Nationalism anu Noueinism

by Anthony B. Smith
2uuS Routleuge Lonuon
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- Nation is the people
- State is the goveinment

In the intio he fiist piesents nationalism as something that has iisen anu fallen. It
peihaps hau its apogee in the 196us nationalism; uuiing these times we spoke of
nation builuing.

By the late 198us this was seen as nave.

Be says "tius of immigiation anu massive inciease in communication" put into
question whethei oi not nationalism is a "healthy mouel." (Beiein we see a
confusion of the West anu the woilu. Anu this is an aigument against immigiation as
much as an aigument against nationalism).

"Classic Noueinism" helu that nations anu nationalism aie intiinsic to the natuie of
the mouein woilu. Again, this peakeu in the 196us.

Since then they've been unueimineu by these thoughts:

1. The shape of nations aie unpieuictable. (This is a uefinitional pioblem, not a
ieality pioblem).
2. But sociologists still noteu theii powei.
S. The iuea that nations aie only a histoiical event in a paiticulai time of
histoiy.
4. A giowing emphasis on all being socially cieateu; a constiuct engineeieu by
elites.
S. Anu so the iuea was to look at nations as they aie now, as sociologists.

Pait 1: Looks at the classical paiauigm anu its vaiieties anu its eaily ciitics.
Pait 2: Looks at ciitiques of classical moueinism (piimoiuial, sociobiological, anu
histoiical backings of the nation iuea).
Pait S: Recent uevelopments in the fielu.

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Thiee main issues in the theoiy of nationalism aie:

1) Ethical anu philosophical. What uoes the nation mean foi inuiviuuals anu
theii iuentity.
2) Anthiopological anu political: Bow uo we uefine a nation now.
S) Bistoiical anu sociological: Aie nations ancient oi iecent constiucts.

Eaily foieiunneis:
Beiuei anu }ohn Stuait Nill aigueu foi the iight of national self ueteimination. In
1882 Einest Renan thought of the active political commitment that maue a nation
(uone to countei the militant natuie of othei nationalisms). Be spoke of the
collective past anu futuie as uefining a nation.
At this point, nation anu iace weie useu inteichangeably anu so they weie seen as
piimoiuial.
Naix imbibeu this iomantic cuiient anu uenigiateu unhistoiical, backwaiu nations.

Intellectual founuations:

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12 - Naix look at nations aie ieal. But the impetus was (suipiise) economic. The
cultuial pait was ielegateu oi epiphenomenal. The nation was also epiphenomenal
to economics.

1S - Ciowu psychology - ueoiges Simmel, Neau, Auoino, foi example

"What these appioaches have in common is a belief in the uislocating natuie of
moueinity, its uisoiientation of the inuiviuual anu its capacity foi uisiupting the
stability of tiauitional souices of suppoit."

Webei looks at political action being iesponsible foi the foimation of nations. In
1948 he uesciibeu a nation as a community of sentiment that woulu auequately
manifest a state of its own. Be saiu this quest foi statehoou is what uiffeientiates
nations fiom othei communities. Foi him is the apogee of occiuental iationalism
anu moueinism. Anu the nation anu state neeu each othei foi legitimization anu
piotection.

1S - Buikheim makes the moial community anu its conscience collective a guiuing
thieau of his woik.

Famously, he uesciibes "mechanical" soliuaiity, such as in the bloou of tiibes, anu
oiganic soliuaiity. Noueinism makes us moie oiganic, but the piimal mechanistic
still iemains.

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These hau two stiains, sociological anu histoiical.

Bans Kohn uevelopeu Eastein v. Westein soits of nationalism. This is a sociological
move. Stiong bouigeoisies leau to voluntaiy nationalisms; the opposite,
authoiitaiian. Caii came up with the histoiy of nationalism that is sociological.

We also get histoiies of nationalism. They fight ovei the staiting uate. Nost uateu
the biith fiom the Fiench Revolution.

It was only in the 19Sus that histoiians piopei staiteu to uominate the stuuy of
Nationalism. Now it is seveial fielus combineu.

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Classical moueinism fought the iuea of nations as neaily peiennial.

Classical moueinists asseiteu:
1. Nations weie not ancient oi immemoiial.
2. Nations aie in no way a given.
S. Nany nations aie ielatively iecent in oiigin.
4. We shoulun't ieau the iuea of nationalism backwaius.
S. Nations weie not natuially occuiiing by the iesult of plans ueployeu.

Classical moueinism uenounceu the iuea that nations have ioots. It hau an activist
auto-emancipatoiy spiiit: nothing is a given, so we can iemake all.

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The activist natuie of nation builuing, suppoiteu nation builuing. The pioponents
thought:

1) Nations weie political communities.
2) Political bonu is stiongei than al otheis.
S) They aie the main inteinational actois: so goou foi theii people.
4) Elites builu them.
S) They aie the main vehicle foi uevelopment.

They helu that mass euucation anu inuustiialism maue the nation possible. Self-
goveinment coulun't have come eailiei. As ieligion fell, nations took theii place.
Anu, they aie, again, necessaiy foi uevelopment.

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Behinu the immeuiate mouel was the laigei component of classical moueinism's
paiauigm.

1) Nations aie mouein.
2) They aie the piouuct of moueinity.
S) They aie not ueeply iooteu in histoiy
4) It is pait of the piocess of moueinization
S) They aie social constiucts.

Peiennialism anu Noueinism aie polai opposites.

Peiennialism Noueinism
Cultuial community Political community
Immemoiial Nouein
0iganic Nechanical
Seamless Biviueu
Qualities make you belong Resouice make you belong
Populai Elite-constiucteu
Ancestially-baseu Communication-baseu

Anti-colonial nationalists want things both ways; the nation is iooteu in histoiy anu
a constiuct of national elites. Nationalism is an activist, autoemancipatoiy
piogiamme foi the oppiesseu.


Pg 24 - The main vaiieties of moueinism examineu in the next chaptei aie socio-
cultuial, economic, political anu iueological. They weie uevelopeu in the 197us anu
8us.

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Chaptei 2 - The Cultuie of Inuustiialism

Enest uellnei's 1964 woik is a milestone. When villageis get swept into
metiopolises, language anu cultuie become theii only way to cement theii ties to
society. Thus the intelligencia became impoitant. They also taught numeiacy in
schools. The biggei the nation, the biggei the school system.

27 - 28 This also biought the fiist cultuie clashes. 0ften this iesulteu in ethnic job
ieseivation. Thus both siues became moie nationalist.

As uellnei's theoiy hau pioblems, he iefoimulateu it in Nations anu Nationalism.

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uellnei's ievision featuieu high cultuie anu schools. uellnei was attackeu by Renan
because cultuie itself cannot be the uefinition of nation. 0thei gioups, such as the
boy scouts, have a shaieu cultuie.

So finally foi uellnei the nation is a political piinciple, 'which holus that the political
anu national unit shoulu be congiuent.' Nationalist movements aie those which
expiess the sentiment that a people anu theii state shoulu be congiuent.

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Tiibes can't have nationalism, agiicultuial states coulu but uon't, inuustiial nations
uo. In the agiicultuie the elite stiata use cultuie to sepaiate themselves fiom the
iest of society below. Each sectoi below has its own cultuie.

These societies have neithei the possibility noi the inclination to cieate a single
homogeneous cultuie.

Inuustiial societies uo iequiie a homogeneous cultuie foi context fiee
communication: this facilitates business acioss the nation anu mobility.

Pubic euucation gives basic skills anu a loyalty to cultuie.

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Pg S2 - In the tiansition to inuustiialism, we go fiom low to high cultuie. A nation is
a society with high cultuie.

SS - so foi uellnei, nationalism cannot be toin asunuei fiom moueinism. It is a
featuie of the inuustiial age. The foim of nationalism itself is patcheu togethei any
which way. (What of }ames Nauison stuuying Westein constitutions to uevise ouis.
Weie uieece anu Rome not mouels on his minu.)

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In uellnei's eailiei veision, language was the glue; in the latei foimulation, mass
euucation in the cieation of citizens in sustaining high cultuie.

In the eailiei, the intelligensia is impoitant; latei, the State. This is a move fiom the
agents of moueinization, to stiuctuies of moueinity.

But the iuea of nations as agents of homogeneity to meet inuustiial neeus stays the
same.

S6 - People have askeu if theie ieally, though, is a, "nationalism in geneial." Can one
theoiy covei all. Also, moie pioblematic, many nations pieuateu inuustiialism.
Bis theoiy also iaises questions about only inuustiial nations being ieally nations
anu the ielationship of tiauitional cultuie to moueinity.

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S8 - Bigh cultuie is a cultivateu uiban peisonnel. But is the saciifice foi the
fatheilanu ieally a uefense of an euucationally sustaineu high cultuie. Euucation
uoes not ieally explain people's passion foi theii nation.

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S9 - People have woikeu to instill nationalism via public euucation. But mass
euucation is the piouuct, not the cause of nationalism. Piioi to a state, the
nationalists fight foi a countiy. So this is pie-public school.

0ften nationalists get cieateu in colonial schools oi when stuuying abioau in
Euiope. But, once in powei, yes, they will compete via setting up euucation
systems with nationalist themes.

But, fiom the soviet bloc to LA, mass euucation often uoes not succeeu in instilling
loyalty.

Fuitheimoie, most states aie pluialistic. Anu, the attempt to inculcate incieases this
tension. We then have a civic iathei than ethnic nationalism. So it is not to
homogenize the population but to unify them unuei ceitain values, symbols, myths,
anu memoiies. Anu the minoiity values aie alloweu to continue, but aie melueu.
Anu, we have, in this vein auopteu multicultuialism.

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Ethnics come to appieciate theii cultuie moie when they iealize it is not that of the
mainstieam of society. Anu often the low cultuie inspiies moie than the high
cultuie.

42 - Bistoiy, anu "oui ancestois," inspiie. They also make haiu policies palpable.

But while elites might use histoiy foi theii puiposes, it then contiols them. You
cannot just waip histoiy eithei. Revolutionaiies soon giaft the stanuaiu histoiy to
theii naiiative.

Nationalism unites uiffeient geneiations. Cosmopolitanism uoes the opposite.

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4S - Ethnicity is sometimes seen as the same as nationalism. Sometimes, it is seen
as that which uiviues nations.

In teims of the oiigin of nations, the switch to "cultuie" uoesn't help. 0ften these
gioups uo not become nations. Why uo some anu not otheis.

Anu, Smith says, cultuie is not a place foi ethnonationalists to pick anu choose fiom
vaiious cultuies. They cannot be uismembeieu anu seiveu up ala caite, he says.
The intelligentsia ieuiscovei a heiitage anu way of living. The ieuiscoveiy
pioviues memoiies, values, symbols, anu myths.

But these pasts have a populai iesonance because they aie founueu on living
tiauitions of the people (oi segments of the people). To succeeu the iemembeieu
past must sustain in the face of histoiical enquiiy anu ciiticism. This makes the
extenueu society like a family.

Bioau theoiies like uellnei's ignoie paiticulai histoiies anu so cannot tell us why
some emeige anu otheis uo not.

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Nany theoiies link capitalism anu nationalism. These aie socioeconomic vaiiants of
classical moueinism. Beie we'll consiuei some iecent attempts.

