407 U.S.

551 (1972)
LLOYD CORP., LTD.
v.
TANNER ET AL.
No. 71-492.
Supreme Cur! " U#$!e% S!&!e'.
Argued April 18, 1972.
Decided June 22, 1972.
CERTIORARI TO TE !NITED "TATE" CO!RT O# A$$EA%" #OR TE NINT CIRC!IT.
&&2'&&2 George Black, Jr., (rgued )*e c(u+e ,or pe)i)ioner. -i)* *i. on )*e /rie,+ 0ere Robert J.
Miller, John H. Pickering, (nd Timothy B. Dyk.
Carl R. Neil (rgued )*e c(u+e ,or re+ponden)+. -i)* *i. on )*e /rie, 0ere Melvin L. !l" (nd
#an"or$ Jay Ro%en.
1rie,+ o, amici c!riae urging re2er+(l 0ere ,iled /3 Jerry &ronenberg, Gerar$ C. #metana, (nd
'lan Ray(i$ ,or )*e A.eric(n Re)(il #eder()ion, (nd /3 La(rence M. Cohen (nd 'llen B.
Gre%ham ,or )*e o.(r) De2elop.en) Co.
Roger Jon Diamon$ ,iled ( /rie, ,or $eople4+ %o//3, Inc., (+ amic!% c!riae urging (,,ir.(nce.
5R. J!"TICE $O-E%% deli2ered )*e opinion o, )*e Cour).
T*i+ c(+e pre+en)+ )*e 6ue+)ion re+er2ed /3 )*e Cour) in 'malgamate$ )oo$ *m+loyee% ,nion
2. Logan -alley Pla.a, 791 U. S. 788 919:8;, (+ )o )*e rig*) o, ( pri2()el3 o0ned +*opping cen)er
)o pro*i/i) )*e di+)ri/u)ion o, *(nd/ill+ on i)+ proper)3 0*en )*e *(nd/illing i+ unrel()ed )o )*e
+*opping cen)er4+ oper()ion+. Rel3ing pri.(ril3 on Mar%h 2. 'labama, 72: U. S. &81 9194:;, (nd
Logan -alley, )*e !ni)ed ")()e+ Di+)ric) Cour) ,or )*e Di+)ric) o, Oregon +u+)(ined (n (++er)ed
#ir+) A.end.en) rig*) )o di+)ri/u)e *(nd/ill+ in pe)i)ioner4+ +*opping cen)er, (nd i++ued (
per.(nen) in<unc)ion re+)r(ining pe)i)ioner ,ro. in)er,ering 0i)* +uc* rig*). 788 #. "upp. 128
91978;. T*e Cour) o, Appe(l+ ,or )*e Nin)* Circui) (,,ir.ed, 44: #. 2d &4& 91971;. -e gr(n)ed
cer)ior(ri )o con+ider pe)i)ioner4+ con)en)ion )*() )*e deci+ion /elo0 &&7'&&7 2iol()e+ rig*)+ o,
pri2()e proper)3 pro)ec)ed /3 )*e #i,)* (nd #our)een)* A.end.en)+. 484 U. S. 1877 91972;.
L()% Crp., %)d. 9L()%;, o0n+ ( l(rge, .odern re)(il +*opping cen)er in $or)l(nd, Oregon.
L()% Cen)er e./r(ce+ (l)oge)*er (/ou) &8 (cre+, including +o.e 28 (cre+ o, open (nd co2ered
p(r=ing ,(cili)ie+ 0*ic* (cco..od()e .ore )*(n 1,888 (u)o.o/ile+. I) *(+ ( peri.e)er o, (l.o+)
one (nd one-*(l, .ile+, /ounded /3 ,our pu/lic +)ree)+. I) i+ cro++ed in 2(r3ing degree+ /3
+e2er(l o)*er pu/lic +)ree)+, (ll o, 0*ic* *(2e (d<(cen) pu/lic +ide0(l=+. L()% o0n+ (ll l(nd (nd
/uilding+ 0i)*in )*e Cen)er, e>cep) )*e+e pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+. T*ere (re +o.e :8
co..erci(l )en(n)+, including +.(ll +*op+ (nd +e2er(l .(<or dep(r).en) +)ore+.
T*e Cen)er e./odie+ ( rel()i2el3 ne0 concep) in +*opping cen)er de+ign. T*e +)ore+ (re (ll
loc()ed 0i)*in ( +ingle l(rge, .ul)i-le2el /uilding co.ple> +o.e)i.e+ re,erred )o (+ )*e ?5(ll.?
-i)*in )*i+ co.ple>, in (ddi)ion )o )*e +)ore+, )*ere (re p(r=ing ,(cili)ie+, .(ll+, pri2()e +ide0(l=+,
+)(ir0(3+, e+c(l()or+, g(rden+, (n (udi)oriu., (nd ( +=()ing rin=. "o.e o, )*e +)ore+ open
direc)l3 on )*e ou)+ide pu/lic +ide0(l=+, /u) .o+) open on )*e in)erior pri2()el3 o0ned .(ll+.
"o.e +)ore+ open on /o)*. T*ere (re no pu/lic +)ree)+ or pu/lic +ide0(l=+ 0i)*in )*e /uilding
co.ple>, 0*ic* i+ enclo+ed (nd en)irel3 co2ered e>cep) ,or )*e l(nd+c(ped por)ion+ o, +o.e o,
)*e in)erior .(ll+.
T*e di+)ri/u)ion o, )*e *(nd/ill+ occurred in )*e .(ll+. T*e3 (re ( di+)inc)i2e ,e()ure o, )*e Cen)er,
+er2ing /o)* u)ili)(ri(n (nd e+)*e)ic ,unc)ion+. E++en)i(ll3, )*e3 (re pri2()e, in)erior pro.en(de+
0i)* 18-,oo) +ide0(l=+ +er2ing )*e +)ore+, (nd 0i)* ( cen)er +)rip 78 ,ee) 0ide in 0*ic* ,lo0er+
(nd +*ru/+ (re pl(n)ed, (nd +)()u(r3, ,oun)(in+, /enc*e+, (nd o)*er (.eni)ie+ (re loc()ed. T*ere
i+ no 2e*icul(r )r(,,ic on )*e .(ll+. An (rc*i)ec)ur(l &&4'&&4 e>per) de+cri/ed )*e purpo+e o, )*e
.(ll+ (+ ,ollo0+@
?In order )o .(=e +*opping e(+3 (nd ple(+(n), (nd )o *elp re(liAe )*e go(l o, .(>i.u. +(le+ B,or
)*e Cen)erC, )*e +*op+ (re grouped (/ou) +peci(l pede+)ri(n 0(3+ or .(ll+. ere )*e +*opper i+
i+ol()ed ,ro. )*e noi+e, ,u.e+, con,u+ion (nd di+)r(c)ion 0*ic* *e nor.(ll3 ,ind+ (long ci)3
+)ree)+, (nd ( con)rolled, c(re,ree en2iron.en) i+ pro2ided. . . .?
B1C
Al)*oug* )*e +)ore+ clo+e () cu+)o.(r3 *our+, )*e .(ll+ (re no) p*3+ic(ll3 clo+ed, (+ pede+)ri(n
0indo0 +*opping i+ encour(ged 0i)*in re(+on(/le *our+.
B2C
L()% e.plo3+ 12 +ecuri)3 gu(rd+,
0*o (re co..i++ioned (+ +uc* /3 )*e ci)3 o, $or)l(nd. T*e gu(rd+ *(2e police (u)*ori)3 0i)*in
)*e Cen)er, 0e(r uni,or.+ +i.il(r )o )*o+e 0orn /3 ci)3 police, (nd (re licen+ed )o c(rr3
*(ndgun+. T*e3 (re e.plo3ed /3 (nd +u/<ec) )o )*e con)rol o, L()%. T*eir du)ie+ (re )*e
cu+)o.(r3 one+, including +*opli,)ing +ur2eill(nce (nd gener(l +ecuri)3.
A) ( ,e0 pl(ce+ 0i)*in )*e Cen)er, +.(ll +ign+ (re e./edded in )*e +ide0(l= 0*ic* +)()e@
?NOTICEDAre(+ In L()% Cen)er !+ed 13 T*e &&&'&&& $u/lic Are No) $u/lic -(3+ 1u) Are #or
T*e !+e O, L()% Cen)er Ten(n)+ And T*e $u/lic Tr(n+(c)ing 1u+ine++ -i)* T*e.. $er.i++ion
To !+e "(id Are(+ 5(3 1e Re2o=ed A) An3 Ti.e. L()% Corpor()ion, %)d.?
T*e Cen)er i+ open gener(ll3 )o )*e pu/lic, 0i)* ( con+ider(/le e,,or) /eing .(de )o ())r(c)
+*opper+ (nd pro+pec)i2e +*opper+, (nd )o cre()e ?cu+)o.er .o)i2()ion? (+ 0ell (+ cu+)o.er
good0ill in )*e co..uni)3. In )*i+ re+pec) )*e Cen)er pur+ue+ policie+ co.p(r(/le )o )*o+e o,
.(<or +)ore+ (nd +*opping cen)er+ (cro++ )*e coun)r3, (l)*oug* )*e Cen)er (,,ord+ +uperior
,(cili)ie+ ,or )*e+e purpo+e+. Eroup+ (nd org(niA()ion+ (re per.i))ed, /3 in2i)()ion (nd (d2(nce
(rr(nge.en), )o u+e )*e (udi)oriu. (nd o)*er ,(cili)ie+. Ren) i+ c*(rged ,or u+e o, )*e (udi)oriu.
e>cep) 0i)* re+pec) )o cer)(in ci2ic (nd c*(ri)(/le org(niA()ion+, +uc* (+ )*e C(ncer "ocie)3 (nd
1o3 (nd Eirl "cou)+. T*e Cen)er (l+o (llo0+ li.i)ed u+e o, )*e .(ll+ /3 )*e A.eric(n %egion )o
+ell poppie+ ,or di+(/led 2e)er(n+, (nd /3 )*e "(l2()ion Ar.3 (nd Folun)eer+ o, A.eric( )o +olici)
C*ri+).(+ con)ri/u)ion+. I) *(+ denied +i.il(r u+e )o o)*er ci2ic (nd c*(ri)(/le org(niA()ion+.
$oli)ic(l u+e i+ (l+o ,or/idden, e>cep) )*() pre+iden)i(l c(ndid()e+ o, /o)* p(r)ie+ *(2e /een
(llo0ed )o +pe(= in )*e (udi)oriu..
B7C
T*e Cen)er *(d /een in oper()ion ,or +o.e eig*) 3e(r+ 0*en )*i+ li)ig()ion co..enced.
T*roug*ou) )*i+ period i) *(d ( polic3, +)ric)l3 en,orced, (g(in+) )*e di+)ri/u)ion o, *(nd/ill+ 0i)*in
)*e /uilding co.ple> (nd i)+ .(ll+. No e>cep)ion+ 0ere .(de 0i)* re+pec) )o *(nd/illing, 0*ic*
0(+ con+idered li=el3 )o (nno3 cu+)o.er+, )o cre()e li))er, po)en)i(ll3 )o cre()e di+order+, &&:'&&:
(nd gener(ll3 )o /e inco.p()i/le 0i)* )*e purpo+e o, )*e Cen)er (nd )*e ().o+p*ere +oug*) )o /e
pre+er2ed.
On No2e./er 14, 19:8, )*e re+ponden)+ in )*i+ c(+e di+)ri/u)ed 0i)*in )*e Cen)er *(nd/ill
in2i)()ion+ )o ( .ee)ing o, )*e ?Re+i+)(nce Co..uni)3? )o pro)e+) )*e dr(,) (nd )*e Fie)n(. 0(r.
T*e di+)ri/u)ion, .(de in +e2er(l di,,eren) pl(ce+ on )*e .(ll 0(l=0(3+ /3 ,i2e 3oung people, 0(+
6uie) (nd orderl3, (nd )*ere 0(+ no li))ering. T*ere 0(+ ( co.pl(in) ,ro. one cu+)o.er. "ecuri)3
gu(rd+ in,or.ed )*e re+ponden)+ )*() )*e3 0ere )re+p(++ing (nd 0ould /e (rre+)ed unle++ )*e3
+)opped di+)ri/u)ing )*e *(nd/ill+ 0i)*in )*e Cen)er.
B4C
T*e gu(rd+ +ugge+)ed )*() re+ponden)+
di+)ri/u)e )*eir li)er()ure on )*e pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+ (d<(cen) )o /u) ou)+ide o, )*e Cen)er
co.ple>. Re+ponden)+ le,) )*e pre.i+e+ (+ re6ue+)ed ?)o (2oid (rre+)? (nd con)inued )*e
*(nd/illing ou)+ide. "u/+e6uen)l3 )*i+ +ui) 0(+ in+)i)u)ed in )*e Di+)ric) Cour), +ee=ing decl(r()or3
(nd in<unc)i2e relie,.
*
T*e Di+)ric) Cour), e.p*(+iAing )*() )*e Cen)er ?i+ open )o )*e gener(l pu/lic,? ,ound )*() i) i+ ?)*e
,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic /u+ine++ di+)ric).? 788 #. "upp., () 178. T*() cour) )*en *eld )*()
L()%+' ?rule pro*i/i)ing )*e di+)ri/u)ion o, *(nd/ill+ 0i)*in )*e 5(ll 2iol()e+ . . . #ir+) A.end.en)
rig*)+.? 788 #. "upp., () 171. In ( +er c!riam opinion, )*e Cour) o, Appe(l+ *eld )*() i) 0(+ /ound
/3 )*e ?,(c)u(l de)er.in()ion? (+ )o )*e c*(r(c)er o, )*e Cen)er, (nd concluded )*() )*e deci+ion+
o, )*i+ Cour) in Mar%h 2. 'labama, 72: U. S. &81 9194:;, (nd 'malgamate$ )oo$ &&7'&&7
*m+loyee% ,nion 2. Logan -alley Pla.a, 791 U. S. 788 919:8;, co.pelled (,,ir.(nce.
