NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF COMPUTER AND EMERGING SCIENCES

Thesis

By

Kamran Zahid
MS(10I-1123)


A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF COMPUTER AND EMERGING SCIENCES
ISLAMABAD
October 2012


ii
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF COMPUTER AND EMERGING SCIENCES

The undersigned certify the acceptance, a thesis entitled Coverage Area Enhancement of
RFID System Using Patch Antenna Array " submitted by Kamran Zahid (EE -10I-1123)
in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Masters.







Supervisor, Respected Mr.KASHIF SIDDIQUE
Assistant Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering,
FAST-National University, Islamabad.





Date


iii
ABSTRACT
The thesis is aims to design an improved RF front end for RFID reader systems to
enhance its coverage area over the conventional broad-beam, single-antenna readers. The
system is designed to operate at 2.4 GHz frequency (American standard for RFID). The
RF front end consists of a 14 circularly polarized micro-strip patch antenna array, three
Wilkinson power dividers and switched line phase shifters. The switching has been
accomplished using PIN diodes. The structure is developed on very low-cost FR4
dielectric substrate. The patch antenna array is a phased array optimized to achieve
maximum possible gain near 10 dB. The direction of the main beam of the phased array
is steerable in the range of 28
o
. The design is simulated and optimized in antenna design
software HFSS 11. Practical measurements have been performed to characterize the
fabricated circuit. Results show an improved performance in terms of angular coverage
and range, over the conventional RFID systems. The design will be able to use in
commercial RFID reader systems.







iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all I would like to thank ALLAH almighty for helping me and providing me
courage to complete this work. I offer my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Mr Kashif
siddique, who has guided me throughout my thesis work with his valuable supervision. I
appreciate his knowledge, advice and skill in this regard. Without his persistent kindness
and efforts this work would not have been completed. One simply could not wish for a
better supervisor than him. I am also very thankful to all my teachers in the National
University of Computer & Emerging Sciences (NUCES FAST).

I would like to thank my elder brother Zeeshan Zahid for his valuable assistance,
encouragement and guidance throughout my studies. He never hesitated to provide
relentless support and motivation all the time. It was though his companionship that I
completed my Masters degree.

No doubt, I would have been lost without him.
I specially acknowlegde my wife for her patience, understanding and time to complete
my thesis. She always held my hand in the time of worry and sorrow. No doubt she is the
best support for me.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents and grandparents. They have been a constant
source of support in each and every way of my life. Their love and prayers are value-able
assets for me. No doubt this thesis would not have existed without their prayers. I
dedicate this thesis to my parents.


v





Dedicated to
My Parents
&
My Grand Father
~ Amanat Ali (Late)~
Who taught me simplicity and patience






vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approval Page .................................................................................................................... .ii
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi
List of tables ...................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures and illustration ......................................................................................... viii
List of Symbols, Abbreviations and Nomenclature. .......................................................... ix

CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................1
RFID Technology ................................................................................................................1
RFID Tags ............................................................................................................................2
Design of RFID ....................................................................................................................3

CHAPTER 2:ANTENNA DESIGN .................................................................................6
Single Patch Dimension .......................................................................................................6
Circular Polarization ............................................................................................................9
Patch Antenna And Circular Polarization ..........................................................................10

Circula Patch Antenna Design ...........................................................................................12

CHAPTER 3:POWER DIVIDER NETWORK ...........................................................18
Power Divider Network .....................................................................................................18
Wilkinson Power Divider Basics .......................................................................................18
Wilkinson Power Divider Advantages ...............................................................................23

CHAPTER 4:PATCH ANTENNA ARRAY .................................................................25
Phased Array RFID ............................................................................................................25
Phase Shifting ....................................................................................................................26
PIN Diode Switch ..............................................................................................................28

vii
PIN Diode SMP1345.........................................................................................................32
C Series Capacitors (Type: C1005,C1608)........................................................................33
Design Sequence ................................................................................................................34
Efficiency of proposed antenna .........................................................................................41
CHAPTER 5:CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS ....................................45
Future Work .......................................................................................................................46
APPENDIX-I:Matlab Codes ...........................................................................................47
Code for Array Factor ........................................................................................................48
Code for patch ...................................................................................................................49
Code for the transmission line ..........................................................................................50
Code for theoretical array pattern......................................................................................50
APPENDIX-II: Data Sheets ............................................................................................53
Pin Diode data sheet...........................................................................................................54
Capacitor data sheet ...........................................................................................................59
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................64
viii
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Calculated dimensions.......................................................................................7
Table 2.2: Single truncated Patch calculated dimensions..................... ...........................13
Table 3.1: Comparison of different passive power divider...............................................24
Table 4.2: Efficiency of Proposed Design........................................................................41



