supui. Totodat, aceste ntrebri, plus
standardele de competen la care am fcut referire, trebuie s stea i n atenia supervizorilor responsabilizndu-
i pentru activitatea la care s-au angajat.

TEMATICA EXAMENULUI DE CUNOTINE PENTRU PROMOVAREA LA O TREAPTA DE COMPETEN
SUPERIOAR A PSIHOLOGILOR DIN DOMENIUL PSIHOLOGIEI MUNCII I SERVICIILOR

ANALIZA MUNCII

1. Analiza psihologic a muncii - domenii de aplicare.
2. Clasificarea ocupaiilor din Romnia; profile ocupaionale.
3. Planificarea unui program de analiz a muncii principalele etape i metode.
4. Analiza muncii centrat pe postul de munc (metode i utilizri).
5. Analiza muncii centrat pe deintorul postului de munc (metode i utilizri).
6. Analiza muncii elaborarea fiei postului (structura).

1 RECRUTAREA I SELECIA PERSONALULUI

7. Recrutarea personalului surse interne i externe de recrutare. Metode i tehnici de recrutare.
8. Selecia personalului principii etice.
9. Etapele unui proces de selecie a personalului.
10. Evaluarea n selecia personalului procedee bazate pe informaia biografic (valoare i limite).
11. Evaluarea n selecia personalului testarea aptitudinilor cognitive
12. Evaluarea n selecia personalului testarea aptitudinilor psihomotorii/noncognitive.
13. Evaluarea n selecia personalului chestionare de personalitate.
14. Evaluarea n selecia personalului interviul (valoare i limite).
15. Principalele caliti psihometrice ale metodelor de evaluare (validitatea, fidelitatea, standardizarea).
16. Strategii de validare a testelor psihologice (concurent, predictiv, de coninut, de construct, de aspect).
17. Modaliti de determinare a fidelitii testelor.
18. Etapele unei proceduri de validare a testelor de selecie a personalului.
19. Etalonarea/standardizarea testelor. Reprezentarea performanelor la teste sub forma unui profil
psihologic.
20. Utilizarea testelor n evaluarea psihologic exigene privind alegerea, administrarea, interpretarea i
raportarea rezultatelor (cerine deontologice).
21. Construcia unui tabel de expectaie.
22. Calculul utilitii unei proceduri de selecie psihologic.

EVALUAREA PERFORMANELOR PROFESIONALE

23. Evaluarea performanelor obiective, motivaie, deficiene n practicile cotidiene.
Legislaie n domeniul psihologiei

119
24. Etape n proiectarea unei proceduri de evaluare a personalului.
25. Surse de eroare n evaluarea performanelor profesionale i tehnici de corectare.
26. Metode de evaluare a performanelor profesionale scale de evaluare.
27. Metode de evaluare a performanelor profesionale metode de comparare a persoanelor.
28. Metode de evaluare a performanelor profesionale scale cu descrieri comportamentale.
29. Calculul utilitii unei proceduri de evaluare a performanelor profesionale.

2 OBOSEALA, STRESUL I ACCIDENTELE DE MUNC

30. Oboseala n munc cauze, prevenire i combatere.
31. Accidentele de munc cauze, prevenire i combatere a accidentelor.
32. Stresul ocupaional modele i factori determinani.
33. Diagnoza stresului ocupaional.
34. Prevenie i intervenie n managementul stresului ocupaional.

FORMAREA I DEZVOLTAREA PROFESIONAL

35. Noiuni privind formarea continu i dezvoltarea personalului.
36. Proiectarea unui curs de formare profesional.
37. Metode de instruire profesional.
38. Cariera profesional. Proiectarea unui plan de carier.
39. Instrumente pentru informare i consiliere privind cariera clasificarea ocupaiilor, utilizarea profilelor
ocupaionale i a chestionarelor de interese profesionale.
40. Instrumente psihologice de evaluare pentru orientarea carierei baterii de teste pentru evaluarea
aptitudinilor i chestionare de interese.

3 PSIHOLOGIA APLICAT N SERVICII

41. Cultur organizaional modele ale culturii organizaionale i diagnoza lor. Proceduri de schimbare.
42. Climatul organizaional modele i diagnoz. Proceduri de schimbare.
43. Diagnoza organizaional modele.
44. Planificarea unui studiu de diagnoz organizaional.
45. Instrumente de diagnoz organizaional.
46. Redactarea i prezentarea unui raport de diagnoz.
47. Planificarea forei de munc ntr-o organizaie studiul fluctuaiei personalului.
48. Modele de schimbare organizaional.
49. Planificarea schimbrii organizaionale.
50. Managementul schimbrii organizaionale.
51. Satisfacia cu munca prestat diagnoz i metode de intervenie i comunicare a rezultatelor.

Probleme juridice ale exercitrii profesiei de
Psiholog cu drept de liber practic

52. Sectoarele de activitate n care este necesar obinerea atestatelor de liber practic eliberate de ctre
Colegiul Psihologilor din Romnia, pentru desfurarea activitilor psihologice
53. Calitatea de furnizor ai serviciilor psihologice n Romnia. Societile comerciale autorizate in domeniul
seleciei resurselor umane i activitilor de sntate uman.
54. Calitatea de beneficiar al serviciilor psihologice n Romnia.
55. Psihologul cu drept de liber practic salariat. Funcionarea structurilor de psihologie.
56. Condiiile realizrii activitii de supervizare profesional a psihologilor cu drept de liber practic.
57. Obinerea certificatului de agreere pentru evaluarea psihologic a personalului cu funcii care concur la
sigurana circulaiei rutiere. Condiii i proceduri de obinere.
58. Examinarea psihologic i controlul psihologic periodic a personalului potrivit dispoziiilor Legii nr.
319/2006 privind securitatea i sntatea n munc.
59. Drepturile i obligaiile psihologilor cu drept de liber practic. Interdicii i incompatibiliti n exercitarea
profesiei de psiholog cu drept de liber practic.