B&C
Mar%h in2ol2ed C*ic=(+(0, Al(/(.(, ( co.p(n3 )o0n 0*oll3 o0ned /3 )*e Eul, "*ip/uilding
Crp. T*e opinion o, )*e Cour), /3 5r. Ju+)ice 1l(c=, de+cri/ed C*ic=(+(0 (+ ,ollo0+@
?E>cep) ,or Bo0ner+*ip /3 ( pri2()e corpor()ionC i) *(+ (ll )*e c*(r(c)eri+)ic+ o, (n3 o)*er
A.eric(n )o0n. T*e proper)3 con+i+)+ o, re+iden)i(l /uilding+, +)ree)+, ( +3+)e. o, +e0er+, (
+e0(ge di+po+(l pl(n) (nd ( G/u+ine++ /loc=4 on 0*ic* /u+ine++ pl(ce+ (re +i)u()ed. A depu)3 o,
)*e 5o/ile Coun)3 "*eri,,, p(id /3 )*e co.p(n3, +er2e+ (+ )*e )o0n4+ police.(n. 5erc*(n)+ (nd
+er2ice e+)(/li+*.en)+ *(2e ren)ed )*e +)ore+ (nd /u+ine++ pl(ce+ on )*e /u+ine++ /loc= (nd )*e
!ni)ed ")()e+ u+e+ one o, )*e pl(ce+ (+ ( po+) o,,ice ,ro. 0*ic* +i> c(rrier+ deli2er .(il )o )*e
people o, C*ic=(+(0 (nd )*e (d<(cen) (re(. T*e )o0n (nd )*e +urrounding neig*/or*ood, 0*ic*
c(n no) /e di+)ingui+*ed ,ro. )*e Eul, proper)3 /3 (n3one no) ,(.ili(r 0i)* )*e proper)3 line+, (re
)*ic=l3 +e))led, (nd (ccording )o (ll indic()ion+ )*e re+iden)+ u+e )*e /u+ine++ /loc= (+ )*eir
regul(r +*opping cen)er. To do +o, )*e3 no0, (+ )*e3 *(2e ,or .(n3 3e(r+, .(=e u+e o, (
co.p(n3-o0ned p(2ed +)ree) (nd +ide0(l= loc()ed (long+ide )*e +)ore ,ron)+ in order )o en)er
(nd le(2e )*e +)ore+ (nd )*e po+) o,,ice. In)er+ec)ing co.p(n3-o0ned ro(d+ () e(c* end o, )*e
/u+ine++ /loc= le(d in)o ( ,our-l(ne pu/lic *ig*0(3 0*ic* run+ p(r(llel )o )*e /u+ine++ /loc= () (
di+)(nce o, )*ir)3 ,ee). T*ere i+ no)*ing )o +)op &&8'&&8 *ig*0(3 )r(,,ic ,ro. co.ing on)o )*e
/u+ine++ /loc= (nd upon (rri2(l ( )r(2eler .(3 .(=e ,ree u+e o, )*e ,(cili)ie+ (2(il(/le )*ere. In
+*or) )*e )o0n (nd i)+ +*opping di+)ric) (re (cce++i/le )o (nd ,reel3 u+ed /3 )*e pu/lic in gener(l
(nd )*ere i+ no)*ing )o di+)ingui+* )*e. ,ro. (n3 o)*er )o0n (nd +*opping cen)er e>cep) )*e ,(c)
)*() )*e )i)le )o )*e proper)3 /elong+ )o ( pri2()e corpor()ion.? 72: U. S. , () &82-&87 .
A Je*o2(*4+ -i)ne++ under)oo= )o di+)ri/u)e religiou+ li)er()ure on ( +ide0(l= ne(r )*e po+) o,,ice
(nd 0(+ (rre+)ed on ( )re+p(++ing c*(rge. In *olding )*() #ir+) (nd #our)een)* A.end.en) rig*)+
0ere in,ringed, )*e Cour) e.p*(+iAed )*() )*e /u+ine++ di+)ric) 0(+ 0i)*in ( co.p(n3-o0ned
)o0n, (n (n(c*roni+. long pre2(len) in +o.e +ou)*ern ")()e+ (nd no0 r(rel3 ,ound.
B:C
In Logan -alley )*e Cour) e>)ended )*e r()ion(le o, Mar%h )o pe(ce,ul pic=e)ing o, ( +)ore loc()ed
in ( l(rge +*opping cen)er, =no0n (+ %og(n F(lle3 5(ll, ne(r Al)oon(, $enn+3l2(ni(. -ei+
5(r=e)+, Inc. 9-ei+;, (n origin(l )en(n), *(d opened ( +uper.(r=e) in one o, )*e l(rger +)ore+ (nd
0(+ e.plo3ing ( 0*oll3 nonunion +)(,,. -i)*in 18 d(3+ (,)er -ei+ opened, .e./er+ o,
A.(lg(.()ed #ood E.plo3ee+ !nion %oc(l &98 9!nion; /eg(n pic=e)ing -ei+, c(rr3ing +ign+
+)()ing )*() i) 0(+ ( nonunion .(r=e) (nd )*() i)+ e.plo3ee+ 0ere no) recei2ing union 0(ge+ or
o)*er union /ene,i)+. T*e pic=e)ing, conduc)ed /3 none.plo3ee+, 0(+ c(rried ou) &&9'&&9 (l.o+)
en)irel3 in )*e p(rcel pic=up (re( i..edi()el3 (d<(cen) )o )*e +)ore (nd on por)ion+ o, )*e
(d<oining p(r=ing lo). T*e pic=e)ing 0(+ pe(ce,ul, 0i)* )*e nu./er o, pic=e)+ 2(r3ing ,ro. ,our )o
17.
-ei+ (nd %og(n F(lle3 $l(A(, Inc., +oug*) (nd o/)(ined (n in<unc)ion (g(in+) )*i+ pic=e)ing. T*e
in<unc)ion re6uired )*() (ll pic=e)ing /e con,ined )o pu/lic (re(+ ou)+ide )*e +*opping cen)er. On
(ppe(l )*e $enn+3l2(ni( "upre.e Cour) (,,ir.ed )*e i++u(nce o, )*e in<unc)ion, (nd )*i+ Cour)
gr(n)ed cer)ior(ri. In ,r(.ing )*e 6ue+)ion, )*i+ Cour) +)()ed@
?T*e c(+e +6u(rel3 pre+en)+ . . . )*e 6ue+)ion 0*e)*er $enn+3l2(ni(4+ gener(ll3 2(lid rule+
(g(in+) )re+p(++ )o pri2()e proper)3 c(n /e (pplied in )*e+e circu.+)(nce+ )o /(r pe)i)ioner+ ,ro.
)*e -ei+ (nd %og(n pre.i+e+.? 791 U. S. , () 71& .
T*e Cour) no)ed )*() )*e (n+0er 0ould /e cle(r ?i, )*e +*opping cen)er pre.i+e+ 0ere no)
pri2()el3 o0ned /u) in+)e(d con+)i)u)ed )*e /u+ine++ (re( o, ( .unicip(li)3.? /bi$. In )*e l())er
+i)u()ion, i) *(+ o,)en /een *eld )*() pu/licl3 o0ned +)ree)+, +ide0(l=+, (nd p(r=+ (re +o
*i+)oric(ll3 (++oci()ed 0i)* )*e e>erci+e o, #ir+) A.end.en) rig*)+ )*() (cce++ )o )*e. ,or
purpo+e+ o, e>erci+ing +uc* rig*)+ c(nno) /e denied (/+olu)el3. Lovell 2. Gri""in, 787 U. S. 444
91978;H Hag!e 2. C/0, 787 U. S. 49: 91979; H #chnei$er 2. #tate, 788 U. S. 147 91979; H Jami%on
2. Te1a%, 718 U. S. 417 91947; .
T*e Cour) )*en con+idered Mar%h 2. 'labama, %!+ra , (nd concluded )*()@
?T*e +*opping cen)er *ere i+ cle(rl3 )*e ,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, )*e /u+ine++ di+)ric) o,
C*ic=(+(0 in2ol2ed in Mar%h.? 791 U. S. , () 718 .
1u) )*e Cour) 0(+ c(re,ul no) )o go ,ur)*er (nd +(3 )*() ,or (ll purpo+e+ (nd u+e+ )*e pri2()el3
o0ned +)ree)+, &:8'&:8 +ide0(l=+, (nd o)*er (re(+ o, ( +*opping cen)er (re (n(logou+ )o
pu/licl3 o0ned ,(cili)ie+@
?All 0e decide *ere i+ )*() /ec(u+e )*e +*opping cen)er +er2e+ (+ )*e co..uni)3 /u+ine++ /loc=
G(nd i+ ,reel3 (cce++i/le (nd open )o )*e people in )*e (re( (nd )*o+e p(++ing )*roug*,4 Mar%h 2.
'labama, 72: U. S. , () &88, )*e ")()e .(3 no) deleg()e )*e po0er, )*roug* )*e u+e o, i)+ )re+p(++
l(0+, 0*oll3 )o e>clude )*o+e .e./er+ o, )*e pu/lic 0i+*ing )o e>erci+e )*eir #ir+) A.end.en)
rig*)+ on )*e pre.i+e+ in ( .(nner (nd ,or ( purpo+e gener(ll3 con+on(n) 0i)* )*e u+e )o 0*ic*
)*e proper)3 i+ (c)u(ll3 pu).? /$., () 719-728.
T*e Cour) no)ed )*() )*e +cope o, i)+ *olding 0(+ li.i)ed, (nd e>pre++l3 re+er2ed <udg.en) on
)*e )3pe o, i++ue pre+en)ed in )*i+ c(+e@
?T*e pic=e)ing c(rried on /3 pe)i)ioner+ 0(+ direc)ed +peci,ic(ll3 () p()ron+ o, )*e -ei+ 5(r=e)
loc()ed 0i)*in )*e +*opping cen)er (nd )*e .e++(ge +oug*) )o /e con2e3ed )o )*e pu/lic
concerned )*e .(nner in 0*ic* )*() p(r)icul(r .(r=e) 0(+ /eing oper()ed. -e (re, )*ere,ore, no)
c(lled upon )o con+ider 0*e)*er re+ponden)+4 proper)3 rig*)+ could, con+i+)en)l3 0i)* )*e #ir+)
A.end.en), <u+)i,3 ( /(r on pic=e)ing 0*ic* 0(+ no) )*u+ direc)l3 rel()ed in i)+ purpo+e )o )*e u+e
)o 0*ic* )*e +*opping cen)er proper)3 0(+ /eing pu).? /$., () 728 n. 9.
T*e Cour) (l+o )oo= +peci,ic no)e o, )*e ,(c)+ )*() )*e !nion4+ pic=e)ing 0(+ ?direc)ed +olel3 ()
one e+)(/li+*.en) 0i)*in )*e +*opping cen)er,? i$., () 721, (nd )*() )*e pu/lic /er.+ (nd
+ide0(l=+ 0ere ?,ro. 7&8 )o &88 ,ee) (0(3 ,ro. )*e -ei+ +)ore.? /$., () 722. T*i+ di+)(nce .(de
i) di,,icul) ?)o co..unic()e B0i)*C p()ron+ o, -ei+? (nd ?)o li.i) B)*eC e,,ec) Bo, &:1'&:1 )*e
pic=e)ingC )o -ei+ onl3.? /$., () 722, 727.
B7C
Logan -alley 0(+ decided on )*e /(+i+ o, )*i+ ,(c)u(l
+i)u()ion, (nd )*e ,(c)+ in )*i+ c(+e (re +igni,ic(n)l3 di,,eren).
**
T*e cour)+ /elo0 con+idered )*e cri)ic(l in6uir3 )o /e 0*e)*er L()% Cen)er 0(+ ?)*e ,unc)ion(l
e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic /u+ine++ di+)ric).?
B8C
T*i+ p*r(+e 0(+ ,ir+) u+ed in Logan -alley, /u) i)+
gene+i+ 0(+ in Mar%h. I) i+ 0ell )o con+ider 0*() Mar%h (c)u(ll3 decided. A+ no)ed (/o2e, i)
in2ol2ed (n econo.ic (no.(l3 o, )*e p(+), ?)*e co.p(n3 )o0n.? One .u+) *(2e +een +uc* )o0n+
)o under+)(nd )*() ?,unc)ion(ll3? )*e3 0ere no di,,eren) ,ro. .unicip(li)ie+ o, co.p(r(/le +iAe.
T*e3 de2eloped pri.(ril3 in )*e Deep "ou)* )o .ee) econo.ic condi)ion+, e+peci(ll3 )*o+e 0*ic*
e>i+)ed ,ollo0ing )*e Ci2il -(r. I.po2eri+*ed ")()e+, (nd e+peci(ll3 /(c=0(rd (re(+ )*ereo,,
needed (n in,lu> o, indu+)r3 (nd c(pi)(l. Corpor()ion+ ())r(c)ed )o )*e (re( /3 n()ur(l re+ource+
(nd (/und(n) l(/or 0ere 0illing )o (++u.e )*e role o, loc(l go2ern.en). Iui)e li)er(ll3, )o0n+
&:2'&:2 0ere /uil) (nd oper()ed /3 pri2()e c(pi)(l 0i)* (ll o, )*e cu+)o.(r3 +er2ice+ (nd u)ili)ie+
nor.(ll3 (,,orded /3 ( .unicip(l or +)()e go2ern.en)@ )*ere 0ere +)ree)+, +ide0(l=+, +e0er+,
pu/lic lig*)ing, police (nd ,ire pro)ec)ion, /u+ine++ (nd re+iden)i(l (re(+, c*urc*e+, po+)(l
,(cili)ie+, (nd +o.e)i.e+ +c*ool+. In +*or), (+ 5r. Ju+)ice 1l(c= +(id, C*ic=(+(0, Al(/(.(, *(d
?(ll )*e c*(r(c)eri+)ic+ o, (n3 o)*er A.eric(n )o0n.? 72: U. S. , () &82 . T*e Cour) +i.pl3 *eld )*()
0*ere pri2()e in)ere+)+ 0ere +u/+)i)u)ing ,or (nd per,or.ing )*e cu+)o.(r3 ,unc)ion+ o,
go2ern.en), #ir+) A.end.en) ,reedo.+ could no) /e denied 0*ere e>erci+ed in )*e cu+)o.(r3
.(nner on )*e )o0n4+ +ide0(l=+ (nd +)ree)+. Indeed, (+ )i)le )o )*e en)ire )o0n 0(+ *eld pri2()el3,
)*ere 0ere no pu/licl3 o0ned +)ree)+, +ide0(l=+, or p(r=+ 0*ere +uc* rig*)+ could /e e>erci+ed.