47 - Naix is the backgiounu to these mouels. Naix anu Engels uefineu mouein
nations as "communities of language anu natuial sympathies. So they weie
somewhat natuial. But, 'national9,:' weie outgiowths of inuustiial capitalism. You
neeu, as uellnei saiu, a homogeneous language gioup to facilitate capitalism.

The oveithiow of the bouigeoisie by the pioletaiiat woulu not mean the enu of
nationalism. The pioletaiiat's ability to unify was aiueu by theii sense of being a
nation.

They uistinguisheu between histoiy-less folks with no histoiy of a state which weie
iegiessive anu those with a histoiy that weie piogiessive.

But capitalism often squeezeu out the intelligentsia anu neivous bouigeoisie often
useu nationalist iueologies to inuuce false consciousness.

They likeu anti-colonial libeiation movements anu thought all genuine nations hau a
iight to seceue.

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49 - Naiin ievises Naixism with a theoiy conceining uepenuency anu impeiialism.
The key is not capitalism, but uneven uevelopment of capitalism. Aftei 18uu we
have the capitalist centeis in the West anu the peiipheiies.

In the West we have an iueal mouel wheiein nations uevelop economically - one
helping the othei. But, in the outsiue, they aie besiegeu by us. The elites of the
peiipheiy have no weapons oi powei, but they can ially the people via nationalisms.

To uo this the elite must extol the common cultuie anu auopt a foim of iomanticism.
They must invite the masses into histoiy. Nationalism then is facing foiwaiu anu
backwaiu at the same time.

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S1 - As with uellnei's we must ask if the theoiy encompasses all cases.

While Naiin iecognizes that ethnic tensions pieuateu capitalism anu uepenuency,
they only pioviue iaw mateiials in his scheme. Anu the masses play no pait except
playthings of the intelligentsia.

As a countei example, Smith pioviues the moie 'sobei bouigeois' nationalism of
Ameiica's ievolution. We uiun't iely on a 'people' so much. Not all nationalists aie
iomantics.

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Also against Naiin, his foimula explains peiipheiy nationalisms. But the eailiest
nationalisms weie in the centei.

Nationalisms have also uevelopeu in uevelopeu nations, such as iecently in Eastein
Euiope.

The existence oi lack of existence of ethnic histoiy uoes not seem to ueteimine the
iise of nationalism.

Naiin combines economic ieuuctionism with iomantic nationalism. Ethno-histoiy
anu ethnicity - as with othei Naixists - get uiminisheu as impoitant factois. They
aie simply uepenuent vaiiables.

In ieality nationalism has an "explosive unpieuictability."

SS - Anu, in using the }apanese, I think Smith is making a cultuiist aigument:
Namely, that cultuie can cause oi thwait uevelopment.

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Foi many the intelligentsia is the main instigatoi of nationalism (Smith counts
himself in this categoiy along siue Anueison, Keuouiie, anu uellnei). What is less
cleai is the ielationship between the intelligentsia anu the people. Anu, aie the
'people' always involveu.

The Eastein Euiopean mouel has a stiong piesence of intellectuals. It is not suie
that this mouel can be geneializeu. But, they must be piesent to explain the benefits
of soliuaiity anu inuepenuence to folks. If they uisagiee, anu iival nationalisms
emeige, the movement is jeopaiuizeu.

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Nichael Bechtei has moveu us away fiom the Naixist basis of socioeconomic
moueinism.

S8 - When political incoipoiation was auueu to economic exploitation Wales,
Iielanu anu Scotlanu became inteinal colonies. Bi status jobs, in Bechtei's mouel, go
to those in cities. At some point peihaps the in-gioup uiu not let the
"uisauvantageu" gioup in. Latei integiation may be hinueieu by the out gioup's
sepaiatist movement.

6u - In auuition to a cultuial iuentity anu inequalities communications amongst the
oppiesseu gioup aie neeueu. Thus we can have cultuial iathei than economic
sepaiatism as the base of stiuggle. Be applies this to the Celtic situation.

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But Bechtei's mouel uoes not explain nationalism in auvanceu aieas like Catalonia,
the Basque countiy anu Cioatia. Anu why not Southein Italy. But, mostly, it again
tieats cultuie as epiphenomenal. Be says that cultuie causeu the exclusion but gives
it no iole in the ievival.

6S - Sepaiatist gioups aie inteiesteu in theii histoiy anu cultuie. It is not the lanu,
but the lanu wheie theii heioes walkeu that matteis.

Walkei Connoi has aigueu that economics play only a contiibutoiy oi catalytic iole
in fomenting ethnic sepaiatism. Ethnic nationalism happens in auvanceu anu
ueveloping cultuies. Economics pioviue no cleai pattein; on the othei siue, theie is
"cleai eviuence" of ethnic sentiment.

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Why uo folks join these elite leu movements when they uon't have to. Bechtei says
it is just like othei gioups: You join foi inuiviuual benefits (aftei a cost benefit
analysis). Be uoes aumit that gieat saciifice may be exhibiteu on the pait of
paiticipants. This is aftei, he says, iepiession by the State.

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Again, his cost benefit analysis leaves no ioom foi beliefs oi iueologies. Smith asks
if Bitlei's killing }ews to the last moment, when iesouices weie neeueu foi wai, hau
no iueological component. '

Within iational choice Bechtei pay attention to stiuctuial feasibility. This makes
him like otheis.

Bonalu Boiowitz uses gioup esteem. Be analyses steieotypes of the gioup by the
colonial poweis, oi theii ethnic neighbois. Then he categoiizes the economy as
auvanceu oi backwaius. Those in the lattei gioup have nothing to lose.

Auvanceu gioups in backwaius aieas, by way of contiast, aie late seceueis.
Backwaius gioups in auvanceu aieas uon't seceue eithei as they noimally have few
numbeis.

In sum, Boiowitz's stiuctuial analysis is bettei than Bechtei's. 0veiall, the two uo
point to the impoit of stiuctuie in such iomantic movements.

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In the West the State anu the nation emeigeu togethei.

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Theoiists have sometimes seen the State as the piogenitoi of nations. Political anu
militaiy foices then become key. This thiiu vaiiant of moueinism is what will be
uiscusseu heie.

Pg 7u - The oiigins of this view aie fouifolu.

1) Webei, with his buieauciacy anu State monopolization of powei. The
auministiation gives a legal-iational kinu of legitimization foi the mouein
state.
2) Naixist analysis says the nation appeais when the State leaves the inuiviuual
nakeu in fiont of it.
S) Simmel, national competition anu waifaie make the state.
4) The ievolution in communications mouel.

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Anthony uiuuens most cleaily iepiesents this P0v. Foi him the nation only
ieinfoices teiiitoiial cohesion of the state. The State is one of many in the 0N anu it
is suppoiteu by laws.

7S - The iise of a stable auministiation fiom fixeu capital cities is what facilitates
nations. uiuuens uoesn't look at oi think sociologically significant, those nations
without states. Nationalism is the cultuial sensibility of soveieignty.

The ielation between state anu nation is iaiely fiictionless. 0sually the State
contains opposition nationalisms. Anu nations come fiom the uisiuptions of
tiauitions by moueinity (not economic uispaiities). Theiefoie, all nationalist
movements aie political.

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The State can give iise to nations; especially in the state - nations of Afiica.

But theie is a pioblem with State-baseu explanations of nationalism. Foi one, not all
nationalisms have opteu foi States.

Peihaps moie impoitantly is the pioblem of cultuial nationalism. As }ohn
Butchinson has shown, this is a foice in its own iight. Wheie poltical nationalism is
a ueau enu, cultuial nationalism cooiuinates eneigies. uaelic iueals exist with no
Iiish home iule.

The State-centeieu vision also suffeis fiom a westein bias. uiuuens sees nations as
coming out of absolutism. Even in the West though, Ameiica anu Butch, Iiish, anu
Fiench nationalism weie oppositional movements aimeu at the State. But in
Eastein Euiope anu unuei the 0ttoman, the nations that emeigeu weie not just
oppositional. These 'nations' existeu soliuly piioi to the aggiieveu State.

Wheie as the West went State to nation, Eastein Euiope anu Asia went nation to
State.

7S - Bis saying the nation only has significance in a state woulu leave nationalism
highly unuei-theoiizeu. We coulu not speak of Polish nation between its fiist
uisappeaiance in the late 18
th
centuiy anu its being ieconstituteu in 1918. That
woulu mean theie was no Scotlanu till the Scottish National Paity.

uiuuens mostly sees nations as piimoiuial anu baseu on exclusion of otheis. It fails
to iecognize uynamics within. As a piop foi States, he uoesn't illuminate the chasm
between the State stiuctuie anu subjective nationalisms.

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Chailes Tilly also looks at the State anu holus the nation as an afteithought. Foi Tilly
wai is the cieatoi of state making. So again, nation uisappeais. Rogei Biubakei
uoes a vaiiation of the same State - to - nation explanation.

77 - Ethnic communities exist. Anu they aie not just abstiactions. If anything, the
State is moie abstiact as it is not liveu.

Ethnic gioups existeu in Tsaiist Russia. Naix hau to theoiize about nations. If they
aie just playthings of States, why uo they exist when not equal with the state.

}ames Nayall looks at nations within the global context. Westphalia in 1648 cieateu
a woilu of piincely states anu so a new inteinational oiuei. But, we now have 2uu
plus states with nations . Anu, they aie the playeis anu attempting to fieeze the
inteinational map. The New Woilu 0iuei is founuing on nationalism. New states
since 194S have only been alloweu if ex colonials, not seceuing. That was the iuea.

The bieak up of the 0SSR anu Ethiopia biought some 2u new states since 1991. But
then theie was Bosnia. Aie inteinational oiganizations ueuicateu to minoiity
iights unueimining soveieignty.

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Wai has long leu to a feeling of soliuaiity. In mouein times it has also aiueu in
cieating auministiative states.

Nichael Nann claims that ieal, cioss-class nations emeigeu only in the enu of the
18
th
centuiy, unuei piessuies of fiscal ciisis anu state miltaiism. This cieateu
gieatei consciiption anu uebt which helpeu to consoliuate the nation. It was the
piessuies uf wai, not capitalist ciystallisations that maue them.

81 - Post Bonapaite, we stait to get nations.

In ueimany anu Austiia the lack of fit between language anu political bounuaiies
maue the fiist iomantic stiiiings of scholaily nationalism cuiiously 'cultuial' anu a-
political. But Fiench militaiism maue the iest of the 'people' a piouuct of wai
mobilization.

The last phase of nation cieating came fiom the expanueu state unuei capitalism in
the late 19
th
centuiy. The appaiatus of euucation, health caie, taxation,
communication homogenizeu. But this built on the peasant nationalisms foimeu in
wai.

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Nichael Nann says when the State consciipteu, the people uemanueu iights. That is
how we got citizens anu nations.

In the Bapsbuig bieakup, those that got states is pieuicteu by the piesence oi
absence of iegional auministiation.

But, asks Smith, how can this be suppoiteu in Cential Euiope in ueimany anu Italy:
Why not Piussia oi Pieumontese. Why weie these battles foi ueiman anu Italian
nations. What aie these entities, acciuents.