120

BERNARD M. BASS

(1925-2007)

Bernard M. Bass, unul dintre cei mai
de seam autori din sfera psihologiei industrial-
organizaionale, a decedat pe 11 Octombrie
2007, n vrst de 82 de ani.
Bernard Bass a fost distinguished
professor emeritus la coala de Management
a Universitii Binghamton, parte din
universitatea de stat din New York. A fost
membru al Academy of Senior Professionals,
din cadrul Colegiului Eckerd din Florida,
precum i director fondator al Centrului pentru
studii de leadership din cadrul Universitii
Bighamton i editor fondator al revistei
tiinifice The Leadership Quarterly.
Bernard Bass a primit titlul de doctor n
psihologie industrial n 1949 la Ohio State
University. Ulterior a predat n cadrul mai
multor universiti din Louisiana, California
(Berkley), Pittsburgh, Rochester i
Binghamton.
n lunga sa carier, a publicat peste 400 de
articole tiinifice, capitole n cri, rapoarte
tehnice, a fost autorul a 21 de cri i a editat
alte 10. A fost consultant pentru multe din cele
mai prestigioase companii americane. A fost
cunoscut i pentru munca sa pro bono, depus
pentru multe organizaii nonprofit, sub form
de workshopuri i cursuri.
Opera lui este extrem de citat. A fost
tradus ntr-un mare numr de limbi, printre
care francez, german, spaniol, portughez,
italian, japonez i, mai nou, romn. Atunci
cnd a primit din partea SIOP (Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology)
premiul pentru contribuii deosebite
(Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award),
cuvntul de decernare a menionat peste o
duzin de contribuii majore n psihologia
industrial-organizaional, printre care munca
lui n domeniul discuiei de grup fr lider, a
feedbackului ulterior evalurii, a ntririi
contingente, a educaiei manageriale
participative etc.
Cele mai marcante contribuii ale sale
sunt ns n domeniul leadershipului, de care
numele su este legat indisolubil. n acest
domeniu a dezvoltat noi modele teoretice, cel
mai celebru dintre toate fiind cel al
leadershipului transformaional.
Numeroi autori consider, n mod
eronat, c ntoarcerea la liderul carismatic, la
calitile sale, este iniiat de lucrarea
politologului J. Burns, Leadership (New York,
Harper and Row, 1978). n 1976, la unul din
primele simpozioane contemporane de
leadership, inut la Carbondale, Southern
Illinois University, ale crui lucrri au fost
publicate n 1977 (J.G.Hunt, L.L.Larson
Leadership. The cutting edge, Southern
Illinois University Press) R. J. House se refer
la A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership
(p.189-207) i propune operaionalizarea
conceptului.
ns operaionalizarea conceptului de
lider carismatic era n gestaie, unul din cei
care pregteau noul tip de abordare n
conducere fiind Bernard Bass. nc din 1960,
n Leadership, psychology and organizational
behavior, fr a folosi explicit termenul, Bass
se refer la liderul cu capaciti deosebite,
capabil s-i motiveze extraordinar adepii, s-i
mobilizeze n direcia unor scopuri majore,
realizabile pe termen lung.
Interesant este faptul c Bass citeaz
un autor romn, G. Popa, care n 1935 public
un studiu de circa 100 de pagini intitulat
Inteligena social i psihologia
conductorului (Cluj, Ed. Revistei Satul i
coala).
n mod special afirmaia lui Popa,
conform creia adevratul conductor, a crui
nrurire se resimte n mod efectiv, trebuie s
fie bine ancorat n realitile sociale, s se
adapteze n chip desvrit i s proiecteze,
peste capul societii, aspiraiile si idealurile de
mai bine (p. 55), a fost reinut de Bernard
Bass, iar peste ani, Avolio i Bass vor dezvolta
scalele Comportamente idealizate i
Motivaie inspiraional n chestionarul MLQ.
Figuri de psihologi

121
ntr-una din lucrrile sale
(Transformational leadership, 1977) Bass se
refer la impactul teoriei respective n mediile
industrial, militar i educaional, avnd marele
merit de a cobor liderul transformaional de
la nivelul macro la cel micro al organizrii
sociale. Aa cum se arta ntr-un studiu recent
(H. Pitariu, F. Sntion, Psihologia lupttorului,
2003): asistm la schimbarea paradigmei n
psihologia conducerii, inclusiv cea militar.
Liderul transformativ, carismatic, strategic
renun la aura sa mistic, ezoteric i
ptrunde n organizaii, fiind caracterizat de
aciuni i comportamente uor definibile (p.
14)
ncercrile de uniformizare/
universalizare a unui tip anume de conductor
fcnd abstracie de nivelul de conducere i de
caracteristicile organizaionale au avut n timp
consecine uneori dramatice. Astfel, specialitii
militari consider c teoriile contingente mai
mult au amgit dect au folosit n aceast
instituie. Pentru o organizaie care opereaz
cu valori netranzacionabile patriotismul,
spiritul altruist, datoria sunt necesare alte
raporturi lider-subaltern, o alt viziune asupra
conducerii. Or, tocmai aceast alternativ o
ofer Bass. n timp ce liderii tranzacionali
induc conformism n schimbul unor stimulente
concrete, liderii transformativi inspir adepii s
treac peste interesele personale n interesul
unei cauze comune, prin abilitile lor de a
induce mndrie i tenacitate, stimulare
intelectual, consideraie individualizat.
Munca lui Bernard Bass a fost
recunoscut de comunitatea tiinific printr-un
mare numr de premii, decernate de mai multe
organizaii profesionale. Cele mai importante
dintre acestea sunt Premiul pentru Contribuii
tiinifice (Distinguished Scientific
Contributions Award), primit din partea SIOP n
1994 i premiul pentru activitatea sa n
domeniul leadershipului (Eminent Leadership
Scholar Award), primit n 2006 din partea
Leadership Network of the Academy of
Management.
Putem aprecia c Bass, alturi de
precursorii citai, este autor de paradigm n
leadershipul contemporan i viitor. Moartea sa
este o pierdere i un moment trist pentru
domeniul psihologiei industrial-organizaionale.

Conf. dr. Drago Iliescu




122

122
Mr Lszl (2007). Logica (I)raionalitii:
Teoria jocurilor i psihologia deciziilor
umane. Cluj Napoca: Editura RTS (320
pagini).

