B GIO DC V O TO

TRNG I HC QUY NHN

*********
H DUY NGHA
NG DNG L THUYT GALOA
TRONG PHP DNG HNH
TIU LUN L THUYT TRNG
Quy nhn, thng 12 nm 2009
B GIO DC V O TO
TRNG I HC QUY NHN
*********
H DUY NGHA
NG DNG L THUYT GALOA
TRONG PHP DNG HNH
CAO HC TON KHA 11
Chuyn ngnh: i s v l thuyt s
TIU LUN L THUYT TRNG
Ngi hng dn khoa hc
TS. NGUYN THI HA
Quy nhn, thng 12 nm 2009
i
MC LC
Trang ph ba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Mc lc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Li m u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chng 1 Kin thc c s 4
1.1 M rng Galoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 Khi nim m rng Galoa v v d . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Cc c trng ca m rng Galoa . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 M rng cn v m rng cn bc hai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 M rng cn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 M rng cn bc hai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chng 2 p dng l thuyt galoa trong php dng hnh 12
2.1 Khi nim v tnh cht v im v s dng c . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Mt s bi ton p dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Bi ton 1: Chia ba mt gc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Bi ton 2: Gp i mt hnh lp phng . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.3 Bi ton 3: Cu phng ng trn . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.4 Bi ton 4: Chia ng trn thnh n phn bng nhau . . 16
2.3 Mt vi php dng hnh c th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Dng a gic u 5 cnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Dng a gic u 15 cnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.3 Dng a gic u 17 cnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Kt lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Ti liu tham kho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1
LI M U
L thuyt Galoa l mt trong nhng l thuyt p nht ca i s, n
tp hp nhiu kin thc v phng php ca cc lnh vc ton hc khc nhau
nhm gii quyt bi ton c in v nhng vn quan trng khc ca i s
hin i.
Mt trong nhng ng dng ch yu l tm nghim cn thc ca phng
trnh a thc, c bit ch ra c phng trnh bc ln hn bn khng th
gii c bng cn thc. Mt khc, l thuyt Galoa cho php xc nh a gic
u n cnh dng c bng thc k v compa v li gii cho bi ton dng
hnh c in.
Tiu lun ny ti gii thiu v ng dng ca l thuyt Galoa trong
php dng hnh, tiu lun gm 2 chng cng vi phn m u, kt lun v
danh mc cc ti liu tham kho.
Chng 1: Gii thiu mt khi nim v m rng Galoa, cc nh l ca m
rng Galoa , trong m rng cn bc hai l phn ng dng quan trng cho
l thuyt dng hnh chng sau.
Chng 2: L phn chnh ca tiu lun, phn u ca chng gii thiu
v im dng c, s dng c,chng minh tp hp cc s dng c lp
thnh mt trng, v c bit chng minh nh l v iu kin v s dng
c. Phn sau ca chng l p dng l thuyt gii quyt cc bi ton
dng hnh c in v cc bi ton dng hnh c th. Kin thc trong chng
ny c tham kho t ti liu [1],[2].
Mc d bn thn rt c gng trong hc tp, nghin cu v c s hng
dn nhit tnh ca thy gio hng dn, nhng do nng lc ca bn thn v
thi gian cn hn ch nn tiu lun kh trnh khi nhng thiu st. Ti rt
mong nhn c s gp ca qu thy c v cc bn tiu lun c hon
thin hn.
2
Cui cng ti xin chn thnh cm n TS. Nguyn Thi Ha ngi tn
tnh gip , cng tp th lp cao hc ton kho 11 to iu kin cho ti hon
thnh tiu lun ny.
. Tc gi
3
Chng 1
KIN THC C S
1.1 M rng Galoa
1.1.1 Khi nim m rng Galoa v v d
nh ngha 1.1.1. M rng bc hu hn F ca trng K c gi l m rng
Galoa nu n l chun tc v tch c.
V d 1.1.2. 1) Trng chia ng trn R
n
trn Q l mt m rng Galoa vi
nhm Galoa ng cu vi nhm nhn Z