ix
List of Figures and Illustrations
Figure 1.1 : RFID tag with antenna and IC chip ................................................................2
Figure 1.2 : Internal sections of RFID tags IC .................................................................3
Figure 2.1 : RFID antenna with Phase delay input using divider network ........................6
Figure 2.2 : Single patch Antenna......................................................................................8
Figure 2.3 : Return Loss plot of single patch Antenna ......................................................8
Figure 2.4 : 3D plot of Gain of single patch Antenna ........................................................9
Figure 2.5 : Electric Field vectors of circularly polarized................................. ..............10
Figure 2.6 : Dual-Feed circularly polarized Patch antenna ..............................................11
Figure 2.7 : Single Feed circularly polarized Patch antenna ...........................................11
Figure 2.8 : Single truncated patch Antenna ....................................................................12
Figure 2.9 : Return Loss plot of single patch Antenna ....................................................13
Figure 2.10 : Manufactured single patch Antenna .............................................................14
Figure 2.11 : VNA Return Loss plot of single patch Antenna...........................................14
Figure 2.12 : Circularly polarized wave and targeted tag ..................................................15
Figure 2.13 : Port Impedance of Circularly polarized Patch Antenna ...............................16
Figure 2.14 : Axial Ratio of Truncated Patch ....................................................................17
Figure 2.15 : 3D Gain plot of single truncated patch Antenna .........................................17
Figure 3.1 : Wilkinson power divide ...............................................................................18
Figure 3.2 : A two way Wilkinson power divider ...........................................................19
Figure 3.3 : Wilkinson power divider in HFSS ...............................................................20
Figure 3.4 : Manufactured Wilkinson power divider .......................................................20
Figure 3.5 : (a) Wilkinson Power divider testing with RF signal generator and
spectrum analyzer (b) Magnified view of the circuit .........................................................21
x

Figure 3.6 : Wilkinson Power divider results (a) S11 Plot of 14 divider (b) S12 Plot of
14 divider (c) S13 Plot of 14 divider (d) S14 Plot of 14 divider (e) S15 Plot of 14
divider................................................................................................................................22
Figure 4.1 : Feeding techniques of Patch array (a) Series feed (b) Corporate Feed ........25
Figure 4.2 : Relationship between radians (2), degrees (), wavelength () and
phase shift ().. ...................................................................................................................27
Figure 4.3 : Switched line Phase Shifters .......................................................................28

Figure 4.4 : PIN diode switch in series configuration ....................................................29

Figure 4.5 : PIN diode switch series configuration in ADS (Forward Biased) ..............29

Figure 4.6 : ADS results of PIN diode switch (Forward Biased) ...................................30

Figure 4.7 : Manufactured PIN diode switch in series configuration .............................31
Figure 4.8 : Switching circuit testing and results (a) Testing with RF signal generator
and Spectrum analyzer (b) Magnified view of switch circuit(c) VNA result S21
forward biased (d) VNA result S12 reverse biased ...........................................................31
Figure 4.9 : SC-79 PIN diode .........................................................................................32

Figure 4.10 : SC-79 PIN diode typical performance ........................................................33

Figure 4.11 : Equivalent model of Pin Diode ...................................................................33
Figure 4.12 : C Series Capacitors (Type: C1005, C1608) ................................................34
Figure 4.13 : Complete Patch phased array with Wilkinson divider ...............................35

Figure 4.14 : Steering of pattern ......................................................................................36

Figure 4.15 : Two different states of array design (a) State 1 (b) State 2 ........................36

Figure 4.16 : Current distribution on the patch at 2.4 GHz .............................................37

xi
Figure 4.17 : Theoretical pattern of array .........................................................................37
Figure 4.18 : Return Loss plot of Antenna array with Wilkinson Divider (a) state1 (b)
state 2..... ............................................................................................................................38
Figure 4.19 : 2D-Gain plots with beam steering(a) state1 (b) state 2 ...............................39
Figure 4.20 : Axial ratio of complete array .......................................................................39
Figure 4.21 : 3D-Gain plots with beam steering(a) state1 (b) state 2 ...............................39
Figure 4.22 : Manufactured patch Antenna array with Wilkinson Divider ......................40
Figure 4.23 : VNA testing of Manufactured patch Antenna .............................................40
Figure 4.24 : VNA Return Loss plot of patch Antenna array (a) state1 (b) state 2 ..........42
Figure 4.25 : Anechoic radiation pattern of patch Antenna array in state 1 (a) 3D (b)
2D........... ............................................................................................................................43
Figure 4.26 : Anechoic radiation pattern of patch Antenna array in state 2 (a) 3D (b)
2D........... ............................................................................................................................44
Figure 4.27 : Final design with complete dimensions .......................................................44
Figure 5.1 : Array Factor plots with beam steering .........................................................49

xii
List of Symbols, Abbreviations and Nomenclature

RFID Radio Frequency Identification
HPBW Half Power Beam Width
HFSS High Frequency Structural Simulator
RF Radio Frequency
IC Integrated Circuit
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct current
CP Circular polarization
LCP Left-handed circular polarization
RCP Right-handed circular polarization
FET Field Effect Transistors
MEMS Microelectromechanical Systems
LNB Low-noise block
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
VNA Vector Network Analyzer






1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology was first developed in 1920s. In
World War II, similar technology was used by British to identify jet planes as friend or
foe. In 1948 Harry Stockman first explored the vast potential for RFID technology.
Mario Cardullo presented a patent in 1973, who was the first ancestor of latest and
modern RFID. The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted
to Charles Walton in 1983.
RFID is the technology that uses electromagnetic coupling in the radio frequency to
identify different objects. RFID is a part of automatic identification systems. These
systems are more popular in business and commercial areas. It is a recognition method
relying on receiving and storing the data remotely.
RFID TECHNOLOGY
RFID technology is based on modulation that is used by manipulating the sequence at
which the reflection occurs. The design of RFID tags are made in such a way that it
reflects the RF signals that are interpreted in the form of digital data, called information.
RFID systems work at a specified frequency bands. A frequency band is a range of
frequencies that are much close to center frequency. This can be explained as the 915
MHz frequency band has the set of frequencies having range from 902 MHz to 928 MHz,
which have fifty (50) channels that are used in communication. The frequency bands that
are widely used in these days are 2.4 GHz, 915 MHz, 868 MHz, 13.56 MHz and 125
KHz. This Thesis focuses on American standard of RFID at 2.4 GHz but the principles
will be the same for other RFID bands [2].