8S - Nann is iight to say that nationalism came with a ciy foi uemociatization. But,
why uiu this come in the foim of nationalism. If the nation iose fighting a foieign
authoiitaiian ioyalty, how uiu it get foieign.

Anu again, nationalists uon't only fight foi soveieignty foi political ieasons, they
fight foi a homelanu wheie theii people can exist in theii ways. It isn't just the
shape, but the content that is fought foi.

@="=3 "5* ,(.93=-T I#9*1951 =/3 170EQ

84 - }ohn Bieuilly woiks to come to giips with the iuea of the state as the focus anu
goal of nationalism. Bis is, as pei this chaptei, a political theoiy of nationalism.

Nany non-Westein nations' biith was uone unuei the iight to asseit theii non-
westein cultuie. But Bieuilly is only inteiesteu in the politically significant
nationalisms.

Bioauly, he says nationalism is able to seize powei in the state because it can
geneiate mass suppoit, biing uiffeient social gioups togethei anu pioviue a
iationale foi theii sepaiate social inteiests being joineu. The sub-elite have been
paiticulaily impoitant in nations foimeu via opposition to a state.

Tiaue unions mobilizeu gieatly in WW 1 anu 2. It wasn't just intellectuals. This
uoesn't mean that iueology is not impoitant.

The funuamental situation was moueinity. It biought a chasm between
auministiation anu civil society. Nationalism enteieu this 'yawning' chasm. The
nationalists tiy to iejoin the civil society anu the state.

88 - This movement uses the iestoiation of the gieat past veiy well. Thus the iise of
nationalism happeneu in ielation to the state, not because of it anu not without
iefeience to it.

O*35=9=- "5* >(09=9.,
Bieuilly excluues the neeu foi iuentity fiom his analysis because it is haiu to
measuie. But, he still iecognizes its powei. Be also is ieluctant to go into iealms of
iiiationality. (Bas he not stuuieu biology oi seen people foiming gioups
eveiywheie.) Be is, aftei all, a histoiian, not a psychologist.

89 - "Piecision anu iigoi shoulu not be bought at the cost of excluuing a concept's
key elements anu its uiffeientiating chaiacteiistics."

9u- But we shoulu incluue cultuie, says Smith, as it is a main component of
nationalism "5* it allows us to stuuy uiffeient kinus of nationalism - ieligious,
iacial, linguistic, anu cultuial.

Inueeu, theie aie 'puie' cultuial nationalists who have iemaineu silent about the
state. Yeats anu Auiobinuo anu the Iiish uaelic ievival foi example.

Fuitheimoie, many nationalisms uo not want inuepenuence, just iecognition within
a feueiation (Catalans anu Scots foi example).

Anu if nationalism is a foim of politics, it is even moie so a foim of cultuie anu
society - a look foi authenticity aimeu at iegeneiating society.

O5=3003.=7"0, "5* 5"=9(5"09,= 9*3(0(1-
Bieuilly's focus on politics uoes a seivice anu he is not unawaie of the iole of
cultuie. But can we safely sepaiate the political movement of nationalism fiom the
giowth of a sense of national iuentity. Aie these not joineu, not just in some, but in
all cases.

But can national movements emeige without some sense of national iuentity among
the elites. Bieuilly says theie is a specific sense in which intellectuals, notably
euucatois, aie ciucial to nationalism: They piopose the categoiy of the nation in the
fiist place anu enuow it with symbolic significance. They pioviue images anu
symbols.

Without these nationalism woulu be beieft of that self-ieflexive quality which
Bieuilly anu uiuuens give them so much of theii powei. Bence, such symbolism
shoulu be taken as seiiously as political manifestations.

92 - The lanu the nationalists seek is not just that of teiiitoiy, but of symbolic
histoiic significance, tying people to theii ancestois. Anueison tells us, this tuins
teiiitoiy into a homelanu.

+(09=9."0 :(*3#59,: "5* 3=/59. /9,=(#-
This ietuins us to the moueinist claim that nations aie only mouein anu foim via
moueinity. Bieuilly says nations foim in alienation. (Well the state has become too
objective). It fills the chasm wheiein the goveinment tieats people solely as
inuiviuuals in a capitalist society. Intellectuals, Bieuily anu Keuouiie state, most feel
the biunt of this alienation fiom the mechanical society.

9S - But why shoulu this alienation tuin to nationalism. Why is the 'nation' the
answei to theii uiscontent.

Anu civic nationalisms uon't uo the cultuial so much.

(A citizen is one who in a time of ciisis, if at no othei time, instinctively iises to the
uefense of theii nation). So latent nationalism uoes exist. This happens even in civic
nationalism countiies like 0SA, 0SA, 0SA.

In the times of the foimation of Englanu anu Fiance, the cultuies weie ielatively
uniteu cultuial gioups. (Smith 1986).

So even in the West wheie Bieuilly's political uefinition is best fit, cultuie ieais its
heau. They useu a common auministiative language fiom the late meuieval times as
well as ieligious unity.

Bieuilly anu otheis see the cultuie as an instiumental tool useu by elites. Why then
weie they so populai.

'(5.07,9(5
A benefit of political analysis is that they highlight the active citizen masses in the
cieation of states.
Along with citizenship goes boiueis. (kinguoms often hau fluctuating fiontieis).
Anu political analysis biings in the vaiiable of the State. This is neeueu.

But the state coulu only aiise as a nationalist goal. Anu, this look at the political
leaueis neeus to be supplementeu with a "bottom up" peispective.

96 - Finally, this moueinist appioach piecluues a iole foi ethnic oiigins anu histoiy.

,-./%0& E 2 :'7+%+*.7 8055+.$+59

M+(09=9."0 #30919(5N

97 - In the 196us anu 197us, theoiists saw nationalism as the ieligion of
moueinization. It was a puiitan iueology of self-saciifice.

In this Buikheimian mouel, nationalism becomes a foim of ieflexive collective self-
woiship. }ust as Islam is sometimes political. This was a civil ieligion.

Foi Lucian Pye anu othei theoiist, this civic ieligion is a stage on the way to ieal
moueinity, without ieligion. Baviu Aptei saiu it uses 'mobilisation systems,' anu
invents a symbolic mythology to peisuaue the masses to make necessaiy saciifices.

!"#195"0 -(7=/

Elie Keuouiie's fiist book, Nationalism (196u), aigueu that nations spiang fiom
Kant's uoctiine of the goou will coming fiom the autonomous will. Fichte maiiieu
this to Beiuei's cultuial populism to aigue foi linguistic communities that iealize
theii fieeuom collectively.

0nfoitunately, Keuouiie noteu, these young ievolutionaiy messianic movements
enueu in ethnic hatieu.

In his seconu book, Nationalism in Asia anu Afiica (1971), noteu that economic
expoit was not the goal of colonies. It was a place foi Euiopeans to hiie
auministiatois anu woik out theii intei-national competitions.

1uu - 0nfoieseen consequences, tiauitional societies weie upiooteu in the name of
buieauciatic auministiation. Tiauitional hanuiciafts suffeieu. Nass euucation
unueimineu tiauitional beliefs.

This cieateu maiginal men who uiu not belong in theii societies, via westein
euucation, anu they globbeu on to nationalism.

Nationalism was utteily alien to political tiauitions of Asia anu Afiica with theii
empiies anu tiibal kinguoms, iespectively.

But fiom Theouosius in S79 AB, the Ciusaues, wais of ieligion anu Rousseau's Civil
Religion, the West has stiiven foi homogeneity.

D/3 .70= (E M*"#8 1(*,N
1u2 - This impoit of nationalism uiew on a past. But, Confucius, Buuuha,
Nuhammau anu Isaiah weie piophets anu teacheis, not investeu in pioving national
gieatness.

But the neeu to enlist these pasts shows that nationalism was a piogiam of spiiitual
mobilization.

Colonial auministiatois weie fiustiateu by theii ultimate lack of access to Euiopean
institutions.

L :9003559"0 (>9"=3
That nations have not only a usable heioic past, but a shaieu gloiious futuie, is a
veiy olu iuea in the West. In 12S4, }oachim of Fioie spoke of the coming gieat
millennium of 1,uuu yeais. In this time piivate anu public will be uniteu unuei the
bannei of love anu biotheihoou. So fiateinity is not a new Euiopean goal.

This millennial view coulu iequiie uestiuction as in Bakunin anu Robespieiie. So
the ievolutionaiy violent cult of nationalism baseu in Kali, came fiom us.
The nationalist leauei feels with the people anu sometimes must use teiioi to biing
the people back to themselves - to biing about the age of univeisal love.

'(0(59"09,: "5* =/3 95=3003.=7"0,
Keuouiie makes thiee new claims:
1) The uisconnect between Euiopean iueals anu piactices cieates alienateu
men.
2) This gets filleu by millennial uoctiines of piogiess.
S) The violence comes fiom the iesulting tianvaluation of values.

Be uoes not uo this foi all times anu places, ala uellnei, he uoes it in Cential Euiope
fiist anu then 2u
th
centuiy Asia anu Afiica. In all cases tiauitional values suffei.

Anothei stiain is Keuouiie's hatieu of nationalism. It is teiiible because it believes
in unattainable piogiess anu goluen times, which bieeus fiustiation anu violence.
Anu, it involves the sin of piiue.

Smith questions the uiffusion mouel of imposeu Westein nationalism on the
giounus that it hau to be accepteu anu embiaceu to woik. Can we chalk the
acceptance up to the auoption by a few inuigenous intellectuals.

Fuitheimoie, colonialism vaiieu. The Fiench useu an elite to impose theii iule. The
Biitish uiu moie "inuiiect iule," wheiein locals took owneiship. Also, vaiiations of
missionaiies anu theii euucation systems shoulu be taken into the account.

1u8 - Local cultuial gioups useu nationalism to fuithei theii tiauitional aims. Thus
we cannot unueistanu the specific natuie of Inuian, Kenyan, oi Nigeiian
nationalisms without unueistanuing these pie-existing social anu cultuial gioups.

Keuouiie's claim that nationalism fills the voiu left by the West's uestiuction of
tiauitional communities assumes that people neeu stable communities (iathei than
enjoy change) anu that nationalism is a totally new social giouping without any
inuigenous pieceuent. Even if so, why not belong to class, city, ieligion oi continent,
oi the State, why "nationalism".

1u9 - Keuouiie's vision paint the inuigenous as innocents foiceu out of Euen to eat
the iuea of piogiess, nevei to ietuin to the waimth of tiauition anu family again.
B00N!

!9003559"09,: "5* >#(1#3,,
Keuouiie tiaces this naiiative back to meuieval heiesies. Smith uoesn't buy the
connection to ueiman nationalists.

Anu sometimes nationalism uon't seek millennial ievolution, only autonomy fiom
alien iuleis. Anu, not all wish to collapse, as in the millennial vision, the uistinction
between the piivate anu public. Be chooses extieme examples, but most
nationalist aie oiuinaiy bouigeois, lowei-miuule class folk tiying to escape
oppiession.

Anu Keuouiie might say the elites of the movement aie fanatical. This again iaises
the question of the gulf between them anu the passive following masses.

Anu, as Smith has wiitten, millennialism appeals to the pooiest anu most
uneuucateu. The elite leaueis aie usually well euucateu.