n
cc lp kh nghch.
2) Trng hu hn F
q
, q = p
n
l m rng Galoa trn trng con nguyn
t Z
p
. N c nhm Galoa G = G(F/Z
p
) l nhm xyclic sinh bi t ng cu
: a a
p
vi mi a F
q
.
1.1.2 Cc c trng ca m rng Galoa
nh l 1.1.3. Cho F l m rng bc hu hn trn K vi nhm Galoa G. Khi
cc iu kin sau tng ng:
(i) F l m rng Galoa trn K.
(ii) K = F
G
(ngha l tp cc phn t ca F bt bin di mi t ng cu
ca nhm Galoa G ng bng K).
(iii) Cp ca nhm Galoa G ng bng bc ca m rng [F : K].
Chng minh. (i) (ii) Nu F l m rng Galoa trn K th F l trng nghim
ca mt a thc tch c trn K ( [1], H qu 6.3 ). Khi theo ([1], nh
l 1.3) ta c (ii).
(ii) (iii) Gi s cp ca G bng n. Khi theo ([1], Mnh 3.1.1),ta
4
c n =
_
F : F
G

. Bi vy nu F
G
= K th hin nhin n = [F : K]. Ngc li,
nu n = [F : K] th [F : K] =
_
F : F
G

, do K = F
G
(v K F
G
).
(iii) (i) Do F l m rng bc hu hn trn K nn F i s trn K. Gi s
l phn t ty thuc F. Ta s xy dng a thc ti tiu p(x) ca n. Gi =

1
,
2
, ...,
m
l tt c cc nh phn bit ca bi cc t ng cu thuc G.
t
i
=
i
() v
1
= id
F
Khi m n (n l cp ca G v bng [F : K]). Xt a thc
p(x) = (x
1
)(x
2
)...(x
m
) (1.1)
Cc h t ca p(x) l nhng a thc i xng c bn ca cc
i
, v vy chng
l bt bin i vi cc t ng cu G (do mi cm sinh mt php th
trn tp hp {
1
,
2
, ...,
m
}). Ngha l cc h t ny thuc K (do (iii) (ii)).
Vy p(x) K[x].
Nu g(x) K[x] l nhn t bt kh quy ca p(x) nhn =
1
lm nghim th
g(x) cng nhn mi phn t lin hp ca n
i
=
i
() lm nghim. iu ny
chng t p(x) chia ht g(x) v do p(x) = g(x) (v g(x) l bt kh quy).
Nh vy p(x) l a thc ti tiu ca v iu chng t tnh tch c ca
F trn K.By gi gi s q(x) l a thc bt kh quy trn K v c mt nghim
F. Theo chng minh trn p(x) chnh l a thc (1.1), n phn r hon
ton trong F. iu ny chng t tnh chun tc ca F trn K.
nh l 1.1.4. Trng F l m rng Galoa trn trng K khi v ch khi F l
trng nghim ca a thc tch c trn K.
Chng minh. iu kin cn chnh l ([1],H qu 2.62). Ngc li, nu F l
trng nghim ca a thc tch c th ([1], nh l2.6.5) cp ca nhm
Galoa G = G(F/K) bng bc ca m rng [F : K]. Khi theo nh l 1.1.3,
F l m rng Galoa trn K.
Nhn xt 1.1.5. nh l trn cho ta mt du hiu tin li nhn bit mt
m rng Galoa . N cho thy hu ht nhng m rng trng m chng ta
5
thng gp u l nhng m rng Galoa. Chng hn, mi a thc p(x) bt
kh quy trn trng K c c s 0 u l tch c do trng nghim ca
a thc l mt m rng Galoa trn K.
Nhn nh trn c th pht biu trong h qu sau.
H qu 1.1.6. Nu trng F l m rng ca trng K c c s 0 th cc
iu sau tng ng:
(i) F l m rng Galoa.
(ii) F l m rng bc hu hn v chun tc.
(iii) F l trng nghim ca mt a thc no trn K.
Chng minh. (i) (ii) Nu K c c s 0 th mi m rng chun tc u l
m rng tch c . Do ta c (i) (ii).
(ii) (iii) l ni dung ca ([1],nh l 2.6.1).
nh l 1.1.7 (V cc phn t lin hp). Cho F l m rng Galoa trn
K. Khi hai phn t ca F lin hp trn K khi v ch khi tn ti Kng
cu bin mt phn t thnh phn t khc.
Chng minh. Gi s c l phn t ty ca m rng chun tc F trn K. Xt
cc phn t

1
(c) = c,
2
(c), ...,
n
(c) (1.2)
trong
1
= id
F
,
2
, ...,
n
l tt c cc t ng cu thuc nhm Galoa
G = G(F/K). Vi mi t ng cu cc phn t ca dy (1.2) bin thnh dy

