Who Is The Celebrity Endorser

Who is the Celebrity Endorser?
Cultural Foundations of the Endorsement Process

Author(s): Grant McCracken
Source: The Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Dec., 1989), pp. 310-321
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2489512
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W h o I s t h e Ce le brit y Endo rs e r? Cult ural
Fo undat io ns o f t h e Endo rs e me nt Pro ce s s
GRANT McCRACKEN*
Th is art icle o f f e rs a ne w appro ach t o ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt . Pre vio us e xplanat io ns ,
e s pe cially t h e s o urce cre dibilit yand s o urce at t ract ive ne s s mo de ls are crit icize d,
and an alt e rnat ive me aning t rans f e r mo de l is pro po s e d. Acco rding t o t h is mo de l,
ce le brit ie s ' e f f e ct ive ne s s as e ndo rs e rs s t e ms f ro mt h e cult uralme anings wit h wh ich
t h e y are e ndo we d. Th e mo de l s h o ws h o w me anings pas s f ro mce le brit y t o pro duct
and f ro mpro duct t o co ns ume r. Th e implicat io ns o f t h is mo de l f o r o ur unde rs t and-
ing o f t h e co ns ume r s o cie t y are co ns ide re d. Re s e arch ave nue s s ugge s t e d by t h e
mo de l are als o dis cus s e d.
T h e ce le brit y e ndo rs e r is a ubiquit o us f e at ure o f
mo de rn marke t ing. Th e act o r Ro be rt Yo ung,
t h e quart e rback JimMcMah o n, t h e dance r Mikh ail
Barys h niko v, t h e CEO Le e laco cco , t h e s inge r W h it -
ne y Ho us t o n, t h e t e s t pilo t Ch uck Ye age r, and t h e
po lit icianTip O'Ne ill h ave all le nt name andimage
t o re ce nt campaigns . Unf o rt unat e ly, t h e po pularit y o f
t h is co mmunicat io ns s t rat e gy h as no t e arne dit e xt e n-
s ive 's t udy. No r h as it ins pire de s pe cially illuminat ing
t h e o re t ical acco unt s . As a re s ult , t h e re ce ive dwis do m
o n ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt is mo de s t and impe rf e ct ,
ande xis t ing mo de ls f ail t o capt ure s e ve ral o f t h e mo s t
int e re s t ing andce nt ral ch aract e ris t ics o f t h e e ndo rs e -
me nt pro ce s s .
Th is inve s t igat io no f e ndo rs e me nt addre s s e s t h e s e
de f icit s f ro ma cult ural pe rs pe ct ive . Th e argume nt is
t h at t h e e ndo rs e me nt pro ce s s de pe nds upo nt h e s ym-
bo lic pro pe rt ie s o f t h e ce le brit y e ndo rs e r. Us ing a
"me aning t rans f e r" pe rs pe ct ive , t h e s e pro pe rt ie s are
s h o wnt o re s ide int h e ce le brit y andt o mo ve f ro mce -
le brit y t o co ns ume r go o dandf ro mgo o dt o co ns ume r.
Th is pe rs pe ct ive is t h e nus e dt o addre s s co nt ro ve rs ial
is s ue s co nce rning t h e co ns ume r s o cie t y. Finally, re -
s e arch o ppo rt unit ie s are re vie we d.
Fo r pre s e nt purpo s e s , t h e ce le brit y e ndo rs e r is de -
f ine das any individual wh o e njo ys public re co gnit io n
andwh o us e s t h is re co gnit io no nbe h alf o f a co ns ume r
go o d by appe aring wit h it in an adve rt is e me nt . W e
will re f ine t h is de f init io nlat e r, but f o r t h e mo me nt it
is de libe rat e ly bro adt o e nco mpas s no t o nly t h e us ual
mo vie andt e le vis io ns t ars , but als o individuals f ro m
t h e wo rldo f s po rt , po lit ics , bus ine s s , art , andt h e mili-
t ary. Th e t e rm"ce le brit y" is als o me ant int h is art icle
t o e nco mpas s a varie t y o f e ndo rs e me nt s , including
t h o s e int h e e xplicit mo de ("I e ndo rs e t h is pro duct "),
t h e implicit mo de ("I us e t h is pro duct "), t h e impe r-
at ive mo de ("Yo u s h o uldus e t h is pro duct "), andt h e
co pre s e nt mo de (i.e ., in wh ich t h e ce le brit y me re ly
appe ars wit h t h e pro duct ). Mo re o ve r, it include s a
range o f e ndo rs e me nt ro le s , s uch as cas e s inwh ich t h e
ce le brit y is als o ane xpe rt (e .g., Bo bby Uns e r re co m-
me nding mo t o r o il), is as s o ciat e dwit h t h e manuf ac-
t ure r ins o me lo ng t e rmcapacit y (e .g., Pat Summe rall
f o r True Value Hardware ), o r h as no s pe cial kno wl-
e dge o f , o r as s o ciat io nwit h , t h e pro duct in que s t io n
(cf . Frie dman, Te rmini, andW as h ingt o n1977). Th is
de f init io n is de s igne d de libe rat e ly t o e xclude t h e
"t ypical co ns ume r" e ndo rs e r (Frie dmanand Frie d-
man 1979). Th e mo de l pre s e nt e din t h is art icle ap-
plie s t o all t h e s e variat io ns but t h e las t .
THE LI TERATURE
Two mo de ls , t h e s o urce cre dibilit y andt h e s o urce
at t ract ive ne s s mo de ls , inf o rmre s e arch andre f le ct io n
o nt h e t o pic o f ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt . Bo t h we re de -
vis e do riginally f o r t h e s t udy o f co mmunicat io ns and
h ave be e n applie do nly lat t e rly t o t h e e ndo rs e me nt
pro ce s s . Bo t h are de s igne dt o de t e rmine t h e co ndi-
t io ns unde r wh ich t h e me s s age s e nde r o r s o urce is pe r-
s uas ive .
Th e s o urce cre dibilit y mo de l re s t s o n re s e arch in
s o cial ps ych o lo gy (Ho vland and W e is s 1951-1952;
Ho vland, Janis , andKe lle y 1953). Th e Ho vlandve r-
s io n o f t h e mo de l co nt e nds t h at a me s s age de pe nds
f o r it s e f f e ct ive ne s s o n t h e "e xpe rt ne s s " and "t rus t -
wo rt h ine s s " o f t h e s o urce (Ho vlande t al. 1953, p. 20;
cf . Dh o lakia andSt e rnt h al 1977; St e rnt h al, Dh o lakia,
*Grant McCracke nis As s o ciat e Pro f e s s o r, De part me nt o f Co n-
s ume r St udie s , Unive rs it y o f Gue lph , Gue lph , Ont ario , Canada
NI G 2W 1. He wis h e s t o t h ank Pe t e r Be nne t t , Tara Curt is , Bill Fris -
be e , Ro nGo ldman, Mo nt y So mme rs , Vic Ro t h , Do nna W o o lco t t ,
andRami Zwich as we ll as t h e ano nymo us JCR re vie we rs f o r t h e ir
ve ry us e f ul co mme nt s o ne arlie r ve rs io ns o f t h is art icle .
310
? JOURNAL OFCONSUMER RESEARCH o Vo l. 16 * De ce mbe r 1989
CELEBRI TY ENDORSER: CULTURAL FOUNDATI ONS 311
andLe avit t 1978). Expe rt ne s s is de f ine das t h e pe r-
ce ive dabilit y o f t h e s o urce t o make validas s e rt io ns .
Trus t wo rt h ine s s is de f ine das t h e pe rce ive dwilling-
ne s s o f t h e s o urce t o make validas s e rt io ns . Th e Ho v-
landmo de l h o lds t h at s o urce s e xh ibit ing e xpe rt ne s s
andt rus t wo rt h ine s s are cre dible and, t o t h is e xt e nt ,
pe rs uas ive .
Th e s o urce at t ract ive ne s s mo de l als o re s t s o ns o cial
ps ych o lo gical re s e arch . Th e McGuire (1985) mo de l
co nt e nds t h at a me s s age de pe nds f o r it s e f f e ct ive ne s s
ch ie f ly o n t h e "f amiliarit y," "likabilit y," and/o r
"s imilarit y" o f t h e s o urce (McGuire 1985, p. 264; cf .
Bake r and Ch urch ill 1977; De be ve c and Ke rnan
1984; Frie dman, Sant e ramo , and Traina 1978; Jo -
s e ph 1982; Kah le andHo me r 1985). Familiarit y is de -
f ine das kno wle dge o f t h e s o urce t h ro ugh e xpo s ure ,
likabilit y as af f e ct io nf o r t h e s o urce as a re s ult o f t h e
s o urce 's ph ys ical appe arance andbe h avio r, ands imi-
larit y as a s uppo s e dre s e mblance be t we e nt h e s o urce
and re ce ive r o f t h e me s s age . Th e McGuire mo de l
h o lds t h at s o urce s wh o are kno wnt o , like dby, and/
o r s imilar t o t h e co ns ume r are at t ract ive and, t o t h is
e xt e nt , pe rs uas ive .
Th e s o urce mo de ls (as we s h all call t h e s o urce cre di-
bilit y ands o urce at t ract ive ne s s mo de ls t o ge t h e r) h ave
be e nco nf irme dby re s e arch . Th e Ho vlandmo de l h as
be e n validat e dby s e ve ral part ie s (At kin and Blo ck
1983; Kame n, Azh ari, andKragh 1975; Kle bba and
Unge r 1983; cf . Finn 1980, p. 779). Th e McGuire
mo de l als o de mo ns t rat e dit s value (Frie dmanand
Frie dman1979), andit appe ars s af e t o s ay t h at ce le b-
rit ie s o we s o me o f t h e ir e f f e ct ive ne s s as marke t ing de -
vice s t o t h e ir cre dibilit y and at t ract ive ne s s . Th e
s o urce mo de ls are , t o t h is e xt e nt , a ne ce s s ary part o f
o ur unde rs t anding o f t h e e ndo rs e me nt pro ce s s . But ,
t h e y do no t capt ure e ve ryt h ing at is s ue int h e e ndo rs e -
me nt pro ce s s . I nde e d, t h e re is re as o nt o t h ink t h e s e
mo de ls canno t e xplain e ndo rs e me nt 's mo s t f unda-
me nt al f e at ure s . Th e e vide nce f o r t h is s ke pt icis mis
e ve rywh e re . Th e re s e arch it s e lf is lit t e re dwit h puzzle s
andpe culiarit ie s t h e s o urce mo de ls canno t e xplain.
