Short notes-biology

Chapter 4
1. The main elements in the cells are C, H, O, N, S, P, Ca, K, Mg, Na and Fe.
2. Organic compounds in cells are : carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids while the inorganic
compound is water.
3. Carbohydrates
provide energy
build cell walls ( in plant cells only )
forms external skeleton of insects
store food in the form of starch and glycogen
4. Lipid
forms lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane
synthesize liver bile and steroid hormones.
Protect vital organs
Heat insulator
Solvent for Vitamin A,D, E and K
Source of energy
5. Protein:
is the basic unit for enzymes, antibodies and haemoglobin
forms the protoplasm and plasma membrane.
Needed to produce new cells, connective tissues ( tendon, ligament and muscles )
6. Nucleic acids:
carry genetic information.
Control all the cell activities
Two types: DNA and RNA
7. Water:
major component of protoplasm,
good solvent, support and transport medium
medium for biochemical reaction in cell.
8. 3 main types of carbohydrates :
Monosaccharides: - also knowns as simple sugars
- Glucose, fructose and galactose
- test : Benedicts solution : blue turn to brick red precipitate
Disaccharides - Maltose + water = glucose + glucose
- Sucrose + water = glucose = fructose
- Lactose + water = glucose = galactose
- All are reducing sugar except Sucrose

polysaccharides: -
9. Monosaccharides are the basic units of carbohydrates. E.g : glucose, fructose and galactose.
10. Disaccharides: consists of two monosaccharides. Eg: maltose, sucrose and lactose.
11. Polysaccharides are large complex sugars. Eg: starch, glycogen and cellulose.
12. Proteins are formed from amino acids.
13. Amino acids are grouped into essential amino acids and non essential amino acids.
14. Proteins are large complex molecules with four levels of structures:
a) The Primary structure: a long straight chain of polypeptide
b) The secondary structure: a coiled polypeptide
c) The tertiary structure: the polypeptide is folded
d) The quaternary structure: the folded polypeptides are

15. Fats and oils are examples of lipid which consists of one glycerol and three fatty acids.
16. There are two types of fats
a) Saturated fat
b) Unsaturated fat
17. Fats and oils are formed by condensation and broken down by hydrolysis.
18. Enzymes are organic catalyst which speed up the rate of chemical reactions in the cell.
19. Enzymes are proteins and easily denatured at high temperatures.
20. Enzymes are specific in their action. One enzyme can only work on one substrate.
21. Enzymes remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
22. The action of enzymes is reversible.
23. Enzymes that are produced in the cell and secreted out of the cell to act on the substrate are called
extracellular enzymes. Those that remain in the cell and function in the cell are called intracellular
enzymes.
24. Enzymes activity is affected by the pH level, temperature, concentration of substrate and
concentration of enzyme.
25. In daily life, enzymes are used in detergent for removing stains from clothes and in tenderizing
meat.
26. In industry, enzymes are used in preparing leather products, manufacturing detergent and
processing food.
27. Each chemical component in the cell has its own function. Deficiency in any one chemical compound
in the cells can affect the survival of the cell.
28. Lack of carbohydrates will affect the respiration process in the cell.
29. Deficiency of protein and lipids will affect the formation of the plasma membrane.
30. Enzymes are necessary to speed up all chemical reactions. Without enzymes, all chemical reaction
stop.
31. Dfg
32. Fdg
33. Fg


Chapter 5
1. The continuity of life on the reproductive of cell called cell division.
2. There are two types of cell division, that is mitosis and meiosis.
3. In mitosis, cell division functions to reproduce, grow and repair body tissues.
4. In unicellular organisms, mitosis is a form of reproduction.
5. In multicellular organisms, mitosis is important for the development of the zygote into an
organism, as well as growth and repair of body tissues.
6. Mitosis is the process of nuclear division that preserves the diploid number of chromosomes.
7. The cell cycle of an organism consists of two major phase : interphase and mitotic cell division.
8. During interphase, the cell acquires nutrients for growth and differentiation during G1 and G2
phase and replication of chromosomes during the S phase.
9. The mitotic cell division consists of nuclear division called mitosis, and cytoplasm division called
cytokinesis.
10. Mitosis is the process where two daughter cells are produced and each daughter cell has the
same number of chromosomes and genetic composition as the parent cell.
11. Mitosis consists of four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
12. In mitosis, the chromatids are separated during anaphase to maintain the diploid number of
chromosomes in the cell.
13. Mitosis is usually followed by cytokinesis, where the cytoplasm divides to form two daughter
cells.
14. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by constricting the plasma membrane at the equator of the
cell. In the plant cell, the cytoplasm divides by the formation of cell plate at the equator of the
cell which grow outwards and merges with the plasma membrane at the side of the cell.
15. Controlled mitosis in plant and animal cells is important for normal growth, development and
maintenance of the body tissues.
16. Uncontrolled mitosis results in unregulated and uncontrolled cell division which leads to the
growth of a mass of abnormal cells called tumor.
17. A tumor that remains at the original sides is called banign tumor. In contrast a tumor that is
invasive and inpairs the function of the organs is called malignant tumor.
18. In agriculture, mitosis is used in the technology of asexual reproduction such as tissue calture
and cloning of animals.
19. The main advantages of coning include improvement in the quantity of the products, and the
quality of the plants.
20. Meiosis is the form of cell division that produces four haploid gametes. Meiosisi reduces the
chromosome number by half. Each gamete receive one member from each pair of homologous
chromososmes and is genetically different from each other.
21. Meiosis occurs in reproductive organs to produce gametes.
22. Meiosis maintains the diploid chromosomes number from one generation to another.
23. Meiosis consists of two cell division that is meiosis I and meiosis II.
24. During prophase I, synapsis and crossing over occur.
25. During anaphase I, homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles. During
anaphase II, the two chromoatids of each chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles.
26. The separation of homologous chromosomes during ananphase I reduces the number of
chromosomes by half to produce haploid gametes.
27. Substances that are harmful to cell and can cause uncontrolled mitosis and meiosisi are
radioactive c=substances and carsinigenic substance such as benzopyrene and tar in cigarette
smoke