1
(c),
2
(c), ...,
n
(c)
tc l mt hon v no ca dy (1.2). V vy cc h t ca a thc
g(x) =
n

i=1
(x
i
(c))
gi bt ng vi mi phn t , do thuc trng K.
Do c =
1
(c) nn a thc g(x) v a thc ti tiu p(x) ca c c nghim chung
6
(khi do a thc p(x) bt kh quy nn g(x) chia ht cho p(x)). Mt khc
theo ([1],B 2.6.4) cc phn t
1
(c),
2
(c), ...,
n
(c) (c th trng nhau) lin
hp vi c, nn cng l nghim ca p(x). Bi vy mi nghim ca g(x) u l
nghim ca p(x). Gi s
g(x) = [p(x)]
k
[q
1
(x)]
k
1
...[q
r
(x)]
k
r
Bi v mi nghim ca g(x) l nghim ca p(x) v khng mt nghim no ca
cc a thc q
i
(x)(i = 1, ..., r) c th l nghim ca p(x) (do tnh bt kh quy
ca mi a thc ny), nn cc a thc q
i
(x)(i = 1, ..., r) khng th c nghim,
tc l q
i
(x) = 1. Vy
g(x) = [p(x)]
k
T c bit suy ra rng cc phn t

1
(c),
2
(c), ...,
n
(c)
vt cn ht (c th c s lp li) tt c cc lin hp ca c.
1.2 M rng cn v m rng cn bc hai
1.2.1 M rng cn
nh ngha 1.2.1. M rng F ca trng c s K gi l m rng cn nu tn
ti dy m rng
K = K
0
K
1
... K
s
= F (1.3)
sao cho K
i
= K
i1
(
i
),
n
i
i
= a
i
K
i1
.
Lu rng trong dy trn mi trng con K
i
c th khng l m rng chun
tc ca trng con K
i1
, cng nh trng con F c th khng l chun tc
trn K
B 1.2.2. Gi s K l trng ty , E l m rng chun tc c bc hu
hn trn K v F l m rng chun tc c bc hu hn trn E. Khi F l m
7
rng chun tc trn K nu v ch nu F l trng nghim trn E ca mt a
thc trn K.
Chng minh. () Nu F l m rng chun tc trn K th F l trng nghim
ca a thc f(x) K[x]( [1], nh l 2.6.1) v v vy F l trng nghim ca
a thc f(x) trn E.
() Ngc li gi s rng F = E(u
1
, ..., u
n
) trong u
1
, ..., u
n
l mi
nghim ca mt a thc g(x) K[x],E = K(v
1
, ..., v
m
) trong v
1
, ..., v
m
l
mi nghim ca g(x). Khi
F = (v
1
, .., v
m
, u
1
, ..., u
n
)
ngha l F l trng nghim ca a thc f(x).g(x) K[x] v do F chun
tc trn K.
nh l 1.2.3. Mi m rng cn F ca trng c s K c cha trong mt
m rng F ng thi l m rng cn v chun tc trn K, khi ta ni rng
F l m rng cn v chun tc trn K.
Chng minh. Chng minh nh l bng cch quy np theo di ca dy(1.3)
Vi s=1 ta c F = K
1
= K(c), c
m
= a K.
Gi cn nguyn thy bc m v xt m rng F = K(c, ), d thy F l trng
nghim ca thc x
m
a, do F l chun tc trn K. Mt khcF c dy m
rng cn
K K() K(, c)
Vy nh l ng cho s = 1
Xt m rng cn F vi dy (1.3) c di s > 1. Bi v E = K
s1
l m rng
cn ca K vi di s 1 nn theo gi thit quy np tn ti m rng cn E
chun tc trn K v cha E, K E E.
Theo gi thit F = K
s
l m rng cn n ca tng E = K
s1
, tc l
F = E(),
n
= u E.
8
Xt a thc ti tiu g(x) ca u trn trng c s K, do E chun tc v
u E E nn E cha tt c c nghim u 1 = u, u
2
, ...., u
r
ca g(x). i
vi mi i = 1, 2, ..., r ta xt phng u
n
u
i
= 0. Gi s c
i
l nghim ty ca
phng trnh ny, xt m rng F = E(, c
1
, ..., c
r
) trong l cn nguyn
thy bc n ca n v. Do c
1
= nn F F, hn th na trn trng E, F
c dy cn
E = E 0 E
1
... E
r+1
= F (1.4)
trong
E
1
= E
0
(), E
i
= E
i1
(c
i
), i = 1, 2, ..., r + 1
theo gi thit quy np E l m rng cn ca K nn dy cn bt u t K v
kt thc E. Tip ni dy ny vi dy (1.4) ta c dy cn bt u t K.
Nh vy l F l m rng cn ca K, By gi ta chng t F l m rng chun
tc trn K. Xt a thc G(x) = g(x
n
). Th th G(x) K[x]. Do
G(x) = (x
n
u
1
)...(x
n
u
n
)
nn cc phn t c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
r
l nghim ca a thc G(x). Mi nghim cn li
ca a thc ny nhn c t php nhn mi nghim c
1
, ..., c
r
vi cc ly tha
ca . V vy F cha trng nghim Q ca G(x) trn trng E. Mt khc
F = E(c
1
, ..., c
r
) Q.
Vy F = Q, ngha l F l trng nghim trn E ca a thc G(x) K[x] theo
B 1.2.2, F chun tc trn K. nh l c chng minh.
1.2.2 M rng cn bc hai
nh ngha 1.2.4. Mt m rng F ca trng K c gi l m rng bc
hai (M rng Pythagore) nu F = K(u
1
,
2
, ..., u
n
), trong u
2
1
K v u
2
i