Logan -alley e>)ended Mar%h )o ( +*opping cen)er +i)u()ion in ( di,,eren) con)e>) ,ro. )*e
co.p(n3 )o0n +e))ing, /u) i) did +o onl3 in ( con)e>) 0*ere )*e #ir+) A.end.en) (c)i2i)3 0(+
rel()ed )o )*e +*opping cen)er4+ oper()ion+. T*ere i+ +o.e l(ngu(ge in Logan -alley,
unnece++(r3 )o )*e deci+ion, +ugge+)ing )*() )*e =e3 ,ocu+ o, Mar%h 0(+ upon )*e ?/u+ine++
di+)ric),? (nd )*() 0*ene2er ( pri2()el3 o0ned /u+ine++ di+)ric) +er2e+ )*e pu/lic gener(ll3 i)+
+ide0(l=+ (nd +)ree)+ /eco.e )*e ,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len)+ o, +i.il(r pu/lic ,(cili)ie+.
B9C
A+ 5r.
Ju+)ice 1l(c=4+ di++en) in Logan -alley e.p*(+iAed, )*i+ 0ould /e (n incorrec) in)erpre)()ion o,
)*e Cour)4+ deci+ion in Mar%h2
B18C
?Mar%h 0(+ ne2er in)ended )o (ppl3 )o )*i+ =ind o, +i)u()ion. Mar%h de(l) 0i)* )*e 2er3 +peci(l
&:7'&:7 +i)u()ion o, ( co.p(n3-o0ned )o0n, co.ple)e 0i)* +)ree)+, (lle3+, +e0er+, +)ore+,
re+idence+, (nd e2er3)*ing el+e )*() goe+ )o .(=e ( )o0n. T*e p(r)icul(r co.p(n3 )o0n in2ol2ed
0(+ C*ic=(+(0, Al(/(.(, 0*ic*, (+ 0e +)()ed in )*e opinion, e>cep) ,or )*e ,(c) )*() i) Gi+ o0ned
/3 )*e Eul, "*ip-/uilding Corpor()ion . . . *(+ (ll )*e c*(r(c)eri+)ic+ o, (n3 o)*er A.eric(n )o0n.
T*e proper)3 con+i+)+ o, re+iden)i(l /uilding+, +)ree)+, ( +3+)e. o, +e0er+, ( +e0(ge di+po+(l
pl(n) (nd ( ?/u+ine++ /loc=? on 0*ic* /u+ine++ pl(ce+ (re +i)u()ed.4 72: U. S. , () &82 . Ag(in
)o0(rd )*e end o, )*e opinion 0e e.p*(+iAed )*() G)*e )o0n o, C*ic=(+(0 doe+ no) ,unc)ion
di,,eren)l3 ,ro. (n3 o)*er )o0n.4 72: U. S. , () &88 . I )*in= i) i+ ,(ir )o +(3 )*() )*e /(+i+ on 0*ic*
)*e Mar%h deci+ion re+)ed 0(+ )*() )*e proper)3 in2ol2ed enco.p(++ed (n (re( )*() ,or (ll
pr(c)ic(l purpo+e+ *(d /een )urned in)o ( )o0nH )*e (re( *(d (ll )*e ())ri/u)e+ o, ( )o0n (nd 0(+
e>(c)l3 li=e (n3 o)*er )o0n in Al(/(.(.? 791 U. S. , () 778-771 .
T*e *olding in Logan -alley 0(+ no) dependen) upon )*e +ugge+)ion )*() )*e pri2()el3 o0ned
+)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+ o, ( /u+ine++ di+)ric) or ( +*opping cen)er (re )*e e6ui2(len), ,or #ir+)
A.end.en) purpo+e+, o, .unicip(ll3 o0ned +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+. No +uc* e>p(n+i2e re(ding o,
)*e opinion o, )*e Cour) i+ nece++(r3 or (ppropri()e. T*e opinion 0(+ c(re,ull3 p*r(+ed )o li.i) i)+
*olding )o )*e pic=e)ing in2ol2ed, 0*ere )*e pic=e)ing 0(+ ?direc)l3 rel()ed in i)+ purpo+e )o )*e
u+e )o 0*ic* )*e +*opping cen)er proper)3 0(+ /eing pu),? 791 U. S. , () 728 n. 9, (nd 0*ere )*e
+)ore 0(+ loc()ed in )*e cen)er o, ( l(rge pri2()e encl(2e 0i)* )*e con+e6uence )*() no o)*er
re(+on(/le oppor)uni)ie+ ,or )*e pic=e)+ )o con2e3 )*eir .e++(ge )o )*eir in)ended (udience 0ere
(2(il(/le.
&:4'&:4 Nei)*er o, )*e+e ele.en)+ i+ pre+en) in )*e c(+e no0 /e,ore )*e Cour).
A
T*e *(nd/illing /3 re+ponden)+ in )*e .(ll+ o, L()% Cen)er *(d no rel()ion )o (n3 purpo+e ,or
0*ic* )*e cen)er 0(+ /uil) (nd /eing u+ed.
B11C
I) i+ ne2er)*ele++ (rgued /3 re+ponden)+ )*(), +ince
)*e Cen)er i+ open )o )*e pu/lic, )*e pri2()e o0ner c(nno) en,orce ( re+)ric)ion (g(in+) *(nd/illing
on )*e pre.i+e+. T*e )*ru+) o, )*i+ (rgu.en) i+ con+ider(/l3 /ro(der )*(n )*e r()ion(le o, Logan
-alley. I) re6uire+ no rel()ion+*ip, direc) or indirec), /e)0een )*e purpo+e o, )*e e>pre++i2e
(c)i2i)3 (nd )*e /u+ine++ o, )*e +*opping cen)er. T*e .e++(ge +oug*) )o /e con2e3ed /3
re+ponden)+ 0(+ direc)ed )o (ll .e./er+ o, )*e pu/lic, no) +olel3 )o p()ron+ o, L()% Cen)er or o,
(n3 o, i)+ oper()ion+. Re+ponden)+ could *(2e di+)ri/u)ed )*e+e *(nd/ill+ on (n3 pu/lic +)ree), on
(n3 pu/lic +ide0(l=, in (n3 pu/lic p(r=, or in (n3 pu/lic /uilding in )*e ci)3 o, $or)l(nd.
Re+ponden)+4 (rgu.en), e2en i, o)*er0i+e .eri)oriou+, .i+(ppre*end+ )*e +cope o, )*e in2i)()ion
e>)ended )o )*e pu/lic. T*e in2i)()ion i+ )o co.e )o )*e Cen)er )o do /u+ine++ 0i)* )*e )en(n)+. I)
i+ )rue )*() ,(cili)ie+ () )*e Cen)er (re u+ed ,or cer)(in .ee)ing+ (nd &:&'&:& ,or 2(riou+
pro.o)ion(l (c)i2i)ie+. T*e o/2iou+ purpo+e, recogniAed 0idel3 (+ legi)i.()e (nd re+pon+i/le
/u+ine++ (c)i2i)3, i+ )o /ring po)en)i(l +*opper+ )o )*e Cen)er, )o cre()e ( ,(2or(/le i.pre++ion,
(nd )o gener()e good0ill. T*ere i+ no open-ended in2i)()ion )o )*e pu/lic )o u+e )*e Cen)er ,or
(n3 (nd (ll purpo+e+, *o0e2er inco.p()i/le 0i)* )*e in)ere+)+ o, /o)* )*e +)ore+ (nd )*e
+*opper+ 0*o. )*e3 +er2e.
5R. J!"TICE -ITE, di++en)ing in Logan -alley, no)ed )*e li.i)ed +cope o, ( +*opping cen)er4+
in2i)()ion )o )*e pu/lic@
?In no +en+e (re (n3 p(r)+ o, )*e +*opping cen)er dedic()ed )o )*e pu/lic ,or gener(l purpo+e+ . . .
. T*e pu/lic i+ in2i)ed )o )*e pre.i+e+ /u) onl3 in order )o do /u+ine++ 0i)* )*o+e 0*o .(in)(in
e+)(/li+*.en)+ )*ere. T*e in2i)()ion i+ )o +*op ,or )*e produc)+ 0*ic* (re +old. T*ere i+ no
gener(l in2i)()ion )o u+e )*e p(r=ing lo), )*e pic=up Aone, or )*e +ide0(l= e>cep) (+ (n (d<unc) )o
+*opping. No one i+ in2i)ed )o u+e )*e p(r=ing lo) (+ ( pl(ce )o p(r= *i+ c(r 0*ile *e goe+
el+e0*ere )o 0or=. T*e dri2e0(3+ (nd l(ne+ ,or (u)o )r(,,ic (re no) o,,ered ,or u+e (+ gener(l
)*oroug*,(re+ le(ding ,ro. one pu/lic +)ree) )o (no)*er. T*o+e dri2e0(3+ (nd p(r=ing +p(ce+ (re
no) pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd )*u+ (2(il(/le ,or p(r(de+, pu/lic .ee)ing+, or o)*er (c)i2i)ie+ ,or 0*ic*
pu/lic +)ree)+ (re u+ed.? 791 U. S. , () 778 .
I) i+ no)e0or)*3 )*() re+ponden)+4 (rgu.en) /(+ed on )*e Cen)er4+ /eing ?open )o )*e pu/lic?
0ould (ppl3 in 2(r3ing degree+ )o .o+) re)(il +)ore+ (nd +er2ice e+)(/li+*.en)+ (cro++ )*e
coun)r3. T*e3 (re (ll open )o )*e pu/lic in )*e +en+e )*() cu+)o.er+ (nd po)en)i(l cu+)o.er+ (re
in2i)ed (nd encour(ged )o en)er. In )er.+ o, /eing open )o )*e pu/lic, )*ere (re di,,erence+ onl3
&::'&:: o, degreeDno) o, principleD/e)0een ( ,ree-+)(nding +)ore (nd one loc()ed in (
+*opping cen)er, /e)0een ( +.(ll +)ore (nd ( l(rge one, /e)0een ( +ingle +)ore 0i)* +o.e .(ll+
(nd open (re(+ de+igned )o ())r(c) cu+)o.er+ (nd L()% Cen)er 0i)* i)+ el(/or()e .(ll+ (nd
in)erior l(nd+c(ping.
,
A ,ur)*er ,(c), di+)ingui+*ing )*e pre+en) c(+e ,ro. Logan -alley, i+ )*() )*e !nion pic=e)+ in )*()
c(+e 0ould *(2e /een depri2ed o, (ll re(+on(/le oppor)uni)3 )o con2e3 )*eir .e++(ge )o p()ron+
o, )*e -ei+ +)ore *(d )*e3 /een denied (cce++ )o )*e +*opping cen)er.
B12C
T*e +i)u()ion () L()%
Cen)er 0(+ no)(/l3 di,,eren). T*e cen)r(l /uilding co.ple> 0(+ +urrounded /3 pu/lic +ide0(l=+,
)o)(ling :: line(r /loc=+. All per+on+ 0*o en)er or le(2e )*e pri2()e (re(+ 0i)*in )*e co.ple> .u+)
cro++ pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+, ei)*er on ,oo) or in (u)o.o/ile+. -*en .o2ing )o (nd ,ro. )*e
pri2()el3 &:7'&:7 o0ned p(r=ing lo)+, (u)o.o/ile+ (re re6uired /3 l(0 )o co.e )o ( co.ple)e
+)op. (nd/ill+ .(3 /e di+)ri/u)ed con2enien)l3 )o pede+)ri(n+, (nd (l+o )o occup(n)+ o,
(u)o.o/ile+, ,ro. )*e+e pu/lic +ide0(l=+ (nd +)ree)+. Indeed, re+ponden)+ .o2ed )o )*e+e pu/lic
(re(+ (nd con)inued di+)ri/u)ion o, )*eir *(nd/ill+ (,)er /eing re6ue+)ed )o le(2e )*e in)erior .(ll+.
I) 0ould /e (n un0(rr(n)ed in,ringe.en) o, proper)3 rig*)+ )o re6uire )*e. )o 3ield )o )*e e>erci+e
o, #ir+) A.end.en) rig*)+ under circu.+)(nce+ 0*ere (de6u()e (l)ern()i2e (2enue+ o,
co..unic()ion e>i+). "uc* (n (cco..od()ion 0ould di.ini+* proper)3 rig*)+ 0i)*ou) +igni,ic(n)l3
en*(ncing )*e (++er)ed rig*) o, ,ree +peec*. In ordering )*i+ (cco..od()ion )*e cour)+ /elo0
erred in )*eir in)erpre)()ion o, )*i+ Cour)4+ deci+ion+ in Mar%h (nd Logan -alley.
***
T*e /(+ic i++ue in )*i+ c(+e i+ 0*e)*er re+ponden)+, in )*e e>erci+e o, (++er)ed #ir+) A.end.en)
rig*)+, .(3 di+)ri/u)e *(nd/ill+ on L()%+' pri2()e proper)3 con)r(r3 )o i)+ 0i+*e+ (nd con)r(r3 )o (
polic3 en,orced (g(in+) all *(nd/illing. In (ddre++ing )*i+ i++ue, i) .u+) /e re.e./ered )*() )*e
#ir+) (nd #our)een)* A.end.en)+ +(,egu(rd )*e rig*)+ o, ,ree +peec* (nd (++e./l3 /3
li.i)()ion+ on %tate (c)ion, no) on (c)ion /3 )*e o0ner o, pri2()e proper)3 u+ed nondi+cri.in()oril3
,or pri2()e purpo+e+ onl3. T*e Due $roce++ Cl(u+e+ o, )*e #i,)* (nd #our)een)* A.end.en)+ (re
(l+o rele2(n) )o )*i+ c(+e. T*e3 pro2ide )*() ?BnCo per+on +*(ll . . . /e depri2ed o, li,e, li/er)3, or
proper)3, 0i)*ou) due proce++ o, l(0.? T*ere i+ )*e ,ur)*er pro+crip)ion in )*e #i,)* A.end.en)
(g(in+) )*e )(=ing o, ?pri2()e proper)3 . . . ,or pu/lic u+e, 0i)*ou) <u+) co.pen+()ion.?