2
In RFID technology, the RFID system communicates over the channel frequency (e.g. 2.4
GHz) which is known as carrier wave, because it is used to carry data. RFID tag operates
in specified range of frequencies (carrier frequencies). So the RFID tag is able to absorb
and reflect back the energy to the source at the operating range of frequencies [2].
RFID TAGS
RFID tag has an IC Chip that is connected to very small antenna. There are two major
types of RFID tags, active and passive. Passive tags are used very commonly, because
there is no need of internal power (battery). These tags take the power from the carrier
wave that is transmitted by interrogator. RFID tag is shown in the Figure 1.1.
An antenna senses the modulated wave which is radiated by the interrogator. The carrier
wave generates the small current in the antenna. In the IC Chip, regulator and power
rectifier converts the alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) and uses it to drive
the IC chip [2].

Figure 1.1: RFID tag with antenna and IC chip

In the IC chip there are different sections e.g. clock extractor, logic, memory and
modulator etc. From the carrier wave, clock extractor takes the clock pulses and uses
these pulses to synchronize the sections like modulator, memory and logic. The main
function of logic section is to separate the 0s and 1s from the carrier wave. It also
compares the data with its internal program to get the desired response. If logic section


3
approves that the data is valid then it gets the access to memory. Clock extractor pulses
are used by the logic section to encode the data. After that, the data stream is fed into the
modulator. The modulator mixes the carrier wave with the data stream [2]. Internal
sections of RFID tag is shown in the figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Internal sections of RFID tags IC
DESIGN OF RFID
RFID systems are being used in large number of areas. Due to the small size of tags and
antennas in RFID systems, wide coverage area and long range operation are troublesome.
In this scenario to enhance the coverage area of an RFID system, one approach is to
implement multiple antennas to cover the necessary area which is a complex and costly
approach. The other technique is to use the phased array system. Higher gain can be
achieved by using array of antennas for single RFID reader, which also covers the larger
area [2]. This work proposes phased array patch antenna system for enhancing the
coverage range of RFID system.
Conventional RFID readers have fixed antenna patterns and they have very small
coverage area. In this work, the main approach is to make an efficient RFID reader that
will steer its beam in two different directions. To cover larger area than a conventional


4
systems 1x4 patch antenna array is used along with Wilkinson power divider and delay
line phase shifters [3].
The main focus will be on the design, tests, and fabrications of the RFID system. The
feeding network of Patch antenna array is quarter wavelength transmission line-fed type,
utilizing Wilkinson power divider. Wilkinson power dividers are very important for
antenna array systems and act as power splitting networks. The Wilkinson power divider
is a device that divides power among n output ports with equal distribution, keeping
equal path lengths from input to output ports. Two ways power dividers allow the use of
multiple stepped sections to meet the design requirements [6].
If antenna impedance and gain requirements are not fulfilling the coverage performance
then it suffers. Similarly, if the size, ease of assembly and material cost of the RF front
end are not reliable, then the device customer will never use the said system in their
product. That is why to make an efficient RFID antenna engineer should have to be more
careful in designing such wireless products. Therefore in this design, the parameters are
selected to fulfil all the criteria to make a useful product.
Moreover, the results of the proposed design will not only be shown in simulation but
measured results as well. Finally, there is a final hardware design product for commercial
purpose. For designing and simulation HFSS 11, Matlab and ADS 2008 software are
used.
ADVANTAGES
The proposed design of RFID front antenna has many advantages. It has good RF signal
transfer and has the ability to charge tag coil efficiently. This is cost effective and robust
design. The system can be used in tracking of goods, persons and airport baggage, access


5
management, contactless payment toll collection and authentication. Moreover, it can
also be used in the massively distributed sensor networks, WLANs, personal
communication (Bluetooth, Zig-Bee etc.) and machine readable travel documents.
TDMA technique can also be used to avoid data collisions among these communicating
devices that are working at the same frequencies. It is widely used in military
communication system.


6
CHAPTER 2: ANTENNA DESIGN
SINGLE PATCH DIMENSIONS
The patch antenna is one of the types of antenna, having low profile that can be placed on
a flat surface. It consists of a rectangular metallic sheet of length L and width W and h is
the height of the substrate with the microstrip transmission line placed over a larger sheet,
which is called a substrate as shown in the Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Single patch Antenna
The length of the sheet is approximately one half wavelengths of the radio waves. Before
designing the patch, the dimension is calculated by using its mathematical equations. Due
to the radiations at edges, the patch antenna acts electrically larger than its physical
dimensions. So length L is included in its dimensions. Patch antennas are relatively
inexpensive as compare to other antennas [8]. Single patch antenna has the ability to
provide a maximum gain of around about 6 - 8 dB. It is very easy to make an array using
Patch antennas that are low profile, compact in size that can be easily integrated in RF
devices. They are easy to modify, simple to fabricate and customize [17]. The calculated
dimensions of patch are given in the table 2.1.



7
The general design equations are as follows;

2
2
90
1
r
r
r
L
R
W

2
90
( 1)
r
r r
W L
R

,
o
r
0.49
L

=




Table 2.1: Calculated dimensions
Parameters Dimensions
Width (W) 3.88cm
Length (L) 2.88 cm
Height (h ) 1.6mm
Permittivity (
r
) 4.4
Inset Feed Point Distance (Y
o
) 0.625 cm
Effective dielectric constant (
reff
) 3.59
Extended Incremental length (L) 0.238 cm
Width of feed line (W
o
) 0.26 cm
Ground Plane Size 13.5 x 13.5 cm
2

Loss Tangent (FR4) 0.02


8

Figure 2.2: Single patch Antenna
The radiations from discontinuities arise at edges of the micro strip patch. It is
constructed on a dielectric substrate, so for this design FR4 epoxy substrate is used. The
operating frequency of the patch is 2.4 GHz. The design is simulated in the HFSS and the
results are given in the Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4.