K(u
1
,
2
, ..., u
11
), (i = 2, .., n).
Mnh 1.2.5. Bc [F : K] ca m rng cn bc hai l lu tha ca 2, tc
l bng 2
n
.
9
Chng minh. Tht vy nu u
2
E v u / E th u l nghim ca a thc bt
kh quy x
2
a E[x] v do
[E(u) : E] = 2.
T , nu l m rng cn bc hai ca K th d dng chng minh c ng
thc [F : K] = 2
n
.
Mnh 1.2.6. Gi s F l m rng chun tc trn Kc bc [F : K] = 2
n
,
khi F l m rng cn bc hai trn K.
Chng minh. Theo gi thit F l m rng Galoa trn K vi nhm Galoa G =
G(F/K) c cp 2
n
, ta tha nhn rng mi nhm c cp l ly tha ca s
nguyn t l gii c. Nh vy nhm Galoa G l gii c vi vi dy gii
c
G = H
0
H
1
...H
n
= {e}
m cc thng H
i1
/H
i
l nhm xiclic cp 2. Gi s
K = K
0
K
1
K
n
= F
l dy trng con tng ng ca trng F ta c
[K
i
: K
i1
] = 2 K
i
= K
i1
(u
i
).
vi u
i
l nghim ca a thc x
2
a Ki 1[x] iu ny chng t F l m
rng cn bc hai trn K.
Mnh 1.2.7. Mi m rng cn bc hai F trn K cha trong mt m rng
cn bc hai chun tc.
Chng minh. Gi s F l m rng cn bc hai chun tc trn K, khi theo
Mnh 1.2.5
[F : K] = 2
n
.
By gi ta chng minh mnh quy np theo n.
10
Vi n = 1 th F = K(u) vi u
2
= K. R rng F l trng nghim ca a
thc x
2
a K[x] nn F chun tc trn K.
Vi n > 1, gi s F = K(u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
n
)vi u
2
1
K v u
2
i
K(u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
i1
), i =
1, 2..., n. Khi t u = u
n
ta c F = E(u), E = K(u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
n1
), u
2
E.
Theo gi thit quy np, E cha trong m rng cn bc hai chun tc E, Xt
a thc ti tiu f(x) ca u
2
trn trng K, do u
2
E v E chun tc trn K
nn trong E c s phn tch
f(x) = (x c
1
)...(x c
m
)
trong c
1
= u
2
,t g(x) = f(x
2
) th th g(u) = 0. Gi F l trng nghim
ca g(x) trn E. Do g(x) K[x] nn theo B 1.2.2 ta c F l chun tc
trn K, ngoi ra
F F, (F = E(u))
Sau cng ta c
F = E(
1
, ...,
m
)
trong
2
i
= c
i
Do
2
i
E nn
2
E(
1
, ...,
i1
).
Nh vy F l m rng cn bc hai caE v do l m rng cn bc hai
ca K.
11
Chng 2
P DNG L THUYT GALOA
TRONG PHP DNG HNH
Trong chng ny, chng ti s dng l thuyt m rng trng tm ra
cu tr li cho 3 bi ton dng hnh xut hin thi Hy Lp c i v xt bi
ton dng a gic u n-cnh bng thc k v compa.
Ba bi ton dng hnh c in l:
Bi ton chia ba mt gc: Chia mt gc thnh ba phn bng nhau.
Bi ton gp i hnh lp phng: Dng mt hnh lp phng c
th tch gp hai ln th tch mt hnh lp phng cho trc.
Bi toncu phng ng trn: Dng mt hnh vung c din tch
bng din tch mt hnh trn cho trc.
2.1 Khi nim v tnh cht v im v s dng c
nh ngha 2.1.1. Trong mt phng R
2
cho 2 im P
0
(0; 0), P
1
(1; 0). Mt
im P R
2
gi l dng c bng thc k v compa nu tn tai dy hu
hn P
0
, P
1
, ..., P
n
sao cho P = P
n
v vi mi j 2 im P
j
xc nh t
S
j1
= {P
0
, P
1
, ..., P
j
1
} bi mt trong ba php dng sau.
Giao ca hai ng thng phn bit, trong mi ng thng qua 2 im
bt k ca S
j1
Giao ca mt ng thng qua hai im ca S
j1
v ng trn c tm ti
mt im S
j1
c bn knh bng khong cch gia hai im trong S
j1
.
Giao ca hai ng trn phn bit, trong mi ng trn c tm ti
im ca S
j1
c bn knh bng khong cch gia hai im trong S
j1
.
12
nh ngha 2.1.2. Mt ng thng gi l dng c nu n i qua hai im
dng c, mt on thng gi l dng c nu n i qua hai im dng
c, mt ng trn gi l dng c nu n c tm l mt im dng c
v c bn knh bng khong cch gia hai im dng c.
Mt s thc x c gi l dng c (bng thc k v compa) nu (x; 0)
R
2
dng c, Khi di ca on thng dng c l s thc dng c.
Mt gc gi l ng c nu cos l s thc dng c.
Mnh 2.1.3. im (a, b) dng c khi v ch khi a, b dng c.
Chng minh. Nu a, b dng c, tc l cc im (a, 0), (b, 0) dng c, suy
ra (0, b) dng c. im (a, b) dng c v n l im th 4 ca hnh bnh
hnh c 3 im (0, 0), (a, 0), (0, b) dng c.
Ngc li nu (a, b) l im dng c, xt hai ng trn tm (0, 0) v
(1, 0) i qua (a, b). Giao im ca chng l (a, b) v (a, b), ng thng qua
hai im ny ct trc honh ti (a,0) nn (a,0) khng dng c. im (0,b)
dng c v n l nh th 4 ca hnh bnh hnh c 3 im (0, 0), (a, 0), (a, b)
dng c, suy ra (b, 0) dng c.
nh l 2.1.4. Tp tt c cc s dng c l trng con ca trng R, Hn
na, nu c dng c v c > 0 th