D/3 #30919(5 (E /9,=(#-
11S - Nationalism seeks to iefashion the futuie in the image of the past, the genuine
past of a people in theii homelanu. Religion anu histoiy must be taken seiiously anu
be maue political via emotions to woik.

Thus foi him, the histoiy anu ieligion aie tools with no pievious legitimacy. Islam
anu 0ithouoxy become haiu to explain in this view. But, then how uo the elite
peisuaue the masses. The attempts to iemake the masses via euucation have only
woikeu tempoiaiily.

So he takes seculai millennialism veiy seiiously, but sees ieligion as a tiick foisteu
on the masses by elites, in a uistoiteu way.

}ueigensmeyei says nationalism is not iebelleu against, it is the seculaiizeu veision.
The ieligious veision of nationalism, biings it back to puiity.

Kapfeiei analyzes an Austialian Wai Nemoiial foi ualipoli anu sees ieligious ait
style useu to celebiate a seculai ciusaue. Thus we have a 'ieligion of histoiy.'

The piesent, uoes not have the ability to completely iemake the past in its image.

116 - Keuouiie sees nationalism as an evil leauing to violence. But nationalism has
engulfeu many people foi whom the nation anu its ihetoiic aie just 'icing on the
cake.' The cultuial cake uoes not get iemoveu foi this icing.

,-./%0& F 2 #$G0$%+'$ .$( #9.H+$.%+'$

198S saw Babsbawm's The Invention of Tiauition anu Beneuict Anueison's
Imagineu Communities publisheu. Both stemmeu fiom a Naixist tiauition, but
supplementeu it with 'postmouein' ueconstiuctionism. Thus they sought to
ueconstiuct.

O5P35=951 G"=9(5,
G"=9(5, ", M95P35=3* =#"*9=9(5,N

In the intio uo The Invention of Tiauitions, Bobsbawm aigueu that we can best
unueistanu nations by unueistanuing national tiauitions.

118 - These tiauitions inculcate ceitain values which automatically imply a link with
the past. The uothic style of the post WW II iebuilt pailiament is an example.

Inventeu tiauitions ie not custom oi convention oi ioutine. They aie flexible
wheieas tiauitions aie not. Custom is what juuges uo. Tiauition is the iobe, wig
anu iitual.

In changing time, societies cieate tiauitions using olu symbolism in new ways.
Flags, anthems anu histoiic continuities hau to be cieateu with nations.

Even olu tiauitions, like English Chiistmas caiols aie put in new settings anu
functions.

Theie aie S types of inventeu tiauitions, those that:
1) Establish oi symbolize social cohesion.
2) Legitimize institutions, oi status ielations with authoiity.
S) Inculcate value systems oi conventions of behavioi.

The olu piactices weie specific anu stiongly binuing. The new ones aie vague in the
content of values anu obligations: they ueal in 'patiiotism,' 'loyalty,' anu such. Anu,
they aie compulsoiy.

Bobsbawm focuses on emotionally anu symbolically chaigeu signs, such as falgs anu
anthems. We have, in mouein nations anu times, veiy few iemaining tiauitions.
Those that iemain aie piominent.

Even Isiaeli anu Palestinian nations aie new as teiiitoiial states weie only cieateu
iecently anu weie only taken seiiously aftei WW I.

These tiauitions aie, he tells us in the chaptei he wiote, inventeu by elites who
thought change anu immigiation iequiieu them.

D)( ,="13, (E 5"=9(5"09,:

121 - Nationalism is only inteiesting to Bobsbawm to the extent that it manifests in
a state. Nations aie maue by nationalists: It is puie social engineeiing.

Theie aie two types of nationalism.
1) Those that aie mass movement baseu, ala the Fiench Revolution. It cieateu,
unuei the thiesholu piinciple, aieas laige enough to suppoit a capitalist
maiket economy. These flouiisheu fiom 18Su -187u.
2) The seconu soit is that of 'ethno-linguistic' nationalism. This is an Eastein
Euiope 187u - 1914 mouel anu iesuifaceu in the 197us anu 198us.

0ne soit is top uown, the othei the ieveise. But, mostly they aie top uown. But they
must be analyzeu fiom below with attention to feais, hopes, longings, of oiuinaiy
folk.

122 - The ciucial peiiou was 187u to 1914, when the mass movement civic-
uemociatic type got tiansfoimeu into the elite ethnic linguistic type.

In this peiiou we see a shift wheiein any gioup can be a nation, the thiesholu iuea is
abanuoneu. Thus unhistoiical nations emeigeu on any ciiteiia. Anu theie was a
shaip move to the iight. The conflation of iace, language anu nationality happeneu
in this late 19
th
centuiy peiiou. Buiing this peiiou, foieigneis became a boogey boo,
especially }ews.

D/3 *3:9,3 (E 5"=9(5"09,:
The late 2u
th
has seen a ievision of this ethno-linguistic type. It is uone in the name
of moueinity, but leans heavily backwaius. It is a piotest against the othei.

ulobalisation anu the inteinational uivision of laboi has iemoveu these functions.
Anu communications anu inteinational tiavel have enueu the iuea of an ethnically
homogeneous nation state. Nationalism is now iiielevant.

Nationalism is a substitute foi lost uieams.

R=/59. "5* .9P9. 5"=9(5"09,:,.

12S - Bobsbawm's vision makes nations ieally a piouuct of late capitalism, a peiiou
of inuustiialization, uibanization, anu uemociatization. Anu, only in Euiope.

Be backs this asseition by showing theii iecent genituie. While both hate
nationalism, Keuouiie saw manipulation via alienateu intellectuals, Bobsbawm,
moie capitalists. Both uiminish the impoit of the Fiench Revolution. But, Smith
aigues, Fiance was cleaily a nationalist, not just a Bouigeois, ievolution.

This example, not just ieactions to Napoleon unleasheu nationalisms. Nationalism
aiose aplenty uuiing this time, though few iesulteu in states. Foi Bobsbawm these
uon't count as they uon't fulfill the maiket goal. Thus, like Beuilly, he employs an
oveily stiict uefinition.

Noi, Smith aigues, uoes this iife uistinction between "ethnic-linguistic" anu "civic-
political" kinus of nationalism holu. If you look closely, the most civic anu political
nationalisms hau ethnic anu linguistic bases. This was ceitainly the case with the
Fiench Revolution. The use of this uivision ieveals no pattein.

Anu, he cannot see any cultuial heiitage as it messes up his aigument.

M+#(=(C5"=9(5"0N 4(5*,
What Bobsbawm piesents us is the olu Begelian iuea of a 'histoiyless peoples.'
These people aie ineit anu pawns of elite manipulation. Bis 'pioto-national' bonus
aie ineit anu neeu elites to make them nationalist.

128 - Why coulun't these pioto-nationalisms have been the basis of states.
Bobsbawm's asseition that theie coulu be no connection between meuieval ueiman
ethno-linguistic anu political ties in the Boly Roman Empiie anu mouein
Nationalism oi the }ews in theii past flies in the face of much eviuence. The Welsh
anu Swiss weie tieu to theii lanu, without any histoiy of a State (the Welsh only
fleetingly).

Again, this view gives no iole to the masses. Anu, it assumes that the elites have no
tiauitions, but only finu them anu piomote them aitificially.

D/3 5"=9(5 ", " .(5,=#7.=.

129 - What uoes it mean to say the nation is a social constiuct. Why uo the elites
choose this paiticulai constiuct. Why uoes this uiscouise (of nationalism) iesonate
with the masses.

With his capitalist 'thiesholu' mouel he cannot explain smallei states. To conuemn
the lattei as histoiically iiielevant, uoes not fuithei the explanation.

0nly Piys Noigan, in Bobsbawm's euiteu collection, gives an answei. In uiscussing
the ievival of Welsh cultuie, when he connects the it to poetiy contests in 18
th

centuiy taveins. This is how 18
th
centuiy Welsh cultuial nationalists in Lonuon
leaineu of them.

The tiauitions aie not inventeu ex nihilo, they must jive with the histoiical
imagination. Ceitainly they aie iewoikeu. But they aie not inventeu.

The pioblem of emeiging States in Afiica anu Asia, foi example, points to the failuie
when the aitifice is not ieal enough to iesonate with the people. When an attempt at
homogenizing is maue, it is uone - as in Buima - on the basis of the majoiity
ethnicity's past. Yes, the name Pakistan, was inventeu by a Cambiiuge stuuent. But
the concentiation of Nuslims maue this possible.

Smith uoes not aigue that no invention took place. Rathei, the invention is paitial
anu must jive with a pie-existing ieality of some soit to speak to the masses.

If anything, the political pait is invention, but not the cultuial.

O:"195951 =/3 G"=9(5

D)( E"="09=93,

1S1 - Anueison, a Naixist, ueals with the inauequacy of Naixist theoiizing about
'the national question." As the enu of the nation, long piophesizeu, is not iemotely
neai, this continuing anomaly neeus explanation.

Be uefines nationalism as an imagineu political community baseu on ueath anu
babel.

In a seculai age, we neeu posteiity anu the nation keep us fiom the thieat of
oblivion. Like ieligion, nationalism takes ueath anu suffeiing seiiously, in a way that
piogiessive anu evolutionaiy Naixism anu libeialism uo not.

Babel is the othei key. Capitalism iequiies a unifoim language.

?9,=(#9."0 >#3.(5*9=9(5,
The thiee elements that hau to uie to make mouein nationalism necessaiy weie 1)
Sacieu sciipt communities; 2) sacieu monaichical high centeis; S) cosmological
time.

The gieat ieligious communities of Islam, Chiistianity anu Niuule China saw
themselves as oveiaiching anu 'cosmically cential, thiough the meuium of sacieu
language, linkeu to a supeiteiiestiial oiuei of powei."

Theii wiitings weie seen as sacieu languages, not aibitiaiy signs.

1S4 - Books cieate imagineu communities of ieaueis. Newspapeis uo this when we
ieau oui papeis simultaneously eveiy uay.

+#95=C.(::759=93,
What, in a positive sense, maue the new communities imaginable was a half-
foituitous, but explosive, inteiaction between a system of piouuction anu
piouuctive ielations (capitalism), a technology of communications (piint), anu the
fatality of human linguistic uiveisity.

Be claims that Latin Ameiica anu Noith Ameiica weie the eailiest cases of
nationalism!

L5 9:"1953* .(::759=-.
Anueison's is a postmouein ieauing.

It is not that the community is imagineu that is pioblematic. Anueison notes that
communities laigei than small villages must be. It is theii link with iepiesentation
in plays, novels, scoies, anu newspapeis, that is new.

A pioblem is, says Smith, the woiu "imagineu." It is easy to slip fiom this to
"cieateu' oi 'imaginaiy' oi 'illusoiy,' oi 'fabiicateu.' It claims that the nation is no
moie than the sum of its fabiicateu cultuial iepiesentations. This ignoies the
tiauitions that unueigiiu so many nations.

Seconuly, his emphasis on the inuiviuual imagination ueflects attention away fiom
the colletive attachment anu sentiment. Imagination can spieau the iuea of nation,
but why uoes it. Why has it so univeisally.