Un eveniment editorial deosebit este
apariia crii doctorului Mr, de la
Universitatea Etvs Lornd din Budapesta,
care are ca tem central raionalitatea, sau,
mai bine spus i susinut pe larg de
argumentarea autorului pe tot cuprinsul crii,
iraionalitatea decidenilor umani. Este
meritoriu faptul c doctorul Mr, de formaie
academic matematician, a dezvoltat interes
pentru cogniia uman i a obinut pe baza
cercetrilor sale n acest domeniu un titlu de
Doctor n Psihologie din partea Universitii
Etvs Lornd din Budapesta.
Cartea doctorului Mr prezint teoria
jocurilor n decizie, o tem care preocup
matematicieni i specialiti n econometric,
ntr-o form accesibil i celor mai puin
instruii n formalismul matematic. Teoria
jocurilor este un subdomeniu al matematicii
aplicate care se folosete frecvent n tiinele
sociale. Principala sa contribuie se refer la
ncercarea de a prezice din formule
matematice comportamentul unei persoane n
situaii strategice, n care succesul unei alegeri
individuale depinde de alegerile altora. Cei
care au introdus teoria jocurilor sunt John von
Neumann i Oskar Morgenstern, n 1944. Ca
dovad a impactului major pe care l-a avut
aceast teorie, n special n economie,
menionm faptul c cel puin opt adepi ai
teoriei jocurilor au fost laureai ai Premiului
Nobel pentru economie. Dei teoria jocurilor
putea fi prezentat de autorul acestei cri ntr-
o form arid, care s pun n dificultate
numeroi cititori, doctorul Mr a reuit cu
mult miestrie s evite formulele i
raionamentele matematice complicate,
pstrnd, ns, perspectiva tiinific a acestei
lucrri. Aadar, avem n fa o carte despre
lucruri complicate, spuse ntr-un limbaj de
interfa.
Considerm c cel mai mare merit al
acestei cri se refer la abundena exemplelor
din viaa noastr cotidian, menite s ilustreze
situaii decizionale complexe. De pild, autorul
prezint o situaie decizional numit rzboiul
sexelor n care doi parteneri au preferine
diferite pentru petrecerea unui interval de timp,
prioritar fiind, totui, s petreac timpul
mpreun. n acest caz particular, autorul
surprinde modalitatea prin care teoria jocurilor
ar soluiona acest conflict, n cel mai
convenabil mod cu putin pentru ambii
parteneri. Un alt merit major al acestei cri
implic referirile la comportamentele speciilor
infraumane, care sunt n egal msur
raionale sau iraionale. Autorul aduce n
discuie animalele care apeleaz la pozare
pentru a soluiona eventuale conflicte legate de
teritoriu sau femele. Realitatea i concluzia
logic se suprapun:
Nu e recomandat s se pozeze mai
mult dect valoarea ctigului, acesta
ducnd n mod sigur la pierdere; dar
nu merit nici s pozm exact durata
corespunztoare valorii reale a
acestuia sau mai mult dect att. (pag
14)
Analogiile fcute ntre comportamentul
decizional uman i cel animal cresc validitatea
ecologic a datelor prezentate n cartea
doctorului Mr i pun decizia ntr-o
perspectiv evoluionist.
Autorul structureaz textul acestei cri
n trei pri principale. Prima parte prezint,
ntr-o manier plin de umor i cu exemple
inedite, inspirate din regnul animal, noiuni de
baz din teoria jocurilor (de exemplu: strategie
simpl sau mixt, joc cu sum zero, echilibru
Nash), precum i o serie de jocuri decizionale
care i pun pe decideni n situaii dificile.
Jocurile decizionale modeleaz situaii
decizionale care au soluii normative simple i
permit testarea unor predicii. Psihologia
economic, un domeniu multidisciplinar ce
presupune cunotine din psihologie i
economie i al crei promotor a fost Herbert
Simon, are ca metod principal de studiu
jocurile economice. Jocul cu care autorul
deschide cartea este licitaia dolarului:
n jocul lui Martin Shubik se liciteaz
un dolar. Preul de pornire este de un
cent. Cel care ofer un cent ctig
licitaia, dar asta doar n cazul n care
nu se gsete altcineva care s ofere
mai mult. Regulile jocului sunt identice
cu cele ale oricrei licitaii, cu o
singur excepie. Nu doar cel care a
ctigat licitaia trebuie s achite preul
licitat, ci i penultimul ofertantAbsurd
sau nu, oameni maturi, inteligeni, au
intrat n acest joc de bunvoie, pe
baza unei decizii contiente, fiind
dispui s plteasc pn i 3-4 dolari
pentru bancnota de un dolar. (pag 4)
De asemenea, interesul cititorului poate fi
provocat de dezvoltarea strategiei de
cooperare n dilema prizonierului, autorul
fcnd referiri la comportamentul plevutilor-
Recenzii i note bibliografice

123
ghimpoase, care seamn surprinztor de mult
cu cel al oamenilor sau programelor de
calculator. Astfel, simulnd o situaie de
explorare a unui duman posibil, o plevuc-
ghimpoas care se vede reflectat ntr-o
oglind execut, de cele mai multe ori,
micarea pe care partenerul din oglind a
executat-o anterior, comportamentul su fiind
comparabil cu cel al unui program de
calculator care este menit s dezvolte
cooperare sau cu cel al oamenilor care joac
dilema prizonierului n mai multe runde.
n a doua parte a crii, autorul se
oprete asupra implicaiilor teoriei jocurilor n
diferite domenii, cum ar fi psihologie,
economie, mecanic cuantic. n aceast
seciune, fr a face apel la formule
matematice, autorul reuete s prezinte
cititorilor baza matematic a teoriei jocurilor i
introduce cititorul n disputa de natur
evoluionist ntre teoria seleciei de grup, a lui
Vero Copner Wynne-Edwards i teoria genei
egoiste, propus de Richard Dawkins, n
dezvoltarea i meninerea cooperrii.
Ultima parte a crii este dedicat
exclusiv psihologiei, dup spusele autorului. n
aceast seciune doctorul Mr prezint,
printre altele, tehnicile de meditaie ca surs de
raionalitate n decizie pentru c:
amelioreaz funcionarea fireasc a
forelor luntrice, ale psihicului nostru
i ne servesc, pur i simplu, rspunsul
care s uureze decizia noastr. (pag
237)
Autorul i propune s modeleze sub
forma unui eseu un discurs tiinific care se
leag de un domeniu multidisciplinar marcat de
formalism. Considerm c autorul reuete
acest lucru, pentru c textul este uor de
urmrit i captivant. Noiunile de specialitate
din diferite domenii sunt introduse treptat i
definite n aa fel nct, indiferent de pregtirea
teoretic a cititorului, textul s poat fi parcurs
fr dificultate i s nu necesite o baz de
cunotine anterioar. De prea multe ori citim
cri pentru care trebuie s ne ntindem zeci de
dicionare pe mas. Nu este cazul acestei
cri! Traducerea este meritorie pentru c
pstreaz calitatea metaforelor i analogiilor.
n concluzie, infuzia de elemente din
economie, psihologie, evoluionism i
mecanic cuantic face din aceast carte o
surs preioas de informaie n aceste
domenii. Aceast carte are puterea de a-i
fascina pe toi cei care sunt interesai de
aportul matematicii la condiia uman. n plus,
sperm c aceast carte va atrage atenia i
celor care ar fi interesai de dezvoltarea
psihologiei economice n ara noastr i va
deschide oportuniti de colaborare
internaional i interdisciplinar n vederea
studierii deciziei.