c dng c.
Chng minh. Gi E l tp tt c cc s dng c, cho a, b E ta c a E,
ngoi ra do (a, 0) v (b, 0) dng c, im gia Q = (
a+b
2
, 0) dng c. Giao
im ca trc honh v ng trn tm Q qua (0, 0) l (a + b, 0) do a + b
dng c.
chng minh ab E, ta ch cn xt trng hp ab = 0 v b = 1. Do (b1)
dng c nn im (0, b 1) dng c, do (a, b 1) dng c. Giao
im ca ng thng qua (0, b) v (a, b 1) vi trc honh l im (ab, 0).
Vy (ab) dng c.
Ta chng minh rng a
1
E, nu a = 0. Do a E ta c 1 a E, hay
13
im (0, 1 a) dng c, do im (1,1-a) dng c. ng thng qua
(0, 1) v (1, 1 a) ct trc honh ti (a
1
, 0). Vy a
1
E.
iu ny suy ra E l mt trng.
Cho c E v c > 0, do
1
2
(1 c) l dng c, im Q(0,
1c
2
) dng c.
ng trn tm Q qua (0,1) ct trc honh ti hai im c ta (u, 0) v
(u, 0) vi u > 0. Theo nh l Pythagore, ta c u
2
+
1
4
(1 c)
2
=
1
4
(1 + c)
2
,
suy ra u
2
= c do u =