Figure 2.3: Return Loss plot of single patch Antenna



9






Figure 2.4: 3D plot of Gain of single patch Antenna
CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
Basically, there are three types of polarization that are horizontal polarization, circular
polarization and elliptical polarization. In RF communication, the polarization is very
important in antenna designing. For example horizontally polarized antenna does not
communicate with the antenna that is vertically polarized. Because, vertically polarized
antenna radiates and receives in vertically polarized fields. Similarly horizontally
polarized antenna always communicates with a horizontally polarized antenna. Antenna
radiates and receives in exactly the same manner due to the reciprocity theorem.
So it is more feasible for the antenna to communicate with other antennas or radiating
material if the reader is circularly polarized. There will be very less chance to miss the
target.

Figure 2.5: Electric Field vectors of circularly polarized wave


10
Circular polarization is a polarization in which the electric field of the passing wave does
not change strength but only changes direction in rotation as shown in Figure 2.5. The
direction of an electric field is defined by an electric field vector. In circularly polarized
wave the tip of electric field vector describes a circle as time proceeds, at a given point in
space. If wave is frozen the electric field vector describes circle or helix along the
direction of propagation.
Circular polarization can be left-handed circular polarization (LCP) or right-handed
circular polarization (RCP). These types of polarization can be obtained by using proper
shape of the antenna and feeding method.
PATCH ANTENNA AND CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
It is also possible to fabricate patch antennas that radiate circularly polarized waves.
There are different approaches to make the patch antennas circularly polarized.
First approach is used to excite square patch using two input feeds. In the dual feed
method 90 delay is given in one feed with respect to the other as shown in Figure 2.6. In
doing this the horizontal current becomes zero and vertical current will be maximum. So
the electric field radiated will be vertical, similarly after one quarter cycle the situation
will reverse and field will be horizontal. At the end, the radiated field will rotate in time
that will produce circularly polarized wave.
Second approach is single feed method that introduces different types of asymmetric slots
or other features on the patch that causes current distribution in the patch. A patch which
has perturbed slightly to produce a rectangular microstrip patch antenna can be driven
along a diagonal and produce polarization as shown in Figure 2.7 [7]. At driving point of


11
patch one mode is +45and the other mode -45 to produce 90 phase shift for circular
polarization.
Instead of rectangular patch, circular patch antennas can also be used for such techniques.
Circular patch antenna does not radiate circular polarized waves. A single feed circular
patch creates linear polarized radiation [11]. Moreover the circular patch can be perturbed
into an ellipse and fed properly it can be used as circularly polarized antennas as shown
in Figure 2.6 [7].














Figure 2.6: Dual-Feed circularly polarized Patch antenna


Figure 2.7: Single Feed circularly polarized Patch antenna


12
Circular polarization can be achieved by feeding patch with two orthogonal input signals
that have different directions and using the patch antenna right in between the two input
signals [6]. It is very important that the two input modes are energized equally, with the
phase difference of 90. Such a scheme is slightly complex to make the input signal that
are different to each other. So in this research work the design that is preferred is corners
truncated patch, which is shown in Figure 2.8. There is no need of dual input or
asymmetric perturbed parts of the metallic patch sheet. In such technique, by cutting two
corners off the patch element the circular polarization can easily be achieved.
CIRCULAR PATCH ANTENNA DESIGN
Circular polarization has the large number of advantages that is why in this thesis the
corner truncated design technique is used. There is no complexity in this design as other
techniques have. It is very easy to implement [11].








Figure 2.8: Single truncated patch Antenna
The calculated dimensions of patch are given in the table 2.2.



13
Table 2.2: Single Truncated Patch Calculated dimensions
Parameters Dimensions
Width (W) 2.6 cm
Length (L) 2.6 cm
Height (h ) 1.6mm
Permittivity (
r
) 4.4
Mitered edge 0.48cm
Effective dielectric constant (
reff
) 3.59
Extended Incremental length (L) 0.238 cm
Width of feed line (W
o
) 0.135/0.26 cm
Ground Plane Size 13.5 x 13.5 cm
2

Loss Tangent (FR4) 0.02

The S11 curve taken by testing the patch in HFSS 11 is shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Return Loss plot of single patch Antenna


14
The truncated patch antenna is also manufactured and tested using Agilent 8362B VNA.
Agilent 8362B VNA has the ability to test the devices or RF modules in the frequency
range up to 26GHz. The manufactured truncated patch antenna is shown in figure 2.10
and VNA result is shown in figure 2.11.

Figure 2.10: Manufactured single patch Antenna


Figure 2.11: VNA Return Loss plot of single patch Antenna


15
Circular polarization plays a very vital role in RFID communication. Tag antenna can be
intended to take complete benefit of the circularly polarized reader antenna. The target
tag will be accessible whether it is placed in any direction. It will be extremely responsive
to all phases of circular polarization. This can be represented in the figure 2.12

Figure 2.12: Circularly polarized wave and targeted tag

The quality of circular polarization is quantified as the axial ratio (AR) which is
expressed in dB. It is the ratio of orthogonal components of an E-field. As we know that,
due to the two orthogonal E-field components of equal amplitude, the circularly polarized
field is made-up and these field components have equal magnitude. Therefore, the axial
ratio will be equal to 1 or 0 dB. Moreover the port impedance is also set to 50 ohms that
is shown in Figure 2.13.
Usually axial ratio of 3 dB is considered enough for most applications [14]. The axial
ratio has an optimum value of 0 dB in between resonance frequencies.