Fo r ins t ance , t h e re s e arch by t h e Frie dmans pro -
duce dre s ult s t h at are no t co ns is t e nt wit h t h e s o urce
mo de ls . Th e y f o und t h at s o me pro duct cat e go rie s
we re inco mpat ible wit h ce le brit y cat e go rie s (e .g., t h at
Mary Tyle r Mo o re s e rve das a po o r ce le brit y e ndo rs e r
f o r vacuumcle ane rs ). But t h e s o urce mo de ls make no
s uch pro vis io n. Fo r t h e mo de ls ' purpo s e s , as lo ng as
t h e cre dibilit y andat t ract ive ne s s co ndit io ns are s at is -
f ie d, any ce le brit y s h o ulds e rve as a pe rs uas ive s o urce
f o r any adve rt is ing me s s age . Acco rding t o t h e mo de l,
t h e pe rs uas ive ne s s o f t h e ce le brit y h as e ve ryt h ing t o
do wit h t h e ce le brit y and no t h ing t o do wit h t h e
pro duct .
Kame n, Azh ari, and Kragh (1975, p. 18) s ugge s t
t h at t h e s po ke s pe rs o nact s as a kindo f "co re aro und
wh ich t h e s ubs t ant ive me s s age s are po s it io ne d." I n
t h is capacit y, t h e s po ke s pe rs o nh e lps
t rigge r t h e pas t as s o ciat io ns wit h t h e s po ns o r ands t im-
ulat e t h e re me mbe ring o f pas t me s s age s . He wo uldin-
t e grat e ne w me s s age s wit h t h e o lds o as t o builda unif y-
ing, co h e re nt , s us t aine d, andco ns is t e nt image o f t h e
brand.
Th is po s it io n implie s t h at t h e ce le brit y s e rve s t h e
e ndo rs e me nt pro ce s s by t aking o nme anings t h at t h e n
carry f ro madt o ad, andt h at t h e ce le brit y is capable
s o me h o w o f s e rving as a s it e in wh ich me anings co -
h e re . Plainly, ne it h e r po s s ibilit y is co ns is t e nt wit h e i-
t h e r s o urce mo de l. Af t e r all, t h e s e mo de ls make as s e r-
t io ns o nly abo ut t h e cre dibilit y andat t ract ive ne s s o f
t h e me s s age s e nde r and no ne abo ut t h e e ndo rs e r's
ro le as a me s s age me diumo r t h e co nt inuit y o f t h e
me s s age f ro mad t o ad. I n t h e language o f Kuh n
(1962), t h e paradigmis be ginning t o accumulat e
ano malie s . Sch o lars h ave be e n co mpe lle d e it h e r t o
abando no r t rans f o rmt h e s o urce mo de ls .
But if t h e int e rnal e vide nce f o r s ke pt icis mis s t ro ng,
t h e e xt e rnal gro unds are e ve ns t ro nge r. Th e s ch o larly
and pro f e s s io nal lit e rat ure is lit t e re dwit h dat a t h at
canno t be e xplaine dby t h e s o urce mo de ls . Th e re are
mys t e rie s e ve rywh e re . Bill Co s by f aile d as an e n-
do rs e r f o r E.F. Hut t o nde s pit e h is e vide nt s ucce s s f o r
Ko dak andCo ca Co la. Jo h nHo us e manf aile das an
e ndo rs e r f o r McDo nald's de s pit e h is e f f e ct ive wo rk
f o r Smit h Barne y (Mars h all 1987). Ge o rge C. Sco t t
pro ve d, mys t e rio us ly, t o be t h e wro ng ch o ice f o r Re -
nault , as did Ringo St arr f o r Sun Co unt ry Clas s ic
wine co o le rs (Mo t avalli 1988). Th e s o urce mo de ls , as
t h e pre s e nt guardiano f curre nt e ndo rs e me nt prac-
t ice , didno t f o re warnadve rt is ing pract it io ne rs o f t h e
inappro priat e ne s s o f t h e s e ce le brit y ch o ice s . No r can
t h e y, as t h e re ce ive d acade mic wis do mo n t h e e n-
do rs e me nt pro ce s s , h e lp us unde rs t andwh at we nt
wro ng. Th e s o urce mo de ls h ave no t s e rve das a pract i-
cal o r t h e o re t ical guide t o ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt .
Co ns ide r, f o r ins t ance , t h e e xample o f Jo h nW ayne
as a ce le brit y e ndo rs e r f o r t h e pain re lie ve r Dat ril.
"W ayne h adno t h ing t o do wit h t h e pro duct , ands ale s
o f t h e analge s ic languis h e d.. . . (I t was a) clas s ic .
mis mat ch be t we e ns t ar andpro duct " (Kaikat i 1987,
p. 6). Th is is o f f e re das a kindo f e xplanat io no f wh at
we nt wro ng int h e Dat ril cas e . But wh at do e s it me an
t o s ay t h at t h e ce le brit y "h adno t h ing t o do " wit h t h e
pro duct ?W h at "mis mat ch " be t we e n ce le brit y and
pro duct is be ing as s e rt e dh e re ?Th e s o urce mo de ls do
no t t e ll us . Th e y canno t e xplainwh y Jo h nW ayne and
Dat ril we re inco mpat ible .
Sch uds o n's t re at me nt o f Jame s Garne r as a ce le b-
rit y e ndo rs e r is ge rmane . Sch uds o n (1984, p. 212)
s ugge s t s t h at t h e re is s o me t h ing mys t e rio us abo ut t h e
adve rt is e me nt s inwh ich Garne r appe ars .
Garne r do e s no t play h ims e lf , t h e pe rs o n, no r do e s h e
play a part icular f ict ive ch aract e r. I ns t e ad, h e plays
wh at I wo uldcall t h e ge ne ralize dJame s Garne r ro le ,
t h e t ype f o r wh ich Jame s Garne r is always cas t -h and-
s o me , ge nt le , bumbling, e nde aring, a co mbinat io no f
312 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
Bre t Mave rick f ro m"Mave rick" and JimRo ckf o rd
f ro m"Th e Ro ckf o rdFile s ."
Th is t h o ugh t f ul o bs e rvat io ns pe lls re al t ro uble f o r
t h e s o urce mo de ls . I f t h e ce le brit y e ndo rs e r re pre s e nt s
no t h ims e lf but h is s t age pe rs o na, t h e is s ue s o f e xpe rt -
ne s s andt rus t wo rt h ine s s canh ardly apply. Af t e r all, it
h ardly make s s e ns e t o imput e cre dibilit y t o a f ict io nal
ch aract e r. But e ve nif we f o rce t h e is s ue andins is t t h at
f ict io nal ch aract e rs can, s o me h o w, be cre dible ,
Sch uds o n's o bs e rvat io nt e lls us t h is is a s pe cial, ro le -
s pe cif ic cre dibilit y. I t is no lo nge r a s imple mat t e r o f
t h e willingne s s andabilit y t o make validas s e rt io ns .
Th e is s ue o f s o urce at t ract ive ne s s is pro ble mat ical
ina dif f e re nt way. Acco rding t o Sch uds o n's acco unt ,
Garne r's at t ract ive ne s s co ns is t s in t h e "e nde aring,"
"ge nt le ," and"bumbling" qualit ie s o f h is s t age pe r-
s o na. W e mus t addt o t h is pe rh aps t h e mo s t s alie nt
t rait o f Garne r's s t age pe rs o na, h is claimt o be ing t h e
f o re mo s t re pre s e nt at ive o f a part icular cat e go ry o f
Ame ricanmale . As a pro t o t ype o f t h e cat e go ry, Gar-
ne r is a me mbe r o f t h e large r pant h e o no f act o rs t h at
h e lps de f ine t h is ge nde r cat e go ry in Ame rica (e .g.,
Jame s St e wart , Jo h n W ayne , Cary Grant , Sylve s t e r
St allo ne ).
W h e nwe o bs e rve Garne r f ro mt h is po int o f vie w,
we s e e t h at h is at t ract ive ne s s de pe nds no t o nh is qual-
it ie s as a pe rs o no r e ve no n h is qualit ie s as a f amo us
pe rs o n, but o nt h e qualit ie s h e h as cre at e dinh is s t age
pe rs o na. Fo r co mmunicat io ns purpo s e s , t h e ce le brit y
is a co mpo s it e o f h is f ict io nal ro le s . Th is me ans t h at
wh e n co ns ume rs re s po nd t o Garne r's "at t ract ive -
ne s s ," t h e y are , inf act , re s po nding t o a ve ry part icular
s e t o f me anings . Th e y are ide nt if ying wit h a bundle
o f s ymbo lic pro pe rt ie s cre at e df o r, andby, Garne r in
t h e t e le vis io npro grams "Mave rick" and"Th e Ro ck-
f o rdFile s ."
Th is is no t "ide nt if icat io n" in t h e o rdinary s e ns e .
Th e s o urce mo de ls do no t capt ure and illuminat e
wh at is go ing o n h e re . Audie nce re s po ns e t o Jame s
Garne r is mo re co mplicat e dandint e re s t ing t h ant h e
s o urce mo de ls allo w. Garne r is pe rs uas ive as a co m-
municat o r no t o nly be caus e h e is "at t ract ive ," but
als o be caus e h e is made up o f ce rt ainme anings t h e
co ns ume r f inds co mpe lling and us e f ul. Garne r s uc-
ce e ds as ane ndo rs e r f o r Mazda be caus e h e re pre s e nt s
a bundle o f me anings abo ut mat urit y, Ame rican-
ne s s , co nf ide nce , mas culinit y, int e llige nce , andgo o d
h umo r.
I t is h e re t h at we be gint o unco ve r t h e re al ins uf f i-
cie ncy o f t h e s o urce mo de ls as anacco unt o f ce le brit y
e ndo rs e me nt . Th e s o urce at t ract ive ne s s mo de l can
t e ll us t h at co ns ume rs will ide nt if y wit h Garne r, but
it canno t t e ll us wh y-no r can it co nt e nd wit h t h e
me anings co nt aine din Garne r's pe rs o na. St ill mo re
impo rt ant , t h e mo de l do e s no t allo w us t o make s e ns e
o f t h e me anings co nt aine d in a ce le brit y e ndo rs e r
o nce t h e y are de t e rmine d. Th e s o urce mo de l cant e ll
us o nly t h at a ce le brit y is at t ract ive , no t wh at at t rac-
t ive is .
Th e implicat io ns o f t h is ins uf f icie ncy are po we rf ul.
