Justin Yaquinto

Frinq Life Unlimitied

Synthetic Biology and Geoenineering: implications for climate change,
human life and big business
ddressing the topics that pro!o"e critical inquiry about the limits of life is a
fundamentally challenging tas"# $he discussions that ha!e arisen in this class o!er the past fe%
months %ere often re%arding, although sometimes fraught %ith frustration, e!en occasionally
ending in gra!e pessimism# &t is %ith these discussions that & %as gi!en the opportunity to
ree'amine and e!en challenge my !ie%s in regard to ho% humanity can operate safely on the
(arth# &t has pro!o"ed critical inquiry on my part, and has led me to all of the information
contained in this reflecti!e essay# &n some of the short articles %e e'amined, and the boo": Earth
Masters, by )li!e *amilton+ %e addressed Geoengineering and sustainability on the planet# ,e
also unpac"ed the concept of creating a safe operating space on the planet for humanity, and ho%
that might be achie!ed -./# )urrently occurring %ithin the burgeoning field of Geoengineering are
early attempts by man to control a %arming climate -0/# Li"e%ise, %ithin the field of synthetic
biology, idealists stri!e to achie!e mastery of the basic mechanisms of cellular life# ,ithin this
reflecti!e essay, & %ill e'plore some of the more ad!enturous e'amples in each of these fields
through the lens of potential benefits or deleterious effects on the concept of a safe operating
space# & %ill also reflect on ho% & ha!e changed my perception %hen it comes to dealing %ith
these big issues# &n doing so & hope to further e'amine ho% %e continue to e'ist on our home, the
(arth# By dra%ing some clear distinctions, and then highlighting the closing gaps bet%een them, &
%ill address and propagate ne% questions of the limits of life being challenged by these ne%
fields+ and also %hat could be in store for future generations#
First, let1s briefly loo" at a fe% of the up2scaling issues surrounding global climate
change# $here is a gro%ing number of !enture capitalists and corporations %ho are ban"ing on
man made algae blooms, and their subsequent carbon sequestration as economically !iable, and
fiscally lucrati!e business prospects -3/# &n a 0445 article, Sourish Basu elaborates on a
corporation called 6lan"tos# ccording to the article, 6lan"tos1 business model focuses on
increasing iron in the ocean %ith seeding techniques to return phytoplan"ton le!els to an amount
that is 78 greater than it is today# 6lan"tos claims that this is the amount of phytoplan"ton that
e'isted decades ago and due to shifting conditions, iron le!els are actually .98 lo%er than they
ha!e been historically# ,hether oceanic iron le!els really are lo% enough to inhibit ):02
scrubbing plan"ton blooms is unclear# &ncreased ocean acidification data appears to contradict
this claim, casting doubt on 6lan"tos1 moti!ation for iron2seeding the ocean: 6erhaps they are
only in it for profit# $here are also a fe% people in the U#S# Geologic Sur!ey, ;USGS< %ho !ie%
carbon sequestration as our only option in the face of global climate change and increased carbon
dio'ide emissions -=/# By addressing the alarming issue of rising carbon le!els, %hich might
ha!e led to myriad planetary problems including increased forest fires, sea le!el rise, increased
droughts, and other catastrophes, the USGS dra%s some distinctions for further action# $he USGS
claims that action needs to be ta"en now, or these e!ents %ill become more intense, and li"ely
increase in frequency unless stability of atmospheric carbon is achie!ed# *o%e!er, they do not
address ris" assessment or en!ironmental cost if %idespread carbon sequestration techniques are
implemented# >is" assessment could lead to a ma"e2or2brea" decision for the business of carbon
catching# $here are still others %ho ha!e analy?ed historical numbers of se!eral pollutants, and
their dispersal in the atmosphere through a geologic time frame# For instance, 6aul )rut?en and
his collegues ha!e postulated that %e ha!e entered a ne% era entirely: the nthropocene -9/# *e
belie!es that %e ha!e li"ely changed the global climate, and this is potentially due to human
acti!ities that ha!e modified the ecology of the biosphere# Gi!en theses situations, is it possible to
get bac" on trac" to lo%er emission le!els, and create a safe space for humanity to li!e in@