16

Figure 2.13: Port Impedance of Circularly polarized Patch Antenna
In the direction of z-axis the axial ratio is optimal at broadside and towards lower
elevations it degrades. The antenna geometry plays a very important role so the degree of
degradation is much dependent on it [6]. Axial ratio measurements are very important
when dealing with circularly polarized antennas. For circularly polarized fields, the ideal
value of axial ratio is 0 dB. From the main beam of an antenna, axial ratio always tends to
degrade away.
Axial ratio can also be defined and given as;

Axial ratio = major axis (Emax) = 20 log [Emax/Emin]
minor axis (Emin)
The axial ratio that is calculated in HFSS is shown in figure 2.14.


17

Figure 2.14: Axial Ratio of Truncated Patch
The 3D-gain plot of patch is given in figure 2.15.


Figure 2.15: 3D Gain plot of single truncated patch Antenna






18
Chapter 3: POWER DIVIDER NETWORK
POWER DIVIDER NETWORK
The Wilkinson power divider was invented by Ernest Wilkinson. It divides the input
signal to equal halves of the output signals and also have the ability to combines two
equal signals into one in the opposite direction. The Wilkinson power divider is shown in
the Figure 3.1. For matching the split ports to the common port this network has quarter
wave transformers [6].





Figure 3.1: Wilkinson power divider
An ideal Wilkinson power divider has 100% efficiency. Firstly, the 12 divider is
designed after checking its results the 14 divider is designed. Wilkinson power dividers
are widely used these days because of its efficiency and better isolation between the
ports. On the other hand, the conventional resistive dividers have no such type of
advantages.
WILKINSON POWER DIVIDER BASICS
Wilkinson power divider concept can also be used for an n way system. It is very easy to
check how it works as two way system. Quarter wave transformers is used in Wilkinson
power divider that split input signal to two output signals that are in phase with each
other [18] [20].


19

Figure 3.2: A two way Wilkinson power divider
The purpose of the resistor is to provide the isolation between the output ports at the
operating frequency. It enables the two output ports to be matched that provides isolation
also. Ideally, there is no resistive loss in the power divider network or dissipate any
power, as a result the divider can be lossless. In practice there are some losses also
present, but these are very low [19].
The values of the components of the Wilkinson divider can be calculated as follows ;
R = 2 Zo
Z
match
= SQRT 2 Zo
= 1.414 Zo
Where,
R = Resistor connected between the ports
Zo = Characteristic impedance of system
Z
matc
= Quarter wave transformers impedance
Now, we see how this divider works. Consider that, a signal entering the port 1 in the
previous diagram. The signal arrives the physical split and enters in port two and three of


20
divider. The two arms of splitter are identical, so the signals entering in the ports 2 and 3
have the same phase. It means that ports 2 and 3 are at the same potential and there will
be no current flow in the resistor. The wilkinson power divider is shown in the figure
3.2, 3.3 and 3.4. It is very necessary to check that the impedances of the divider are well
balanced and matched. In achieving this, the two ports 2 and 3 must appear equal to the
impedance of (2 Zo). Now, impedance transformation can be achieved by setting the
transmission line of quarter wave between the input and the output. The impedance of
transmission line is 1.414 Zo. The Wilkinson divider is widely used in RF applications
and it is an ideal form of divider.

Figure 3.3: Wilkinson power divider in HFSS





Figure 3.4: Manufactured Wilkinson power divider


21








(a) (b)

Figure 3.5: (a) Wilkinson power divider testing with RF signal generator and
Spectrum analyzer (b) Magnified view of the circuit
The design is simulated in the HFSS and the results are given in the Figure 3.5.
VNA results are shown in dotted line.


(a) (b)


22

(c) (d)

(e)
Figure 3.5: Wilkinson Power divider results (a) S11 Plot of 14 divider (b)
S12 Plot of 14 divider (c) S13 Plot of 14 divider (d) S14 Plot of 14 divider
(e) S15 Plot of 14 divider
Ideally, each output port of the 14 Wilkinson divider should be at -6 dB. But the
measured result shows that these values vary from -7.7 to -7.5 dB. The S11 value is -19.8
dB which meets the required value.




23
WILKINSON DIVIDER ADVANTAGES
Wilkinson Divider has the following advantages that is why it is widely used in RF
equipments.
Advantages:
Simplicity: The Wilkinson divider can easily be realised on a printed circuit
board using printed components and it has very simple structure. Lumped
capacitor and inductor elements can also be used, but this complicates the design.
Cost: When The Wilkinson divider is realised on a printed circuit board using
printed components, the cost will be very low. The only increase in cost is due to
the single resistor that also increases the board area. To overcome such problem
printed elements can be used. Moreover, to minimize losses, lossless substrate
may be used that also increases the cost.
Loss: The Wilkinson divider does not introduce any additional loss if perfect set
of components are used
Isolation: The Wilkinson divider provides high isolation among the output ports.
Moreover advantages and disadvantages with other divider networks [6] can be
shown in the table 3.1.






24
Table 3.1: Comparison of different passive power divider












25
Chapter 4: PATCH ANTENNA ARRAY

PATCH PHASED ARRAY RFID
In conventional RFID system fixed antenna pattern is used that operates in confined area,
because of greater HPBW and lower gain [1]. Multiple antennas are required to cover
larger area. So in this purpose high input power is needed that increases the overall cost.
To overcome such draw backs the technique used in this thesis is Phased array. In
achieving the phased array we should have to be more careful in feeding the patch.
There are two main feeding techniques used in these days first one is series feed and
second is corporate feed, this can be shown in Figure 4.1. In this design, corporate feed
technique is used. As Phased array is a set of radiating elements in which the phases of
the respective input signals are changed in such a way that the overall radiation pattern of
the array can be steered in a desired direction.
So, phased array RFID has beam steer advantage by giving the phase delay in the
transmission line by using corporate feed technique [5] [12].