Firs t , t h e s o urce mo de ls do no t allo w us t o unde rs t and
t h e appe al o f any part icular ce le brit y. Th is make s it
impo s s ible t o unde rs t andwh y a ce le brit y like Garne r
s h o uld be pe rs uas ive f o r s o me pro duct s but no t f o r
o t h e rs . Th e s o urce mo de ls pre ve nt us f ro mide nt if y-
ing t h e mat ch e s andmis mat ch e s . W e are le f t unable
t o as s e s s h o w Garne r's image int e ract s wit h dif f e re nt
pro duct s andcre at ive t h e me s .
Se co nd, t h e s o urce mo de ls will ne ve r allo w us t o
dis criminat e be t we e n ce le brit ie s in any us e f ul way.
Ce rt ainly t h e y allo w us t o s ay t h at Jame s Garne r is ,
pe rh aps , mo re cre dible t h an Alan Alda. But it do e s
no t allo w us t o s ay h o w Garne r andAlda dif f e r f ro m
a s ymbo lic o r co mmunicat io ns po int o f vie w. Th e
s o urce mo de ls migh t t e ll us o nly t h at Mich ae l J. Fo x,
To ny Danza, andDo n Jo h ns o ndif f e r int h e ir de gre e
o f at t ract ive ne s s . Th is is pro ble mat ical be caus e we
unde rs t andt h at t h e ir dif f e re nce s go much de e pe r
t h an t h is . Hypo t h e t ically, t h e s o urce mo de ls migh t
t e ll us t h at Cybil Sh e ph e rd, Be a Art h ur, andJo anCo l-
lins are e qually cre dible . But we kno w t h is s ame ne s s
mas ks pro f o und and t h o ro ugh go ing dif f e re nce s . I n
s h o rt , t h e s o urce mo de ls t e ll us abo ut de gre e s o f at -
t ract ive ne s s and cre dibilit y wh e n wh at we ne e d t o
kno w abo ut is kinds o f at t ract ive ne s s andcre dibilit y.
Bo t h t h e int e rnal and e xt e rnal e vide nce co nt ain
ano malie s t h at de mo ns t rat e t h e ins uf f icie ncy o f t h e
s o urce mo de ls . I f we are t o unde rs t andt h e e ndo rs e -
me nt pro ce s s , we mus t build be t t e r, mo re s o ph is t i-
cat e dmo de ls . W e e s pe cially mus t co me t o t e rms wit h
t h e me anings co nt aine din t h e ce le brit y andgive an
acco unt o f h o w t h e s e me anings s e rve t h e e ndo rs e -
me nt pro ce s s . Th e re mainde r o f t h e art icle is de s igne d
t o s ugge s t s uch anacco unt .
CULTURAL MEANI NG AND THE
CELEBRI TY ENDORSER
Th e e f f e ct ive ne s s o f t h e e ndo rs e r de pe nds , in part ,--
upo n t h e me anings h e o r s h e brings t o t h e e ndo rs e -
me nt pro ce s s . Th e numbe r andvarie t y o f t h e me an-
ings co nt aine d in ce le brit ie s are ve ry large . Dis t inc-
t io ns o f s t at us , clas s , ge nde r, andage , as we ll as pe r-
s o nalit y and lif e s t yle t ype s , are re pre s e nt e din t h e
po o l o f available ce le brit ie s , put t ing ane xt rao rdinar-
ily vario us and s ubt le palle t o f me anings at t h e dis -
po s al o f t h e marke t ing s ys t e m.
Fo r e xample , clas s ands t at us are re pre s e nt e dby t h e
like s o f Pe t e r Je nnings andJo h nFo rs yt h e as pat rician
me nandCat h e rine De ne uve andAudre y He pburnas
re gal wo me n. Th e dis t inct io n o f ne w we alt h is co n-
t aine dinge nt e e l ve rs io ns s uch as Pie rce Bro s nanand
Diane Sawye r o r in mo re gras ping ve rs io ns s uch as
Larry HagmanandJo anCo llins . Th e uppe r middle
clas s is re pre s e nt e dby TimMat h e s o n and Sh e lle y
Lo ng, t h e middle clas s by Jo h n Rit t e r and Ch ris t ie
Brinkle y, and t h e lo we r middle clas s by Pat rick
Swayze andSuzanne So me rs .
Cult ural cat e go rie s o f ge nde r andage are als o re pre -
s e nt e din t h e ce le brit y e ndo rs e r. One e xt re me re pre -
s e nt at io no f male ne s s is e s t ablis h e dby t h e like s o f Syl-
ve s t e r St allo ne , t h e o t h e r by t h e like s o f Dick Cave t t .
Ranging be t we e n t h e mare Hulk Ho gan, Arno ld
Sch warze ne gge r, BrianBo zwo rt h , Fre dDrye r, To ny
Danza, St ace y Ke ach , Paul Ne wman, Pat rick Duf f y,
Timo t h y Hut t o n, Bo b Ne wh art , To ny Randall, and
Je re my Bre t t . Fo r wo me n, Lo ni Ande rs o n and Si-
go urne y W e ave r re pre s e nt t h e e xt re me s o f t h e co nt in-
uumo f t h e ir ge nde r. Ranging be t we e n t h e mare
Ch e ryl Ladd, Vict o ria Principal, Ch e ryl Tie gs , Pam
Dawbe r, Kat e Jacks o n, andJane Se ymo ur. Age cat e -
go rie s range f ro mt h e milit ant ly yo ut h f ul Pe e W e e
He rmant o t h e pre mat ure ly ancie nt Danny De Vit o ,
o r f ro mt h e callo w yo ut h re pre s e nt e dinJudge Re in-
h o ldt o t h e wis do mgaine dby age in E.G. Mars h all.
Th e s e age cat e go rie s are s ubje ct t o ch ange , as Gary
Co le manandAnge la Lans bury h ave re ce nt ly de mo n-
s t rat e d.
I naddit io nt o t h e s e de mo graph ic cat e go rie s , t h e ce -
le brit y wo rld als o co nt ains a range o f pe rs o nalit y
t ype s . Th e curmudge o n is re pre s e nt e dby Edward
As ne r, t h e rake by Jo h nLarro que t t e , t h e irrit able in-
co mpe t e nt by Jo h n Cle e s e , t h e be wilde re dalie n by
Bro ns o nPinch e t , t h e go o dh e art e ddimwit by W o o dy
Harre ls o n, t h e irre pre s s ibly impude nt by Trace y Ul-
mann, t h e indis criminat e ly jo lly by Ed McMah o n,
t h e iras cible by DavidLe t t e rman, t h e blandly agre e -
able by Gary Co llins , ands o o n.
Th e ce le brit y wo rldals o o f f e rs a range o f lif e s t yle
t ype s . Th e quint e s s e nt ial yuppie is pe rh aps EdOlin
o f "Th irt ys o me t h ing." Th e s t e re o t ypic yo ung pro f e s -
s io nal wo man was o nce Mary Tyle r Mo o re and is
no w, pe rh aps , PamDawbe r. Th e pe rf e ct Dad was
o nce Ro be rt Yo ung andno w may be Mich ae l Gro s s
o r Bill Co s by. Th e pe rf e ct prince s s is re pre s e nt e dby
De lt a Burke o f "De s igning W o me n," t h e wo rking
clas s h e ro by Carro ll O'Co nno r, t h e mano f wis do m
ande xpe rie nce by DavidBrinkle y o r Ch arle s Ke rault .
He re , t o o , t h e range and de pt h o f re pre s e nt at io nis
e xt e ns ive .
Th is re vie w o ve rs implif ie s ce le brit y me anings .
Eve n t h e mo s t h e avily s t e re o t ype dce le brit y re pre -
s e nt s no t a s ingle me aning, but anint e rco nne ct e ds e t
o f me anings . Ch e r o f f e rs a us e f ul cas e in po int . I t is
po s s ible t o lo cat e h e r o nall t h e dime ns io ns no t e d. Sh e
is lo w t o middle clas s in h e r s t at us me aning, lo cat e d
t o wardt h e "h o t " e ndo f t h e ge nde r co nt inuum, and
cle arly yo ut h f ul inat t it ude if no t age . Th e pe rs o nalit y
is e xt ro ve rt e dando ut s po ke n, t h e lif e s t yle o pe n, f re e -
wh e e ling, andalt e rnat ive . But , plainly, no ne o f t h e s e
dime ns io ns by it s e lf capt ure s t h e me anings wit h
wh ich Ch e r is ch arge do r, mo re impo rt ant ly, t h e e s -
s e nt ial co nf igurat io no f me anings s h e brings t o t h e e n-
do rs e me nt pro ce s s . Fo r t h is , it is ne ce s s ary t o ch arac-
t e rize t h e wh o le pe rs o n. Ch e r is h ip, ris k t aking, indi-
vidualis t ic, s e ns ual, s e xual, e xpre s s ive , irre ve re nt ,
and libe rat e d. I t is t h is large r package o f me anings
playing o f f o ne ano t h e r t h at de f ine s Ch e r. Th e s e
me anings e nt e r int o t h e e ndo rs e me nt pro ce s s wh e n
Ch e r s pe aks , f o r ins t ance , f o r Baly-Mat rix h e alt h
clubs o r h e r o wnpe rf ume .
Th e s e , t h e n, are s o me o f t h e me anings co nt aine din
t h e ce le brit y wo rld. Th e y are re vie we dh e re in a cur-
s o ry, undo cume nt e d way. An e xact as s e s s me nt o f
t h e s e me anings await s e mpirical s t udy andt h e o re t i-
cal de ve lo pme nt . But e no ugh h as be e n s aidt o indi-
cat e t h at t h e ce le brit y wo rldis s o me t h ing rich e r and
mo re co mplicat e dt h ana co lle ct io n o f me re ly cre di-
ble o r at t ract ive individuals .
I t is , I wo uld argue , pre cis e ly t h e me anings o f t h e
ce le brit y t h at make s h imo r h e r s o us e f ul t o t h e e n-
do rs e me nt pro ce s s . Fo r an e ndo rs e me nt s ucce e ds
wh e nanas s o ciat io nis f as h io ne dbe t we e nt h e cult ural
me anings o f t h e ce le brit y wo rld, o nt h e o ne h and, and
t h e e ndo rs e dpro duct , o nt h e o t h e r. No t all e ndo rs e -
me nt s s ucce e din t h is t rans f e r. I nde e d, s o me are t o o
uns o ph is t icat e de ve nt o unde rt ake it . But t h e be s t e n-
do rs e me nt s t ake t h e ir po we r and t h e ir e f f icacy pre -
cis e ly f ro mt h is : t h e s ucce s s f ul t rans f e r o f me aning.