Drd. Renata M. Heilman

Filaret Sntion (2007). Introducere n
psihologia social. Constana: Editura
Ovidius University Press (436 pag.)

Psihologia social reprezint un
important domeniu de interes al cercetrii
actuale si o modalitate tiinific de abordare a
varietii evenimentelor care se produc la nivel
social. Se impune ns necesitatea, ndeosebi
n literatura tiinific din Romnia, ca aceste
fenomene sociale s fie tratate n detaliu de
ctre experii n domeniu, astfel nct natura
complex a realitii sociale s poat fi
surprins i analizat n toate aspectele sale.
Manualul Introducere n psihologia social de
conf. dr. Filaret Sntion i propune s
abordeze n detaliu o serie de tematici
specifice nivelului intraindividual de analiz al
psihologiei sociale.
Ca structur, manualul este alctuit din
ase capitole care trateaz problematici
diverse, dar n acelai timp relaionate din
perspectiva nivelului de analiz menionat mai
sus. Astfel, primul capitol este alocat definirii
domeniului mai larg al psihologiei sociale,
enunrii relaiilor care exist ntre aceasta i
alte discipline precum i enumerrii i descrierii
celor mai importante perspective teoretice din
acest sector al cercetrii psihologice. Urmeaz
un scurt istoric care are rolul de a oferi
informaii n privina procesului de apariie i
formare a acestei discipline i de a evidenia
cercetrile din domeniu care au impulsionat
progresul ei. Nu n ultimul rnd, n acest
capitol, autorul prezint o difereniere a
nivelelor de analiz n psihologia social.
Cel de-al doilea capitol abordeaz
tematica percepiei interpersonale i
debuteaz prin separarea cunoaterii tiinifice
de cunoaterea empiric. Particularitile
specifice cunoaterii din domeniul psihologiei
personalitii i conceptul percepiei
interpersonale sunt tratate pe larg pentru
stabilirea unei baze de informaii creia s i
poat fi asimilate informaiile oferite ulterior.
Tot aici sunt prezentate pe larg acele variabile
i dimensiuni de la nivel individual care

124
influeneaz percepia interpersonal precum
i modul n care se structureaz efectiv
imaginea pe care o avem despre o alt
persoan cu specificarea procedeelor prin care
noi obinem informaii despre ceilali, a
tendinelor specific umane n percepia celuilalt
i a surselor de influen relevante n acest
sens. Factorilor de influen deja menionai, le
sunt adugate n cadrul urmtorului subcapitol
erorile care afecteaz modul n care noi i
percepem pe ceilali.
n capitolul al treilea, autorul prezint
conceptul de atribuire alturi de teoriile
relevante legate de acesta. Sunt menionate
acele variabile psihoindividuale i psihosociale
aflate n strns relaie cu procesul de
atribuire. Prezentarea conceptului este
continuat prin enumerarea erorilor care apar
n procesul de atribuire, teoria canalizndu-se
pe dou direcii principale n funcie de obiectul
atribuirii: sinele (autoatribuirea) i ceilali
(heteroatribuirea). O tem important
abordat n cadrul acestui capitol se refer la
consecinele pe care atribuirea le are n planul
comportamentului interpersonal. De
asemenea, autorul prezint n acest capitol o
serie de teorii legate de conceptul de
autoatribuire detaliind printre altele problema
autoatribuirii succesului i eecului, a modului
n care este atribuit performana n funcie de
gen, autoatribuirea efectului i sentimentul
controlului etc.
Autoprezentarea constituie un alt
aspect important pentru nivelul intraindividual
al psihologiei sociale. n acest capitol, cititorii
au ocazia s afle mai mult despre semnificaia
acestui termen, despre strategiile utilizate de
oameni pentru a face o bun impresie legat
de propria persoan, despre stilurile diferite de
autoprezentare abordate de fiecare dintre noi.
Alte aspecte relaionate cu tema capitolului
sunt legate de semnificaia ideii de identitate
dezirabil, diferenierea ntre managementul
impresiei ca i comportament calculat (atunci
cnd performana este important pentru
autor) i managementul impresiei ca i
comportament automat (realizat fr controlul
cognitiv al individului).
n capitolul Stima de sine autorul
prezint ntr-o parte introductiv conceptul de
sine, modul n care sinele se dezvolt i
dimensiunile sale. n cele ce urmeaz, sunt
stabilite unele delimitri conceptuale privitoare
la stima de sine, cititorul are ocazia s afle mai
multe despre teoriile care ncearc s ofere o
explicaie n privina conceptului stimei de sine
i a modului n care apare i se dezvolt
aceasta. Un alt aspect important la acest nivel
este reprezentat de sursele evalurii de sine i
de manifestrile comportamentale specifice
pentru un nivel ridicat, respectiv pentru un nivel
sczut al stimei de sine mpreun cu
avantajele i dezavantajele asociate cu nivele
diferite ale acesteia. n final, autorul prezint
unele argumente tiinifice legate de
modalitile cele mai eficiente de meninere a
unui nivel ridicat al stimei de sine.
Ultima tem luat n discuie n cadrul
acestui manual este problematica locului
controlului, fiind oferit definiia acestei noiuni
precum i relaiile ntre locul controlului i
diverse variabile (munca, starea de sntate,
sport, educaie etc.).
Introducere n psihologia social
ofer cititorului o imagine clar i detaliat
despre ceea ce reprezint psihologia social i
despre conceptele cele mai semnificative
pentru nivelul intraindividual de analiz al
acestui domeniu. Toate aspectele teoretice
abordate, sunt analizate ntr-un mod complet,
cuprinztor. Astfel, pe lng definirea i
delimitarea conceptual a principalelor noiuni
luate n discuie, autorul trateaz ntr-un mod
elaborat o gam larg de teme i informaii
conexe noiunilor generale specifice nivelului
de analiz intraindividual al psihologiei sociale
(diferitele teorii, tipologii, dimensiuni). Din acest
punct de vedere, manualul respect
angajamentul iniial, de a oferi o introducere
detaliat n acest vast i complex domeniu al
psihologiei. Pentru cei angajai n studierea
fenomenelor de psihologie social, acest
manual ofer posibilitatea stabilirii unor noi
conexiuni ntre concepte, reprezentnd o surs
de inspiraie i n acelai timp un fundament
teoretic pentru viitoare cercetri tiinifice
adecvate nivelului avansat la care se situeaz
cunoaterea actual a diverselor fenomene i
procese sociale. Temele abordate sunt
interesante i de mare actualitate, accentul
fiind setat pe modul n care oamenii se percep
pe sine i pe ceilali, modul n care ei doresc i
ncearc s fie percepui de ctre ceilali,
modul n care ei se autoapreciaz i cauzele
pe care ei la atribuie comportamentului propriu.
Toate aceste concepte sunt puternic
interrelaionate. Astfel, putem observa dou
direcii majore n tratarea nivelului de analiz
intraindividual: percepia de sine i percepia
celorlali. Capitolele referitoare la stima de
sine, locul controlului i autoprezentare sunt
strns relaionate problematica percepiei
sinelui, aceasta din urm putnd fi considerat
a fi un concept global care le cuprinde i pe