$his question is part of a bigger frame%or" that %as proposed by Aate >a%orth -7/# &n
that paper, >a%orth proposes limits for ho% humanity might safely operate on the planet %ith
respect to land use, global fresh%ater use, biodi!ersity loss, nitrogen, phosphorus le!els, and
many more in %hat she titled, B$he Safe Space CoughnutB# $he implications in this paper are
pretty broad, but there is a li"elihood that %e ha!e already e'ceeded the rate of biodi!ersity loss,
climate change %ith respect to carbon dio'ide le!els, and increased nitrogen# $he latter, %hich
%as grossly e'ceeded, poses that current nitrogen le!els are at .0. ppm# $his le!el is in star"
contrast to its pre2industrial !alue of ?ero -7/# >eturning to the topic of oceans, gro%ing nitrogen
le!els put the ocean at greater ris" of acidification !ia increasing nitric acid le!els -0,9/#
Li"e%ise, %e are also at an enhanced ris" of ocean acidification if iron seeding is enacted# $his is
due partly to sea creatures inability to consume all of the carbon introduced+ and to chemical
reactions %ith the calcium carbonate that is found %ithin their shells# $his leads to increased
carbolic acid le!els %orld%ide# $here do e'ist some %ays to equali?e increased ocean
acidification# &n theory, adding lime ;mined from limestone quarries< could being to buffer and
perhaps equali?e the ocean1s p* -5/# &n this 044D article, materials %ere compiled from a business
in order to propagate claims that liming the oceans could lead to a carbon le!el that is equal, or an
e!en lo%er le!el that e'isted prior to the industrial re!olution# $hese claims are sourced from $he
Society of )hemical &ndustry, %hose motto is: ,here science meets business# ,hat long2term
effects liming the ocean could ha!e on %eather cycles and ocean health remains !irtually
un"no%n# ,e simply don1t ha!e adequate infrastructure in place to determine %hat spreading
lime in the oceans and its potential long term impact could li"ely hold# Furthermore, if such a
large2scale operation %ere to be underta"en and it pro!ed deleterious, there e'ists an absence of
fail2safe precautions# $his is Eust one of the many oppositions %e %ill face in the near future
%hen it comes to the limits of engineering the (arth1s climate#
nother field that has promised much in the %ay of o!ercoming some of life1s limits, and
is currently undergoing rapid ad!ancement is synthetic biology# $his relati!ely ne% field could be
a "ey factor in leading to maEor brea"throughs in medicine, artificial limbs, and e!en the
synthesis of a microbial genome -D/# )urrent %or" in synthetic biology includes CF1s insertion
into cells, protocell creation, and !iral genome synthesis -G/# &n a 044D paper, authors :1Halley
and 6o%ell pro!ide some speculation on recent brea"throughs in synthetic biology highlights
ho% the gaps in this no!el field are quic"ly closing in regard to design and application# Basically
%hat %e couldn1t accomplish %ithin this field ten to fifteen years ago is no% commonplace# $he
authors set out to create a frame%or" for synthetic biology1s past accomplishments, and they
speculate %here future endea!ors may lie# &t encompasses three approaches, CF2based de!ice
insertion, genome2dri!en cell engineering, and protocell creation# $his clustering of synthetic
biology1s main approaches also has to do %ith the closing gaps & mentioned earlier# $hese pea"s
and !alleys %ithin the field are li"ely disappearing as no!el techniques, %hich are utili?ed for
further research and de!elopment are becoming more applied, interdisciplinary, and less
speciali?ed# ,ith that in mind, & %ill sho% you ho% synthetic biology could pro!ide a solution to
another of the doughnut1s issues: $he rate of biodi!ersity loss#
&ncreasing a%areness in regard to predator die2offs, deforestation, and loss of species has
led to an o!er%helming support for preser!ation and conser!ation# *o%e!er, there e'ist an
increasing number of scientists %ho are addressing the issues that conser!atory efforts may not
fully confront# $here are e!en some startling claims being made that synthetic biology could
li"ely halt e'tinction e!ents, or stunningly+ bring bac" e'tinct species -.4/# $he authors of this
article highlight some of the less li"ely, yet highly alarming issues proposed by engineering life#
$his might sound li"e something out of a science fiction no!el, but real %orld application may