Al)*oug* (cco..od()ion+ /e)0een )*e 2(lue+ pro)ec)ed /3 )*e+e )*ree A.end.en)+ (re
+o.e)i.e+ nece++(r3, &:8'&:8 (nd )*e cour)+ properl3 *(2e +*o0n ( +peci(l +olici)ude ,or )*e
gu(r(n)ee+ o, )*e #ir+) A.end.en), )*i+ Cour) *(+ ne2er *eld )*() ( )re+p(++er or (n unin2i)ed
gue+) .(3 e>erci+e gener(l rig*)+ o, ,ree +peec* on proper)3 pri2()el3 o0ned (nd u+ed
nondi+cri.in()oril3 ,or pri2()e purpo+e+ onl3. E2en 0*ere pu/lic proper)3 i+ in2ol2ed, )*e Cour)
*(+ recogniAed )*() i) i+ no) nece++(ril3 (2(il(/le ,or +pe(=ing, pic=e)ing, or o)*er co..unic()i2e
(c)i2i)ie+. 5r. Ju+)ice 1l(c=, +pe(=ing ,or )*e Cour) in '$$erley 2. )lori$a, 78& U. S. 79 919::;,
+(id@
?T*e ")()e, no le++ )*(n ( pri2()e o0ner o, proper)3, *(+ po0er )o pre+er2e )*e proper)3 under i)+
con)rol ,or )*e u+e )o 0*ic* i) i+ l(0,ull3 dedic()ed. #or )*i+ re(+on )*ere i+ no .eri) )o )*e
pe)i)ioner+4 (rgu.en) )*() )*e3 *(d ( con+)i)u)ion(l rig*) )o +)(3 on )*e proper)3, o2er )*e <(il
cu+)odi(n4+ o/<ec)ion+, /ec(u+e )*i+ G(re( c*o+en ,or )*e pe(ce,ul ci2il rig*)+ de.on+)r()ion 0(+
no) onl3 ?re(+on(/le? /u) (l+o p(r)icul(rl3 (ppropri()e . . . .4 "uc* (n (rgu.en) *(+ (+ i)+ .(<or
un(r)icul()ed pre.i+e )*e (++u.p)ion )*() people 0*o 0(n) )o prop(g(ndiAe pro)e+)+ or 2ie0+
*(2e ( con+)i)u)ion(l rig*) )o do +o 0*ene2er (nd *o0e2er (nd 0*ere2er )*e3 ple(+e. T*()
concep) o, con+)i)u)ion(l l(0 0(+ 2igorou+l3 (nd ,or)*rig*)l3 re<ec)ed in )0o o, )*e c(+e+
pe)i)ioner+ rel3 on, Co1 2. Lo!i%iana, B779 U. S. C, () &&4 -&&& (nd &:7-&:4. -e re<ec) i) (g(in. T*e
!ni)ed ")()e+ Con+)i)u)ion doe+ no) ,or/id ( ")()e )o con)rol )*e u+e o, i)+ o0n proper)3 ,or i)+ o0n
l(0,ul nondi+cri.in()or3 purpo+e.? 78& U. S. , () 47-48 .
Re+ponden)+ con)end, *o0e2er, )*() )*e proper)3 o, ( l(rge +*opping cen)er i+ ?open )o )*e
pu/lic,? +er2e+ )*e +(.e purpo+e+ (+ ( ?/u+ine++ di+)ric)? o, ( .unicip(li)3, (nd )*ere,ore *(+
/een dedic()ed )o cer)(in )3pe+ &:9'&:9 o, pu/lic u+e. T*e (rgu.en) i+ )*() +uc* ( cen)er *(+
+ide0(l=+, +)ree)+, (nd p(r=ing (re(+ 0*ic* (re ,unc)ion(ll3 +i.il(r )o ,(cili)ie+ cu+)o.(ril3
pro2ided /3 .unicip(li)ie+. I) i+ )*en (++er)ed )*() (ll .e./er+ o, )*e pu/lic, 0*e)*er in2i)ed (+
cu+)o.er+ or no), *(2e )*e +(.e rig*) o, ,ree +peec* (+ )*e3 0ould *(2e on )*e +i.il(r pu/lic
,(cili)ie+ in )*e +)ree)+ o, ( ci)3 or )o0n.
T*e (rgu.en) re(c*e+ )oo ,(r. T*e Con+)i)u)ion /3 no .e(n+ re6uire+ +uc* (n ())enu()ed
doc)rine o, dedic()ion o, pri2()e proper)3 )o pu/lic u+e. T*e clo+e+) deci+ion in )*eor3, Mar%h 2.
'labama, %!+ra, in2ol2ed )*e (++u.p)ion /3 ( pri2()e en)erpri+e o, (ll o, )*e ())ri/u)e+ o, ( +)()e-
cre()ed .unicip(li)3 (nd )*e e>erci+e /3 )*() en)erpri+e o, +e.i-o,,ici(l .unicip(l ,unc)ion+ (+ (
deleg()e o, )*e ")()e.
B17C
In e,,ec), )*e o0ner o, )*e co.p(n3 )o0n 0(+ per,or.ing )*e ,ull
+pec)ru. o, .unicip(l po0er+ (nd +)ood in )*e +*oe+ o, )*e ")()e. In )*e in+)(n) c(+e )*ere i+ no
co.p(r(/le (++u.p)ion or e>erci+e o, .unicip(l ,unc)ion+ or po0er.
Nor doe+ proper)3 lo+e i)+ pri2()e c*(r(c)er .erel3 /ec(u+e )*e pu/lic i+ gener(ll3 in2i)ed )o u+e
i) ,or de+ign()ed purpo+e+. #e0 0ould (rgue )*() ( ,ree-+)(nding +)ore, 0i)* (/u))ing p(r=ing
+p(ce ,or cu+)o.er+, (++u.e+ +igni,ic(n) pu/lic ())ri/u)e+ .erel3 /ec(u+e )*e pu/lic i+ in2i)ed )o
+*op )*ere. Nor i+ +iAe (lone )*e con)rolling ,(c)or. T*e e++en)i(ll3 pri2()e c*(r(c)er o, ( +)ore
(nd i)+ pri2()el3 o0ned (/u))ing proper)3 doe+ no) c*(nge /3 2ir)ue o, /eing l(rge or clu+)ered
0i)* o)*er +)ore+ in ( .odern +*opping cen)er. T*i+ i+ no) )o +(3 )*() no di,,erence+ .(3 e>i+)
0i)* re+pec) )o go2ern.en) regul()ion &78'&78 or rig*)+ o, ci)iAen+ (ri+ing /3 2ir)ue o, )*e +iAe
(nd di2er+i)3 o, (c)i2i)ie+ c(rried on 0i)*in ( pri2()el3 o0ned ,(cili)3 +er2ing )*e pu/lic. T*ere 0ill
/e, ,or e>(.ple, pro/le.+ 0i)* re+pec) )o pu/lic *e(l)* (nd +(,e)3 0*ic* 2(r3 in degree (nd in )*e
(ppropri()e go2ern.en) re+pon+e, depending upon )*e +iAe (nd c*(r(c)er o, ( +*opping cen)er,
(n o,,ice /uilding, ( +por)+ (ren(, or o)*er l(rge ,(cili)3 +er2ing )*e pu/lic ,or co..erci(l
purpo+e+. -e do +(3 )*() )*e #i,)* (nd #our)een)* A.end.en) rig*)+ o, pri2()e proper)3 o0ner+,
(+ 0ell (+ )*e #ir+) A.end.en) rig*)+ o, (ll ci)iAen+, .u+) /e re+pec)ed (nd pro)ec)ed. T*e
#r(.er+ o, )*e Con+)i)u)ion cer)(inl3 did no) )*in= )*e+e ,und(.en)(l rig*)+ o, ( ,ree +ocie)3 (re
inco.p()i/le 0i)* e(c* o)*er. T*ere .(3 /e +i)u()ion+ 0*ere (cco..od()ion+ /e)0een )*e.,
(nd )*e dr(0ing o, line+ )o (++ure due pro)ec)ion o, /o)*, (re no) e(+3. 1u) on )*e ,(c)+ pre+en)ed
in )*i+ c(+e, )*e (n+0er i+ cle(r.
-e *old )*() )*ere *(+ /een no +uc* dedic()ion o, L()%+' pri2()el3 o0ned (nd oper()ed
+*opping cen)er )o pu/lic u+e (+ )o en)i)le re+ponden)+ )o e>erci+e )*erein )*e (++er)ed #ir+)
A.end.en) rig*)+. Accordingl3, 0e re2er+e )*e <udg.en) (nd re.(nd )*e c(+e )o )*e Cour) o,
Appe(l+ 0i)* direc)ion+ )o 2(c()e )*e in<unc)ion.
/t i% %o or$ere$.
5R. J!"TICE 5AR"A%%, 0i)* 0*o. 5R. J!"TICE DO!E%A", 5R. J!"TICE 1RENNAN, (nd
5R. J!"TICE "TE-ART <oin, di++en)ing.
Don(ld T&##er, 1e)+3 -*eeler, (nd "u+(n Ro/er)+ 9re+ponden)+; /roug*) )*i+ (c)ion ,or (
decl(r()or3 <udg.en) )*() )*e3 *(2e )*e rig*) under )*e #ir+) (nd #our)een)* A.end.en)+ )o )*e
!ni)ed ")()e+ Con+)i)u)ion )o di+)ri/u)e *(nd/ill+ in ( +*opping cen)er o0ned /3 pe)i)ioner (nd (n
in<unc)ion )o en,orce )*() rig*). &71'&71 Rel3ing pri.(ril3 on our 2er3 recen) deci+ion in
'malgamate$ )oo$ *m+loyee% ,nion 2. Logan -alley Pla.a, 791 U. S. 788 919:8;, )*e !ni)ed
")()e+ Di+)ric) Cour) ,or )*e Di+)ric) o, Oregon gr(n)ed )*e relie, re6ue+)ed. 788 #. "upp. 128
91978;. T*e !ni)ed ")()e+ Cour) o, Appe(l+ ,or )*e Nin)* Circui) (,,ir.ed. 44: #. 2d &4& 91971;.
Tod(3, )*i+ Cour) re2er+e+ )*e <udg.en) o, )*e Cour) o, Appe(l+ (nd ())e.p)+ )o di+)ingui+* )*i+
c(+e ,ro. Logan -alley. In .3 2ie0, )*e di+)inc)ion )*() )*e Cour) +ee+ /e)0een )*e c(+e+ doe+
no) e>i+). A+ I re(d )*e opinion o, )*e Cour), i) i+ (n ())(c= no) onl3 on )*e r()ion(le o, Logan
-alley, /u) (l+o on )*i+ Cour)4+ long+)(nding deci+ion in Mar%h 2. 'labama, 72: U. S. &81 9194:; .
Accordingl3, I di++en).
*
L()% Cen)er i+ ( l(rge, .odern re)(il +*opping cen)er in $or)l(nd, Oregon. "pr(0ling o2er &8
(cre+ o, l(nd, )*e Cen)er o,,er+ )o +*opper+ .ore )*(n :8 co..erci(l /u+ine++e+ (nd
pro,e++ion(l o,,ice+. I) (l+o (,,ord+ .ore )*(n 8&8,888 +6u(re ,ee) o, open (nd co2ered o,,+)ree)
p(r=ing +p(ceDenoug* )o (cco..od()e .ore )*(n 1,888 2e*icle+. 1ounded /3 ,our pu/lic
+)ree)+, L()% Cen)er *(+ ( peri.e)er o, (l.o+) one (nd one-*(l, .ile+. #our pu/lic +)ree)+
running e(+)-0e+) (nd one running nor)*-+ou)* )r(2er+e )*e Cen)er, (nd () le(+) +i> o)*er pu/lic
+)ree)+ run p(r)l3 in)o or (round i). All o, )*e+e +)ree)+ *(2e (d<(cen) +ide0(l=+. T*e+e +)ree)+ (nd
+ide0(l=+ (re )*e onl3 p(r)+ o, )*e Cen)er )*() (re no) pri2()el3 o0ned.
T*e princip(l por)ion o, )*e Cen)er i+ occupied /3 ( +*opping (re( c(lled )*e ?5(ll.? Co2ering
(ppro>i.()el3 2& (cre+ o, l(nd (nd *(2ing ( peri.e)er o, ,our-,i,)*+ o, ( .ile, )*e 5(ll, in )*e
0ord+ o, )*e Di+)ric) Cour), ?i+ ( .ul)i-le2el co.ple> o, /uilding+, p(r=ing ,(cili)ie+, +u/-.(ll+,
+ide0(l=+, +)(ir0(3+, ele2()or+, e+c(l()or+, &72'&72 /ridge+, (nd g(rden+, (nd con)(in+ (
+=()ing rin=, +)()ue+, .ur(l+, /enc*e+, direc)orie+, in,or.()ion /oo)*+, (nd o)*er ,(cili)ie+
de+igned )o ())r(c) 2i+i)or+ (nd .(=e )*e. co.,or)(/le.? 788 #. "upp., () 129. No pu/lic +)ree)+
cro++ )*e 5(ll, /u) +o.e +)ore+ ,(ce )*o+e +)ree)+ )*() ,or. )*e peri.e)er, (nd i) i+ po++i/le )o
en)er )*o+e +)ore+ ,ro. pu/lic +ide0(l=+. O)*er +)ore+ (re loc()ed in )*e in)erior o, )*e 5(ll, (nd
c(n onl3 /e re(c*ed /3 u+ing pri2()el3 o0ned 0(l=0(3+.