125
cele enumerate anterior. Atribuirea, ca i
noiune, este relaionat att cu modul n care
individul se autopercepe, ct i cu modul n
care el i percepe pe ceilali. Prin aceast
structur, lucrarea de fa ofer posibilitatea
unei cunoateri de nivel superior a proceselor
sociale asociate nivelului intraindividual de
analiz n psihologia social. Utilitatea acestui
manual introductiv pentru cercetarea i
cunoaterea actual n domeniu nu poate fi
pus sub semnul ntrebrii. Este necesar ns
o completare a acestui demers cu elaborarea
unor lucrri similare care s abordeze ntr-o
msur exhaustiv celelalte nivele de analiz
din domeniul psihologiei sociale.

Ioana Vasiu

Eugen Avram (coordonator) (2007).
Psihologie organizaional-managerial
perspective aplicative. Bucureti: Editura
Universitar (432 pagini).

n zilele noastre, activitatea de
management a unei organizaii ocup un loc
tot mai important n agenda cercettorilor,
dovad fiind publicarea a tot mai multe lucrri
pe aceast tem i conturarea unei noi ramuri
a psihologiei, i anume psihologia
organizaional-managerial. Contribuii
importante, mai ales din perspectiva aplicativ,
la dezvoltarea acestei noi tiine sunt aduse de
volumul coordonat de Eugen Avram, volum ce
reunete o serie de studii i lucrri realizate de
cadre didactice universitare, cercettori
tiinifici, practicieni i specialiti aflai n stagii
de pregtire n instituii de renume din Europa
i SUA. mbinnd aspectele teoretice cu cele
metodologice, n cele 432 de pagini ale cri
sunt abordate diverse problematici, cum ar fi
angajamentul organizaional, climatul
organizaional, tcerea organizaional,
satisfacia muncii, relaia angajat-angajator,
reciprocitate social, conflicte interpersonale,
echipe virtuale, emoii la locul de munc, stres
organizaional, burnout, decizie, diagnoz
organizaional, managementul carierei,
dezvoltarea organizaional, precum i
managementul calitii totale.
Cartea este structurat n trei seciuni
majore, prima dintre ele reunind 13 capitole.
Fiecare capitol reprezint cte un studiu
efectuat n organizaii din domeniul sntii,
afacerilor, industriei administraiei aprrii i
educaiei.
Utiliznd analiza documentelor,
conversaia, observaia, ancheta pe baza de
chestionar, autorul, Eugen Avram, contureaz
direciile dezvoltrii managementului n
departamentele de neurochirurgie din ara
noastr, insistnd pe distincia ntre
dezvoltarea organizaional i dezvoltarea
managementului. Realizat n Frana, studiul lui
Liliane Rioux, evideniaz dou mari categorii
de predictori ai angajamentului organizaional
n cazul persoanelor care i desfoar
activitatea ntr-o organizaie din domeniul
sntii. Gelul Moraru abordeaz tema
riscurilor implicite n relaia angajat-angajator,
discutnd despre perspectivele teoretice
explicative ale acestei relaii, respectiv despre
dinamica relaiilor de ncredere dintre angajat
i angajator. Pornind de la o excelent sintez
a definiiilor, concepiilor fundamentale privind
conceptul de calitate, precum i a cercetrilor
n acest domeniu, Ruxandra Alexandru a
investigat relaia dintre stilul de management i
orientarea managementului spre clieni i
nevoile angajailor. Pe baza rezultatelor
acestui studiu, au fost realizate o serie de
sugestii privind managementul calitii totale n
domeniul bancar. Dup prezentarea unui scurt
istoric al evoluiei studiilor despre climatul
organizaional, al definiiilor i caracteristicilor
acestuia, autoarea, Ioana Nicolau, insist pe
distinciile ntre climatul organizaional i alte
concepte, cum sunt: cultura organizaional,
satisfacia n munc i stilul de conducere.
Sunt trecute n revist i principale direcii de
studiu privind formarea climatului
organizaional, dimensiunile i efectele
acestuia, precum i aspecte ale muncii sub
presiune. Bazndu-se pe astfel de aspecte
teoretice, scopul principal al studiului a fost
acela de a evidenia modul n care percepiile
climatul organizaional i fiecare dintre
dimensiunile sale se modific n condiiile de
presiune a timpului. Rezultatele studiului sunt
discutate extensiv din perspectiva teoriilor i
rezultatelor cercetrilor existente n literatura
de specialitate. Rzvan Stan evideniaz, n
capitolul ase, consecinele socio-psihologice
izbitoare ale procesului dezindustrializrii post-
comuniste, prezentnd cazul regiunii miniere
din Valea Jiului. Studiind relaia dintre
activitile de management i tcerea
organizaional, autoarea, Cristina Mihil,
ofer o imagine destul de clar a ceea ce
nseamn tcerea organizaional, direciilor
de studiu, factorilor care explic tcerea
organizaional i a consecinelor acesteia
asupra procesului organizaional de luare a