c, vy

c dng c.
nh l 2.1.5. Cho P = (, ) R
2
, l im dng c, khi [Q(, ) :
Q] = 2
r
, vi r N.
Chng minh. ChoP
0
, P
1
, ..., P
n
l dy hu hn cc im dng c. t K
0
=
K
1
= Q v K
j
= K
j1
(
j
,
j
), vi 2 j n v P
j
= (
j
,
j
). D dng thy
c rng cc s thc
j
,
j
l nghim ca a thc bc 1 hoc bc 2 c h
t trongK
j1
. Do [K
j
: K
j1
] = 2
t
vi t N suy ra [K
n
: Q] = [K
n
:
Q(, )][Q(, ) : Q] = 2
m
,vi m N, Do Q(, ) : Q] = 2
r
, n N
H qu 2.1.6. Nghim ca a thc p(x) bt kh quy trn trng K l dng
c bng thc v compa khi v ch khi bc ca trng nghim E ca a thc
p(x) trn K l ly tha ca 2.
Chng minh. Tht vy, nu nghim x
0
ca p(x) l dng c bng thc v
compa th n cha trong m rng cn bc hai F ca K v do cha trong m
rng cn bc hai chun tc F. v trng nghim E cha trong F v [F : K] = 2
n
nn [E : K] = 2
m
. iu ngc li hin nhin.
2.2 Mt s bi ton p dng
2.2.1 Bi ton 1: Chia ba mt gc
Cho gc , hy dng gc

3
.
Gii
14
t a = cos v ta c u l nghim ca phng trnh 4x
3
3x = a. t x =
z
2
ta a phng trnh trn v dng
f(x) = z
3
3z 1
l bt kh quy trn Q = Q(1).
Gi s f(z) bt kh quy trn Q(a). Gi v l mt nghim ca f(z) v F l
trng nghim ca n ta c dy m rng trng
Q(a) Q(a, v) F
T
[F : Q] = [F : Q(a, v)][Q(a, v) : Q(a)].
Bi v [Q(a)(v) : Q(a)] = 3 nn
[F : Q(a)] = 2
m
Do cos

3
l khng dng c , ngha l

3
l khng dng c .
2.2.2 Bi ton 2: Gp i mt hnh lp phng
Hy dng cnh ca hnh lp phng c th tch gp i th tch hnh lp
phng n v.
Gii
Gi a l cnh ca hnh lp phng cn dng. Th th a l nghim ca a thc
x
3
2. a thc ny bt kh quy trn Q. Gi l mt nghim, cn F l trng
nghim ca a thc ny ta c dy m rng trng
Q Q() F
T
[F : Q] = [F : Q()][Q() : Q].
Bi v [Q() : Q] = 3 nn
[F : Q] = 2
m
iu ny chng t bi ton khng gii c .
15
2.2.3 Bi ton 3: Cu phng ng trn
Dng hnh vung c din tch bng din tch hnh trn c bn knh 1(Ni
cch khc l dng im (

, 0) trong R
2
).
Gii
V (

l siu vit trn Q nn [Q(

) : Q] = , do p dng nh l 2.1.5
ta suy ra khng dng c im (

, 0) trong R
2
.
Vy khng th dng c hnh vung c din tch bng hnh trn c bn
knh cho trc.
2.2.4 Bi ton 4: Chia ng trn thnh n phn bng nhau
gii quyt bi ton ny trc ht ta chng minh b sau.
B 2.2.1. Nu n = p.q, (p, q) = 1 th ng trn chia c thnh n phn
bng nhau khi v ch khi n chia c thnh p, q phn bng nhau.
Chng minh. () Gi s chia c ng trn thnh n phn bng nhau, tc
l dng c cung
2R
n
. Khi ta c th vit
1
p
= q
1
n
v
1
q
= p
1
n
v v vy cc cung
2R
p
,
2R
q
l dng c .
() Gi s ng trn chia c thnh p, q phn bng nhau. Do p v q
nguyn t cng nhau nn tn ti cc s nguyn u, v sao cho
up + vq = 1
T chia c hai v ca ng thc ta c
1
n
= u
1
q
+ v
1
p
iu ny chng t cung
2R
n
l dng c .
Tr li bi ton, khng lm mt tnh tng qut ta gi s ng trn c bn
knh R = 1. chia ng trn thnh n phn bng nhau ta cn dng cos
2
n
16
thay cho gc
2
n
. Gi l cn nguyn thy bc n ca n v ta c
= cos
2
n
+ i sin
2
n