Fo r e xample , Jame s Garne r's e ndo rs e me nt o f
Mazda s ucce e ds wh e na t rans f e r t ake s place be t we e n
h is pe rs o na andt h e Mazda line . I t s ucce e ds wh e nt h e
qualit ie s o f mat urit y, Ame ricanne s s , co nf ide nce ,
go o dh umo r, anda ce rt ainkindo f male ne s s are made
t h e qualit ie s o f t h e Mazda ve h icle . Th e e ndo rs e me nt
s ucce e ds , in o t h e r wo rds , wh e nt h e pro pe rt ie s o f t h e
manare made t h e pro pe rt ie s o f t h e car.
MEANI NG TRANSFER: THE
GENERAL PROCESS
Ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt is , inf act , a s pe cial ins t ance
o f a mo re ge ne ral pro ce s s o f me aning t rans f e r. I h ave
de s cribe dt h is ge ne ral pro ce s s e ls e wh e re in s o me de -
t ail (McCracke n 1986, 1988) and re vie w it o nly
brie f ly h e re . Acco rding t o t h is mo de l, t h e re is a co n-
ve nt io nal pat h f o r t h e mo ve me nt o f cult ural me aning
in co ns ume r s o cie t ie s . Me aning be gins as s o me t h ing
re s ide nt in t h e cult urally co ns t it ut e d wo rld (Mc-
Cracke n1988, pp. 72-73), int h e ph ys ical ands o cial
wo rldco ns t it ut e dby t h e cat e go rie s andprinciple s o f
t h e pre vailing cult ure . Me aning t h e n mo ve s t o co n-
s ume r go o ds andf inally t o t h e lif e o f t h e co ns ume r.
Se ve ral ins t rume nt s f acilit at e t h is t rans f e r. Th e
mo ve me nt o f me anings f ro mt h e cult urally co ns t i-
t ut e d wo rldt o co ns ume r go o ds is acco mplis h e dby
adve rt is ing and t h e f as h io n s ys t e m. Th e mo ve me nt
o f me anings f ro mco ns ume r go o ds t o t h e individual
co ns ume r is acco mplis h e dt h ro ugh t h e e f f o rt s o f t h e
co ns ume r. Th us do e s me aning circulat e in t h e co n-
s ume r s o cie t y.
Adve rt is ing s e rve s as an ins t rume nt o f me aning
t rans f e r ina de ce pt ive ly s imple manne r. Th e t rans f e r
pro ce s s be gins wh e nt h e adve rt is e r ide nt if ie s t h e cul-
t ural me anings int e nde df o r t h e pro duct (i.e ., t h e t ype
o f ge nde r, s t at us , age , lif e s t yle , t ime , andplace me an-
ings ). Or, mo re t e ch nically, t h e adve rt is e r de t e rmine s
wh ich o f t h e "cat e go rie s " and"principle s " o f cult ure
pe rt ain (McCracke n1988, pp. 73-77). I n t h e lan-
guage o f curre nt adve rt is ing pract ice , t h e adve rt is e r
de cide s wh at h e o r s h e wis h e s t h e pro duct t o s ay.
Once t h is ch o ice h as be e nmade , t h e adve rt is e r s ur-
ve ys t h e cult urally co ns t it ut e dwo rldf o r t h e o bje ct s ,
pe rs o ns , andco nt e xt s t h at alre ady co nt ain andgive
vo ice t o t h e s e me dnings . Th e s e e le me nt s e nable t h e
adve rt is e r t o bring t h e s e le ct e dcult ural me anings int o
t h e adve rt is e me nt invis ible , co ncre t e f o rm. Ho we ve r,
t h e adve rt is e r mus t po rt ray t h e e le me nt s and t h e
pro duct wit h co ns ummat e care ands kill. Th is care is
ne ce s s ary f o r t wo re as o ns . Firs t , e le me nt s co me
ch arge dwit h mo re me anings t h anare want e df o r t h e
pro duct s o t h e adve rt is e r mus t e vo ke s o me , but no t
all, o f t h e me anings o f t h e e le me nt s . Se co nd, e le me nt s
andpro duct mus t be pre s e nt e dins uch a way t h at t h e
s imilarit y be t we e nt h e ms ugge s t s it s e lf irre s is t ibly t o
t h e vie we r. Th is pre cis e co mbinat io no f e le me &nt s and
pro duct s e t t h e s t age f o r t h e t rans f e r o f me aning f ro m
t h e pro duct t o t h e co ns ume r. I mpre cis e o r uns o ph is -
t icat e dco mbinat io ns dis co urage it .
No t e t h at t h e re is no ne ce s s ary o r mo t ivat e dre la-
t io ns h ip be t we e nt h e me anings andt h e pro duct . I t is
no t t h e cas e t h at ch o co lat e s canbe give no nly ce rt ain
me anings wh ile t e nnis racque t s canbe give no nly o t h -
e rs . Any pro duct can carry virt ually any me aning.
Ce rt ainly, go o ds le ndt h e ms e lve s t o part icular me an-
ings (e .g., ch o co lat e s and s o cial s e nt ime nt ), but ad-
ve rt is ing is s uch a po we rf ul me ch anis mo f me aning
t rans f e r t h at virt ually any pro duct can be made t o
t ake virt ually any me aning. Th is pro pe rt y o f me aning
t rans f e r is s t ill ano t h e r re as o nf o r t aking s pe cial care
int h e s e le ct io no f ce rt ainme anings . Th e t rans f e r pro -
ce s s mus t be care f ully co nt ro lle d.
W h ich me anings are ch o s e nf o r t h e pro duct will de -
pe ndo nt h e marke t ing planandt h e s o ph is t icat io no f
clie nt , acco unt e xe cut ive , re s e arch gro up, and cre -
at ive t e am. Ho w we ll me anings are re pre s e nt e dinand
manipulat e dby t h e adve rt is e me nt will de pe ndinpar-
t icular o nt h e cre at ive dire ct o r andh is o r h e r s t af f . But
t h e f inal act o f me aning t rans f e r is pe rf o rme dby t h e
co ns ume r, wh o mus t glimps e ina mo me nt o f re co gni-
t io n ane s s e nt ial s imilarit y be t we e nt h e e le me nt s and
t h e pro duct int h e ad. Th e co ns ume r s udde nly "s e e s "
t h at t h e cult ural me anings co nt aine din t h e pe o ple ,
o bje ct s , and co nt e xt s o f t h e adve rt is e me nt are als o
co nt aine d in t h e pro duct . W e ll-craf t e d adve rt is e -
me nt s e nable t h is e s s e nt ially me t aph o ric t rans f e r-
e nce . Badly craf t e dadve rt is e me nt s do no t .
Once me anings h ave be e nmo ve dint o go o ds , t h e y
mus t als o be mo ve d int o co ns ume rs . Co ns ume rs
mus t t ake po s s e s s io no f t h e s e me anings andput t h e m
t o wo rk int h e co ns t ruct io no f t h e ir no t io ns o f t h e s e lf
andt h e wo rld. Th e y mus t craf t ands h ape t h e s e me an-
ings t o f ulf ill t h e s t rat e gie s o f me aning manipulat io n
wit h wh ich t h e y h ave co ns t ruct e dt h e ir live s . Co n-
s ume rs are co ns t ant ly f inding ge nde r, clas s , age , lif e -
s t yle , t ime , andplace me anings in t h e ir po s s e s s io ns ,
and us ing t h e s e me anings t o f as h io n as pe ct s o f t h e
s e lf . Th e y are co ns t ant ly t aking po s s e s s io no f cult ural
principle s in co ns ume r go o ds t h at h e lp de f ine and
f as h io nt h e h o me , t h e f amily, ando t h e r as pe ct s o f t h e
wo rld in wh ich t h e y live . Co ns ume rs t urn t o t h e ir
go o ds no t o nly as bundle s o f ut ilit y wit h wh ich t o
s e rve f unct io ns ands at is f y ne e ds , but als o as bundle s
o f me aning wit h wh ich t o f as h io nwh o t h e y are and
t h e wo rldin wh ich t h e y live (Be lk 1988). W h e nt h is
is do ne , t h e mo ve me nt o f me aning is co mple t e . Th e
me aning t h at be gan in t h e cult urally co ns t it ut e d
wo rldh as f inally co me t o re s t in t h e lif e ande xpe ri-
e nce o f t h e co ns ume r. Th e cult ural circuit is co m-
ple t e .
Th us , in ge ne ral t e rms , do cult ure andco ns ump-
t io nint e ract t o cre at e a s ys t e mo f me aning mo ve me nt
in co nt e mpo rary s o cie t ie s . I h ave give njus t o ne ac-
co unt o f t h is pro ce s s (McCracke n1986, 1988). Re ad-
e rs may wis h t o co ns ult o t h e r acco unt s o f t h is me an-
ing pro ce s s (Adams 1973; Ho lman 1980; Le vy 1959,
1981; Mick 1986; Pro wn 1980; St e rn 1988; W alle n-
do rf andArno uld 1988), h o w it is us e d(Ame s 1982;
Appadurai 1986; Be lk 1988; Cs iks ze nt mih alyi and
Ro ch be rg-Halt o n1981; So lo mo n 1983), h o w it e n-
t e rs int o t h e marke t ing s ys t e m(Do uglas and I s h e r-
wo o d 1978; Go t t die ne r 1985; Hirs ch manand Ho l-
bro o k 1981), andh o w it migh t be s t be s t udie d(Pro wn
1982; Sh e rry 1989; Umike r-Se be o k andLe vy 1987).
MEANI NG TRANSFER: THE
CELEBRI TY ENDORSER'S
CONTRI BUTI ON
Ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt plays a crucial part in t h e
me aning t rans f e r pro ce s s jus t de s cribe d. As t h e Figure
s h o ws , t h e me aning t h at be gins int h e dramat ic ro le s
o f t h e ce le brit y co me s , in St age 1, t o re s ide int h e ce -
le brit ie s t h e ms e lve s . I nSt age 2, t h is me aning is t rans -
f e rre dwh e n t h e ce le brit y e nt e rs int o an adve rt is e -
me nt wit h a pro duct . So me o f t h e me anings o f t h e ce -
le brit y are no w t h e me anings o f t h e pro duct . I nt h e
f inal s t age , t h e me aning mo ve s f ro mt h e pro duct t o
t h e co ns ume r. Ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt make s a ve ry
part icular co nt ribut io nt o e ach o f t h e s e t h re e s t age s .