On No2e./er 14, 19:8, re+ponden)+ en)ered )*e 5(ll (nd di+)ri/u)ed *(nd/ill+ in2i)ing )*e pu/lic
)o ( .ee)ing )o pro)e+) )*e dr(,) (nd )*e Fie)n(. 0(r. T*e di+)ri/u)ion 0(+ pe(ce,ul,
nondi+rup)i2e, (nd li))er-,ree. "ecuri)3 gu(rd+ e.plo3ed /3 )*e Cen)er (ppro(c*ed re+ponden)+,
indic()ed )*() )*e Cen)er did no) per.i) *(nd/illing in )*e 5(ll, +ugge+)ed )*() )*e3 di+)ri/u)e )*eir
.()eri(l+ on )*e pu/lic +ide0(l=+ (nd +)ree)+, (nd in,or.ed )*e. )*() )*e3 could /e (rre+)ed i,
)*e3 per+i+)ed in *(nd/illing 0i)*in )*e pri2()el3 o0ned por)ion+ o, )*e Cen)er. T*e+e gu(rd+ 0ore
uni,or.+ )*() 0ere 2ir)u(ll3 iden)ic(l )o )*o+e 0orn /3 regul(r $or)l(nd police (nd )*e3 po++e++ed
,ull police (u)*ori)3. 1elie2ing )*() )*e3 0ould /e (rre+)ed i, )*e3 did no) le(2e )*e 5(ll,
re+ponden)+ dep(r)ed (nd +u/+e6uen)l3 ,iled )*i+ l(0+ui).
B1C
A. T*e 6ue+)ion pre+en)ed /3 )*i+ c(+e i+ 0*e)*er one o, )*e inciden)+ o, pe)i)ioner4+ pri2()e
o0ner+*ip o, )*e L()% Cen)er i+ )*e po0er )o e>clude cer)(in &77'&77 ,or.+ o, +peec* ,ro. i)+
proper)3. In o)*er 0ord+, 0e .u+) decide 0*e)*er o0ner+*ip o, )*e Cen)er gi2e+ pe)i)ioner
un,e))ered di+cre)ion )o de)er.ine 0*e)*er or no) i) 0ill /e u+ed (+ ( pu/lic ,oru..
T*i+ Cour) *eld in Mar%h 2. 'labama, %!+ra , )*() e2en )*oug* proper)3 i+ pri2()el3 o0ned, under
+o.e circu.+)(nce+ i) .(3 /e )re()ed (+ )*oug* i) 0ere pu/licl3 *eld, () le(+) ,or purpo+e+ o, )*e
#ir+) A.end.en). In Mar%h, ( .e./er o, )*e Je*o2(*4+ -i)ne++e+ religiou+ +ec) 0(+ (rre+)ed
(nd con2ic)ed o, 2iol()ing Al(/(.(4+ cri.in(l )re+p(++ +)()u)e 0*en +*e under)oo= )o di+)ri/u)e
religiou+ li)er()ure in )*e do0n)o0n +*opping (re( o, ( pri2()el3 o0ned )o0n 0i)*ou) per.i++ion
o, )*e o0ner. T*e Cour) re(+oned )*() ?B)C*e .ore (n o0ner, ,or *i+ (d2(n)(ge, open+ up *i+
proper)3 ,or u+e /3 )*e pu/lic in gener(l, )*e .ore do *i+ rig*)+ /eco.e circu.+cri/ed /3 )*e
+)()u)or3 (nd con+)i)u)ion(l rig*)+ o, )*o+e 0*o u+e i).? /$., () &8:. No)*ing )*() )*e +)i,ling e,,ec)
produced /3 (n3 /(n on ,ree e>pre++ion in ( co..uni)34+ cen)r(l /u+ine++ di+)ric) 0(+ )*e +(.e
0*e)*er )*e /(n 0(+ i.po+ed /3 pu/lic or pri2()e o0ner+, )*e Cour) concluded )*()@
?-*en 0e /(l(nce )*e Con+)i)u)ion(l rig*)+ o, o0ner+ o, proper)3 (g(in+) )*o+e o, )*e people )o
en<o3 ,reedo. o, pre++ (nd religion, (+ 0e .u+) *ere, 0e re.(in .ind,ul o, )*e ,(c) )*() )*e l())er
occup3 ( pre,ered po+i)ion. A+ 0e *(2e +)()ed /e,ore, )*e rig*) )o e>erci+e )*e li/er)ie+
+(,egu(rded /3 )*e #ir+) A.end.en) Glie+ () )*e ,ound()ion o, ,ree go2ern.en) /3 ,ree .en4 (nd
0e .u+) in (ll c(+e+ G0eig* )*e circu.+)(nce+ (nd . . . (ppr(i+e )*e . . . re(+on+ . . . in +uppor) o,
)*e regul()ion . . . o, )*e rig*)+.4 . . . In our 2ie0 )*e circu.+)(nce )*() )*e proper)3 rig*)+ )o )*e
pre.i+e+ 0*ere )*e depri2()ion o, li/er)3, *ere in2ol2ed, )oo= pl(ce, 0ere *eld /3 o)*er+ )*(n )*e
pu/lic, i+ no) +u,,icien) &74'&74 )o <u+)i,3 )*e ")()e4+ per.i))ing ( corpor()ion )o go2ern (
co..uni)3 o, ci)iAen+ +o (+ )o re+)ric) )*eir ,und(.en)(l li/er)ie+ (nd )*e en,orce.en) o, +uc*
re+)r(in) /3 )*e (pplic()ion o, ( +)()e +)()u)e.? 9#oo)no)e+ (nd ci)()ion+ o.i))ed.; /$., () &89.
-e relied *e(2il3 on Mar%h in deciding Logan -alley, %!+ra. In Logan -alley, ( +*opping cen)er
in i)+ ,or.()i2e +)(ge+ con)(ined ( +uper.(r=e) (nd dep(r).en) +)ore. T*e +uper.(r=e)
e.plo3ed ( +)(,, co.po+ed o, onl3 nonunion e.plo3ee+. 5e./er+ o, A.(lg(.()ed #ood
E.plo3ee+ !nion, %oc(l &98, /eg(n )o pic=e) )*e .(r=e) 0i)* +ign+ +)()ing )*() )*e .(r=e)4+
e.plo3ee+ 0ere no) recei2ing union 0(ge+ or union /ene,i)+. T*e pic=e)ing 0(+ c(rried ou)
(l.o+) en)irel3 in )*e p(rcel pic=up (re( (nd )*() por)ion o, )*e p(r=ing lo) i..edi()el3 (d<(cen)
)*ere)o. 791 U. S. , () 711 . T*e +uper.(r=e) +oug*) (nd o/)(ined (n in<unc)ion ,ro. (
$enn+3l2(ni( +)()e cour) pro*i/i)ing )*e union .e./er+ ,ro. )re+p(++ing upon )*e p(r=ing (re(+
or in )*e +)ore, )*e e,,ec) o, 0*ic* 0(+ )o pro*i/i) pic=e)ing (nd *(nd/illing on (n3 p(r) o, )*e
pri2()e proper)3 (nd )o releg()e )*e union .e./er+ )o c(rr3ing +ign+ on )*e pu/licl3 o0ned
e(r)*en /er.+ )*() +urrounded )*e +*opping cen)er.
B2C
#inding )*() )*e +*opping cen)er 0(+ )*e
,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, )*e /u+ine++ di+)ric) in2ol2ed in Mar%h, 0e could +ee ?no re(+on 0*3
(cce++ )o ( /u+ine++ di+)ric) in ( co.p(n3 )o0n ,or )*e purpo+e o, e>erci+ing #ir+) A.end.en)
rig*)+ +*ould /e con+)i)u)ion(ll3 re6uired, &7&'&7& 0*ile (cce++ ,or )*e +(.e purpo+e )o proper)3
,unc)ioning (+ ( /u+ine++ di+)ric) +*ould /e li.i)ed +i.pl3 /ec(u+e )*e proper)3 +urrounding )*e
G/u+ine++ di+)ric)4 i+ no) under )*e +(.e o0ner+*ip.? /$., () 719. T*u+, 0e *eld )*() )*e union
(c)i2i)3 0(+ con+)i)u)ion(ll3 pro)ec)ed.
1. In )*e in+)(n) c(+e )*e Di+)ric) Cour) ,ound )*() ?)*e 5(ll i+ )*e ,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic
/u+ine++ di+)ric)? 0i)*in )*e .e(ning o, Mar%h (nd Logan -alley. T*e Cour) o, Appe(l+
+peci,ic(ll3 (,,ir.ed )*i+ ,inding, (nd i) i+ o2er0*el.ingl3 +uppor)ed /3 )*e record.
T*e L()% Cen)er i+ +i.il(r )o %og(n F(lle3 $l(A( in +e2er(l re+pec)+@ /o)* (re /ordered /3
pu/lic ro(d+, (nd )*e en)r(nce+ o, /o)* le(d direc)l3 in)o )*e pu/lic ro(d+H /o)* con)(in l(rge
p(r=ing (re(+ (nd pri2()el3 o0ned 0(l=0(3+ le(ding ,ro. +)ore )o +)oreH (nd )*e gener(l pu/lic
*(+ unre+)ric)ed (cce++ )o /o)*. T*e princip(l di,,erence+ /e)0een )*e )0o cen)er+ (re )*() )*e
L()% Cen)er i+ l(rger )*(n %og(n F(lle3, )*() L()% Cen)er con)(in+ .ore co..erci(l ,(cili)ie+,
)*() L()% Cen)er con)(in+ ( r(nge o, pro,e++ion(l (nd nonpro,e++ion(l +er2ice+ )*() 0ere no)
,ound in %og(n F(lle3, (nd )*() L()% Cen)er i+ .uc* .ore in)er)0ined 0i)* pu/lic +)ree)+ )*(n
%og(n F(lle3. Al+o, (+ in Mar%h, %!+ra, L()%+' pri2()e police (re gi2en ,ull police po0er /3 )*e
ci)3 o, $or)l(nd, e2en )*oug* )*e3 (re *ired, ,ired, con)rolled, (nd p(id /3 )*e o0ner+ o, )*e
Cen)er. T*i+ 0(+ no) )rue in Logan -alley.
In 19&4, 0*en L()%+' o0ner+ ,ir+) (c6uired l(nd ,or )*e Cen)er, )*e ci)3 o, $or)l(nd 2(c()ed
(/ou) eig*) (cre+ o, pu/lic +)ree)+ ,or )*eir u+e. T*e ordin(nce (cco.pli+*ing )*e 2(c()ion +e)+
,or)* )*e ci)34+ 2ie0 o, )*e Cen)er4+ ,unc)ion@
?-EREA" )*e Council ,ind+ )*() )*e re(+on ,or )*e+e 2(c()ion+ i+ ,or gener(l /uilding purpo+e+
)o &7:'&7: /e u+ed in )*e de2elop.en) o, ( general retail b!%ine%% $i%trict (nd )*e de2elop.en)
o, (n (de6u()e p(r=ing (re( )o +uppor) +(id di+)ric)H . . . )*e Council. . . ,ind+ )*() in order )o
de2elop ( l(rge re)(il uni) +uc* (+ con)e.pl()ed /3 L()% Corpor()ion, %)d., i) i+ nece++(r3 )o
2(c()e )*e +)ree)+ (/o2e .en)ioned . . . .? 9E.p*(+i+ (dded.; Ordin(nce No. 181288, No2. 18,
19&4, App. 282.
T*e 19&4 ordin(nce (l+o indic()e+ )*() )*e ci)3 o, $or)l(nd 0(+ (0(re )*() (+ L()% Cen)er
de2eloped, i) 0ould /e nece++(r3 ,or )*e ci)3 )o /uild ne0 +)ree)+ (nd )o )(=e o)*er +)ep+ )o
con)rol )*e )r(,,ic ,lo0 )*() )*e Cen)er 0ould engender. App. 282, 288-289. In 19&8, (n
e.ergenc3 ordin(nce 0(+ p(++ed gi2ing )*e L()% Cen)er (n e>)en+ion o, )i.e )o .ee) 2(riou+
condi)ion+ on 0*ic* )*e 19&4 2(c()ion+ 0ere .(de. T*e ci)3 council 2ie0ed )*e pro<ec)ed Cen)er
(+ o,,ering (n ?oppor)uni)3 ,or .uc* needed e.plo3.en)? (nd concluded )*() )*e e.ergenc3
ordin(nce 0(+ ?nece++(r3 ,or )*e i..edi()e pre+er2()ion o, )*e pu/lic *e(l)*, pe(ce (nd +(,e)3
o, )*e ci)3 o, $or)l(nd.? Ordin(nce No. 187:41, 5(rc* 28, 19&8, App. 19:.
In +u., )*e L()% Cen)er i+ (n in)egr(l p(r) o, )*e $or)l(nd co..uni)3. #ro. i)+ incep)ion, )*e ci)3
2ie0ed i) (+ ( ?/u+ine++ di+)ric)? o, )*e ci)3 (nd depended on i) )o +uppl3 .uc*-needed
e.plo3.en) oppor)uni)ie+. To in+ure )*e +ucce++ o, )*e Cen)er, )*e ci)3 c(re,ull3 in)egr()ed i) in)o
)*e p())ern o, +)ree)+ (lre(d3 e+)(/li+*ed (nd pl(nned ,u)ure de2elop.en) o, +)ree)+ (round )*e
Cen)er. I) i+ pl(in, )*ere,ore, )*() L()% Cen)er i+ )*e e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic ?/u+ine++ di+)ric)?
0i)*in )*e .e(ning o, Mar%h (nd Logan -alley. In ,(c), )*e L()% Cen)er i+ .uc* .ore (n(logou+
)o )*e co.p(n3 )o0n in Mar%h )*(n 0(+ )*e %og(n F(lle3 $l(A(.
$e)i)ioner (gree+ 0i)* our deci+ion in Logan -alley )*() i) i+ proper ,or cour)+ )o )re() +*opping
cen)er+ &77'&77 di,,eren)l3 ,ro. o)*er pri2()el3 o0ned proper)3, li=e pri2()e re+idence+. T*e 1rie,
,or $e)i)ioner +)()e+ () p(ge+ 9-18 )*()
?B(C +*opping cen)er, 0*ic* ,(ll+ +o.e0*ere /e)0een )*e e>)re.e+ o, ( co.p(n3 )o0n (nd (
pri2()e re+idence, i+ nei)*er (/+olu)el3 +u/<ec) )o )*e con)rol o, )*e o0ner nor i+ i) (/+olu)el3 open
)o (ll )*o+e 0i+*ing )o eng(ge in +peec* (c)i2i)ie+. . . .
.....
?E(c* c(+e re6uire+ (n (ppropri()e re+olu)ion o, )*e con,lic)ing in)ere+)+ o, +*opping cen)er
o0ner+ (nd )*o+e +ee=ing )o eng(ge in +peec* (c)i2i)ie+ on +*opping cen)er pre.i+e+.?