1
= cos
2
n
i sin
2
n
T
cos
2
n
=
1
2
( +
1
) Q( +
1
) = Q
0
Bi vy theo Mnh 1.2.5 ta c cos
2
n
dng c khi v ch khi
[Q
0
: Q] = 2
r
Mt khc ta c
[Q() : Q( +
1
)] = 2
v v
1
l cc nghim ca a thc trn Q( +
1
):
x
2
( +
1
)x + 1
Do
[Q() : Q] = 2[Q() : Q
0
]
Do nhn nh va nu trn ta thy ng thc
[Q() : Q] = 2
m
l iu cn v dng c cos
2
n
.
Vi nhng kho st trn ta c th chng minh mnh sau
Mnh 2.2.2. ng trn c th chia c thnh n phn bng nhau bi
thc k v compa nu v chi nu n c dng
n = 2
k
q
1
...q
s
trong k l s t nhin, cn q
i
l nhng s nguyn t l dng 2
2
r
+ 1 (s
nguyn t Phecma).
17
Chng minh. Theo b ta ch cn xt trng hp n = q
k
.
Xt trng hp chia ng trn R
n
= Q(),
n
= 1, ta c
[Q() : Q] = (n) = q
k1
(q 1).
Mt khc theo nhn nh trn bi ton l gii c khi v ch khi
q
k1
(q 1) = 2
m
.
Nu q = 2 th ng thc trn xy ra khi k = 1 v q = 2
m
+ 1. Nu m = ab ,b
l th
q = (2
a
)
b
+ 1 = (2
a
+ 1).M, M > 1
iu ny tri vi gi thit q nguyn t. Vy m = 2
r
v do q = 2
2
r
+ 1.
2.3 Mt vi php dng hnh c th
2.3.1 Dng a gic u 5 cnh
Bi ton cng c ngha l chia ng trn thnh nm phn bng nhau.
lm iu ta cn dng on thng c d di bng cos
2
5
thay cho gc
2
5
.
Gi l cn nguyn thy bc 5 ca n v ta c
= cos
2
5
+ i sin
2
5
, i
2
= 1.
v
cos
2
5
=
1
2
_
+
1
_
Ta cn tm m rng cn bc hai cha cos
2
5
. Xt dy cc m rng trng
Q Q
_
+
1
_
Q() = R
5
a thc xc nh ca trn Q l
F
5
(x) = x
4
+ x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1
18
T [Q() : Q] = 4 v do
[Q( +
1
) : Q] = 2
Nh vy +
1
c a thc xc nh bc hai, ta tm a thc . Bi v tha
mn phng trnh F
5
(x) = 0 v
1
=
4
nn
( +
1
)
2
=
2
+ 2 +
3
= (1
4
) + 2
+
1
= 1 ( +
1
)
T suy ra +
1
l nghim ca phng trnh
x
2
+ x 1 = 0
Bi vy ta c c biu thc cn tm
2 cos
2
5
= +
1
=
1 +

5
2
Biu thc trn y cho php dng cos
2
5
nh sau:
Trc ht dng ng trn (O, R = 1) ri tip thc hin cc php dng:
Dng

5
2
=

1
2
+
_
1
2
_
2
Dng ng trn (C, BC). Khi OK =
1+

5
2
. Chia i OK ta c OI =
cos
2
5
. Cung

AM l cung cn dng.
2.3.2 Dng a gic u 15 cnh
Bi ton cng c ngha l chia ng trn thnh 15 phn bng nhau.
Ta c 15 = 3 5. Khi 1 = 2 3 5 v do
1
15
=
2
5

1
3
ng thc ny cho php ta dng cung
2
15
theo cc cung
2
5
v
2
3
.
19
Hnh 2.1: Chia ng trn thnh 5 phn bng nhau
2.3.3 Dng a gic u 17 cnh
Bi ton cng c ngha l chia ng trn thnh 17 phn bng nhau.
Ta phi dng cos
2
17
=
1
2
( +
1
) vi = e
2i
17
. Ta cn tm m rng cn bc hai
cha cos
2
5
. Xt dy cc m rng trng
Q Q
_
+
1
_
Q() = R
17
Ta c [Q() : Q( +
1
)] = 2 v l nghim ca phng trnh
x
2
( +
1
)x + 1 = 0
By gi ta hy xt cc m rng trng trung gian gia Q v Q( +
1
). Nhm
Galois ca R
17
trn Q l nhm xyclic cp 16:
G =
16
(Z
17
)