St age 1
Endo rs e me nt give s t h e adacce s s t o a s pe cial cat e -
go ry o f pe rs o nf ro mt h e cult urally co ns t it ut e dwo rld.
I t make s available individuals ch arge dwit h de t aile d
and po we rf ul me anings . Ce le brit ie s are , in t h is re -
FI GURE
MEANI NG MOVEMENTANDTHEENDORSEMENTPROCESS
Cult ure Endo rs e me nt Co ns umpt io n
o bje ct s o
pe rs o ns ce le brit y ce e rt rdc pro duct SI co ns ume r
co nt e xt
ro le 1
2
St age
1 St age
2 St age
3
Ke y: = pat h o f me aning mo ve me nt
D] = s t age o f me aning mo ve me nt
s pe ct , ve ry dif f e re nt f ro mt h e ano nymo us mo de ls (o r
ano nymo us act o rs ) wh o are no rmally us e d t o bring
me anings t o t h e ad. Ce le brit ie s de live r me anings o f
e xt ra s ubt le t y, de pt h , andpo we r.
Th e - co nt ras t be t we e n ce le brit ie s and mo de ls is
wo rt h de ve lo ping. I t is cle ar e no ugh t h at adve rt is e -
me nt s can unde rt ake me aning t rans f e r wit h o ut t h e
aido f ce le brit ie s . Ano nymo us act o rs andmo de ls are
ch arge dwit h me aning, and, o bvio us ly, t h e y are avail-
able at a f ract io no f t h e co s t . I nde e d, f o r mo s t adve r-
t is ing purpo s e s , t h e me anings t h at canbe "impo rt e d"
t h ro ugh anano nymo us mo de l are pe rf e ct ly s uf f icie nt .
Th e que s t io n, t h e n, is wh y ce le brit ie s s h o uldbe us e d
f o r anad. Ho w do e s t h e ce le brit y "addvalue " t o t h e
me aning t rans f e r pro ce s s ?W h at s pe cial po we rs and
pro pe rt ie s do e s t h e ce le brit y bring t o t h e adve rt is e -
me nt , t o t h e pro duct , and, ult imat e ly, t h e co ns ume r?
Ano nymo us mo de ls o f f e r de mo graph ic inf o rma-
t io n, s uch as dis t inct io ns o f ge nde r, age , ands t at us ,
but t h e s e us e f ul me anings are re lat ive ly impre cis e
and blunt . Ce le brit ie s o f f e r all t h e s e me anings wit h
s pe cial pre cis io n. Furt h e rmo re , ce le brit ie s o f f e r a
range o f pe rs o nalit y andlif e s t yle me anings t h at t h e
mo de l canno t pro vide . Finally, ce le brit ie s o f f e r co n-
f igurat io ns o f me aning t h at mo de ls canne ve r po s s e s s .
No me re mo de l co uldbring t o Baly-Mat rix t h e pro p-
e rt ie s t h at Ch e r de live rs , no r co uld any mo de l h ave
s ummo ne dt h e impat ie nt , t ime -t e s t e dint e grit y Jo h n
Ho us e man gave t h e Smit h Barne y line "W e make
mo ne y t h e o ld-f as h io ne d way, we e arn it ." Only a
manplaying Ho us e man's ro le s int h e way Ho us e man
playe dt h e mco ulde mpo we r t h e s lo ganas Ho us e man
did. Ce le brit ie s h ave part icular co nf igurat io ns o f
me anings t h at canno t be f o unde ls e wh e re .
I n addit io n, ce le brit ie s are mo re po we rf ul me dia
t h anano nymo us mo de ls andact o rs . Eve nwh e nt h e y
de live r me anings t h at can be f o und e ls e wh e re , t h e y
de live r t h e mmo re po we rf ully. Ce le brit ie s e vo ke t h e
me anings int h e ir pe rs o na wit h gre at e r vividne s s and
clarit y. Mo de ls andact o rs are , af t e r all, me re ly "bo r-
ro wing" o r act ing o ut t h e me anings t h e y bring t o t h e
ad. Th e ce le brit y, h o we ve r, s pe aks wit h me anings o f
lo ng acquaint ance . Ce le brit ie s "o wn" t h e ir me anings
be caus e t h e y h ave cre at e dt h e mo n t h e public s t age
by dint o f int e ns e andre pe at e dpe rf o rmance . Audre y
He pburn de live rs "e le gance " much mo re vividly
t h an e ve n t h e mo s t e le gant mo de l. Sh e do e s s o be -
caus e s h e h as e nact e dandabs o rbe dt h is e le gance by
pe rf o rming it o ns t age ands cre e n.
Ce le brit ie s draw t h e s e po we rf ul me anings f ro mt h e
ro le s t h e y as s ume int h e ir t e le vis io n, mo vie , milit ary,
at h le t ic, ando t h e r care e rs . I nde e d, t h e s e care e rs act
ve ry much like large ads , as St age 1 o f t h e Figure
s h o ws . Each ne w dramat ic ro le brings t h e ce le brit y
int o co nt act wit h a range o f o bje ct s , pe rs o ns , andco n-
t e xt s . Out o f t h e s e o bje ct s , pe rs o ns , andco nt e xt s are
t rans f e rre dme anings t h at t h e nre s ide int h e ce le brit y.
W h e nt h e ce le brit y brings t h e s e me anings int o anad,
t h e y are , in a s e ns e , me re ly pas s ing alo ng me anings
wit h wh ich t h e y h ave be e nch arge dby ano t h e r me an-
ing t rans f e r pro ce s s . Or, t o put t h is ano t h e r way, t h e
me aning t h at t h e ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt give s t o t h e
pro duct was ge ne rat e d in dis t ant mo vie pe rf o r-
mance s , po lit ical campaigns , o r at h le t ic ach ie ve -
me nt s .
I nt e re s t ingly, ce le brit ie s appe ar large ly unaware o f
t h e ir part in t h e me aning t rans f e r pro ce s s . No wh e re
is t h is be t t e r illus t rat e dt h anint h e ir co nce rnf o r t ype -
cas t ing. Act o rs s ay t h e y dis like be ing cas t re pe at e dly
int h e s ame ro le , claiming t h at t ype cas t ing limit s t h e ir
care e r andcre at ive o pt io ns . W h at t h e y do no t s e e is
t h at t h e ir care e rs , t h e ir art f o rm, andt h e e ndo rs e me nt
pro ce s s all de pe ndupo nt ype cas t ing.
Th e No rt h Ame ricanmo vie de mands t h e part icipa-
t io n o f act o rs ch arge dwit h me anings ; it ne e ds act o rs
t o bring t h e ir o wn me anings wit h t h e mt o a part .
Th e s e me anings s implif y t h e mo vie 's e xpo s it o ry t as k
andgive it s ubs t ance anddire ct io n. Bill Murray, Syl-
ve s t e r St allo ne , Mo rganFairch ild, andJo anne W o o d-
wardall carry me anings wit h t h e mf ro mro le t o ro le .
One o f t h e t ro uble s wit h unkno wn act o rs and ac-
t re s s e s is pre cis e ly t h at t h e y are unable t o carry me an-
ing int o t h e ro le t h e y are as ke dt o play.
Th e re are a f e w e xce pt io ns t o t h is pat t e rn. A f e w
act o rs andact re s s e s are "rins e d" o f me aning be t we e n
ro le s and, as a re s ult , bring a ne w pe rs o na t o e ach ne w
f ilm. Only anact re s s o f t h e calibre o f Me ryl St re e p is
capable o f e arning (ande xplo it ing) t h is privile ge . Fo r
mo s t , a mildcas e o f t ype cas t ing is no t jus t t h e co ns e -
que nce but act ually t h e ve ry caus e o f t h e ir part icipa-
t io nint h e Ho llywo o ds ys t e m.
Mo re t o t h e pre s e nt po int , it is pre cis e ly t h is t ype -
cas t ing t h at make s ce le brit ie s s o us e f ul t o t h e e ndo rs e -
me nt pro ce s s . I t is t h e accumulat e dme anings o f ce -
le brit ie s t h at make t h e ms o po t e nt a s o urce o f s ignif i-
cance . Me ryl St re e p h as limit e d value as a ce le brit y
e nd'o rs e r be caus e s h e is large ly f re e o f accumulat e d
me anings . Th e s ame may we ll be t rue o f Ge o rge C.
Sco t t . W it h o ut t ype cas t ing, act o rs are unable t o bring
cle ar and unambiguo us me anings t o t h e pro duct s
t h e y e ndo rs e . W it h o ut t ype cas t ing, t h e y h ave no
me anings t o give t h e t rans f e r pro ce s s .
St age 2
I de ally, t h e ch o ice o f part icular ce le brit ie s is bas e d
o n t h e me anings t h e y e pit o mize and o n a s o ph is t i-
cat e d marke t ing plan. I n t h e be s t o f all po s s ible
wo rlds , t h e marke t ing/adve rt is ing f irmf irs t wo uldde -
t e rmine t h e s ymbo lic pro pe rt ie s s o ugh t f o r t h e pro d-
uct (h aving de t e rmine d wh ich s ymbo lic pro pe rt ie s
are in f act s o ugh t by t h e co ns ume r). I t wo uld t h e n
co ns ult a ro s t e r o f ce le brit ie s andt h e me anings t h e y
make available , and, t aking int o acco unt budge t and
availabilit y co ns t raint s , wo uld ch o o s e t h e ce le brit y
wh o be s t re pre s e nt s t h e appro priat e s ymbo lic pro pe r-
t ie s . At pre s e nt , no ro s t e r e xis t s , s o adve rt is ing f irms
are f o rce dt o re ly o na ve ry ge ne ral re nde ring o f wh at
me anings are available t o t h e mint h e ce le brit y wo rld
andwh e re t h e s e me anings are lo cat e d.
Once t h e ce le brit y is ch o s e n, an adve rt is ing cam-
paignmus t t h e nide nt if y andde live r t h e s e me anings
t o t h e pro duct . I t mus t capt ure all t h e me anings it
wis h e s t o o bt ainf ro mt h e ce le brit y andle ave no s a-
lie nt me anings unt appe d. Furt h e rmo re , it mus t cap-
t ure o nly t h e me anings it wis h e s t o o bt ainf ro mt h e
ce le brit y. All ce le brit ie s will e nco mpas s int h e ir range
o f cult ural s ignif icance s o me me anings t h at are no t
s o ugh t f o r t h e pro duct . Care mus t be t ake n t o s e e
t h at t h e s e unwant e d me anings are ke pt o ut o f t h e
e vo ke ds e t .