126
deciziilor, proceselor de schimbare, cogniiilor,
atitudinilor i comportamentelor angajailor.
Angajamentul organizaional n instituiile de
stat i private este abordat n capitolul opt.
Paginile urmtorului capitol ilustreaz un
model al procesrii informaiilor sociale
complexe mass-media i a modalitilor de
reprezentare a cunotinelor, oferind i o
perspectiv privind modalitatea n care
modelele culturale sunt asimilate de indivizi
sau grupuri i impactul lor asupra
reprezentrilor formate ulterior. Autoarea,
Ioana David, prezint pe larg, n seciunea
Consideraii finale, implicaiile teoretice i
practice ale abordrii unei astfel de teme. Alte
aspecte abordate n prima parte a crii sunt
reprezentate de satisfacia muncii n relaie cu
personalitatea militarilor activi din cadrul
Jandarmeriei Romne, iritarea la locul de
munc i burnout-ul n cazul profesorilor.
Ultimele dou capitole ale primei prii a crii
se refer la managementul carierei, abordnd
incertitudinea fa de viitorul profesional n
cazul studenilor din anul nti, ca un factor de
stres (capitolul 12) i motivaia opiunii pentru
cariera de psiholog (capitolul 13).
Urmtoarele trei capitole alctuiesc
partea a doua a crii referitoare la noi metode
i tehnici de cercetare organizaional. Primul
dintre ele prezint o nou metodologie de
studiere a reciprocitii sociale n organizaii. O
alt metod cu aplicaii organizaionale este
prezentat de ctre Conel M. Mincu care
consider c noul instrument, Testul
Configuraiei Tematice, depete dificultile
ntmpinate de teoria i practica tehnicilor
proiective. Autorii bulgari, Borislav Slachov i
Stanislava Stoyanova propun un instrument de
evaluare a tipurilor motivaionale de carier,
avnd la baz cele 8 tipuri motivaionale
identificare de B. Moses (2003).
Noile concepte i teorii moderne
aprute n domeniul psihologiei manageriale
sunt ilustrate n cea de-a treia parte a lucrrii.
Daniela Boone i Eugen Avram pun problema
emoiilor la locul de munc, prezentnd
aspecte ale revoluiei emoionale, cadrele
fundamentale, provocri i controverse n
abordarea emoiilor la locul de munc, precum
i o serie de implicaii ale emoiilor n practica
organizaional.
De un mare interes pentru practica n
domeniul managementului este i abordarea
unei teme precum echipele n organizaiile
virtuale. Autoarea lucrrii, Irina Cozma,
prezint sintetic delimitrile conceptuale ale
organizaiilor virtuale, evideniaz clar
diferenele existente ntre comunicarea
mediat de computer i comunicarea fa n
fa. Prezentarea continu cu reliefarea
caracteristicilor echipelor virtuale, aspectelor
legate de formarea ncrederii i modelelor
mentale n cadrul acestor echipe i modaliti
de optimizare a lor.
Nelipsit din orice lucrare de
management i considerat nc subiect tabu
pentru societate, conflictul organizaional este
abordat i n aceast carte sub aspectul
surselor de conflict i a consecinelor care le
produce. n finalul studiului, autorul, Marius
Milcu, evideniaz o serie de efecte cu caracter
constructiv ale conflictelor interpersonale la
nivelul individului, grupului de munc i
organizaiei n ansamblu.
n capitolul 20, Puiu M. Mihai propune
o nou viziune n teoria i practica
organizaional numit smart management,
prezentnd detaliat cadrul i necesitatea
apariiei unui astfel de viziuni asupra
managementului, principiile de baz i
specificul acestui nou sistem de management.
Totodat, se discut, pe larg, despre smart
psychology n calitate de ax sau element de
sprijin al managementului de tip smart. Sunt
dezbtute statutul epistemologic i practic,
precum i viitorul unui astfel de management
ntr-o societate n rapid schimbare.
Stresul organizaional a fost mult timp
n atenia cercettorilor, dovad fiind
multitudinea de teorii i modele elaborate,
prezentate pe scurt i de Annemari Moise, cea
care a propus i dezbtut pe larg modelul
tablei de ah al stresului organizaional.
Contribuia acestui nou model const n faptul
c surprinde aspectul dinamic al stresului
organizaional, aspect neglijat de celelalte
teorii i modele propuse pn n prezent. Dar
cu toate acestea modelul tablei de ah prezint
o serie de limite.
Ultimul capitol al crii prezint unele
aplicaii ale psihologiei conduitelor
elective/decizionale n organizaii. Autorul, Vlad
P. Gveanu ofer un fundament psihologic al
alegerilor fcute de oameni dintr-o perspectiv
structural, funcional i genetic. ntreaga
lucrare militeaz pentru stabilirea psihologiei
lurii de decizii ca ramur distinct a
psihologiei i relaioneaz alegerile cu
activitile umane prin evidenierea
multicauzalitii lor, a mecanismelor i
finalitilor specifice i prin analiza formelor lor
de o complexitate crescut. Sunt prezentate i
alte aspecte precum definiia, caracteristicile i

127
clasificarea alegerilor, propunndu-se un nou
model al lurii deciziilor.
Cartea nu cuprinde o seciune de
concluzii generale care s integreze
contribuiile studiilor incluse n ceea ce privete
dezvoltarea psihologiei manageriale,
rmnndu-i cititorului posibilitatea de a
extrage aceste concluzii. Trecnd peste acest
aspect, lucrarea i propune oferirea a noi
oportuniti de dezvoltare pentru specialitii din
domeniul managementului, oferind modele
explicative practicienilor pui n faa unor
probleme la care doresc a gsi explicaii,
interpretri i remedii. n ce msur reuete
acest lucru, v invitm s apreciai ....

Claudia Rus

Mihaela Stoica (2007). Elemente de
psihologie managerial. Cluj-Napoca:
Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca (267 pag.)