not be too far off# (laborating on some of the more fanciful synthetic biology promises sho%s a
field that is uncertain of application, or e!en consequences# &n this & hope to further sho% there is
a simulacrum that e'ists %ithin the synthetic biology and Geoengineering fields# $hese
similarities are numerous %hen it comes to promises and potentially harsh consequences# :ut of
this, the most stri"ing problem for me is a general disregard for future impact# $his is especially
careless# &t is also possible that if left unchec"ed, fa!orability could lead to companies ha!ing a
lac"adaisical ris" assessment# $he past has sho%n that this o!ersight is generally related to fiscal
gains# &n this %ay these fields reflect our current issues occurring %ith some pharmaceutical drug
companies and li"ely pollutants -../# &n an article published in 04.0, authors u"idy and
Ierlicchi describe 05 compounds contained in pharmaceutical drugs %ere found to e'ist %ithin
%atersheds# )urrently there e'ists %idespread pharmaceutical contamination in %aters around the
%orld# ,ith this under consideration, &t is not unreasonable to surmise that proper methods %ere
not made readily a!ailable for dealing %ith probable contamination in ecological systems# &f this
%as ta"en into account, perhaps this could ha!e been a!oided# &t is %orth noting that this industry
is a multi2billion dollar industry, %hich also has !ast political ties, and long stretching roots#
*istory might ha!e taught us in the past that by standing on the heads of giants and
leaping into the great beyond in the name of science is a necessarily human trait# *o%e!er, some
critical e!aluation is also necessary %hen it comes to furthering scientific fields as %ell# By
ta"ing this !ie%, & am challenging an idea that mostly unregulated science %ill al%ays allo% us to
prosper, and that the progression of no!el scientific fields %ill ultimately al%ays lead us to
become more suitably adapted to li!ing on the (arth# $he reason & am challenging %hether or not
%e should ta"e this leap is going to be a common theme here# For the rest of this essay, & %ill
dra% less distinct lines and sho% there is no single solution for this mess# Bet%een those %ho
%ould rather e'ploit no% and fi' later, than those %ho %ould call for mitigation it is e!en less
clear# :n one hand, this duality is implicati!ely geopolitical -.0/# &t is a political issue, but it is
also a distinctly human issue# ,e are the only species on this planet that has had the capability to
address these problems# &t %ill be humanity %ho needs to assess this on a globali?ed scale,
because the future indicates there are countries %hose financial status, social stability, economic
prosperity, and industrial infrastructure depend upon some of the promises made by synthetic
biology and Geoengineering#
Becoming more a!ailable in the face of global climate change and fossil fuel e'haustion
are alternati!e fuels# $hese are becoming e'ceedingly popular in some of the more impo!erished
nations of the %orld, %hose economies are li"ely to depend upon them for future re!enue and
social stability# Biofuels are synthetic biology1s ans%er for a %orld that is seeing greater depletion
of finite fossil fuel reser!es -.0/ # &n an article in Biologist published in 0445, there are some
claims being made that biofuels produced by synthetic biology techniques could be used for
heating or generation of po%er# ,hile this poses some solutions for decreasing fossil fuel use,
and therefore addressing more of the doughnut1s issues+ it does not directly address
implementation techniques, or the possibility of more pollution created by the building of the
factories needed to produce them# Li"e%ise, and maybe more startling could be the potential for
more pollution created by the biofuels themsel!es -.3/# &n 04.0, a boo" addressed some of these
issues# $he authors le'andros Gaspartos and 6er Stromberg highlight air pollution, biodi!ersity
loss, food security, and greenhouse gas emissions Eust to name a fe%# Horeo!er they focus on
de!eloping nations in sia, frica, and merica, %hose need to industriali?e in order to compete
in a globali?ed mar"et can determinate %hether or not they are economically sustainability# $hese
are also top polluters, %ho need to be on the same page if global climate change is to be