Th is will be acco mplis h e dby f illing t h e adve rt is e -
me nt wit h pe o ple , o bje ct s , co nt e xt s , and co py t h at
h ave t h e s ame me anings as t h e ce le brit y. Th e s e e le -
me nt s cue , by t h e principle o f re dundancy, t h e co n-
s ume r t o t h e s alie nt me s s age . Th e y h e lp s e le ct t h e e x-
act s e t o f me anings t h at are s o ugh t f ro mt h e ce le brit y.
Th e adwill s o me t ime s o pe rat e o nt h e me anings o f
t h e ce le brit y, andmay e ve nmo de s t ly h e lp t rans f o rm
t h e m. I t is int e re s t ing t o no t e , f o r ins t ance , h o w no ve l
t re at me nt s o f Paulina Po rizko va's appe arande int h e
curre nt Es t e e Laude r "W h it e Line n" campaign"re -
po s it io ns " h e r be aut y and re de f ine s it s me aning
(W e lls 1989, p. 72). Th is campaignve ry de libe rat e ly
make s Po rizko va's be aut y mo re clas s ic, mo re e le gant ,
andt h e re f o re mo re appro priat e t o t h e Es t e e Laude r
"W h it e Line n" pro duct line . I no t h e r wo rds , anad-
ve rt is ing campaigncans o me t ime s h ave t h e e f f e ct o f a
ne w dramat ic ro le , bringing t h e ce le brit y int o co nt act
wit h s ymbo lic mat e rials t h at ch ange t h e me anings
co nt aine d in t h e ir pe rs o na. Ce le brit ie s h ave be e n
kno wnt o e xplo it t h is e f f e ct by ch o o s ing t h e ir e ndo rs e -
me nt t o t une t h e ir image . Typically, h o we ve r, t h e ad
is no t t rying t o t rans f o rmt h e me anings o f t h e ce le b-
rit y. I nmo s t circums t ance s , it s e e ks o nly t o t rans f e r
t h e m.
Finally, t h e admus t be de s igne dt o s ugge s t t h e e s -
s e nt ial s imilarit y be t we e nt h e ce le brit y andt h e pro d-
uct s o t h at t h e co ns ume r will be able t o t ake t h e las t
s t e p in t h e me aning t rans f e r pro ce s s . I n a pe rf e ct
wo rld, co py t e s t ing is t h e nus e dt o judge wh e t h e r in-
de e dt h e ads ucce e ds in t h is re gard. W h e nas s urance
is f o rt h co ming, t h e s e co nd s t age o f t rans f e r is co m-
ple t e andt h e adis put be f o re t h e co ns ume r. Th e co n-
s ume r s udde nly "s e e s " t h e s imilarit y be t we e nt h e ce -
le brit y andt h e pro duct , andis pre pare dt o acce pt t h at
t h e me anings int h e ce le brit y (by dint o f lo ng andf o nd
acquaint ance ) are in t h e pro duct . I f all h as go ne
s mo o t h ly, t h e pro pe rt ie s o f Jame s Garne r are no w t h e
pro pe rt ie s o f Mazda.
St age 3
Le t us no w co ns ide r ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt in it s
f inal s t age o f me aning t rans f e r. Ho w do e s t h e pro ce s s
o f ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt h e lp co ns ume rs ge t me an-
ings o ut o f t h e pro duct int o t h e ir live s ?Ho w, ino t h e r
wo rds , do e s an e ndo rs e me nt by Jame s Garne r h e lp
t h e pro pe rt ie s o f t h e Mazda be co me t h e pro pe rt ie s o f
t h e co ns ume r?
Co ns ume rs are co ns t ant ly canvas s ing t h e o bje ct
wo rldf o r go o ds wit h us e f ul me anings . Th e y us e t h e m
t o f urnis h ce rt ainas pe ct s o f t h e s e lf and t h e wo rld.
Th e o bje ct wo rld, as we h ave s e e n, give s t h e macce s s
t o wo rkable ide as o f ge nde r, clas s , age , pe rs o nalit y,
andlif e s t yle , inaddit io nt o cult ural principle s o f gre at
numbe r andvarie t y. Th e mat e rial wo rldo f co ns ume r
go o ds o f f e rs a vas t inve nt o ry o f po s s ible s e lve s and
t h inkable wo rlds . Co ns ume rs are co ns t ant ly rum-
maging h e re .
W e kno w t h at t h is f inal s t age o f t h e t rans f e r pro ce s s
is co mplicat e d and s o me t ime s dif f icult . I t is no t
e no ugh f o r t h e co ns ume r me re ly t o o wnano bje ct t o
t ake po s s e s s io n o f it s me anings , o r t o inco rpo rat e
t h e s e me anings int o t h e s e lf . Th e me anings o f t h e o b-
je ct do no t me re ly lif t o f f t h e o bje ct and e nt e r int o
t h e co ns ume r's co nce pt o f s e lf andwo rld. Th e re is , in
o t h e r wo rds , no aut o mat ic t rans f e r o f me aning no r
any aut o mat ic t rans f o rmat io no f t h e s e lf . Th e co n-
s ume r mus t claimt h e me anings andt h e nwo rk wit h
t h e m.
W e h ave s o me ge ne ral s e ns e t h at rit uals play anim-
po rt ant part in t h is pro ce s s . Co ns ume rs mus t claim,
e xch ange , care f o r, andus e t h e co ns ume r go o dt o ap-
pro priat e it s me anings (Ch e al 1988; McCracke n
1988; Ro o k 1985). W e kno w t h at t h e y mus t s e le ct and
co mbine t h e s e me anings ina pro ce s s o f e xpe rime nt a-
t io n(Be lk 1988; W alle ndo rf andArno uld1988). But
t h is pro ce s s is s t ill ve ry much t e rra inco gnit o f ro ma
s ch o larly po int o f vie w. Of all o f t h e t o pics int h e cul-
t ure andco ns ume r be h avio r po rt f o lio , t h is o ne is t h e
mo s t ne gle ct e d. A cult ural unde rs t anding o f ce le brit y
e ndo rs e me nt illuminat e s t h is lit t le kno wnt e rrain.
Ce le brit ie s play a ro le int h e f inal s t age o f me aning
t rans f e r be caus e t h e y h ave cre at e dt h e s e lf . Th e y h ave
do ne s o publicly, in t h e f irs t s t age o f t h e me aning
t rans f e r pro ce s s , o ut o f bit s andpie ce s o f e ach ro le
int h e ir care e rs . All t h e wo rldh as wat ch e dt h e mt ake
s h ape . Fro mdarke ne d t h e at e rs , co ns ume rs h ave
lo o ke do n as ce le brit ie s h ave s e le ct e dandco mbine d
t h e me anings co nt aine d in t h e o bje ct s , pe o ple , and
e ve nt s aro undt h e m. Th e s e lf s o cre at e dis almo s t al-
ways at t ract ive and acco mplis h e d. Ce le brit ie s build
s e lve s we ll.
Th e co ns t ruct e ds e lf make s t h e ce le brit y a kindo f
e xe mplary, ins pirat io nal f igure t o t h e co ns ume r.
Co ns ume rs are t h e ms e lve s co ns t ant ly mo ving s ym-
bo lic pro pe rt ie s o ut o f co ns ume r go o ds int o t h e ir live s
t o co ns t ruct as pe ct s o f s e lf and wo rld. No t s urpris -
ingly, t h e y admire individuals wh o h ave acco m-
plis h e dt h is t as k andacco mplis h e dit we ll. Ce le brit ie s
are pro o f t h at t h e pro ce s s wo rks . Ce le brit ie s h ave
be e nwh e re t h e co ns ume r is go ing. Th e y h ave do ne in
St age 1 wh at t h e co ns ume r is no w labo ring t o do in
St age 3 o f t h e me aning t rans f e r pro ce s s . Or, t o put t h is
ano t h e r way, co ns ume rs are all labo ring t o pe rf o rm
t h e ir o wn St age 1 co ns t ruct io no f t h e s e lf o ut o f t h e
me anings s upplie dby pre vio us andpre s e nt ro le s and
t h e me anings acce s s ible t o t h e mt h e re .
But t h is is mo re t h anjus t a f o rmal paralle l be t we e n
ce le brit ie s andco ns ume rs inSt age s 1 and3. Th e co n-
s ume r do e s no t re ve re t h e ce le brit y me re ly be caus e
t h e ce le brit y h as do ne wh at t h e co ns ume r want s t o do ,
but als o be caus e t h e ce le brit y act ually s upplie s ce r-
t ain me anings t o t h e co ns ume r. Ce le brit ie s cre at e a
s e lf o ut o f t h e e le me nt s put at t h e ir dis po s al in dra-
mat ical ro le s , f as h io ning cult ural me anings int o a
pract icable f o rm. W h e nt h e y e nt e r t h e e ndo rs e me nt
pro ce s s , t h e y make t h e s e me anings available inmat e -
rial f o rmt o t h e co ns ume r. Co ns ume rs are grat e f ul f o r
t h e s e me anings andke e nt o builda s e lf f ro mt h e m.
Th e ce le brit y is s upplying no t jus t ane xample o f s e lf -
cre at io n, but t h e ve ry s t uf f wit h wh ich t h is dif f icult act
is unde rt ake n.
Le t us re t urnt o t h e Jame s Garne r e xample o nce
mo re . Co ns ume rs h ave wat ch e dJame s Garne r f as h -
io n wh at Sch uds o ncalls t h e "f ict ive s e lf " o ut o f t h e
o bje ct s , e ve nt s , andco nt e xt s o f h is s cre e nlif e . Garne r
h as give nt h e ma dramat ic e xample o f t h e ve ry act in
wh ich co ns ume rs are t h e ms e lve s e ngage d. Furt h e r-
mo re , Garne r h as put us e f ul andint e re s t ing me anings
at t h e ir dis po s al. He h as give nt h e ma vivid, we ll-o rga-
nize dand"pe rf o rmable " s e lf . Th is f ilmpe rs o na (and
it s s ucce s s o r in t h e t e le vis io n wo rld, Th o mas Mag-
num) o f f e rs a s e lf t h at is capable but o ccas io nally in-
co mpe t e nt , f o rt h righ t but unas s uming, andalmo s t al-
ways t h e mas t e r o f h is f at e (e xce pt wh e n co ns pire d
agains t by a co mically o r o t h e rwis e impe rf e ct ly ma-
le vo le nt f o rce ). Th e Garne r s e lf is dive rs e , balance d,
and, mo s t o f all, wo rkable .