Supravieuirea sau dezvoltarea unei
organizaii n jungla competitiv a pieei i are
originile n crearea i implementarea unui
sistem de management adecvat care s-i
permit obinerea unor performane
superioare. Managementul sau conducerea a
fost prezent nc din cele mai vechi timpuri
ale omenirii, existnd n orice moment al
istoriei condui i conductori. Termenul de
management i are originile n latinescul
manum agere care nseamn a conduce cu
mna. n literatura de specialitate pot fi
identificate mii de lucrri care abordeaz
conceptul de management. Una dintre aceste
lucrri este cartea doamnei Mihaela Stoica, ce
prezint elementele fundamentale ale unei noi
tiine care abordeaz o anumit metodologie
modern de conducere care se numete
management. Noua tiin aprut, psihologia
managerial, are un caracter preponderent
aplicativ.
Structurat n apte capitole, lucrarea
abordeaz ntr-o manier clar i concis
aspecte variate ale procesului managerial i
ale persoanei managerului, mbinnd
aspectele teoretice cu rezultatele unor
cercetri din literatura de specialitate. n cele
267 de pagini sunt dezbtute teme precum
personalitatea managerului, conducerea
organizaional, motivarea angajailor,
construirea echipei, stresul managerial, cultura
i schimbarea organizaional. Cu toate c
aceste teme au fost prezentate i n alte
lucrri, cartea de fa de remarc prin
caracterul structurat al informaiilor prezentate.
Domeniul managementului este vast i nu
poate fi prezentat pe larg n cteva pagini. n
acest context, lucrarea de fa i propune
prezentarea unor elemente de psihologie
managerial.
Pornind de la descrierea unui scurt
cadru istoric al fenomenului conducerii, n
primul capitol, autoarea definete conceptul de
psihologie managerial i prezint obiectul de
studiu al noii ramuri a psihologiei. Pentru a
oferi o imagine mai clar a ceea ce nseamn
psihologia managerial, se prezint legtura
cu alte tiine din domeniul psihologiei,
politologiei i economiei i se clarific
conceptual noiunea de consultan
organizaional managerial. Nu se poate
discuta de psihologia managerial fr a face
referire la persoana managerului.
Personalitatea acestuia este dezbtut
pe larg n cel de-al doilea capitol al lucrrii.
Paginile acestui capitol schieaz profilul
psihologic i trsturile de personalitate ale
managerului eficient pe baza teoriei i a
cercetrilor existente n literatura de
specialitate. Sunt trecute n revist i tipurile de
personalitate ale managerilor, studiate din
perspectiva tipului psihologic dezvoltat de Carl
Jung. Datorit particularitilor funciei de
conducere, selecia managerilor este una
diferit de cea pentru alte posturi, implicnd
metode diferite. Lucrarea de fa aduce un
aport important n ceea ce privete aceast
tem, prezentnd pe scurt metodele folosite n
selecia persoanelor n poziii de management
i oferind, la finalul capitolul, nite exemple de
instrumente de evaluare a aspectelor despre
care s-a discutat pe parcursul capitolului.
Managementul unei organizaii
nseamn implicit conducerea ei. Acest
fenomen este surprins de autoare n cel de-al
treilea capitol al lucrrii. Demersul de abordare
al conducerii organizaionale pornete de la
definirea unor noiuni precum conducere, tip de
manager, stil de managerial i se continu cu
enumerarea i descrierea sarcinilor i rolului
conductorului, a stilurilor de conducere. Acest
capitol are anexat la sfritul su trei
instrumente de evaluare a stilurilor de
conducere, unele dintre ele fiind consacrate n
literatura de specialitate.
Managementul unei organizaii implic
managementul resurselor, inclusiv a celor mai
preioase dintre ele, resursele umane. Unul
dintre aspectele resurselor umane l reprezint
motivarea acestora, aspect abordat n cel de-al
patrulea capitol al lucrrii. Iniial este definit

128
noiunea de motivare, autoarea sugernd
faptul c pentru a realiza o motivare
performant este important s se cunoasc
formele motivrii personale. Pe lng acestea
sunt prezentate comparativ i o serie de teorii,
precum i modaliti concrete de motivarea
profesional la care s poat s fac apel un
manager dintr-o organizaie. Aspectele
teoretice descrise pe parcursul capitolului sunt
ilustrate cu diverse studii de caz realizate de
studentele autoarei.
Dup o prezentare a ceea ce
nseamn construirea echipei de munc (team
building), spre deosebire de alte lucrri de
management, cartea de fa prezint pe larg
metodele prin care poate fi construit echipa
de munc, prezentndu-se detaliat coninutul
lor i scopurile pentru care se realizeaz.
Un alt aspect al psihologiei
manageriale adus n discuie este cel
reprezentat de stresul ocupaional. Sunt
prezentate foarte structurat informaii privind
definirea, teoriile, cauzele i consecinele
stresului managerial. Un atu al acestui capitol,
la fel ca n cazul formrii echipei de munc,
este oferirea unor metode practice de
intervenie n stresul managerial.
Aceeai structurare a cunotinelor
poate fi regsit i n capitolul dedicat culturii i
schimbrii organizaionale. n acest capitol se
prezint aspecte legate de apariia i definirea
conceptului de cultur organizaional,
elementelor i tipurilor acesteia. Este ilustrat
clar relaia dintre cultura i schimbarea
organizaional care poate avea mai multe
forme. La fel ca n alte lucrri care abordeaz
cultura organizaional, autoarea discut
despre rezistena la schimbare i etapele care
se parcurg ntr-un proces de schimbare
organizaional. Cunotinele exprimate de
autoare privind cultura organizaional sunt
completate de cele ale studenilor si,
referitoare la managementul schimbrii i
importana culturii organizaionale.
Autoarea consider c aceast carte
se adreseaz n primul rnd studenilor ei la
Psihologie, ca viitori manageri resurse umane
i managerilor de organizaii n sperana de a
le fi de ajutor n rezolvarea problemelor
organizaionale pe care le ntlnesc n munca
lor i pentru a le asigura succes organizaiei
conduse. Meritele unei astfel de lucrri pot fi
evaluate numai prin ncercarea de a citi pagin
cu pagin informaiile transmise de autoare.

Claudia Rus

Brand Research

129

CONFERINA NAIONAL DE PSIHOLOGIE INDUSTRIAL I ORGANIZAIONAL

Ediia a VIII-a
10-13 Aprilie 2008, Cluj Napoca

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional (APIO), n colaborare cu Facultatea de Psihologie i
tiine ale Educaiei, Catedra de Psihologie, organizeaz n perioada 10 -13 aprilie 2008, la Cluj Napoca,
Ediia a VIII-a a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional.

Seciunile conferinei sunt urmtoarele:
Managementul Resurselor Umane
Cultur, Schimbare i Dezvoltare Organizaional
Ergonomie Cognitiv
Psihologie Militar
Psihologia Reclamei i Consumatorului
Emoii n Organizaii

n afara acestor sesiuni de lucrri, conferina va include o zi de prelegeri susinute de nume mari n
psihologia internaional.

O parte dintre invitaii notri sunt:
Ivan Robertson, Leeds University Business School & Manchester Business School, UK
Rmi Kouabenan, Universit Pierre Mends, Grenoble, France
Thomas Oakland, University of Florida

Acetia vor susine prelegeri pe teme precum stresul ocupaional i implicaiile acestuia asupra
performanelor profesionale, analiza riscurilor i accidentelor ocupaionale, ergonomie cognitiv i utilizarea
testelor psihologice.

Conferina va include i o seciune de workshopuri, cu durat de 4-8 ore la care avei posibilitatea de a v
nscrie n limita locurilor disponibile. Tematica workshopurilor este anunat pe site-ul APIO, www.apio.ro,
pe care v invitm s-l accesai pentru a obine mai multe detalii despre conferin i alte evenimente
organizate de asociaia noastr.

Participarea la conferin precum i la workshopurile din cadrul acesteia este creditat de ctre Colegiul
Psihologilor din Romnia.

V ateptm cu drag!