3
_
16
Trong G c dy gii c
G G
1
=

2
_
8
G
2
=

4
_
4
G
3
=

8
_
2
E
Dy trng tng ng l
Q K
1
= Q() K
2
= Q() K
3
= Q() R
17
tm cc phn t nguyn thy , , ta xt bng sau:
20
i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
3
i
(mod17) 1 3 9 10 13 5 15 11 16 14 8 7 4 12 2 6

i
=
3
i

10

13

15

11

16

14

12

6
Cc chu k Gaox tm hng t l

0
=
1
+
9
+
13
+
15
+
16
+
8
+
4
+
2

1
=
3
+
10
+
5
+
11
+
14
+
7
+
12
+
6
Bi v
0
+
1
= 1 v
0

1
= 4 nn
0
v
1
l cc nghim ca a thc
x
2
+ x 4 Q[x].
Suy ra
0
=
1
2
+

17
2
;
1
=
1
2

17
2
.
Cc chu k Gaox bn hng t l

0
= +
13
+
16
+
4

1
=
3
+
5
+
14
+
12

2
=
9
+
15
+
8
+
2

3
=
10
+
11
+
7
+
6
Ta c
_
_
_

0
+
2
=
0

2
= 1
v
_
_
_

1
+
3
=
1

3
= 1
Suy ra
0
,
2
(tng ng
1
,
3
) l nghim ca a thc
x
2

0
x 1 K
1
[x]
(tng ng x
2

0
x 1 K
1
[x] ).
Vy

0,2
=

0
2

1
2
_

2
0
+ 4

1,3
=

1
2

1
2
_

2
1
+ 4
Cui cng cc chu k Gaox hai hng t l:

0
= +
16
= +
1
= 2 cos
2
17

1
=
13
+
4
21
V do
0
+
1
=
0

0

1
=
1
nn
0
v
1
l nghim ca a thc
x
2

0
x +
1
K
2
[x]

0,1
=

0
2

1
2
_

2
0
4
1
T ta suy ra cch dng cos
2
17
nh sau:
- Dng ng trn (O, OB = 1) ;
- Dng BC =
_
1
2
+ (
1
4
)
2
- Dng ng trn (C, BC). Khi OD =

0
2
,
OE =

1
2
v
- Dng ng trn (D, DB) ta c OF =
0
- Dng ng trn (E, EB) ta c OG =
1
V
1
2
_

2
0
4
1
=
_
_

0
2
_
2

1
_
2
, nn ta dng nh sau:
- Dng ng trn ng knh AG ta c OJ =

1
;
- Dng ng trn
_
J,
OF
2
_
ta c OK =
1
2
_

2
0
4
1
.
T dng c
2 cos
2
17
= +
1
=
0
=

0
2
+
1
2
_

2
0
4
1
T ta c th dng c cung

SP =
2
17
nh hnh v.
Hnh 2.2: Hnh chia ng trn thnh 17 phn bng nhau
22
KT LUN
Trong tiu lun "ng dng ca l thuyt Galoa trong php dng hnh" tc
gi hc tp, nghin cu v trnh by cc vn sau:
1.Trnh by ng dng ca l thuyt Galoa trong php dng hnh, c th
chng minh nh l v iu kin cho ng vic chia ng trn thnh n
phn bng nhau.
2.p dng gii cc bi ton dng hnh c in nh khng th chia gc
thnh 3 phn bng nhau bi thc k v compa, dng hnh vung c cng din
tch vi hnh trn,...c bit nu phng php dng c th chia ng trn
thnh 5,15,17 phn bng nhau bng thc k v compa.
Trong khun kh mt tiu lun v hn ch v thi gian cng trnh nn
mt vi vn cha c trnh by, nh chia ng trn thnh n phn bng
nhau vi n = 20, 24, ...trong thi gian n ti s tip tc nghin cu b
sung. Mc d tht c gng nhng s khng trnh khi nhng thiu st, rt
mong c lng th, ch bo ca Thy c gio v cc bn bi tiu lun
hon thin hn.
23
TI LIU THAM KHO
1. Nguyn Tin Quang C s l thuyt trng v l thuyt Galoa . Nh xut
bn i hc s phm, H ni, 2007.
2. Nguyn Chnh T L thuyt m rng trng v Galoa , Hu, 2006.
3. Nguyn Tin Quang i s v s hc - Tp 3, Nh xut bn gio dc,
1987.
24