But t h e re is a s e co nd, in s o me ways mo re int e re s t -
ing, way inwh ich ce le brit ie s play t h e ro le o f a "s upe r
co ns ume r." Th is o ccurs wh e nt h e f ilmpe rs o na o f t h e
ce le brit y co ns is t s no t me re ly int h e pre s e nt at io no f an
int e re s t ing f ilmpe rs o na but act ually in t h e cre at io n
o f a s e lf t h at is ne w andinno vat ive . Mo s t f ilms t ars
bring t o t h e s cre e na s e lf , cut wh o le clo t h , f ro mt h e
s t andardAme ricanpe rs o nalit y inve nt o ry. But t h e re
are a f e w wh o h ave unde rt ake na much mo re dif f icult
and cre at ive inno vat io n in wh ich pe rs o nalit y e le -
me nt s are cre at e do r dramat ically re co nf igure d.
I nt h is h igh ly cre at ive mo de , t h e ce le brit y be co me s
a kindo f e xpe rime nt ins e lf -co ns t ruct io n. Th is make s
t h e ce le brit y ve ry po we rf ul inde e d. He o r s h e h as be -
co me aninve nt o r o f a ne w s e lf t h e co ns ume r canus e .
A go o de xample o f s uch anact o f s e lf -inve nt io nis t h e
ch aract e r po rt raye dby Bruce W illis in t h e s e rie s ,
"Mo o nligh t ing." W illis inve nt e d a ve rs io no f male -
ne s s , a way o f int e ract ing wit h o t h e rs (no t t h e le as t
o f wh o mwas a f e male s upe ro rdinat e ), anda po s t ure
t o wardt h e wo rldt h at h o lds e no rmo us appe al f o r ce r-
t ain co ns ume rs . I n h is cre at io n o f David Addis o n,
W illis put us e f ul me anings at t h e dis po s al o f t h e co n-
s ume r. I na s e ns e , h e pro duct -t e s t e dno t io ns o f t h e s e lf
f o r a gro up o f co ns ume rs wh o are t h e ms e lve s e ngage d
in an act o f e xpe rime nt at io n. Co ns ume rs pe rce ive
t h at W illis is wo rking o na s e lf andis wit h in"s pit t ing
dis t ance " (as h is s cre e npe rs o na migh t s ay) o f acco m-
plis h ing t h is s e lf . Co ns ume rs e ngage dina s imilar pro -
ce s s are grat e f ul f o r bo t h t h e e xample andt h e po int -
e rs . I t is pre cis e ly t h is e xe mplary s t at us , andt h e no ve l
me anings co nt aine d in W illis 's pe rs o na, t h at make
h ima co mpe lling e ndo rs e r f o r Se agram's wine co o le rs
(Gabo r, Th o rt o n, andW ie ne r 1987).
Th e ce le brit y wo rldis , t o t h is e xt e nt , a re almo f e x-
pe rime nt at io nin wh ich act o rs s o me t ime s do mo re
t h anme re ly play o ut cult ural cat e go rie s andprinci-
ple s . So me t ime s t h e y als o e ngage in inno vat io n, as
wh e nBe a Art h ur cre at e s ne w no t io ns o f t h e e lde rly,
t h e s t ars o f "Family Tie s " wo rk o ut ce rt ainno t io ns
o f t h e f amily, andro ck andro ll s t ars inve nt andre in-
ve nt t h e ado le s ce nt s e lf . Th is e xpe rime nt at io nmake s
t h e ce le brit y ane s pe cially po t e nt s o urce o f me aning
f o r t h e marke t ing s ys t e manda guide t o t h e pro ce s s
o f s e lf -inve nt io ninwh ich all co ns ume rs are e ngage d.
Ce le brit ie s s e rve t h e f inal s t age o f me aning t rans f e r
be caus e t h e y are "s upe r co ns ume rs " o f a kind. Th e y
are e xe mplary f igure s be caus e t h e y are s e e n t o h ave
cre at e dt h e cle ar, co h e re nt , andpo we rf ul s e lve s t h at
e ve ryo ne s e e ks . Th e y are co mpe lling part ne rs t o t h e
me aning t rans f e r pro ce s s be caus e t h e y de mo ns t rat e
s o vividly t h e pro ce s s by wh ich t h e s e me anings canbe
as s e mble dands o me o f t h e no ve l s h ape s int o wh ich
t h e y canbe as s e mble d.
But wh o re ally ne e ds t h e me anings cre at e dby ce -
le brit ie s ?W e kno w t h at t h e re are ce rt aingro ups e s pe -
cially ke e no nus ing t h e m. So lo mo n (1983) o bs e rve d
t h at anyo ne unde rgo ing any s o rt o f ro le ch ange o r s t a-
t us mo bilit y is e s pe cially de pe nde nt o nt h e me anings
o f t h e ir po s s e s s io ns . McCracke n(1987b) h as t rie dt o
s h o w t h e impo rt ance o f t h is me aning t o t h o s e wh o are
mo ving f ro mo ne age cat e go ry t o ano t h e r. O'Guinne t
al. (1985) h ave po int e do ut t h at t h o s e wh o are ne wly
arrive dt o a cult ure are als o h e avily inde bt e dt o t h e
me anings co nt aine dint h e co ns ume r s o cie t y andt h e
ce le brit y wo rld.
But it h as als o be e n as s e rt e dt h at e ve ryo ne in a
mo de rn, de ve lo pe d s o cie t y is unde rs pe cif ie din t h is
s e ns e . As Be lk (1984) andSah lins (1976) h ave argue d,
mo de rnW e s t e rns e lve s are de libe rat e ly le f t blank s o
t h at t h e individual may e xe rcis e t h e righ t o f ch o ice .
Als o pe rt ine nt is t h e re lat ive co llaps e o f ins t it ut io ns
t h at o nce s upplie dt h e s e lf wit h me aning andde f ini-
t io n (e .g., t h e f amily, t h e ch urch , t h e co mmunit y).
W o rking t o ge t h e r, individualis mandalie nat io nh ave
co ns pire dt o give individuals ne w f re e do mt o de f ine
mat t e rs o f ge nde r, clas s , age , pe rs o nalit y, and lif e -
s t yle . Th e f re e do mt o ch o o s e is no w als o ano bligat io n
t o de cide , andt h is make s us e s pe cially e age r co ns um-
e rs o f t h e s ymbo lic me anings co nt aine dince le brit ie s
andt h e go o ds t h e y e ndo rs e .
Th is , in bro adde t ail, s ugge s t s h o w ce le brit y e n-
do rs e me nt o pe rat e s as a pro ce s s o f me aning t rans f e r.
W e h ave re vie we de ach o f t h e t h re e s t age s o f t h is pro -
ce s s , co ns ide ring int urnh o w me aning mo ve s int o t h e
pe rs o na o f t h e ce le brit y, h o w it t h e nmo ve s f ro mt h e
ce le brit y int o t h e pro duct , and, f inally, h o w it mo ve s
f ro mt h e pro duct int o t h e co ns ume r. Ce le brit ie s are ,
by t h is acco unt , ke y playe rs int h e me anings t rans f e r
pro ce s s .
THEREAL CONSUMER SOCI ETY
Th is dis cus s io no f t h e cult ural as pe ct s o f ce le brit y
e ndo rs e me nt e nable s us t o addre s s o ne o r t wo large r
is s ue s in t h e f ie ldo f co ns ume r re s e arch . Mo re pre -
cis e ly, it carrie s large r implicat io ns f o r t h e de bat e t h at
no w rage s abo ut t h e nat ure o f t h e co ns ume r s o cie t y.
One part y t o t h is de bat e argue s t h at t h e co ns ume r s o -
cie t y e nco urage s lo w art is t ic s t andards , mat e rialis t ic
pre o ccupat io ns , and an af f e ct io nf o r t h e t rivial and
unimpo rt ant (e .g., Barno uw 1978; Ewe n1976; Las ch
1979; Po llay 1986). Th e co ns ume r s o cie t y h as be e n
de clare dt h e do maino f t h e Ph ilis t ine .
Th e No rt h Ame rican pre o ccupat io n wit h mo vie
s t ars is a f avo rit e t arge t (Ewe n 1988, pp. 92-100).
No rt h Ame rica is accus e d o f h aving a t rivially
minde df as cinat io nwit h t h e af f airs o f t h e rich andf a-
mo us . Th is f as cinat io n is cit e d as e vide nce o f t h e
de pt h s t o wh ich po pular cult ure is de s t ine dt o f all, t h e
bankrupt cy o f No rt h Ame ricanlif e , andt h e s h allo w-
ne s s o f t h e individual wh o live s t h e re in.
Th e s e argume nt s are , no do ubt , ve ry s at is f ying
f ro ma po lit ical andpo le mical po int o f vie w, but t h e y
do no t re cko nve ry we ll wit h t h e cult ural re alit ie s o f
t h e ce le brit y wo rldas de s cribe dh e re . Th e s e crit icis ms
f ail t o s e e t h at Ho llywo o d, t h e s t ar s ys t e m, and'ce le b-
rit y e ndo rs e me nt are all pro f o undly cult ural e nt e r-
pris e s andt h at o ur f as cinat io nwit h ce le brit ie s re f le ct s
o ur invo lve me nt int h e me aning t rans f e r s ys t e mt h e y
acco mplis h .
Th e ce le brit y wo rld is o ne o f t h e mo s t po t e nt
s o urce s o f cult ural me aning at t h e dis po s al o f t h e mar-
ke t ing s ys t e mand t h e individual co ns ume r. I t is ,
t h e re f o re , no t at all s urpris ing t h at we s h o uld care
abo ut ce le brit ie s andt h e live s t h e y le ad. I t wo uldbe
much mo re s urpris ing if we we re indif f e re nt and
s o me h o w abo ve anint e re s t in t h e wo rldo f t h e s t ars .
As all o f us labo r t o f as h io nmanage able s e lve s , it is
ine vit able t h at we s h o uld cult ivat e a kno wle dge o f
t h is wo rld. Mo re plainly, No rt h Ame ricans are no t
"s t ar-crazy," but rat h e r me re ly act ive co ns ume rs o f
t h e me anings t h at are made available by t h e ce le brit y
wo rld.
Th e re is inde e da de licat e andt h o ro ugh go ing re la-
t io ns h ip be t we e nt h e cult ure , t h e e nt e rt ainme nt in-
dus t ry, andt h e marke t ing s ys t e min mo de rnNo rt h
Ame rica. W e are be ginning t o unde rs t andwh at t h is
re lat io ns h ip is andh o w it wo rks . W e mus t h o pe t h at
t h e f irs t vict ims o f t h is e me rging unde rs t anding will
be t h e glib as s e rt io ns t h at ch aract e rize No rt h Ame ri-
cans o cie t y as t h o ugh t le s s ly mat e rialis t ic, andNo rt h
Ame rican co ns ume rs as t h e narcis s is t ic, s imple -
minde d, manipulat e dplayt h ings o f t h e marke t place .
Ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt andt h e marke t ing s ys t e mare
cult ural unde rt akings inwh ich me aning is co ns t ant ly
incirculat io n. As we be gint o re nde r a mo re s o ph is t i-
cat e dacco unt o f h o w t h e s e s ys t e ms wo rk, we will be -
gint o s e e t h at No rt h Ame ricancult ure andco mme rce
are mo re int e re s t ing andmo re s o ph is t icat e dt h anit s
crit ics h ave gue s s e d.
FUTURE RESEARCH
Th e cult ural pe rs pe ct ive s ugge s t s t h re e ave nue s o f
re s e arch . Th e f irs t o f t h e s e is a t h o ro ugh as s e s s me nt
o f h o w me anings mo ve in t h e ce le brit y wo rld. W e
kno w t h at e ach ro le , e ve nt , o r acco mplis h me nt int h e
care e r o f t h e ce le brit y ch ange s t h e me anings o f t h e ce -
le brit y, but we do no t kno w pre cis e ly h o w t h is t ake s
place . W e do no t kno w wh at t h e pre cis e re lat io ns h ip
is be t we e nt h e ro le , e ve nt , andacco mplis h me nt , o n
t h e o ne h and, andt h e ce le brit y, o nt h e o t h e r. No r do
we kno w h o w me aning t rans f e rs f ro mo ne t o t h e
o t h e r. W e ne e da pre cis e ide a o f h o w me anings co me
t o e xis t ince le brit ie s .
Th e f irs t ave nue o f re s e arch h as a me t h o do lo gical
co mpo ne nt as we ll. W e ne e dan ins t rume nt t h at al-
lo ws us t o de t e rmine me t h o do lo gically t h e me anings
t h at adh e re ince le brit ie s . W e kno w t h at t h e me anings
t h at e xis t ince le brit ie s are e xt rao rdinarily nume ro us
andvario us , but we h ave ye t t o de vis e anins t rume nt
t h at allo ws us t o de t e ct and s urve y t h e s e me anings .
Only s o me de licat e co mbinat io n o f qualit at ive and
quant it at ive me t h o ds will e nable us t o de ciph e r t h e
me anings o f t h e ce le brit y wo rldint h e individual and
t h e aggre gat e .
Once anins t rume nt is de vis e d, ce rt aincrucial e m-
pirical wo rk can be unde rt ake n. W e can de t e rmine
t h e me anings t h at any individual ce le brit y brings t o
t h e e ndo rs e me nt pro ce s s , andt o s urve y t h e me anings
t h at e xis t in t h e e nt ire wo rldo f e ndo rs e me nt . A t y-
po graph y o f t h e me anings co nt aine dt h ro ugh o ut t h e
ce le brit y wo rlds o f s po rt s , po lit ics , bus ine s s , art , t h e
milit ary, t e le vis io n, and Ho llywo o d is po s s ible and
will give us a s ys t e mat ic s e ns e o f t h e me anings at t h e
dis po s al o f t h e e ndo rs e me nt s ys t e mandt h e me aning
t rans f e r pro ce s s .
Th e s e co ndave nue o f re s e arch s h o uldco nce nt rat e
o n a mo re pre cis e de t e rminat io no f h o w adve rt is ing
acco mplis h e s t h e t rans f e r o f me aning f ro mce le brit y
t o pro duct . Ho w do cre at ive dire ct o rs ide nt if y and
cat alo g t h e s ymbo lic pro pe rt ie s co nt aine din t h e ce -
le brit y wo rld?W h at are t h e rh e t o rical andvis ual de -
vice s by wh ich t h is ce le brit y me aning is t rans f e rre d
wit h int h e adve rt is e me nt ?W h at ce le brit y me anings
are s e e nt o wo rk be s t wit h wh at pro duct s ?W h at is t h e
pro ce s s by wh ich co ns ume rs co nt ribut e t o t h e me an-
ing t rans f e r pro ce s s ?I t is als o re le vant t o as k h e re h o w
a ce le brit y ch ange s h is o r h e r s t o ck o f s ymbo lic pro p-
e rt ie s by part icipat ing inanadve rt is e me nt .
Th e t h irdave nue o f re s e arch de als wit h h o w co n-
s ume rs appro priat e andus e t h e me anings t h at co me
t o t h e mas a re s ult o f e ndo rs e me nt . Ho w do e s t h e co n-
s ume r t ake po s s e s s io no f t h is me aning?Ho w do e s t h e
co ns ume r us e t h e me aning o f t h e ce le brit y int h e co n-
s t ruct io no f s e lf andwo rld?I t may be t h at s o me co n-
s ume rs ro ut ine ly canvas s t h e s ymbo lic me anings o f
o ne o r s e ve ral ce le brit ie s t o t ake advant age o f t h e e x-
pe rime nt at io nt aking place h e re . Do co ns ume rs s e t
up lo ng-t e rmre lat io ns h ips wit h a s ingle ce le brit y and
s ys t e mat ically "do wnlo ad" all t h e ne w me anings t h is
ce le brit y make s available t h ro ugh ne w ro le s ande n-
do rs e me nt s ?Do co ns ume rs f o llo w a varie t y o f ce le b-
rit ie s f ro mwh o mt h e y draw a varie t y o f me anings ?
W h at h appe ns t o co ns ume rs wh e n ce le brit ie s are
t rans f o rme dby dis grace o r ne w f ame ?W e mus t be gin
t o ch art wh at be co me s o f t h e cult ural me anings af t e r
t h e y le ave t h e e ndo rs e me nt ande nt e r int o t h e lif e o f
t h e co ns ume r.
Th e s e are all que s t io ns t h at ne e dt o be ans we re df o r
us t o unde rs t andt h e pro ce s s o f ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt
inf ine de t ail. Th e y are t h e re s e arch o ppo rt unit ie s t h e
me aning t rans f e r pe rs pe ct ive brings t o ligh t .
Th e me aning t rans f e r appro ach cas t s s o me do ubt
o n t h e s uf f icie ncy o f t h e s o urce mo de ls ' e xplanat io n
o f ce le brit y e ndo rs e me nt . But it do e s no t pre ve nt us
f ro mas king t h e que s t io ns t h at h ave be e nas ke dint h is
t radit io n. Fo r ins t ance , it is s t ill po s s ible t o t alk abo ut
t h e is s ue o f cre dibilit y o r o t h e r que s t io ns re le vant t o
s o urce re s e arch . I t is s t ill po s s ible t o s e e t h at s o me ce -
le brit ie s are mo re cre dible t h ano t h e rs andt h at e ach
ce le brit y is mo re cre dible f o r s o me pro mo t io nal pur-
po s e t h ano t h e rs .
W h at t h e me aning t rans f e r mo de l do e s is s h if t t h e
t e rms o f t h is de bat e . W h e nwe co ns ide r cre dibilit y in
t h is ne w co nt e xt , we are no lo nge r t alking abo ut t h e
manne r in wh ich ce le brit ie s co mmunicat e inf o rma-
t io n, but rat h e r t h e manne r inwh ich t h e y co mmuni-
cat e me aning (McCracke n1987a). Cre dibilit y no w
t urns o n wh ich me anings ce le brit ie s make available
t o e ndo rs e me nt s and h o w we ll t h e y t rans f e r t h e s e
me anings t o t h e pro duct . Example s o f t h is cult ural
cre dibilit y are no t h ardt o f ind. Jo h nHo us e manwas
t h e co mpe lling ch o ice f o r t h e Smit h Barne y adve rt is e -
me nt . Th e act o r ch o s e nt o s ucce e dh im, Le o McKe rn,
carrie s dif f e re nt me anings in a dif f e re nt co nf igura-
t io n. He is , ina wo rd, le s s cre dible . Th e Smit h Barne y
s lo ganis ch ange d, anddiminis h e d, as a re s ult .
Th e s ymbo lic o r cult ural pe rs pe ct ive (McCracke n
1987a) allo ws f o r a ne w cre dibilit y me as ure o f a
dif f e re nt s o rt . Th e re is , f o r ins t ance , no lo nge r any
s ingle kindo f cre dibilit y. A ce le brit y canbe e xt re me ly
cre dible f o r ce rt ainme anings andno t at all cre dible
f o r o t h e rs . Plainly, t h is as pe ct o f cre dibilit y canno t be
capt ure dby t h e t h e o rie s andins t rume nt s co nve nt io n-
ally us e d. I nde e d, t o inve s t igat e t h e ce le brit y e ndo rs e -
me nt f ro mt h e s ymbo lic o r cult ural po int o f vie w, a
ne w s e t o f que s t io ns andme t h o do lo gie s mus t be in-
ve s t igat e d.
CONCLUSI ON
A ne w pe rs pe ct ive o n t h e pro ce s s o f ce le brit y e n-
do rs e me nt h as be e nde ve lo pe d. I t h as s ugge s t e dt h at
t h e s o urce mo de ls wit h wh ich e ndo rs e me nt is no w
unde rs t o o dby pract it io ne r and s ch o lar are ins uf f i-
cie nt . Th e ch ie f de f icit o f t h e s e mo de ls is t h at t h e y as k
us t o acce pt t h at it is t h e at t ract ive ne s s andcre dibilit y
o f t h e ce le brit y t h at make t h e e ndo rs e me nt wo rk.
Us e f ul f o r ce rt ainpurpo s e s , t h is appro ach pre ve nt s us
f ro ms e e ing t h at ce le brit ie s are inf act h igh ly individ-
ualize dandco mple x bundle s o f cult ural me aning. I t
als o pre ve nt s us f ro ms e e ing t h at e ndo rs e me nt co n-
s is t s int h e t rans f e r o f t h e s e me anings f ro mt h e ce le b-
rit y t o t h e pro duct , andf ro mt h e pro duct t o t h e co n-
s ume r. Th e me aning t rans f e r mo de l pre s e nt e dh e re is
int e nde dt o de mo ns t rat e t h at t h e s e cre t o f t h e ce le b-
rit y e ndo rs e me nt is large ly cult ural in nat ure , and
t h at t h e s t udy o f t h e ce le brit y ande ndo rs e me nt is im-
pro ve dby a cult ural pe rs pe ct ive .
[Re ce ive dNo ve mbe r 1988. Re vis e dApril 1989.]
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