$e)i)ioner con)end+ )*() our deci+ion in Logan -alley +)ruc= )*e (ppropri()e /(l(nce /e)0een
#ir+) A.end.en) (nd pri2()e proper)3 in)ere+)+. T*e (rgu.en) i+ .(de, *o0e2er, )*() )*i+ c(+e
+*ould /e di+)ingui+*ed ,ro. Logan -alley, (nd )*i+ i+ )*e (rgu.en) )*() )*e Cour) (ccep)+.
**
A+ I *(2e poin)ed ou) (/o2e, L()% Cen)er i+ e2en .ore cle(rl3 )*e e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic
/u+ine++ di+)ric) )*(n 0(+ %og(n F(lle3 $l(A(. T*e #ir+) A.end.en) (c)i2i)3 in /o)* Logan -alley
(nd )*e in+)(n) c(+e 0(+ pe(ce,ul (nd nondi+rup)i2eH (nd /o)* c(+e+ in2ol2e )r(di)ion(ll3
(ccep)(/le .ode+ o, +peec*. -*3 )*en +*ould )*ere /e ( di,,eren) re+ul) *ereJ T*e Cour)4+
(n+0er i+ )*() )*e +peec* in )*i+ c(+e 0(+ direc)ed () )opic+ o, gener(l in)ere+)D)*e Fie)n(. 0(r
(nd )*e dr(,)D 0*ere(+ )*e +peec* in %og(n F(lle3 0(+ direc)ed )o )*e (c)i2i)ie+ o, ( +)ore in )*e
+*opping cen)er, (nd )*() )*i+ ,(c)u(l di,,erence i+ o, con+)i)u)ion(l di.en+ion+. I c(nno) (gree.
A. I) i+ )rue )*() in Logan -alley 0e e>plici)l3 le,) open )*e 6ue+)ion 0*e)*er ?proper)3 rig*)+ could,
con+i+)en)l3 &78'&78 0i)* )*e #ir+) A.end.en), <u+)i,3 ( /(r on pic=e)ing Bor *(nd/illingC 0*ic*
0(+ no) . . . direc)l3 rel()ed in i)+ purpo+e )o )*e u+e )o 0*ic* )*e +*opping cen)er proper)3 0(+
/eing pu).? 791 U. S. , () 728 n. 9 . 1u), I /elie2e )*() )*e Cour) err+ in concluding )*() )*i+ i++ue
.u+) /e ,(ced in )*e in+)(n) c(+e.
T*e Di+)ric) Cour) o/+er2ed )*() L()% Cen)er in2i)e+ +c*ool+ )o *old ,oo)/(ll r(llie+, pre+iden)i(l
c(ndid()e+ )o gi2e +peec*e+, (nd +er2ice org(niA()ion+ )o *old Fe)er(n+ D(3 cere.onie+ on i)+
pre.i+e+. T*e cour) (l+o o/+er2ed )*() )*e Cen)er per.i)+ )*e "(l2()ion Ar.3, )*e Folun)eer+ o,
A.eric(, (nd )*e A.eric(n %egion )o +olici) ,und+ in )*e 5(ll. T*u+, )*e cour) concluded )*() )*e
Cen)er 0(+ (lre(d3 open )o #ir+) A.end.en) (c)i2i)ie+, (nd )*() re+ponden)+ could no)
con+)i)u)ion(ll3 /e e>cluded ,ro. di+)ri/u)ing le(,le)+ +olel3 /ec(u+e L()% Cen)er 0(+ no)
en(.ored o, )*e ,or. or +u/+)(nce o, )*eir +peec*. T*e Cour) o, Appe(l+ (,,ir.ed, )(=ing )*e
po+i)ion )*() i) 0(+ no) e>)ending ei)*er Logan -alley or Mar%h. In o)*er 0ord+, )*e Di+)ric) Cour)
,ound )*() L()% Cen)er *(d deli/er()el3 c*o+en )o open i)+ pri2()e proper)3 )o ( /ro(d r(nge o,
e>pre++ion (nd )*() *(2ing done +o i) could no) con+)i)u)ion(ll3 e>clude re+ponden)+, (nd )*e
Cour) o, Appe(l+ (,,ir.ed )*i+ ,inding.
$e)i)ioner (pp(ren)l3 concede+ )*() i, )*e lo0er cour)+ (re correc), re+ponden)+ +*ould pre2(il.
1rie, ,or $e)i)ioner 19. T*i+ conce++ion i+, in ,(c), .(nd()ed /3 our deci+ion in Logan -alley, in
0*ic* 0e +peci,ic(ll3 *eld )*() .e./er+ o, )*e pu/lic .(3 e>erci+e )*eir #ir+) A.end.en) rig*)+
on )*e pre.i+e+ o, ( +*opping cen)er )*() i+ )*e ,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, ( /u+ine++ di+)ric) i, )*eir
(c)i2i)3 i+ ?gener(ll3 con+on(n) 0i)* )*e u+e )o 0*ic* )*e proper)3 i+ (c)u(ll3 pu).? 791 U. S. , ()
728. I, )*e proper)3 o, L()% Cen)er i+ gener(ll3 open )o #ir+) A.end.en) (c)i2i)3, re+ponden)+
c(nno) /e e>cluded.
&79'&79 On Fe)er(n+ D(3, L()% Cen)er (llo0+ org(niA()ion+ )o p(r(de )*roug* )*e Cen)er 0i)*
,l(g+, dru..er+, (nd color gu(rd uni)+ (nd )o *(2e ( +pe(=er deli2er (n (ddre++ on )*e .e(ning
o, Fe)er(n+ D(3 (nd )*e 2(lor o, A.eric(n +oldier+. $re+iden)i(l c(ndid()e+ *(2e /een per.i))ed
)o +pe(= 0i)*ou) re+)ric)ion on )*e i++ue+ o, )*e d(3, 0*ic* pre+u.(/l3 include 0(r (nd pe(ce.
T*e A.eric(n %egion i+ (nnu(ll3 gi2en per.i++ion )o +ell poppie+ in )*e 5(ll /ec(u+e L()%
Cen)er /elie2e+ )*() ?2e)er(n+ . . . de+er2e+ B%icC +o.e co.,or) (nd +uppor) /3 )*e people o, )*e
!ni)ed ")()e+.?
B7C
In lig*) o, )*e+e ,(c)+, I percei2e no /(+i+ ,or depri2ing re+ponden)+ o, )*e
oppor)uni)3 )o di+)ri/u)e le(,le)+ in2i)ing p()ron+ o, )*e Cen)er )o ())end ( .ee)ing in 0*ic*
di,,eren) poin)+ o, 2ie0 0ould /e e>pre++ed ,ro. )*o+e *eld /3 )*e org(niA()ion+ (nd per+on+
pri2ileged )o u+e L()% Cen)er (+ ( ,oru. ,or p(r(ding )*eir ide(+ (nd +3./ol+.
I /elie2e )*() )*e lo0er cour)+ correc)l3 *eld )*() re+ponden)+4 (c)i2i)ie+ 0ere direc)l3 rel()ed in
purpo+e )o )*e u+e )o 0*ic* )*e +*opping cen)er 0(+ /eing pu). In .3 2ie0, )*ere,ore, )*i+ c(+e
pre+en)+ no occ(+ion )o con+ider 0*e)*er or no) Logan -alley +*ould /e e>)ended. 1u), )*e Cour)
)(=e+ ( di,,eren) 2ie0 (nd conclude+ )*() L()% Cen)er 0(+ ne2er opened )o #ir+) A.end.en)
(c)i2i)3. E2en i, I could (gree 0i)* )*e Cour) on )*i+ poin), I 0ould no) re(c* ( di,,eren) re+ul) in
)*i+ c(+e.
1. I, re+ponden)+ *(d di+)ri/u)ed *(nd/ill+ co.pl(ining (/ou) one or .ore +)ore+ in L()% Cen)er
or (/ou) &88'&88 )*e Cen)er i)+el,, pe)i)ioner concede+ )*() our deci+ion in Logan -alley 0ould
in+ul()e )*() conduc) ,ro. pro+crip)ion /3 )*e Cen)er.
B4C
I c(nno) +ee (n3 logic(l re(+on )o )re()
di,,eren)l3 +peec* )*() i+ rel()ed )o +u/<ec)+ o)*er )*(n )*e Cen)er (nd i)+ .e./er +)ore+.
-e .u+) re.e./er )*() i) i+ ( /(l(nce )*() 0e (re +)ri=ingD( /(l(nce /e)0een )*e ,reedo. )o
+pe(=, ( ,reedo. )*() i+ gi2en ( pre,erred pl(ce in our *ier(rc*3 o, 2(lue+, (nd )*e ,reedo. o, (
pri2()e proper)3 o0ner )o con)rol *i+ proper)3. -*en )*e co.pe)ing in)ere+)+ (re ,(irl3 0eig*ed,
)*e /(l(nce c(n onl3 /e +)ruc= in ,(2or o, +peec*.
5e./er+ o, )*e $or)l(nd co..uni)3 (re (/le )o +ee doc)or+, den)i+)+, l(03er+, /(n=er+, )r(2el
(gen)+, (nd per+on+ o,,ering coun)le++ o)*er +er2ice+ in L()% Cen)er. T*e3 c(n /u3 (l.o+)
(n3)*ing )*() )*e3 0(n) or need )*ere. #or .(n3 $or)l(nd ci)iAen+, L()% Cen)er 0ill +o
co.ple)el3 +()i+,3 )*eir 0(n)+ )*() )*e3 0ill *(2e no re(+on )o go el+e0*ere ,or good+ or +er2ice+.
I, +peec* i+ )o re(c* )*e+e people, i) .u+) re(c* )*e. in L()% Cen)er. T*e Cen)er i)+el,
recogniAe+ )*i+. #or e>(.ple, in 19:4 i)+ direc)or o, pu/lic rel()ion+ o,,ered c(ndid()e+ ,or
$re+iden) (nd Fice $re+iden) )*e u+e o, )*e cen)er ,or poli)ic(l +peec*e+, /o(+)ing ?)*() our
con2enien) loc()ion (nd +e))ing 0ould pro2ide )*e l(rge+) (udience B)*e c(ndid()e+C could ())r(c)
in Oregon.? App. 187.
#or .(n3 per+on+ 0*o do no) *(2e e(+3 (cce++ )o )ele2i+ion, r(dio, )*e .(<or ne0+p(per+, (nd
)*e o)*er ,or.+ o, .(++ .edi(, )*e onl3 0(3 )*e3 c(n e>pre++ )*e.+el2e+ )o ( /ro(d r(nge o,
ci)iAen+ on i++ue+ o, gener(l pu/lic concern i+ )o pic=e), or )o *(nd/ill, or )o u)iliAe o)*er &81'&81
,ree or rel()i2el3 ine>pen+i2e .e(n+ o, co..unic()ion. T*e onl3 *ope )*() )*e+e people *(2e )o
/e (/le )o co..unic()e e,,ec)i2el3 i+ )o /e per.i))ed )o +pe(= in )*o+e (re(+ in 0*ic* .o+) o,
)*eir ,ello0 ci)iAen+ c(n /e ,ound. One +uc* (re( i+ )*e /u+ine++ di+)ric) o, ( ci)3 or )o0n or i)+
,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len).
B&C
And )*i+ i+ 0*3 re+ponden)+ *(2e ( )re.endou+ need )o e>pre++
)*e.+el2e+ 0i)*in L()% Cen)er.
$e)i)ioner4+ in)ere+)+, on )*e o)*er *(nd, p(le in co.p(ri+on. #or e>(.ple, pe)i)ioner urge+ )*()
re+ponden)+4 #ir+) A.end.en) (c)i2i)3 0ould di+)ur/ )*e Cen)er4+ cu+)o.er+. I) i+ undi+pu)ed )*()
+o.e p()ron+ 0ill /e di+)ur/ed /3 (n3 #ir+) A.end.en) (c)i2i)3 )*() goe+ on, reg(rdle++ o, i)+
o/<ec). 1u), )*ere i+ no e2idence )o &82'&82 indic()e )*() +peec* direc)ed )o )opic+ unrel()ed )o
)*e +*opping cen)er 0ould /e .ore li=el3 )o i.p(ir )*e .o)i2()ion o, cu+)o.er+ )o /u3 )*(n
+peec* direc)ed )o )*e u+e+ )o 0*ic* )*e Cen)er i+ pu), 0*ic* pe)i)ioner concede+ i+
con+)i)u)ion(ll3 pro)ec)ed under Logan -alley. On )*e con)r(r3, co..on +en+e 0ould indic()e
)*() +peec* )*() i+ cri)ic(l o, ( +*opping cen)er or one or .ore o, i)+ +)ore+ i+ .ore li=el3 )o de)er
con+u.er+ ,ro. purc*(+ing good+ or +er2ice+ )*(n +peec* on (n3 o)*er +u/<ec). 5oreo2er,
pe)i)ioner (c=no0ledge+ )*() re+ponden)+ *(2e ( con+)i)u)ion(l rig*) )o ?le(,le)? on (n3 +u/<ec) on
pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+ 0i)*in L()% Cen)er. I) i+ di,,icul) ,or .e )o under+)(nd 0*3 le(,le))ing
in )*e 5(ll 0ould /e +o .uc* .ore di+)ur/ing )o )*e Cen)er4+ cu+)o.er+.