Figure 4.1: Feeding techniques of Patch array (a) Series feed (b) Corporate Feed


26
PHASE SHIFTING
Phase Shifters are the devices that can change phase of an electromagnetic wave, when it
propagates through the transmission line. Phase Shifters are widely used in beam forming
networks, phase discriminators, power divider networks and phase array antennas. Before
going to the circuit demonstration first we have to understand the relationship between,
phase shift, propagation constant delay, and wavelength.
In the transmission line propagation constant is a complex number having two main
parts:
(1) The real portion which is the attenuation constant (where is neper / unit length).
(2) Similarly, the imaginary portion (x) is the phase constant (where is radians / unit
length)
The (attenuation constant) determines the way a signal is reduced in amplitude as it
propagates down the line and the (phase constant) describes the phase difference in the
voltages at the sending end and at distance x of the line. The (x) (phase constant)
represents the phase shift of the current or voltage at a distance x with respect to sending
current or voltage along the transmission line. Phase shift of 2 radians (360) is equal to
one wavelength as shown in Figure 4.2. From the figure it is clear that = 2 / .
Moreover, by giving the proper length in delay line the phase shift can be adjusted
accordingly. The phase shift and the time delay can be relate as follows:
Time delay = Phase Shift () / 360 frequency (Hz)
In the proposed design switched line approach is used. It is the most straight forward and
uncomplicated approach to provide phase shift between two paths. It uses the simple
difference of time delay. For switching in phase shifters PIN diodes, mechanical switches


27
or relays, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and Field Effect Transistors (FET)
are commonly used.


Figure 4.2: Relationship between radians, degrees (), wavelength () and phase
shift ()
The standard phase shifter is used by setting switched line segments, having different
path of different lengths. The phase shifter (or switched line phase shifters) is totally
dependent upon the lengths of the micro-strip line. Two transmission lines are used to
feed a single patch, one of the two transmission lines is known as a reference line and the
second one is a delay line as shown in Figure 4.3. In the figure the L1 is the reference line
while L2 is the delay line.PIN diodes can be placed at points P1 and P2. An advantage of
such a circuit is that phase shift will be linear.


28

Figure 4.3: Switched line Phase Shifters
PIN DIODE SWITCH
In the phase shifters PIN diodes are commonly used because of their high switching time,
speed response, low loss and simple bias circuits. Classification of PIN diodes switched
line phase shifters based on the following points:

(1) Number of bits used in the circuit.
(2) Type of the transmission line (regular, irregular, and coupled)
(3) Structure ( reflecting or nonreflecting)
(4) No. of switched inputs and outputs (SPDT, SPST, SP3T, etc.)
(5) Connection of PIN diode with transmission line (shunt, series, series-shunt)
(6) Bandwidth
(7) Element configuration

A PIN diode can be used in shunt and series configuration for single RF switch. But in
this thesis series configuration has been used. As shown in the following Figure 4.4.


29

Figure 4.4: PIN diode switch in series configuration
The Switch will be on when diode is forward biased. The input power will be reflected
back if the switch is off. Capacitors that are used as DC blocker should be very low
impedance at the operating frequency and RF choke inductors should have very high RF
impedance. To get better result the above mentioned design is simulated and tuned in
ADS as shown in Figure 4.5 and results are shown in Figure 4.6[10].

Figure 4.5: PIN diode series configuration in ADS (Forward Biased)


30

Figure 4.6: ADS results of PIN diode switch (Forward Biased)
The switch should have zero insertion loss in forward biased and maximum attenuation in
the off state. In practice, the switching element results in some insertion loss in on state
and finite attenuation in off state [10]. The insersion loss of the circuit in series
configuration can be calculated as follows,
IL -20
Z
d
, is the diode impedence for reverse and forward bias and can be given as follows;

Insersion losses in both on and off states can be improved by adding the external
reactances. Inductors can also be replaced with the quarter wave transmission line when
operating at high frequencies. So transmission lines are used instead of inductors. PIN
diode driver circuit is manufactured as shown in Figure 4.7 and tested by using RF signal
generator, RF spectrum analyzer and Agilent VNA. Results are shown in Figure 4.8.


31

Figure 4.7: Manufactured PIN diode switch in series configuration






(a) (b)






(c) (d)
Figure 4.8: Switching circuit testing and results (a) Testing with RF signal generator
and Spectrum analyzer (b) Magnified view of switch circuit(c) VNA result S21
forward biased (d) VNA result S12 reverse biased


32
Ideally, the insertion loss should be at the 0 dB. By using RF signal generator, Spectrum
analyzer and VNA, the measured result shows -2.2dB, this is acceptable insertion loss. It
is due to the material and manufacturing error. In the reverse biased state the measured
value of insertion loss is -15.78 dB.

PIN Diode SMP1345

The SMP1345 surface mountable PIN diodes are used in applications like WLAN, LNB
and many other RF switching applications in frequency range from 10 MHz to 6 GHz.
The short carrier lifetime of the diode is 100 ns. It is because of thin I-region, having the
width of 10 m. It helps in fast switching of PIN diode. The performance PIN diode is
guaranteed because of its very low resistance 1.5 at 10 mA and low capacitance 0.15
pF. Some very important specifications and of PIN diode is shown in Figure 4.9, 4.10.