addressed as a %orld%ide problem# ,hen it comes to the ability of these systems to be !iably
sustainable, and stable+ the economic fluctuations ha!e far reaching effects# For e'ample, )hina1s
rapid gro%th and industriali?ation has put economic pressure on other countries in order to
compete# ,hile greatly increasing the amount of coal smo"e in the atmosphere during its rapid
gro%th, )hina has also some of the %orst traffic caused pollution and that is e'pected to increase
to record numbers by the year 0409 -.=/# ,ith this in mind, it is highly unli"ely %e %ill "no%
the ultimate effects of this pollution for years to come# &t has also become e'ponentially per!asi!e
%hen contrasting the interest of local peoples, and local go!ernments in Latin merica -.9/#
$hese are issues %e1ll face as synthetic biology becomes more of an economic spade that the
poorer countries may ultimately use to till their fields#
('tra, un%anted pollution, social uphea!al, economic depletion, embargoes, and global
tal" brea"do%ns are inherently limits that synthetic biology and Geoengineering ha!e in
common# s %ell as these issues, &n 044D, an article in The Journal of Applied Ecology %as
published, and its authors ma"e some claims about future threats to biodi!ersity -.7/# Under the
priority section, 3. contributing authors discuss horizon scanning, %hich is a %ay to e!aluate the
effects of no!el fields# $he intent is to create a frame%or" for ris" assessment, rele!ance, future
planning, en!ironmental ha?ard, andJor ecosystem preser!ation for a single issue+ or a multitude
of issues# Synthetic biology, and Geoengineering %ere discussed in this paper alongside ocean
acidification, dramatic changes in fresh%ater flo%s, sea le!el rise, increased fire ris", increasing
demand for biofuels and biomass, and control of no!el pathogens# $hey decided that, K>esearch
into the possible en!ironmental impacts %ill aid assessment of the o!erall merit of these
mitigation technologiesL ;Sutherland et al. 044D<# $heir recognition that claims in!ol!ing
Geoengineering %ould lead to more acid rain, changed %eather, and increased dissol!ed o'ygen
ultimately threatening the oceans and their ecosystems is coupled %ith an o!erall le!el of
uncertainty# Li"e%ise, they also decided that increased demand for biomass and biofuels could
directly compete %ith other species, and e!entually lead to a decrease in biodi!ersity#
&ncidentally, the li"elihood, opportunity, and threat brac"ets contained in their figures highlighted
Geoengineering as the only representati!e issue to score the highest %hen it came to all of the
ris"s# ,ith that for consideration, let1s turn to some of the more incendiary media representations
of synthetic biology and Geoengineering, for e'ample carbon suc"ing trees -.5/# &n her paper,
author (mily Boyd emphasi?es t%o prospecti!e results for a carbon catching tree# (mission
mitigation is one, the other being carbon sequestration# She ma"es claims that there are
biotechnology companies, %hose engineered Ksuper2treesL are designed to suc" a greater amount
of carbon out of the atmosphere than the non2super ones# *er paper suggests that it is
ac"no%ledged that these super2trees actually KFail to sequester as much carbon as they o'idi?e
and return to the atmosphere+ moreo!er, there are concerns about the biodi!ersity impacts of
large2scale monoculture plantations#L ;Boyd# 04.4< $here are t%o points of interest here+ one
poses a question about bioengineering trees %hich are not actually carbon neutral, and therefore
unnecessary for carbon sequestration# $he other steps bac" into the doughnut1s suggestion that
%e1!e already crossed one boundary: $he rate of biodi!ersity loss+ and that GeoJbioengineered
trees could e'ponentially reduce biodi!ersity# plantation of a single culture of organisms is in
star" contrast to the di!ersity found in nature# &t is also deleterious to future generations of nati!e
trees# )oniferous gymnosperms are %ind pollinated, and therefore are susceptible to allelic
genetic changes if ne% populations are introduced into en!ironments# $here %as no mention of
%hether the bioengineered trees %ould be reproducti!ely !iable# $his is an e'ample of a mash2up
of the t%o technologies, %here perhaps the prerogati!e to accomplish it out%eighs any ris"#
gain a common theme here %ould be %hether or not to do it is out%eighed by the economics of