I (l+o ,ind p()en)l3 ,ri2olou+ pe)i)ioner4+ (rgu.en) )*() i, *(nd/illing in )*e 5(ll i+ per.i))ed, L()%
Cen)er 0ould ,(ce inordin()e di,,icul)ie+ in re.o2ing li))er ,ro. i)+ pre.i+e+. T*e Di+)ric) Cour)
,ound )*() re+ponden)+4 (c)i2i)ie+ 0ere li))er-,ree. A++u.ing, arg!en$o, )*() i, re+ponden)+ *(d
/een per.i))ed )o con)inue )*eir (c)i2i)ie+, li))er .ig*) *(2e re+ul)ed, I )*in= )*() i) i+ i..edi()el3
(pp(ren) )*() e2en i, re+ponden)+ con,ined )*eir (c)i2i)e+ )o )*e pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+ o,
)*e Cen)er (+ L()%+' pri2()e police +ugge+)ed, li))er 0ould *(2e /een ( pro/le. (+ )*e
recipien)+ o, )*e *(nd/ill+ c(rried )*e. )o )*e +*opping (nd p(r=ing (re(+. $e)i)ioner concede+
)*() i) 0ould *(2e *(d )o re.o2e )*i+ li))er. T*ere i+ no e2idence )*() )*e (.oun) o, li))er 0ould
*(2e +u/+)(n)i(ll3 incre(+ed i, re+ponden)+ di+)ri/u)ed )*e le(,le)+ 0i)*in )*e 5(ll. 1u), e2en
(++u.ing )*() )*e li))er .ig*) *(2e incre(+ed, )*() i+ no) ( +u,,icien) re(+on ,or /(rring #ir+)
A.end.en) (c)i2i)3. "ee, e. g., #chnei$er 2. #tate, 788 U. S. 147 91979; . I, pe)i)ioner i+ )rul3
concerned (/ou) li))er, i) +*ould (ccep) ( pre2iou+ +ugge+)ion /3 )*i+ Cour) (nd pro+ecu)e )*o+e
&87'&87 0*o )*ro0 *(nd/ill+ (0(3, no) )*o+e 0*o u+e )*e. ,or co..unic()i2e purpo+e+.
B:C
/$., ()
1:2.
In +u., )*e /(l(nce pl(inl3 .u+) /e +)ruc= in ,(2or o, +peec*.
C. $e)i)ioner4+ o)*er ground+ ,or den3ing re+ponden)+ (cce++ )o )*e 5(ll c(n /e de(l) 0i)*
6uic=l3. T*e (++er)ion i+ .(de )*() pe)i)ioner *(d )*e rig*) )o regul()e )*e .(nner in 0*ic* #ir+)
A.end.en) (c)i2i)3 )oo= pl(ce on i)+ proper)3, (nd )*() /ec(u+e )*e pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+
in+ide )*e Cen)er o,,ered +u,,icien) (cce++ )o )*e pu/lic, i) 0(+ per.i++i/le )o den3 re+ponden)+
u+e o, )*e 5(ll. T*e Di+)ric) Cour) ,ound )*() cer)(in +)ore+ in )*e Cen)er could onl3 /e re(c*ed
/3 u+ing )*e pri2()e 0(l=0(3+ o, )*e 5(ll. T*o+e per+on+ 0*o dro2e in)o )*e Cen)er, p(r=ed in
)*e pri2()el3 o0ned p(r=ing lo)+, (nd 0*o en)ered )*e +)ore+ (cce++i/le onl3 )*roug* )*e 5(ll
could no) /e +(,el3 re(c*ed ,ro. )*e pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+. ence, )*e Di+)ric) Cour)
properl3 ,ound )*() )*e 5(ll 0(+ )*e onl3 pl(ce 0*ere re+ponden)+ *(d re(+on(/le (cce++ )o (ll
o, L()% Cen)er4+ p()ron+.
B7C
788 #. "upp., () 171. A) one poin) in )*i+ &84'&84 li)ig()ion, pe)i)ioner
(l+o ())e.p)ed )o (++er) )*() i) 0(+ en)i)led )o /(r re+ponden)+4 di+)ri/u)ion o, le(,le)+ on )*e
ground )*() )*e le(,le)+ 2iol()ed )*e "elec)i2e "er2ice l(0+. T*e Di+)ric) Cour) ,ound )*() )*i+
con)en)ion 0(+ 0i)*ou) .eri). 788 #. "upp., () 172-177. I) +ee.+ )*() pe)i)ioner *(+ (/ondoned
)*e con)en)ion in )*i+ Cour) In (n3 e2en), i) i+i .eri)le++ ,or )*e re(+on+ gi2en /3 )*e Di+)ric) Cour).
***
In *i+ di++en)ing opinion in Logan -alley, 791 U. S. , () 779, 5r. J!"TICE -ITE +(id )*() )*e
r()ion(le o, )*() c(+e 0ould re6uire (,,ir.(nce o, ( c(+e li=e )*e in+)(n) one. 5r. J!"TICE
-ITE, () )*() )i.e, 0(+ con2inced )*() our deci+ion in Logan -alley, incorrec) )*oug* *e
)*oug*) i) )o /e, re6uired )*() (ll pe(ce,ul (nd non-di+rup)i2e +peec* /e per.i))ed on pri2()e
proper)3 )*() 0(+ )*e ,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic /u+ine++ di+)ric).
A+ +)()ed (/o2e, I /elie2e )*() )*e e(rlier 2ie0 o, 5r. J!"TICE -ITE i+ )*e correc) one, )*()
)*ere i+ no legi)i.()e 0(3 o, ,ollo0ing Logan -alley (nd no) (ppl3ing i) )o )*i+ c(+e. 1u), one .(3
+u+pec) ,ro. re(ding )*e opinion o, )*e Cour) )*() i) i+ Logan -alley i)+el, )*() )*e Cour) ,ind+
/o)*er+o.e. T*e 2o)e in Logan -alley 0(+ :-7, (nd )*() deci+ion i+ onl3 ,our 3e(r+ old. 1u), I (.
(0(re )*() )*e co.po+i)ion o, )*i+ Cour) *(+ r(dic(ll3 c*(nged in ,our 3e(r+. T*e ,(c) re.(in+
)*() Logan -elley i+ /inding unle++ (nd un)il i) i+ o2er-ruled. T*ere i+ no 2(lid di+)inc)ion /e)0een
)*() c(+e (nd )*i+ one, (nd, )*ere,ore, )*e re+ul) in /o)* c(+e+ +*ould /e )*e +(.e.
&8&'&8& -*ile )*e .(<ori)3 i+ o/2iou+l3 )rou/led /3 )*e r()ion(le o, Logan -alley, i) i+ in)ere+)ing
)*() none o, )*e p(r)icip(n)+ in )*i+ li)ig()ion *(2e e>perienced (n3 +i.il(r di,,icul)3. L()% Crp.
urge+ )*() Logan -alley 0(+ correc)l3 decided, )*() i) +)ruc= ( /(l(nce )*() )*e #ir+) A.end.en)
re6uired u' )o +)ri=e, )*() )*() i) *(+ ,ull3 co.plied 0i)* Logan -alley 0i)* re+pec) )o l(/or (c)i2i)3.
T*e A.eric(n Re)(il #eder()ion urge+ in i)+ 1rie, (+ amic!% c!riae )*() ( /(l(nce .u+) /e +)ruc=
/e)0een )*e proper)3 in)ere+)+ o, +*opping cen)er u+er+. I) doe+ no) urge+ )*() Logan -alley 0(+
incorrec)l3 decided in (n3 0(3.
I) i+ )rue )*() L()% Crp. (nd )*e A.erci(n Re)(il #eder()ion (+= )*e Cour) )o di+)ingui+* )*i+
c(+e ,ro. Logan -alley, /u) 0*() i+ .ore i.por)(n) i+ )*() )*e3 recogniAe )*() 0*en .(++i2e
(re(+ o, pri2()e proper)3 (re opened )o )*e pu/lic, )*e #ir+) A.end.en) .(3 co.e in)o pl(3.
T*e3 0ould li=e, o, cour+e, )o li.i) )*e i.p(c) o, +peec* on )*eir pri2()e proper)3, /u) 0*e)*er or
no) )*e3 c(n do +o con+i+)en)l3 0i)* )*e #ir+) A.end.en) i+ ( 6ue+)ion )*() )*i+ Cour) .u+)
re+ol2e.
-e no)ed in Logon -alley, )*() )*e l(rge-+c(le .o2e.en) o, )*i+ coun)r34+ popul()ion ,ro. )*e
ci)ie+ )o )*e +u/ur/+ *(+ /een (cco.p(nied /3 )*e gro0)* o, +u/ur/(n +*opping cen)er+. In
re+pon+e )o )*i+ p*eno.enon, ci)ie+ li=e $or)l(nd (re pro2iding ,or l(rge-+c(le +*opping (re(+
0i)*in )*e ci)3. I) i+ o/2iou+ )*() pri2()el3 o0ned +*opping (re(+ could pro2e )o /e gre()l3
(d/(n)(geou+ )o ci)ie+. T*e3 (re )o)(ll3 +el,-+u,,icien), needing no ,in(nci(l +uppor) ,ro. loc(l
go2ern.en)H (nd i,, (+ *ere, )*e3 )rul3 (re )*e ,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic /u+ine++ (re(, )*e
ci)3 re(p+ )*e (d2(n)(ge+ o, *(2ing +uc* (n (re( 0i)*ou) p(3ing ,or )*e.. "o.e o, )*e
(d2(n)(ge+ (re (n incre(+ed )(> /(+e, ( dr(0ing ())r(c)ion ,or re+iden)+, (nd ( +ri.ulu+ )o
,ur)*er gro0)*.
&8:'&8: I) 0ould no) /e +urpri+ing in )*e ,u)ure )o +e ci)ie+ rel3 .ore end .ore on pri2()e
/u+ine++e+ )o per,or. ,unc)ion+ once per,or.ed /3 go2er.en)(l (gencie+. T*e (d2(n)(ge o,
reduced e>pen+e+ (nd (n incre(+ed )(> /(+e c(nno) /e o2er+)()ed. A+ go2ern.en)+ rel3 on
pri2()e en)erpri+e, pu/lic proper)3 decre(+e+ in ,(2or o, pri2()el3 o0ned proper)3. I)r /eco.e+
*(rder (nd *(rder ,or ci)iAen+ )o ,ind .e(n+ )o co..unic()e 0i)* order ci)iAen+. Onl3 )*e 0e(l)*3
.(3 ,ind e,,ec)i2e co..unic()ion po+i/le unle++ 0e (d*ere )o Mar%h 2. 'labama (nd con)inue )o
*old )*() ?B)C*e .ore (n o0ner, ,or *i+ (d2(n)(ge, open+ up *i+ proper)3 ,or u+e /3 )*e pu/lic in
gener(l, )*e .ore do *i+ rig*)+ /eco.e circu.+cri/ed /3 )*e +)()u)or3 (nd con+)i)u)ion(l rig*)+ o,
)*o+e 0*o u+e i),? 72: U. S. , () &8: .
-*en )*ere (re no e,,ec)i2e .e(n+ o, co..unic()ion, ,ree +peec* i+ ( .ere +*i//ole)*. I /elie2e
)*() )*e #ir+) A.end.en) re6uire+ i) )o /e ( re(li)3. Accordingl3, I 0ould (,,ir. )*e deci+ion o, )*e
Cour) o, Appe(l+.
B1C App. 2&4.
B2C T*e .(n(ger o, )*e Cen)er )e+)i,ied@
?I. Turning no0 )o )*e gener(l polic3 in oper()ion o, )*e L()% Cen)er, i)4+ )rue )*() )*e .(ll+ (nd 0(l=0(3+ 0i)*in )*e cen)er (re
open 24 *our+ ( d(3H i+ )*() rig*)J
?A. -ell, )*e3 (ren4) p*3+ic(ll3 clo+ed +uc* (+ pu))ing ( g()e (cro++, no. 1u), )*e3 (re no)D0*en people (re )*ere (,)er *our+,
)*e3 (re 0()c*ed. And, i, i) i+ )oo l()e () nig*), )*e3 (re )old )*e pl(ce+ (re clo+ed (nd )*e3 +*ould le(2e.
?I. I, I 0(n)ed )o 0(l= )*roug* )*e cen)er .(ll+ o, L()% Cen)er () 7@88 in )*e .orning, 0ould (n3one +)op .eJ
?A. Depending on 0*o )*e o,,icer 0(+ on du)3 (+ )o 0*() *e i+ +uppo+ed )o do. 1u), )*e3 0ould *(2e .(de in6uir3 (nd ,ollo0ed
3ou )o +ee 0*() 3ou (re doing.? App. 49.
B7C T*e .(n(ger o, )*e Cen)er, e>pl(ining 0*3 pre+iden)i(l c(ndid()e+ 0ere (llo0ed )o +pe(=, +(id@ ?-e do )*() ,or one re(+on
(nd )*() i+ gre() pu/lic in)ere+). I) . . . /ring+ ( gre() .(n3 people )o L()% Cen)er 0*o .(3 +*op /e,ore )*e3 le(2e.? App. &1.
B4C T*e ci)3 o, $or)l(nd *(+ (n ordin(nce 0*ic* .(=e+ i) unl(0,ul )o )re+p(++ on pri2()e proper)3. $or)l(nd, Ore., $olice Code K
1:-:17.
B&C T*e Cour) o, Appe(l+ (l+o relied on olin 2. Port o" Ne( 3ork '!thority, 792 #. 2d 87 9CA2 19:8; .
B:C In co..en)ing on )*e nece++i)3 ,or ci)iAen+ 0*o re+ide in co.p(n3 )o0n+ )o *(2e (cce++ )o in,or.()ion, )*e Cour) +(id@ ?5(n3
people in )*e !ni)ed ")()e+ li2e in co.p(n3-o0ned )o0n+. T*e+e people, <u+) (+ re+iden)+ o, .unicip(li)ie+, (re ,ree ci)iAen+ o,
)*eir ")()e (nd coun)r3. Ju+) (+ (ll o)*er ci)iAen+ )*e3 .u+) .(=e deci+ion+ 0*ic* (,,ec) )*e 0el,(re o, co..uni)3 (nd n()ion. To
(c) (+ good ci)iAen+ )*e3 .u+) /e in,or.ed.? 72: U. S. , () &88 .
B7C T*e Cour) (l+o co..en)ed on )*e incre(+ing role o, +*opping cen)er+ (nd on )*e pro/le. 0*ic* )*e3 0ould pre+en) 0i)*
re+pec) )o union (c)i2i)ie+ i, pic=e)ing 0ere )o)(ll3 pro+cri/ed 0i)*in +*opping cen)er (re(+@ ?1u+ine++ en)erpri+e+ loc()ed in
do0n)o0n (re(+ Bon pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+C 0ould /e +u/<ec) )o on-)*e-+po) pu/lic cri)ici+. ,or )*eir Bl(/orC pr(c)ice+, /u)
/u+ine++e+ +i)u()ed in )*e +u/ur/+ could l(rgel3 i..uniAe )*e.+el2e+ ,ro. +i.il(r cri)ici+. /3 cre()ing ( cor$on %anitaire o,
p(r=ing lo)+ (round )*eir +)ore+.? 791 U. S. , () 724-72& . T*e concurring opinion o, 5R. J!"TICE DO!E%A" (l+o e.p*(+iAed )*e
rel()ed purpo+e o, )*e pic=e)ing in Logan -alley2 ?$ic=e)ing in reg(rd )o l(/or condi)ion+ () )*e -ei+ "uper.(r=e) i+ direc)l3
rel()ed )o )*() +*opping cen)er /u+ine++.? 791 U. S. , () 72: .