Figure 4.9: SC-79 PIN diode


33

Figure 4.10: SC-79 PIN diode typical performance
According to the above specification we can define the values of components in the
equivalent model of diode in reverse as well as in forward bias [10]. The equivalent
model of diode is shown as follows;

Figure 4.11: Equivalent model of Pin Diode
The required values of L
i
=0.7nH, R
f
= 1.5 and C = 0.12 pF at 10 mA are taken from
the data sheet.
C SERIES CAPACITORS (TYPE: C1005, C1608)
These capacitors are widely used in mobile communications equipment, electronics
equipment, high frequency RF modules, Matching and coupling circuits, test or
measurement equipments and tuning circuits. Some important specification of this
product is given as follows;


34


Different shapes of the capacitors are given in figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12: C Series Capacitors (Type: C1005, C1608)
DESIGN SEQUENCE
In the design sequence, firstly the single patch antenna is designed. After checking its
results and simulations the 14 patch array is designed. Now there is a need of proper
feeding network, for that purpose 12 Wilkinson power divider network is designed that
is extended to 14 Wilkinson power divider network. The power divider network is then
used as the feed network of the complete Array. The overall design is shown the figure
4.13.


35

Figure 4.13: Complete phased array
For proper beam steering towards desired direction progressive phase shift technique is
used. The amount of phase shift required is obtained by writing the code of array factor in
MATLAB. The delay line phase shifts is switched by using the switching circuitry where
the proper length of delay line is employed. Capacitors are used in the transmission line
to block the DC components. All the design parameters are chosen according to their
mathematical model.
The scheme is used for concurrent monitoring of several adjacent areas. This technique
removes the need of multiple, conventional fixed reader systems. By using array greater
gain can also be achieved that will cover larger areas. As the main focus of the design is
to cover the larger area that is established using beam steering. So the required radiation
pattern on which the thesis is based is given as in the Figure 4.14.




36


Area 1 Area2



Antenna
Figure 4.14: Steering of pattern

The above technique can be used by proper switching in delay lines to cover larger areas.
So the array is designed in such a way that it works in two states in which larger front
area is covered. Two states are shown in the figure 4.15.





(a) (b)
Figure 4.15: Two different states of array design (a) State1 (b) State2
The transmission line length is adjusted in such a way that it gives the delay 0, 45
0
, 90
0
,
180
0
gradually. The current distribution on the patch at 2.4 GHz can be shown in the
Figure 4.16. Theoretical pattern of array is simulated using MATLAB, which is shown in
the Figure 4.17.


37

Figure 4.16: Current distribution on the patch at 2.4 GHz
Moreover, the design is also simulated in the HFSS and the results are given in the Figure
4.18 and 4.19 and axial ratio is given in the Figure 4.20.

Figure 4.17: Theoretical pattern of (a) single Patch (b) Array


38

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.18: Return loss of complete Antenna array in (a) State1 (b) State2

(a)


39


(b)

Figure 4.19: 2D Gain plots with steered beam in (a) State 1 (b) State 2

Figure 4.20: Axial ratio of complete array

(a) (b)
Figure 4.21: 3D-Gain plots with steered beams (a) State 1 (b) State 2


40
The value of axial ratio of complete array is 2.07 dB and gain is round about 10 dB. After
simulating the design in HFSS and ADS, it is manufactured and tested by using VNA.
Manufactured array design is shown in the Figure 4.21 and measured results are shown in
the Figures 4.22 and 4.23.


Figure 4.22: Manufactured patch antenna array








Figure 4.23: VNA Testing of Manufactured patch Antenna


41
The results of VNA testing are given as in the Figure 4.23.
EFFICIENCY OF PROPOSED DESIGN
Efficiency of the patch antenna can be given in the table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Efficiency of Proposed Design
Patch Array
Gain (G) = 10dB, = 12.5cm
Effective Area , A
e
G
2
/4 124.33 cm
2
Physical Area, A
P
Height Width 155 cm
2
Efficiency A
e
/A
p
80 %
Single Patch
Gain (G) = 8dB, =12.5cm
Effective Area , A
e
G
2
/4 78cm
2
Physical Area, A
P
Height Width 80 cm
2
Efficiency A
e
/A
p
97.5 %



(a)


42

(b)
Figure 4.24: VNA Return Loss of patch Antenna array (a) State1 (b) State2
The design is also tested in the Anechoic chamber and the results meet its requirement,
which are shown in the Figure 4.24 and 4.25. The measured axial ratio of the array is 2.3
dB.







(a)


43








(b)
Figure 4.25: Anechoic pattern of patch Antenna array in state 1 (a) 3D (b) 2D










(a)




44








(b)
Figure 4.26: Anechoic pattern of patch Antenna array in state 2(a) 3D (b) 2D
As from the figures 4.24 and 4.25, it is clear that the practical results are much better. No
doubt manufacturing error and material loses are also present. Figure 4.26 shows the
overall design with complete dimensions.