such practices# ,ith this e!idence at hand, there is cause to belie!e that future generations of all
organisms %ill be affected in some %ay by these fields# Before globali?ed establishment of these
fields, it is necessary to re!ie% past efforts in history# & propose that the information contained ina
re!ie% of past technologies could be used as economic, social, or e!en political litmus test for our
current situation#
$here e'ists no realistic modeling for global scale endea!ors li"e %hat %e are facing
%ithin Geoengineering# Furthermore, a lac" of past efforts lea!es us %ith no prior results to loo"
upon# )omparati!ely, if retracted, the carbon sin"s in place could %ea"en or fail, %hich could
lead to e!en more global %arming -.D/# &n the field of synthetic biology there e'ists societal
implications and ris"s %hen it comes to biosecurity -.G/# &n a 044G article, author le'ander
Aelle cites past misuse of biotechnology in the form of biological %arfare# By recogni?ing
clandestine efforts by the USS> in the D4s, he e'poses %hat genetically dri!en %eapons programs
could concoct# Geoengineering has foggy implications as %ell# couple unans%ered questions
about its use remain: &f %e could control the climate, %ould it be misused for ill2gotten financial
gain@ lso, &f mastery of the %orld1s %eather system %as achie!ed, could it be used in an
imperialistic or financially oppressi!e manner@ )apitalism is based upon unchec"ed e'ponential
gro%th, but %e "no% the planet has biological and e!en physical limits -04/# ,e simply %on1t
"no% until %e get there, but history has gi!en us other e'amples to loo" upon# &n the .G94s there
e'isted a nuclear craze, post %ar physics %as supposed to promise clean and unlimited energy for
all -0./# &nstead of really deli!ering a bright future, %e e'perienced a cold %ar+ a distinct
stoc"piling of nuclear %eapons, and se!eral nuclear po%er plant disasters, as in )hernobyl and
$hree Hile &sland# &n this, synthetic biology and Geoengineering share some commonalities in
regard to the percei!ed threat by the public as nuclear fission did in the past# $his is partly due to
a lac" of information out there# gain it may be too soon to see %here this, if anything may lead#
$he only o!erarching trope & ha!e run into time and time again is the one of K6laying GodL#
&n the fall, this class set out to e'plore the limits of life# ,e addressed a %or" of fiction,
The Wind-up Girl, by 6aolo Bacigalupi# &n his tale of a dystopian Bang"o", $hailand, the %orld1s
seas are "ept at bay by huge sea%alls# Food and agriculture are engineered, fossil fuels are
depleted, synthetic biology has produced a crime against nature: a genetically engineered
humanoid, %ho %as spliced together %ith human and dog CF# s %ell as that, economic
struggle and social uphea!al abound in e!ery sordid recess# $his is Eust the s"in that e'ists on top
of a %orld %ronged by the machinations of industry and profit !enture capitalism-00/# $his %orld
is in star" contrast to the one %e currently li!e in# &n many respects much of science fiction
mirrors current situations %e are quic"ly approaching in our o%n time# &n this case, Bacigalupi1s
no!el ta"es a %orst2case scenario approach# (!en though it is a pretty horrific scenario, & belie!e
this boo" allo%ed me to comprehend the bigger picture %hen it comes to e!aluating issues, and
promote critical thought about ne% industries and fields# For better or for %orse, the fields of
Geoengineering and synthetic biology %ill affect all li!ing things on (arth# Going into this class &
%ould ha!e identified %ith the side %ho %ants to engineer the climate+ or the side %ho sees
synthetic biology as a %ay to counteract life1s limits# Upon conducting further research into these
fields, & see bigger problems on the hori?on# ,e %ill li"ely o!ercome many of these in the future#
,ith that in mind, & reali?e the limits of life are not going to be simply sol!ed by the actions of a
6romethean ad!enturist, or by merely sitting around and %aiting+ as the Soterian !ie% dictates#
$here %ill be need for more research, and li"ely more tentati!eness in the future# $here is a need
for more critical thought, and ris" assessment obtained from definiti!e results %hen it comes to
the application or implementation of these fields# $he future of humanity and the planet hangs in
the balance#
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