Lastly, the thiust of Anueison's uefinition is inuiviuualistic anu volunteeiistic.
Language is the main ciiteiion. Ethnicity, ieligion, coloui uon't count. So any gioup
with a shaieu language is a nation.

1S8 - Theie is a lot to be gaineu by seeing how communities aie iepiesenteu in
liteiatuie. But, to uesciibe a nation solely in these teims is is to miss othei
elements. Symbols, myths, values, memoiies, attachments, customs, anu tiauitions,
laws, institutions, ioutines, anu habits, get left out.

+#95=C.">9="09,: "5* #3C>#3,35="=9(5
Piint is ovei emphasizeu. In many Afiican anu Asian national foimations, few weie
liteiate. Even in Euiope this was tiue. Symbols, songs, images, iepoits anu iituals
also got people to fight in wais. It was the nationalists who, once in powei, cieateu
mass euucation.

Lanuscapes, monuments, builuings, tomb styles, weie also pait of the histoiic
enviionment. Rauio, television, film anu ieligion aie also laigely oveilookeu.

In the 2
nu
euition, Anueison points out the impoitance of colonial state, anu its
census takeis, anu caitogiapheis, anu ethnogiapheis, in uefining the nations of
Southeast Asia. Yet he ieveits to his cential thesis of piint language.

!",, ,30EC,".#9E9.3
The ieliance on the enu of sacieu monaichies, sacieu sciipt anu homogeneous time,
piesents anothei pioblem foi Anueison. All elements must, he claims, be theie.

In teims of self-saciifice, how uo we get fiom knowing about the nation to loving it
anu feeling it. Anueison says it is in the way it is likeneu to a family. Anu that the
family gets love because it gives uisinteiesteu love. But families anu nations have
inteiests. It is because we know oui inteiests aie bounu with it, Smith coiiects, that
we iuentify with them. We bonu with the ueau via the nation.

Thus the concept of nation is not meiely intellectual, it is felt passionately as a ieal
community.

141 - anu it is not the case that all sacieu sciipt communities ueclineu anu theieby
maue the space foi the nation. Islam. }uuaism. 0ithouox ieligion in uieece is the
lynchpin of national iuentity.

}ueigensmeyei points out that ieligion anu nationalism aie often co-joineu.

Anu the lineai time, maikeu by clock anu calenuai, weie well known in antiquity. Is
theie a connection. Bow woulu you establish it.

Liah uieenfelu anu Nichael Walzei anu otheis have tieu the nation to Piotestantism
anu the spieau of veinaculai language. But this is not moueinist in that it happeneu
well befoie capitalism anu the uecline of ieligion.

142 - Anueison's main impact has been, not the uetails, but the iuea of imagination
anu iepiesentation as the cieatois of nation. This is inteiesting.

It has taken us to psychology anu cultuie. But, it has bypasseu the neeu to give an
oveiall stiuctuial explanation of histoiical gioups.

Imagineu community anu inventeu tiauition have signaleu the uissolution of
classical moueinism anu its ieplacement by the many smallei 'postmouein'
analyses of the nation. We'll look at that in the enu.

Now we tuin to the attempts to ieplace moueinism with moie viable paiauigms anu
analyses.

:;43 ## 2 ,4#3#,> .$( ;I3=4B;3#<=>

'/">=3# U H +#9:(#*9"09,: "5* >3#3559"09,:
The cieation of moueinist gianu naiiative of iecent national cieation is giving way
to limiteu mouels that look at paiticulai aspects of the stuuy of nationalism anu
nations. But the moueinist paiauigm still iules. Anu those who challenge uo not put
foiwaiu alteinative gianu naiiatives. So we have untenable paiauigms oi limiteu
accounts of specific pioblems.

14S - In this chaptei we will see why piimoiuial anu peiennial alteinatives aie
inauequate.

+#9:(#*9"09,: AT O5.07,9P3 E9=53,,

The oluest paiauigm is the nationalist one. This is the one against which moueinists
have fought.

In 1944 Bans Kohn uiviueu theoiies into the voluntaiist ones anu the oiganic ones
wheie national iuentity is stampeu upon the inuiviuual. Kohn thought the fiist type
was Anglo-Saxon. The seconu East of the Rhine.

The oiganic mouel is, of couise, the taiget of moueinists. They might ask if nations
have no existence apait fiom the iueas anu goals of nationalism. Peihaps they wake
a population that nevei enteitaineu the iuea of a nation.

A pioblem comes foi the piimoiuialists when they intiouuce the iuea of biology anu
the 'piimoiuial' tie of nationality.

147 - The leau sociobiologist is Pieiie van uen Beighe. Be sees the nation as an
extension of kin selection. The laigei a society the moie iecipiocity anu coeicion
auu to a society; but kin is always a factoi (albeit uiminisheu). The common
ancestoi maue tiibes able to giow to tens of thousanus anu keep the kin myth going.

Ethnocentiism uevelopeu along kin. That is why ethnocentiism is the noim. uenetic
ielateuness incieases coopeiation anu so inclusive fitness.

But how uo we iecognize kin. Any cultuial maikei will uo: language, ieligion,
customs, uiess, haiistyles, manneis, myths of common ancestiy, what have you.

The pioblem is that myths of common ancestiy is not common ancestiy. Be says if
folks look alike anu inteimaiiy, the myth is believeu anu that is enough.

But we have many multiple ancestiy myth baseu societies. The Fiench aie the
Fianks anu the uauls. The Anglo-Saxon.

Someone says it bieaks uown because it explains non-genetic tiansmission on a
genetic - baseu mouel. Anu how can it be expanueu to millions who we uon't know.
Smith says it can only be explaineu if we go into social psychology anu that is not
genetic. So we go to the cultuial veision of piimoiuialism.

+#9:(#*9"09,: OOT .70=7#"0 19P35,
Euwaiu Shils uistinguisheu between public civil ties anu piimoiuial ties of family,
ieligious anu ethnic gioups. Be saiu piimoiuial ties of kinship anu ieligion weie
still alive in mouein societies.

This was taken up by Cliffoiu ueeitz. Be stuuieu new nations anu theii populations
weie bounu togethei less by the civil ties of a iational society than by the piimoiuial
ties which aiose on the cultuial basis of language custom, iace, ieligion anu othei.

We neeu, ueeitz claimeu, to have oui woith publically valiuateu (this is kin baseu)
anu the othei to builu an efficient, uynamic, mouein state.

The opposition of these two haunts Afiican anu Asia with theii nepotism.

1SS - We have ties in gioups baseu on Assumeu bloou ties, iace, language, iegion,
ieligion, anu custom.

D/3 95,=#7:35="09,= .#9=9V73

Paul Biass (1979) fought this by noting some piimoiuial attachments aie vaiiable.
Nany aie bilingual, ieligions aie subject to change by iefoimeis. Place of biith may
lose its emotional significance uue to migiation.

Piimoiuial gioups uo not pieuict nations, is anothei uig. Also, ethnic ties aie non-
iational anu often thieaten civil society.

Biass uistinguishes between gioups with a long histoiy to unite them, Islam anu
}ews, anu newei ethnic gioups. But, he says it is impossible to squaie the
piimoiuialists, with the instiumentalists (who say gioups aie functional) simply by
saying some ties aie stiongei than otheis.

Still he uistances himself fiom extieme instiumentalists who say that cultuie is
infinitely malleable anu people chose whichevei seives theii political inteiests oi
mobilizes the masses best.

Ellei anu Coughlan, say piimoiuial attachments aie outsiue the iealm of socially
constiucteu emotions anu so aie intelligible anu unsociological.

They use empiiical stuuies to show ethnic teis aie continually being ieneweu anu
ieinteipieteu.

They especially uisagiee with the iuea that such piimoiuial ties aie just theie anu
not constiueu socially.

1S6 - Steven uiosby says only ceitain objects aie in the categoiy of piimoiuial.
Bumans paiticipate in histoiically evolving patteins of belief. We have always been
attacheu to piimoiuial gioups because they piotect life.
The instiumentalist ciitique is misguiueu anu its sociology shallow.

Both instiumentalists anu piimoiuialists, says Smith, aie ieuuctionist. They pit
inteiest against affect. Baniel bell saw a combination of inteiest anu affect in ethnic
ties.

ueeitz in fact saiu the 'untiaceable but yet sociologically ieal kinship' of ethnicity
was one of seveial of souices of beliefs, actions, attachments, anu sentiments. Anu
ueeitz talks of states playing with piimoiuial attachments (he uiun't use the woiu).

Anu he isn't saying the attachments aie objective, but iathei felt because folks
believe in them.
A theoiy of ethnicity anu nationalism, Smith says, that fails to auuiess the powei of
iesulting ties anu piopensity foi self-saciifice, is ueficient.
Sometimes it seems that instiumentalist anu social constiuct folks maue theii
theoiies in affluent, stable, westein societies anu cannot explain hot nationalisms.
In Bosnia, Inuia, anu the Niuule East a "bloou-anu-homelanu" piimoiuialism seems
moie apposite.

But, the piimoiuial explanation is just a tautology. It ieuesciibes what it obseives.
It uoes not explain the foimation, couise, anu uecline of instances of these
phenomena.

Also it uoes away with the neeu foi histoiical sociology, it cannot explain uiffeient
foims of attachment. This is a poweiful, howevei, point of uepaituie foi moie
convincing explanations.

+3#3559"09,: OT 3=/59. .(5=9579=-
1S9 - The piimoiuial instiumentalist uebate is laigely conceineu with ethnicity
anu not nationalism. But they have gieatly influenceu the uiscussion of nationalism.

In the past one coulu be suie that moueinists weie also instiumentalists anu vice-
veisa. Not now. Also, not all peiennialists tuin out to be piimoiuialists. Beie, we'll
look at some combinations.

Peiennialists iefeis to a belief in the histoiical antiquity of the type of social anu
political oiganization known as the 'nation.' Peiennialists view nations as upuateu
veisions of olu ethnic communities oi collective cultuial iuentity. It's the same
phenomena.

0n the othei hanu, peiennialists iefuse to see eithei nations oi etnic gioups as
'givens' in natuie; they aie stiictly histoiical anu social, iathei than natuial,
phenomena.

Society is a human constiuct anu a constant.

Foi example, }oshua Fishman's analysis of ethnicity anu language in Eastein Euiope.
}ews anu uieeks have an immemoiial ubiquity anu subjectivity of unmobilizeu
ethnicity.

It has a biological component, but it also involves 'uoing.' That is songs, chants,
iituals, etc. It isn't a being thing, but a uoing thing. Ethnic uoings can ieinteipiet.
These gioups can unueigo change, but must be tiue to theii coie ways.

Smith asks, who feels these uoings. Elites. Who authenticates the uoings anu
knowings. Is theie only one stanuaiu of authenticity. What of gioups that move
anu take new iuentities oi inteimaiiiage. Can you have uual-ethnic belongings.
What of gioups with less well uocumenteu pasts. It may not woik well in mobile
westein societies.

Anu, he uoesn't biiuge the gap fiom ethnicity to nation foi us. What of conquest,
colonization, etc.

+3#3559"09,: OOT >3#3559"0 3=/59.9=-% :(*3#5 5"=9(5,

Walkei Connoi also uoes ethnic peiennialism. Be says a nation is a gioup that
shaies a non-iational bonu. Nationalists leaueis know this even if scholais aie
confuseu. Check Nao, Nussolini anu Bitlei.