Figure 4.27: Final design with complete dimensions


45
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS
Patch antennas are particularly versatile antennas that can be used for large number of
applications due to its simple geometries and easy to fabricate. There are many different
feed systems, shapes, and array configurations. These design options make patch
antennas an attractive area of study. The distinctive property of the patch antenna is its 2-
D structure. As a flat antenna, arrays may have high gain, but volume and weight will be
very low [11]. Patch antennas are also being used in PCB technologies and in advanced
substrate to produce best communication networks in all over the world.
The 1x4 RFID patch antenna array that consists of power dividers, phase shifters, and
patch antennas working at frequency of 2.4GHz, is designed, simulated, implemented and
measured. The direction of the main beam of the phased array is steerable in the range of
28
o
.Micro strip Patch antennas, Wilkinson power divider, Patch antennas and micro
strip transmission line of 50 characteristic impedance, have been realized using HFSS
11software.
An extended version of the Wilkinson power divider has been demonstrated by
maintaining the ideal performance of being reciprocal, isolated, and matched between the
output ports. The design show outstanding performance at operating frequencies, even
when put into operation by using low-cost technology. The design is very robust with
simple hand calculations that provide reliable dimensions. The measured performance of
all these components was admirable as had been projected and an exceptional agreement
between the measurement and prediction.




46
FUTURE WORK
There are many improvements and extensions that can be made in the proposed design.
Firstly, the beam switching has been executed by manual controlled switches where the
switching time may be the critical factor. This issue can be resolved by incorporating a
microcontroller to control the switches automatically with a predefined switching time.
The time may be decided by the application in which the RFID front end is to be
employed.
As the reader is the RF receiver and transmitter, that will be controlled by a
microcontroller or digital signal processor. By using an attached antenna, the reader will
capture the data from tags and it will pass the data to the computer for processing.
The tag corresponding to the design features can also be proposed or the existing tags can
be improved for error free results. Currently the angular area covered by the design is
28
o
. The coverage area can be enhanced by increasing the number of beam switching
states. The switched beam technique can be employed by using Butler matrix technique.
It has been tried to make the hardware compact and portable. There is a room to compact
the physical dimensions even further.
The project can be extended to design a complete receiver/transmitter circuit using FPGA
technology.


47






APENDIX-I
MATLAB CODES AND RESULT

















48
Code for the Array Factor
% Code for Array Factor
% by KAMRAN ZAHID
% Date: 09-10-2011
%===============================
clc
close all
clear all
lambda=0.125; %Lambda at 2.4 GHz
N=4;
d=lambda/2;
% Enter the value of phase from 0 to 2 for steering the beam to left side
% Enter the value of phase from 0 to -2 for steering the beam to right side
Phase=0;
k=2*pi/lambda;
theta=[0:.01:pi];
s=k*lambda/2*cos(theta)+Phase;
Af=abs(sin(N*s./2)./sin(s./2)); %Array Factor
subplot(2,1,1)
polar(theta,Af)
Title('Array Factor Plots')
xlabel('polar plot')
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(theta,Af),grid
xlabel('\theta (rad)')
ylabel('AF')



49





Figure 5.1: Array Factor plots with beam steering
Code for the Patch design
% Patch antenna design (units in cm)
% By KAMRAN ZAHID
%% Date:09-10-2011
%======================================
clear all
close all
fr =2.4*10^9; % in GHz
eps=4.4;
h=0.16; % in cm
c=3*10^10;
lambda = (c/fr)
Third_of_lambda = (c/fr)/3;
W=c/(2*fr)*sqrt(2/(eps+1)); % Width of the Patch
Width=W
eps1 = (eps+1)/2+(eps-1)/2*(1+12*h/W)^(-0.5); %Effective eps
d1=(eps1+0.3)*(W/h+0.264);
d2=(eps1-0.258)*(W/h+0.8);
dL = h*0.412* ( d1/d2 );
Length=c/(2*fr*sqrt(eps1)) - 2*dL %Length of the patch


50
Code for the Transmission Line Impedance
% Transmission line impedence
% By Kamran Zahid
%% Date:09-10-2011
% ======================================
t=1*10^(-6); % Tx line thickness
eps=4.4; % Permittivity of substrate
h=.16; % Height of substrate
wp=0.265; % Width of tx line
clc
W=4.94; % Patch width
eps1 = (eps+1)/2+(eps-1)/2*(1+12*h/W)^(-0.5);
ZO_Balanis = 120*pi / ( sqrt(eps1) * (wp/h + 1.393 + 0.667*log(wp/h+1.444)))
Code for theoretical array pattern
clc
close all
clear all
lambda=12.5; %Lambda at 2.4 GHz
N=4;
d=lambda/2;
W=2.6; L=2.6; h=0.16;
fi=[0:.01:pi];
k=2*pi/12.5;


51
Phase = 0; r = 1;
% Enter the value of phase from 0 to 2 to steer left & and 0 to -2 to
% steer right

s=k*lambda/2*cos(fi)+Phase;
Af=abs(sin(N*s./2)./sin(s./2)); %Array Factor
E_fi=k*W/(pi*r)* ( sin(k*h*cos(fi)/2) / ( k*h*cos(fi)./2 ) ).* cos (k*L/2.* sin(fi));
pattern=Af.*E_fi;

subplot(2,2,1)
polar(fi,E_fi),grid
xlabel('\phi (rad)')
Title('Single Patch Rad Pattern (E)')

xlabel('\phi (rad)')
subplot(2,2,2)
polar(fi,pattern),grid
xlabel('\phi (rad)')
Title('Array Rad Pattern')

subplot(2,2,3)
polar(fi,-10*log10(E_fi)),grid
xlabel('\phi (rad)')


52
Title('Single Patch Rad Pattern (dB)')

xlabel('\phi (rad)')
subplot(2,2,4)
polar(fi,1000*log10(10*pattern)),grid
xlabel('\phi (rad)')
Title('Array Rad Pattern (dB)')














53


APPENDIX-II
DATA SHEETS










54



55



56





57




58



59
CAPACITOR Data Sheet




60



61



62





63






64
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[3] Mehmet Abbak, RFID Coverage Extension Using Microstrip Patch Antenna
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