B8C 788 #. "upp. 128, 178, 172 9Ore. 1978;H 44: #. 2d &4&, &4: 9CA9 1971;.
B9C 'malgamate$ )oo$ *m+loyee% ,nion 2. Logan -alley Pla.a, 791 U. S. 788, 719 919:8; .
B18C A+ 5r. Ju+)ice 1l(c= 0(+ )*e (u)*or o, )*e Cour)4+ opinion in Mar%h, *i+ (n(l3+i+ o, i)+ r()ion(le i+ e+peci(ll3 .e(ning,ul.
B11C T*e in<unc)ion i++ued (g(in+) L()% i+ co.pre*en+i2e. I) en<oin+ L()% 9(nd o)*er+ in (c)i2e concer) or p(r)icip()ion 0i)* i);
,ro. ?pre2en)ing or in)er,ering 0i)* )*e di+)ri/u)ion o, non-co..erci(l *(nd/ill+ in ( pe(ce,ul (nd orderl3 .(nner in )*e .(ll+ (nd
0(l=0(3+ 0i)*in L()% Cen)er () )i.e+ 0*en )*e3 (re open )o gener(l pu/lic (cce++.? T*ere i+ no li.i)()ion (+ )o )3pe o, li)er()ure
di+)ri/u)ed e>cep) )*() i) .u+) /e ?non-co..erci(l.? Nor, indeed, i+ )*ere (n3 li.i)()ion in )*i+ in<unc)ion (+ )o )*e nu./er o,
per+on+ p(r)icip()ing in +uc* (c)i2i)ie+ or )*e ,re6uenc3 )*ereo,. Irre+pec)i2e o, *o0 con)ro2er+i(l, o,,en+i2e, di+)r(c)ing, or
e>)en+i2e )*e di+)ri/u)ion+ .(3 /e, L()% *(+ /een ordered )o (llo0 (ll nonco..erci(l *(nd/illing 0*ic* (n3one de+ire+ )o
under)(=e 0i)*in i)+ pri2()e pre.i+e+.
B12C T*e Cour)4+ opinion in Logan -alley de+cri/ed )*e o/+)(cle+ re+ul)ing ,ro. )*e loc()ion o, )*e -ei+ +)ore in )*e +*opping
cen)er, (nd i)+ rel()ion )o pu/lic +)ree)+ (nd +ide0(l=+@ ?$e)i)ioner+4 pic=e)ing 0(+ direc)ed +olel3 () one e+)(/li+*.en) 0i)*in )*e
+*opping cen)er. T*e /er.+ +urrounding )*e cen)er (re ,ro. 7&8 )o &88 ,ee) (0(3 ,ro. )*e -ei+ +)ore. All en)r3 on)o )*e .(ll
pre.i+e+ /3 cu+)o.er+ o, -ei+, +o ,(r (+ (ppe(r+, i+ /3 2e*icle ,ro. )*e ro(d+ (long+ide 0*ic* )*e /er.+ run. T*u+ )*e pl(c(rd+
/e(ring )*e .e++(ge 0*ic* pe)i)ioner+ +ee= )o co..unic()e )o p()ron+ o, -ei+ .u+) /e re(d /3 )*o+e )o 0*o. )*e3 (re direc)ed
ei)*er () ( di+)(nce +o gre() (+ )o render )*e. 2ir)u(ll3 indecip*er(/leD0*ere )*e -ei+ cu+)o.er+ (re (lre(d3 0i)*in )*e .(llDor
0*ile )*e pro+pec)i2e re(der i+ .o2ing /3 c(r ,ro. )*e ro(d+ on)o )*e .(ll p(r=ing (re(+ 2i( )*e en)r(nce 0(3+ cu) )*roug* )*e
/er.+. In (ddi)ion, )*e pic=e)+ (re pl(ced in +o.e d(nger /3 /eing ,orced )o 0(l= (long *e(2il3 )r(2eled ro(d+ (long 0*ic* )r(,,ic
.o2e+ con+)(n)l3 () r()e+ o, +peed 2(r3ing ,ro. .oder()e )o *ig*. %i=e0i+e, )*e )(+= o, di+)ri/u)ing *(nd/ill+ )o per+on+ in .o2ing
(u)o.o/ile+ i+ 2(+)l3 gre()er 9(nd .ore *(A(rdou+; )*(n i) 0ould /e 0ere pe)i)ioner+ per.i))ed )o p(++ )*e. ou) 0i)*in )*e .(ll )o
pede+)ri(n+.? 791 U. S. , () 721-722 .
B17C 5r. Ju+)ice 1l(c=, di++en)ing in Logan -alley, e.p*(+iAed )*e di+)inc)ion /e)0een ( pri2()el3 o0ned +*opping cen)er (nd )*e
?co.p(n3 )o0n? in2ol2ed in Mar%h, 0*ic* *e +(id *(d (++u.ed ?all )*e ())ri/u)e+? o, ( .unicip(li)3. 791 U. S. , () 772 . 9Origin(l
e.p*(+i+.;
B1C T*ere i+ +o.e con,lic) in )*e )e+)i.on3 (+ )o preci+el3 0*() )*e gu(rd+ )old re+ponden)+ 0i)* re+pec) )o )*e li=eli*ood )*() )*e3
0ould /e (rre+)ed i, )*e3 did no) le(2e )*e 5(ll. T*e Agreed #(c)+ in )*e $re)ri(l Order +)()e+ )*() )*e gu(rd+ +(id )*()
re+ponden)+ co!l$ /e (rre+)ed i, )*e3 re,u+ed )o le(2e. T*e Di+)ric) Cour) ,ound )*() )*e gu(rd+ c(u+ed re+ponden)+ )o /elie2e
)*() )*e3 0ould /e (rre+)ed (nd )*() )*i+ 0(+ )*e re(+on )*() )*e3 le,) )*e 5(ll. T*e Cour) o, Appe(l+ (,,ir.ed )*i+ ,inding (nd i) i+
+uppor)ed /3 )*e record.
B2C Logan -alley in2ol2ed /o)* pic=e)ing (nd *(nd/illing, +ince )*e e,,ec) o, )*e +)()e cour) in<unc)ion 0(+ )o /(n /o)* ,or.+ o,
e>pre++ion. 791 U. S. , () 722 -727 (nd n. 12. -e .(de i) cle(r in Logan -alley )*() 0*ile )*ere 0ere o/2iou+ di,,erence+ /e)0een
pic=e)ing (nd *(nd/illing, /o)* in2ol2ed ( .odicu. o, ( /urden on proper)3. -e *eld )*() nei)*er could /e /(rred ,ro. ( +*opping
cen)er )*() 0(+ )*e ,unc)ion(l e6ui2(len) o, ( pu/lic /u+ine++ di+)ric). /$., () 71&-71:.
B7C App. :2 9)e+)i.on3 o, R. orn, .(n(ger o, L()% Cen)er;. I) i+ 0idel3 =no0n )*() )*e A.eric(n %egion i+ ( Fe)er(n4+
org(niA()ion. "ee 1 Enc3clopedi( o, A++oci()ion+ 997 97)* ed. 1972;. I) i+ (l+o co..on =no0ledge )*() )*e popp3 i+ )*e +3./ol
+old /3 )*e %egion )o ,in(nce 2(riou+ o, i)+ (c)i2i)ie+. A) )i.e+ )*e proceed+ ,ro. +elling poppie+ 0ere u+ed )o ,in(nce lo//3ing
(nd o)*er (c)i2i)ie+ direc)ed () incre(+ing )*e .ili)(r3 c(p(ci)3 o, )*e !ni)ed ")()e+. R. Jone+, A i+)or3 o, )*e A.eric(n %egion
778-772 9194:;.
B4C T*e record indic()e+ )*() 0*en union+ *(2e pic=e)ed in+ide )*e 5(ll, L()% Cen)er *(+ 2oiced no o/<ec)ion+. App. 188
9)e+)i.on3 o, R. orn, .(n(ger o, L()% Cen)er;. I) i+ (pp(ren) )*() pe)i)ioner *(+ no di,,icul)3 in (ccep)ing our deci+ion in Logan
-alley (nd in co.pl3ing 0i)* i).
B&C I) i+ e2iden) ,ro. )*e Cour)4+ opinion )*() )*e .(<ori)3 ,(il+ )o gr(+p )*e e++ence o, our deci+ion in Logan -alley. T*e Cour)
no)e+ )*() )*ere i+ ( di,,erence /e)0een ( ,ree-+)(nding +)ore (nd one loc()ed in ( +*opping cen)er, (nd /e)0een +.(ll +)ore+ (nd
e>)re.el3 l(rge one+, /u) +ugge+)+ )*() /ec(u+e )*e di,,erence i+ ?o, degreeD no) o, principle? i) i+ uni.por)(n). T*i+ ,lie+ direc)l3
in )*e ,(ce o, Logan -alley, 0*ere 0e +(id )*() (+ pri2()e proper)3 e>p(nd+ )o )*e poin) 0*ere i) /eco.e+, in re(li)3, )*e /u+ine++
di+)ric) o, ( co..uni)3, )*e rig*)+ o, )*e o0ner+ )o pro+cri/e +peec* on )*e p(r) o, )*o+e in2i)ed )o u+e )*e proper)3 di.ini+*.
-*en )*e Cour) +)()e+ )*() )*i+ 0(+ /ro(d l(ngu(ge )*() 0(+ +o.e*o0 unnece++(r3 )o our deci+ion, i) /e)r(3+ i)+
.i+under+)(nding o, )*e *olding.
A+ 5r. Ju+)ice 1l(c= (nd 5R. J!"TICE -ITE /o)* poin)ed ou) in di++en) in Logan -alley, )*ere 0(+ re(ll3 onl3 one i++ue /e,ore
)*e Cour)Di. e., 0*e)*er )*e %og(n F(lle3 $l(A( 0(+ pre2en)ed /3 )*e #our)een)* A.end.en) ,ro. in*i/i)ing +peec* e2en
)*oug* i) 0(+ pri2()e proper)3. T*e cri)ic(l i++ue 0(+ 0*e)*er )*e pri2()e proper)3 *(d +u,,icien) ?pu/lic? 6u(li)ie+ )o 0(rr(n) (
*olding )*() )*e #our)een)* A.end.en) re(c*ed i). -e (n+0ered )*i+ 6ue+)ion in )*e (,,ir.()i2e, (nd )*e (n+0er 0(+ )*e pi2o)(l
,(c)or in our deci+ion. E2er3 .e./er o, )*e Cour) 0(+ (cu)el3 (0(re )*() 0e 0ere de(ling 0i)* degree+, no) (/+olu)e+. 1u) 0e
,ound )*() degree+ o, di,,erence c(n /e o, con+)i)u)ion(l di.en+ion. -*ile (n3 di,,erence+ /e)0een )*e in+)(n) c(+e (nd Logan
-alley (re i..()eri(l in .3 2ie0, +uc* di,,erence+ (+ )*ere (re .(=e )*i+ ( cle(rer c(+e o, illeg(l +)()e (c)ion.
B:C "ince pe)i)ioner4+ +ecuri)3 gu(rd+ *(2e ,ull police po0er, )*e3 c(n en,orce +)()e l(0+ (g(in+) li))ering, <u+) (+ )*e3 *(2e
en,orced l(0+ (g(in+) loi)ering in )*e p(+). App. 4& 9)e+)i.on3 o, R. orn, .(n(ger o, L()% Cen)er;.
B7C T*e Cour) i.plie+ )*() i) i+ 0illing )o re2er+e /o)* lo0er cour)+ (nd *old )*() )*eir ,inding+ )*() (l)ern()i2e ,oru.+ ,or le(,le))ing
in L()% Cen)er 0ere ei)*er no) (+ e,,ec)i2e (+ )*e 5(ll or d(ngerou+ (re cle(rl3 erroneou+. I )oo *(2e re(d )*e record in )*i+ c(+e
(nd I ,ind no 0(rr(n) ,or +uc* ( *olding. T*e record pl(inl3 +*o0+ )*() i) 0(+ i.po++i/le )o re(c* .(n3 o, )*e +*opper+ in )*e
Cen)er 0i)*ou) u+ing )*e 5(ll unle++ re+ponden)+ 0ere 0illing )o (ppro(c* c(r+ (+ )*e3 0ere le(2ing )*e cen)er. T*e Di+)ric) Cour)
(nd )*e Cour) o, Appe(l+ )oo= )*e 2ie0 )*() re6uiring re+ponden)+ )o run ,ro. )*e +ide0(l=, )o =noc= on c(r 0indo0+, )o (+= )*()
)*e 0indo0+ /e rolled do0n +o )*() ( *(nd/ill could /e di+)ri/u)ed, )o o,,er )*e *(nd/ill, run /(c= )o )*e +ide0(l=, (nd )o repe()
)*i+ ge+)ure ,or e2er3 (u)o.o/ile le(2ing L()% Cen)er in2ol2ed *(A(rd+ no) onl3 )o re+ponden)+ /u) (l+o )o o)*er pede+)r(in+ (nd
(u)o.o/ile p(++enger+. (2ing ne2er +een L()% Cen)er, e>cep) in p*o)ogr(p*+ con)(ined in )*e record, (nd *(2ing (/+olu)el3
no ide( o, )*e (.oun) o, )r(,,ic en)ering or le(2ing )*e Cen)er, )*e Cour) c(2(lierl3 o2er)urn+ )*e c(re,ul ,inding+ o, ,(c)+ /elo0.
T*i+, in .3 opinion, e>ceed+ e2en )*e .o+) e>p(n+i2e 2ie0 o, )*e proper (ppell()e ,unc)ion o, )*i+ Cour).