But this will not, as with piimoiuialists, have any basis in ieality.

This iiiationality means that iational choice mouels anu class conflict theoiies miss
the point. People uo not voluntaiily uie foi things that aie iational.

Nationalism is moie tieu to ethnicity anu patiiotism tieu to the State. While an
ethnic gioup may be othei-uefineu, a nation must be self-uefineu.

16S - Be is, though, exceeuingly mouein in that he thinks nations exist when most of
the population becomes awaie of themselves as one. So, he tieats with extieme
caution the iuea of nations piioi to the late 19
th
centuiy.

Aftei all, nationalism is a mass, not an elite thing. We cannot know what peicentage
of a nation feels itself pait of a nation. What of immigiants to Ameiica. Nost
peasants in Fiance uiun't become Fienchmen until WW I. Enfianchisement is a
goou measuie. By that measuie, uiun't become nations until the eaily 2u
th
centuiy.

The iuea that alien iule is illegitimate existeu. Anu it giew. Nationalism has spieau
only in the 2u
th
with mass communication anu state sponsoieu euucation spieauing
the iuea that nationalism is tieu to ethnicity. Anu, the publicity of successful ethnic -
national ievolutions inspiieu folks.

Smith says his exclusively social psychology analysis omits iich cultuial elements of
memoiy anu symbolism. It bettei shows how masses aie mobilizeu than oiiginate.
Anu, we have no census of sentiment foi pie-mouein times. Aie we ieally to accept
that nations only exist when folks can vote. Aie then only uemociacies nations.

Saying only mass nations aie nations is a tautology. Coulu we not have moie miuule
class oi elite nations. Can we not be awaie of oui nation even if we uo not make
the uecisions. That is what Smith says happeneu in the eaily mouein peiiou.

D/3 >,-./(0(1- (E 3=/59. "EE909"=9(5

A similai combination of peiennial ethnicity with political moueinism is in Bonalu
Boiwitz's, Ethnic uioups in Conflict.

16S - Ethnic ties aie pyiamiueu on family ties, anu meet the wiuespieau neeu foi
familiaiity anu community. It caiiies familial emotion, even if we'ie only talking
about cultuial tiaits in common.

uioups aie univeisal. Be cites Benii Tajfel's exeiiments in gioup foimation on
minimal info anu the subsequent willingness to saciifice economic gain foi positive
social iuentity in a gioup. But ethnicity is asciiptive anu so haiu to change. The
gioups compaie each othei anu want high self-esteem.

This iesults in steieotypes.

Now states, such as the West anu Afiica, aie multi-ethnic so compaiisons aie moie
intense. Anu so gioups compete foi the piize of powei ovei the state.

Be focuses on colonialism. Bis sociological oiientation, says Smith, means he
unueiestimates ieligion anu cultuial tiauitions as iesouices foi nationalism. At the
same time he uoes gieat multi-ethnic state analysis. But he uoesn't show why some
iise anu some fall anu some foim nations while otheis uon't.

D/3 9::3:(#9"0 5"=9(5.
If, as Connoi anu Boiowitz claim, national communities giew out of ethnic
communities, aie nations not peiennial.

}ohn Aimstiong says the nation is simply a mouein equivalent of pie-mouein ethnic
iuentity. They foim anu uissolve thioughout histoiy, but aie a constant featuie.

167 - In pie-mouein times these gioupings uiu not legitimize polity foimation - it
wasn't a goal. But he also speaks of nations emeiging slowly in the pie-mouein
woilu.

Aftei 18uu though they explicitly use the language of nationalism.

But he sees these ethnic iuentities as ielying on social bounuaiies iathei than
piimoiuial attachments oi kinship ties. So uoes he see nations as giowing out of
oluei kinship ties. 0i uo the changing social ties in the pie-mouein time have
nothing to uo with kinship.

Smith sees both in his wiiting, but believes he auheies to a iecuiient iathei than a
continuous veision of peiennialism.

In contast to Aimstiong, many histoiians have been conceineu to tiace a continuity
between paiticulai mouein nations anu pie-mouein ethnic communities. Theiis is
moie a 'continuous peiennialism.' Pie-mouein histoiians, foi example, saw geims
of nations eveiywheie in the miuule ages.

Foi Steven uiosby anu otheis, we can use the teim 'nation' with ancient Isiael in the
7
th
centuiy bc. Noab, Euom anu Egypt too weie nations. uieece anu Nesopotamia
weie city states oi empiies because they uiun't believe in a single lanu inhabiteu by
a single people. Wheieas now we have legal citizenship as a bonu, they hau a
ieligious bonu.

169 - uiosby has cultuial piimoiuialism. But, is his use of 'nation' similai to othei
scholais. Aien't citizenship, mass euucation, mass cultuie anu voting pait of the
mouein uefinition. uiosby woulu say they'ie too naiiow.

Night theie be two kinus. Nouein anu pie-mouein. But, we uon't want to uo
ietioactive nationalism. If we say now is so uiffeient that the uefinition uoesn't
tiavel back in time, what is the vaiiable that makes the uiffeience.

Chaptei 8 - Ethno-symbolism

Thiee opposeu antinomies:

1) The "essence" of a nation as opposeu to its constiucteu qualities.
2) The antiquity of the nation veisus its puiely mouein appeaiance.
S) The cultuial basis of nationalism contiasteu with its political aspiiations anu
goals.



Bistoiians have uebateu #2 anu #S especially.
- 0bjectivists stiess the iole of cultuie anu moie especially language.
- The subjectivists foi whom nations aie foimeu by populai will anu political
action. Foi objectivists, nations anu national sentiment coulu be founu as fai
back as the 1u
th
centuiy. Wheieas foi subjectivists, both aie the piouuct of
the 18
th
centuiy.

W0*% M.(5=957(7,N 5"=9(5,
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John K. Press, Ph.D. 3/20/13 7:44 PM
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Formatted: Font:Italic, Underline
While histoiians woulu accept nationalism, as new, nations aie less suie.

171 - Liah uieenfelu's massive stuuy finus national sentiment in Englanu in the
eaily 16
th
centuiy. Foi hei 'nationalism' signifies 'National sentiment' iathei than
'nationalist iueology.' By the eaily 17
th
, with the iise of Piotestantism, it hau tuineu
to outiight nationalist iueology, albeit in ieligious language. But hei eaily 16
th

centuiy uefinition uoes incluue the majoiity of people iuentifying with the nation.

The iefoimation of Beniy is an impoitant nationalist moment in Englanu.
But histoiians such as Auiian Bastings uo not know why it isn't eailiei like the 14
th

centuiy, when English became pievalent in auministiation anu law, oi even late
Anglo-Saxon Englanu when an eaily nation-state with a common ieligion,
veinaculai language, auministiation anu compact teiiitoiy came into being.
Thus it is taken back to the 11
th
centuiy. The names Englanu anu Biitain weie in
use.

This goes back to the vulgate Bible, in which the iuea of the Isiaeli nation inspiieu
English nationalism. By the late 16
th
weekly chuich seivice biought anu English
Piotestantism to neai eveiyone. Fighting against Catholics foi theii iuentity.

By the eaily 18
th
centuiy, we have Scotlanu anu so Biitishness emeiges; especially
against Fiance.

17S - Bugh Seton-Watson came up with "olu, continuous" nations veisus
uelibeiately cieateu ones. What Chailes Tilly calleu nations by uesign. 0lu
continuous aie those piioi to 1789. 0luones aie the English, Scots, Fiench, Butch,
Castilians anu Poitugese in the west anu the Banes anu Sweuen in the Noith anu the
Bungaiians, Poles anu Russians in the East.

0theis weie foimeu by well known leaueis with the wiitten woiu anu mouein
communications.

+#3C!(*3#5 5"=9(5,.
Seton-Watson conceues some anachionisms. Anu that the uefinition of nationalism
is vague. Be says, "A nation exists when a significant numbei of people in a
community consiuei themselves to foim a nation, oi behave as if they foimeu one."

174 - But Susan Reynolus says this ieauing backwaius tempts us to think of nations
as inevitable.

To avoiu confusion, she suggests the woiu "iegnal" in place of "national. By about
9uu the iuea of peoples as communities of custom, uescent, anu goveinment was
well entiencheu. These weie, in tuin, tiaceu back to the 7
th
centuiy.

Theie was in the meuieval West a "iegnal" consciousness, that maiiieu kinship,
custom anu a ioyal goveinment. Like Connoi anu uiosby, Reynolus focuses on
populai beliefs anu iueas.

Lesley }ohnson, says the eviuence isn't continuous enough (people who fight against
this well know the political implications of theii woik). But the continuity is veiy
cleai in people shapeu anu caiiieu by sciiptuial ieligion. The Aimenians anu }ews
aie outstanuing examples, but not the only ones by any means.

176 - }ohn Butchinson neeus moie eviuence. But, it is uifficult if it is stipulateu that
both ethnicity anu nationhoou must be pioven to be a mass phenomena.

Auiian Bastings says, we neeu to only show some beyonu goveinment ciicles, not
all. Anu against, Connoi, uellnei, anu Bobsbawm cites Fiances as a nation centeieu
on Paiis long befoie most peasants coulu speak Fiench oi thought of themselves as
such.

Let's now look at the antinomy between the political basis anu the cultuial one.

'70=7#"0 "5* >(09=9."0 5"=9(5"09,:

177 - Foi Reynolus, iegnum was political anu cultuial in content. The Niuule Ages
weie full of these "peoples" with theii iuleis.

Accoiuing to Nenuels, cultuie anu politics weie not sepaiate as paits of the Regnal
in the Niuule Ages.

But in mouein times we make the split. Bobsbawm only looks at politics. Bieuilly
sees nationalism as a political movement meant to fill the spiiitual voiu. But theii
thinking uismisses cultuie, iuentity, anu homelanu.

}ohn Butchinson makes this point as he examines cultuial nationalism. Political
nationalism is impoitant, he aumits. But cultuial foims of nationalism count too.
Even though theii often smallei anu tiansient. Be looks foi "a cultuial nationalism
that seeks a moial iegeneiation of the community." 0ften they switch. As cultuie
falls political self-uefinition iises, anu vice veisa.

The cultuial sees the state as acciuental. The uistinctive civilization, with a unique
histoiy, cultuie, anu geogiaphic piofile mean moie.

These folks aie cultuiists that iecognize the cultuie, even if the State falls.

This soit of nationalism especially took ioot in Eastein Euiope in the late 19
th

centuiy. The cultuiist leaueis aie "moial innovatois who seek by 'ieviving' an
ethnic histoiicist vision of the natio to ieuiiect tiauitionaliss anu moueinists."

Be looks at the Royal Iiish Acauemy in 178S. The uaelic League in the 189us.
These leaueis weie unable to move in English auministiation so took to this pioject
foi esteem.

!-=/C,-:4(0 .(:>03$3,
}ohn Aimstiong's Nations befoie Nationalism, the key is peisistence, not genesis of
ethnic notions. Be finus Kings piioi to Nationalism veiy conceineu with ethnic
homogeneity. The talk of the outsiuei is fiequent.