130

CURSURI DE FORMARE PROFESIONAL

APIO anun lansarea programului de formare a psihologilor cu drept de liber practic. Programul este
avizat de ctre Colegiul Psihologilor din Romnia i cuprinde urmtoarele cursuri:
Recrutarea, Selecia i Inseria Noilor Angajai
Managementul i Evaluarea Performanelor Profesionale
Diagnoza Organizaional
Managementul Schimbrii Organizaionale
Stresul ocupaional. Tehnici de diagnoz i intervenie

Informaii generale despre cursuri:
Creditare: 10 credite recunoscute de ctre Colegiul Psihologilor din Romnia
Locuri disponibile: 30 de locuri
Beneficiari: Psihologi care activeaz n domeniul Psihologiei Industrial-Organizaionale
Durata: 20 de ore
Locaia: Cluj-Napoca
Cost: 60 euro/persoan
Primul dintre aceste cursuri a fost deja lansat n noiembrie 2007. Urmeaz ca n lunile viitoare s fie lansate
i celelalte cursuri de formare. Pentru mai multe informaii cu privire la desfurarea acestora v invitm s
accesai site-ul APIO, www.apio.ro.

131
Condiii de publicare a articolelor:

Revista Psihologia Resurselor Umane public articole
n limba romn, englez i francez. Lucrrile
tiinifice trimise spre publicare trebuie s ndeplineasc
urmtoarele condiii:

1. Manuscrisele trebuie pregtite n conformitate cu
standardele de publicare din Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association, ed.4.

2. Manuscrisele trebuie s fie elaborate ntr-un stil
clar.

3. Lucrrile vor fi trimise redactorului ef n dou
exemplare: un exemplar listat pe foaie A4, la un 1
rnd, cu caractere Times New Roman, 12,
respectndu-se urmtoarele margini: sus-3cm.,
jos-2.5cm., la stnga-2.5cm., la dreapta-2.5cm. i
un alt exemplar pe un CD (atenie documentele
trebuie s fie format WORD). Pe eticheta CD-ului
vor fi trecute: numele i prenumele autorului,
numele articolului i o adres de e-mail unde poate
fi contactat autorul. Lucrrile pot fi trimise i pe
adresa de e-mail: office@apio.ro.

4. Lungimea studiilor teoretice, experimentale, ale
cercetrilor aplicative i metaanalizelor poate fi de
maximum 25 pagini, scrise la un 1 rnd, inclusiv
tabelele, graficele i referinele bibliografice.
Comentariile i interviurile nu pot depi 10 pagini.
Pentru recenzii lungimea maxim este de 3-4
pagini. Lungimea articolelor din seciunea MRU n
practic nu poate depi 10 pagini scrise la un 1
rnd.

5. Referinele bibliografice din interiorul textului se vor
face prin indicarea autorului citat i a anului de
publicaie a sursei citate. Exemplu: Roca, 1963;
Cureu & Bu, 2002. Bibliografia de la finalul
articolului va avea urmtorul format:

Pentru articol publicat ntr-o revist:

Armenakis, A.A., & Bedeian A.G. (1992).
The role of metaphors in organizational
change. Group and Organizational

Pentru carte:

Katzenbach, J.R., & Smith, A. (1993). The
Wisdom of Teams. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.

Pentru capitol sau studiu din cadrul unei cri:

Harrison, R. (1974). Role negotiation: a
tough-minded approach to team
development. In P.J. Berger (Ed.), Group
Training Techniques. Essex: Gower
Press.

Conditions requises pour publier les articles

La revue Psychologie des Ressources Humaines
publie des articles originaux en anglais, franais et en
roumain. Les travaux scientifiques soumis doivent
remplir les conditions suivantes:

1. Les manuscrits doivent tre conformes aux
standards de publication quon trouve dans Le
manuel de publication de lAPA, dition numro 4.

2. Les manuscrits doivent tre labors dune
manire claire.

3. Les travaux scientifiques seront envoys au
rdacteur en chef de la revue en deux
exemplaires: un exemplaire en format A4,
interligne 1, caractres Times New Roman, 12, les
bordures: de haut 3 cm, du bas - 2,5 cm, du
gauche 2,5 cm, du droit 2,5 cm, et un autre
exemplaire sur CD (faire attention: les documents
doit tre en format WORD). Sur ltiquette de CD
seront enregistrs: le nom et le prnom de lauteur,
le nom de larticle et ladresse e-mail de lauteur.
Les travaux scientifiques seront aussi envoys par
e-mail: office@apio.ro

4. La longueur des tudes thoriques,
exprimentales, dinvestigations appliques et des
mta-analyses sera de 25 pages maxim, crites
avec un interligne de 1, y compris les tableaux, les
figures et les rfrences bibliographiques. Les
commentaires et les interviews ne seront pas plus
longs que de 10 pages. Pour les critiques, la
longueur sera de 3-4 pages. La longueur des
articles prnant des MRU en practique ne peut
pas excder 10 pages.

5. Les rfrences bibliographiques doivent indiquer
lauteur cit et lanne de la rfrence. La
bibliographie doit respecter le format suivant:

Pour un article publi dans une revue:

Armenakis, A.A., & Bedeian A.G. (1992).
The role of metaphors in organizational
change. Group and Organizational

Pour un livre:

Katzenbach, J.R., & Smith, A. (1993). The
Wisdom of Teams. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.

Pour un chapitre ou une tude cite dun livre:

Harrison, R. (1974). Role negotiation: a
tough-minded approach to team
development. In P.J. Berger (Ed.), Group
Training Techniques. Essex: Gower
Press.

Article publishing requirements

Psihologia Resurselor Umane is written according to the American Psychological Standards set for articles. The
following conditions are a must in order that an article be published:

1. Manuscripts should follow the publication standards existing in the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, fourth ed.

2. All manuscripts should be clear and readable

3. Articles must be sent to the newspaper office in two copies: one of the copy must be printed on A4
format, 1 line spaced, in Times New Roman characters, font no. 12 and the paper format must have the
following dimensions: top: 3cm; bottom: 2.5cm; left: 2.5 cm and right: 2.5cm. The other copy must be
sent on a floppy-disk (Word format). On the floppy-disk label it must be specified the authors name, the
title of the article and an email address where the author can be contacted. The papers can be sent by
email to the following address: office@apio.ro

4. Theoretical and experimental papers, applied research and metaanalysis should be of maximum 25
pages, 1 line spaced (including tables, graphics and biographical references). Comments and interviews
cannot exceed 10 pages. Books reviews must not exceed 3-4 pages. Articles for the Human Resources
Management in Practice must not be longer than 10 pages, at 1 line spaced.

5. Biographical references in the text must be noted as following:

For an article published in a magazine:
Armenakis, A.A., & Bedeian A.G. (1992). The role of metaphors in organizational change.
Group and Organizational Management, 17, 242-248.

For a book:
Katzenbach, J.R. & Smith, A. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

For a chapter or study included in a book:
Harrison, R. (1974). Role negotiation: a tough-minded approach to team development. In P.J.
Berger (Ed.), Group Training Techniques. Essex: Gower Press.

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