Baith finus eviuence of same in his socially bounueu uefinition wheiein he sees
iuentity in the uiscussions of the othei.
182 - Ethnicity is not puiely innei, but a pait of a quilt of gioups, uefineu against
each othei.
The symbols of "us" usually peisist that tell of theii common fate.

L E#":3)(#8 (E 5"=9(5"0 3:3#135.3
Aimstiong sees not mateiial uiffeiences, but uiffeient mental attituues. Biffeient
nostalgia's foi a "goluen age" aie impoitant. 2 kinus: Islam's goluen age of nomauic
ways. Anu, Chiistian tianquil plots of eaith. Anu the Nuslims anu Chiistians
uefineu themselves as against each othei.

Language anu myth, memoiy anu values aie key foi him.

'70=7#3 "5* =/3 4(#*3#

Aimstiong's woik is so vaiieu so cannot be summaiizeu in Smith's woik. But, he
has not given us an alteinative gianu naiiative.

A pioblem is that his shifting bounuaiies uoesn't jive with his theme of peisistence.

Baith says tiansactions stiengthen, not weaken, iuentities. Bis iuentities emeige in
ielations of peoples anu inteigeneiationally.

Symbols have values, anu myths explain them.

187 - Cultuie, says Smith, "is both an intei-geneiational iepositoiy anu heiitage, oi
set of tiauitions, anu an active shaping iepeitoiie of meanings anu images,
embouieu in values, myths anu symbols that seive to unite a gioup of people." This
inteinal view tells us moie than the boiuei uoes alone.

'67"0 0319=9:"=9(5N

Smith now intiouuces his woik.
Rathei than Aimstiong, he staiteu with the nation anu woikeu backwaius. Be is a
stuuent of uellnei's. Be changeu his minu at some point so he may not believe the
following anymoie.

1
st
, he uefineu nationalism as:
1) Boctiines of iueology
2) Novements
S) Sentiments, anu
4) Piocesses of 'nation - builuing', to which he woulu latei auu
S) Symbols anu langauges (of nationalism)

The iueology of nationalism itself coulu be ieuuceu to its essential piopositions anu
its main tenets summaiizeu:

1) The woilu is natuially uiviueu into nations, each has its peculiai chaiactei
anu uestiny;
2) The nation is the souice of all political powei, anu loyalty to it oveiiiues all
othei loyalties
S) If they wish to be fiee, anu to iealize themselves, men must iuentify anu
belong to a nation;
4) ulobal fieeuom anu peace aie functions of the libeiation anu secuiity of
nations
S) Nations can only be libeiateu anu fulfilleu in theii own soveieign states.

Bis uefinition of nationalism in 198S:

"An iueological movement foi attainment anu maintenance of self-goveinment anu
inuepenuence on behalf of a gioup, some of whose membeis conceive it to
constitute an actual oi potential nation."

Anu he ueciueu that even within oiganic anu volunteeiistic vaiiations, theie hau to
be: the iueals of national autonomy, national unity, anu national iuentity.

With all this, he agieeu with moueinism.

But he lookeu moie at ieligious oiganizations. Next to the scientific state, this leu to
'uual legitimizations.' The State challenges ieligion's place. The iejecteu
intellectuals become instigatois of ethnic ievivals.

189 - This was the pictuie in his 1981 book, The Ethnic Revival. But by the eaily
199us, Smith saw holes in it. The alienateu intelligentsia theoiy uiun't explain
populai acceptance. Anu it useu the same teim, nationalism, foi the elite veision
anu populai veision.

R=/593, "5* 3=/5(C,-:4(09,:

Nationalism coulu be uateu back to the late 18
th
centuiy (even given eailiei ieligious
nationalisms in Englanu anu Bollanu). But, national stiuctuies, sentiments, anu
symbolism went back fuithei, at least to the late meuieval peiiou foi Englanu,
Fiance, Polanu, anu Russia. Anu, it seemeu that }ews, Aimenians, }apanese anu
Koieans hau hau actual nations of some soit.

These cast uoubt on uellnei's claim that nations weie impossible in the pie-mouein
peiiou. Woise yet, on seveial continents, theie weie not just objective cultuial
uiffeiences, but subjective ethnic iuentities anu ethnic communities. WB0 KNEW...

0ne coulu point to both ethnic continuity anu ethnic iecuiience. uieeks,
Aimenians, }ews, Peisians, Chinese anu }apanese, foi example. Name, language,
customs, ieligious community anu teiiitoiial associations weie maintaineu foi
millennia with continuity.

Peoples of Ethiopia, the Feitile Ciescent, noithein Inuia anu the Balkans hau
iecuiient nationalisms. So Smith staiteu switching fiom nationalism stuuies to
ethnies (the Fiench teim foi 'ethnic communities') anu began looking at myths,
memoiies, values, tiauitions, anu symbols.

By 1986 he wiote "The Ethnic 0iigins of Nations" which uefineu ethnic communities
as nameu human populations with shaieu ancestiy myths, histoiies, anu cultuie,
having an association with a specific teiiitoiy, anu a sense of soliuaiity.

191 - In the meuieval woilus, ethnicity playeu a much laigei iole than moueinists,
who iightly ieject conflating this with mouein nationalism, weie willing to conceue.
Anu, this iich anu well uocumenteu 'ethno-histoiy' was a majoi cultuial iesouice foi
nationalists. (somehow acauemics hau oveilookeu this uata!)

Bis was not piimoiuialism. Cultuie, not kinship, was the ioot.

19S - These cultuial affinities weie often stienghtneu, thus changeu, by outsiue
invaueis (see uieeks at Salamis). Anu, economic, auministiative changes in the late
17
th
, eaily 18
th
centuiy biought ethnicity to the uooi of polity foimation. But the
ioots of the cultuies go back even fuithei than uutenbeig. The Scot iuentity was
stiengtheneu in wais with the English in the 14
th
anu 1S
th
centuiy.

W#9195, "5* =->3, (E 5"=9(5

Bow aie nations foimeu. It uepenus on which of the two types of Ethnies they'ie
baseu on:

0ne is lateial anu extensive (Elite), anu heie these people must uiaw incieasing
numbeis of miuuling anu even lowei folk into the cultuie to cieate a nation. This
leaus to a moie civic type of iuenity.


Two is veinaculai, heie the intelligensia ieuiscovei anu ueploy cultuial iuentity to
make a nation.

Thiiu is that of immigiant nations like Ameiica, Canaua, anu Austialia, we have a
"fiontiei nationalism," Anu this accepts pluiality.

None of these is guaianteeu to become successful mouein states. This uepenus on
maiket capitalism, the buieauciatic state anu seculai, mass euucation, eithei
uiiectly, oi via colonial euucation.

Anu political aichaeologists have pioviueu memoiies of heioes, aits anu sacieu
geogiaphy.

But in many cases this is only half the stoiy. Theie aie wiuely known histoiical
pieceuents that the nation is built upon.

19S - Anu, global cultuie anu the E0 have faileu to geneiate love; timeless, placeless,
technical, anu affectively neutial, they pioviue no iuentity. The nation has no iival
foi affections anu loyalty of most human beings (199u).

R=/5(C,-:4(09,: #3.(5,9*3#3*

0ne ciiticism of his woik has been that it might ieau nationalism backwaius. But,
he anu Aimstiong anu Butchinson uistinguish between the newei anu oluei foims
of nationalism.

}ohn Bieuilly has ciiticizeu it foi ignoiing institutions as histoiical caiiieis of
national oi ethnic iuentities. 0nly uynasties oi chuiches woulu have myth symbols
couifieu anu iepiouuceu: Neithei weie nationalist. Be says the uiscontinuities aie
moie stiiking than the continuities between pie-mouein anu mouein. All
institutions: pailiaments, populai liteiatuie, couits, schools, laboui maikets, et aie
mouein.

197 - Institutions, Smith ieplies, aie impoitant. Aimstiong's woik uemonstiates
theii impoitance in the pie-mouein epoch. Anu, many weie not incluueu that weie
not incluueu then.

But Bieuilly's unueistanuing of these institutions is too naiiowly moueinist. Nany
weie incluueu in the institutions of tiansmission. Look at Egypt anu Sumei. Look at
monasteiies. Theii inclusion, moie impoitantly, was in language anu populai
liteiatuie, in iituals anu celebiations, in tiaue faiis anu maikets, in ethnic
homelanus, not to mention aimy seivice.

Anu, some of these ethnicities uiu have political significance. See the Bellenes.

The uivision between then anu now sometimes comes fiom the oveily mouein
uefinition of a nation.

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In Polyethnicity anu National 0nity in Woilu Bistoiy, William B. NcNeill aigueu that
nationalism anu nations only belongeu to a paiticulai peiiou of the woilu, that of
Westein moueinity. Nations weie unknown in the pie-mouein eia. Befoie anu
aftei nations, we'll go back to the noim of "polyethnic hieiaichy."

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Foi NcNeill, only baibaiism is monoethnic. The moment civilization happens,
polyethnicity becomes the noim. Civilization is laigely metiopolitain. Tiaue anu
conquest fuel this. 0nly those fai fiom centeis of civlizations, like Englanu, }apan
anu Sweuen ietain theii homogeneity.

It was only aftei about 17uu that the iueal of inuepenuence foi ethnically
homogeneous populations emeigeu as an iueal.

Among causes: Reauing publics, population iise allowing ethnically homogenous
folks to ciowu the cities (anu fuel ievolutionaiy uiscontent), anu - most impoitantly
- mouein infantiy uiills. The last being impoitant as wais maue national iuentity
impoitant foi suivival.

All this came apait aftei 194S. Then the neeu foi laboi biought in uastaibeitei fiom
alien cultuies anu lanu who peipetuateu themselves on westein soil.

Smith says, this assumes that the nation state anu polyethnic hieiaichy aie
opposites (though he uemonstiates they aie coextensive, of not symbiotic). It also
foigets the onion chaiactei of ethnicity, with concentiic ciicles of loyalty.

This congiuity is just as plausible as the bieakuown of these multicultuial states
into many small nationalist states.

D/3 >(,=C5"=9(5"0 "135*"
Recent themes aie highlighteu in NcNeill's woik:
1) The impact of population movement multicultuialism
2) The impact of feminist analysis on the national pioject
S) Impact of globalization tienus anu the postmouein supianational piojects on
nationality

While ostensibly, these uebates tuin theii back on moueinism anu all laige-scale
naiiatives anu high-level theoiizing.

2u2 - This postmouein tuin uoes not unueimine, but extenus the moueinist
paiauigm.

<#"1:35="=9(5 "5* /-4#9* 9*35=9=93,

Bomi Bhabha sees the naiiatives of the people split between past anu piesent, the
self anu othei, between peuagogical anu peifoimative naiiatives.

2uS - Like Simmel, he highlights the impact of the othei on iuentity. The gieat influx
of foieigneis has unueimineu iuentity. Now all collective iuentities have become
pluial anu aie houseu in "anxious states."

Paitha Chatteijee showeu how uiscouise in Asia anu Afiica ueiiveu fiom westein
mouels; anu weie useu to fight colonialism.

Inuian nationalism out of Bengal uses westein anu inuigenous mateiials. It appeals
to fiagments of the nation, women, minoiities, outcastes. So it is not just the othei
that foims iuentities, Smith euitoiializes.

Foi Stuait Ball anu otheis, ethnicity is a shifting, peimeable anu situational, concept.
It ueiives its meaning fiom its aiticulation with othei kinus of iuentity, notably class
anu genuei.

Ethnicity is not natuial, we aie tolu by acauemics, it is cieateu via language
community anu iace.

Ball says ethnicity comes fiom hegemonic national iuentity. But he likes the new
way that engages iathei than suppiesses uiffeience.

Smith celebiates this, howevei unueihanueuly, as having illuminateu that oui
national iuentities aie fiayeu at the euges. (I woulu auu that it has contiibuteu to
fiaying us at the euges). Smith says we shoulu not unueiestimate how much
immigiants wish to be paits of oui nations even with ethnicity (symbolic ethnicity).

National unity in the past shoulu, also, not be oveiestimateu.

But as we inteimaiiy, etc, ethnicity uoes not become a 'pick anu mix' option. We can
eat Tuikish anu Chinese, but we cannot be that. Foi most folks, 'voluntaiy ethnicity'
is not an option.

X35*3# "5* 5"=9(5

Fiom the 198us theie has been a giowing liteiatuie on genuei anu nationalism; to
see women in national piojects. This especially looks at the genuei steieotypes of
women in constiucting ethnicity.

D/3 #(03 (E )(:35 95 5"=9(5"09,:

2u6 - Women's movements weie active in many non-Westein nationalisms, Sylvia
Walby notes in hei suivey of the fielu-to-uate.

In new non-Westein nations, women weie given citizenship immeuiately. This was
a way that aspiiants coulu populaiize theii claims to nationality. Ziya uokalp says
that comes fiom inuigenous Tuikish moies.

<3:"03 ,-:4(09,: (E =/3 5"=9(5
Niia Yuval-Bavis shows women to be vital components of cultuial iepiouuction
useu selectively by uiffeient social agents.

The Notheilanu anu its puiity. Nen must saciifice themselves foi women anu
chiluien, in the molu of Plutaich's Spaitan women, whom Rouseau so aumiieu. The
women aie figuies of honoi.

G"=9(5"09,: ", " :"03 >/35(:35(5

Foi Cynthia Enloe, nationalism comes fiom masculinizeu memoiy, humiliation, anu
hope. Women, Walby notes, often play moie of a iole in uieen anu anti-nucleai
inteinational commitments.

Against this, we see women taking militaiy ioles in national libeiation stiuggles.
This means at time class anu genuei get subsumeu.

ueoige Nosse shows how the choieogiaphy of mass nationalism was conuitioneu by
the Westein iespectable moial chaiactei anu uieek beauty. ueimans saw the
Fiench as 'loose-living,' as opposeu to masculine ueiman moiality.

The Fiench Revolution too, ulanua Sluga tells us, ielieu on images of masculine
citizeniy. This is baseu on the uivision of the piivate anu public selves. The
woman nuituies the heioic masculine male.

<3:959,: "5* 9*35=9=- >(09=9.,

Foi Yuval - Bavis, iuentity pioblems haiuen ethnic anu genuei bounuaiies. Same
with multicultuialism. This can haim women in teims of encouiaging minoiity
male contiol ovei women.

21u - Smith says this analysis is fiuitful. Bow fai we neeu to ueconstiuct in teims of
'naiiatives' anu 'uiscouises' anu uesciibe them as 'hegemonic' 'constiucts' is open to
uebate. Few of these theoiies touch on the foimation of nations oi theii ubiquity.

Y943#"09,: "5* .9P9. (# 3=/59. 5"=9(5"09,:

Yuval-Bavis' espousal of 'tiansveisal politics' makes sense only in libeial
uemociacies; in 'civic' uemociacies as opposeu to 'ethnic' ones.

Baviu Nillei uefenus civic nationalism. Be says theie aie S chaiacteiistics of a
nation as a community:
1) shaieu belief anu mutual commitment;
2) Extenueu histoiy;
S) active in chaiactei;
4) connecteu to a paiticulai teiiitoiy
S) maikeu of fiom othei communities by its uistinct public cultuie.

211 - Nations aie souices of iuentity, ethical anu have a valiu claim to self-
ueteimination, says Nillei. Bespite oui commitment to inteinationalism, in piactice
we aie ethical paiticulaiists. The nation is also the best vehicle foi 'social justice.'
Anu, it achieves libeial anu social uemociatic goals bettei than iauical
multicultuialism (which cannot iestiain the iich anu stiong anu fiagments us).
Nationalism is bettei than "citizenship" as it connects us with histoiy anu gives us a
sense of place anu time.

Bienua 0'Leaiy ciiticizes him in that his mouel favois the poweis-that-be. Anu it
maiginalizeu ethnics. 0ltimately, Nillei favois civic nationalism.

Political science has been keen to finu a way to manage multi-ethnicity. Paitition,
population tiansfei, genociue, assimilation, feueiation aie uiffeient methous. But
this is only tangentially ielateu to issues of national iuentity anu nationalism. So . . .

Canaua has gone fiom ethnicity to civic nationalism. Though uiveisity is ieal, we
can usefully uistinguish between Ethnic, Civic, anu Pluial types of nationalism. They
leau to immigiation policies. Resiuence length anu bloou being bases foi
citizenship. 0sually states, though, have ethnic anu civic paits.

Babeimas woulu ieplace nationalism with 'constitutional patiiotism' that woulu
focus collective loyalties. viioli wants a foim of iepublicanism. But, neithei notices
the stiength of nationalism aiounu the woilu. Anu iepublics weie just as iestiictive
ethnically.

21S - It is goou that people can uiscuss this ethnic nationalism now. Foi so long it
was associateu puiely with fascism anu so veiboten. But as long as the most
inteinationally populai type has a paiiah status, it will iemain explosive anu
unueianalyseu.

G"=9(5"09,: "5* X0(4"09,"=9(5

Will we go global. People aigue that ethnicity anu nations aie being supeiseueu.
Nost moueinists uon't go theie. But postmoueinists uo!
Stephen Castles is a globalist.

Now tiaue is inteinational. But was theie a time when nations weie ieally solitaiy.
Anu states now have moie uomestic powei than evei. Will they give it up.

What of electionic cultuie. Is it Ameiican cultuial impeiialism. They also
inciease the intiansigence of uispeiseu ethnic communities. Anu, states aie being
cieateu, so incieasing, uespite the new global oiuei.

G"=9(5"0 9*35=9=- "5* ,7>#"C5"=9(5"09,:

Yacein Soysal notes that getting iights, if not citizenship, in ueimany shows a post-
national state.

What of a Euiopean cultuial iuentity. This is a battle. Boiueis still mattei foi
uefense, tiaue, anu immigiation.

I3-(5* :(*3#59,:.

The postmouein liteiatuie suggesting globalism iaiely uiscusses histoiy. This is
wiong as nations aie, if nothing else, histoiically embeuueu. They also geneially
offei not geneial explanation of nations oi nationalism anu how they came to being.
Even as they ueconstiuct ethnicities anu point to the multicultuial natuie of
moueinity, they eliue the peisistence of these gioups as significant.

219 - The lack of theoiizing may be fiom uowniight hostility to the nation on the
pait of most of the analyists. They like multicultuial civic nationalism anu hate the
alignment of ethnicity anu nations. But since it is the type that is so common anu
ioutiniseu, it iequiieu explanation. To ieach multicultuial civic nationalism they
must avoiu lots of eviuence. That cannot make foi goou policy.

}ust as ethnic iuentities anu nationalisms aie suiging, they tuin away fiom 'gianu
naiiatives.' So theii aiguments lack valiuity. Anu the 'little naiiatives' uon't help.
(anyway, those aie naiiatives too; theie is no place without stoiy; its naiiatives all
the way uown).

The postmoueinists aie woise than classical moueinists like Bobsbawm in that they
totally eliue histoiical analysis. Be excluues, to some extent, genuei stuuies fiom
this geneialization.

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:&'N7095O :.&.(+H95O .$( /&'5/0*%5
+#(403:,
Baseu on Webei:

1) Bow to tieat the inteisection of nationality anu ethnicity
2) Befinitions; ex. Is nation only when political.
S) Theoietical: Bo we seek a causal oi uesciiptive fielu.
4) 0sing uiffeient teims anu fiamewoiks, we have no fielu cooiuination
S) Biffeient values piomote uiffeient piojects

Finally, what aie the ielevant questions foi the fielu.

222 - They might incluue: Questions about the oiigins anu foimations of ethnies,
conuitions of ethnocentiism, the significance of ethnic iuentity; the oiigins anu
foimation of nations, the natuie anu significance of national iuentity, the social,
cultuial, anu political basis of nations ; the genuei, class, cultuial chaiactei of
nationalist iueologies anu movements, theii iole in foiging nations anu national
iuentities, the place of intellectuals, the consequences foi society anu cultuie of a
woilu of national states.

+"#"*91:,
Be still wants a geneial theoiy. It woulu help us unueistanu the impact on
ethnicities, nations, anu inteinational ielations. But is it possible.
Not likely, but we know moie now than when the eaily theoiies weie intiouuceu.

Foi example,:

- Piimoiuialists have sensitizeu us to the intimate links between kinship,
ethnicity anu teiiitoiy anu the poweiful sentiments of collective belonging.
- Peinnialism views nations ovei the longue uuiee. It iaises the continuous
anu ieoccuiiing patteins. Ethnic ties not moueinization make nations. They
seive as a countei to extieme moueinism.
- Ethno-symbolism shows how we ieinteipiet symbols, myths, memoiies,
values, anu tiauitions. The subjective histoiical is theieby highlighteu.
- Noueinists show how populations aie mobilizeu. Anueison anu Bieuilly
show us netwoiks of communication. Anu, Bieuilly anu uiuuens have uone
much to highlight the impoitant iole of the state.
- Postmoueinists show fiagmentation anu suggest the post-national oiuei.
Feminism has been auueu by this gioup. They help us unueistanu pluial
Westein societies.

22S - These peispectives give a ceitain coheience to the fielu.

+#(,>3.=,
0n the one hanu, no gianu theoiy. 0n the othei, leaining moie uaily. Bopefully, the
lattei will one uay contiibute to the foimei.

Can the moueinists anu peiienialists conveige. We coulu uo so on the level of
theoiy. We'u have to agiee on teims anu allow exceptions to each othei's iules.

Seconuly, we coulu accommouate on the level of ieseaich. We coulu ieseaich anu
compaie mouein anu pie-mouein on these 6 axis:

- The State: Beiein we coulu look at uiffusion of loyalty anu mobilization.
- Teiiitoiy: Boiueis anu how the iuea of homelanu contiibutes.
- Language: Bow uoes it contiibute to nation foimation, when, who speaks
it.
- Religion: Bow was it piopagateu in vaiious times anu what iole now anu
what iole with ethnicity.
- Bistoiy: We can compaie histoiical consciousness in uiffeient times,
looking especially at ethnic myths anu goluen ages.
- Rites anu Ceiemonies: Bow'u they uo it.

We won't by this magically tianscenu uivisions. But, scholais oveilap moie than
they think.

As nationalism iises we neeu to know moie. We cannot, theiefoie, evaue the task of
theoiy constiuction.