PRESSURE VESSEL

Learning Outcomes/Learning
Objectives/Instructional Objectives
Describewhat apressurevessel is.
Be familiar with the major types of pressure
vessels.
Abletodesignpressurevessels.
After completingthischapter, youshouldbeableto do
thefollowing:
Pressure Vessel
Containers for fluids under pressure
Used in variety of industries
Petroleum refining
Chemical
Power
Pulp and paper
Food
Main Pressure Vessel Components
Shells
Manways
Heads
Nozzles
Tubesheets
Flanges
Flat cover plates
Attachmentsparts
Thebasicdataneededbythespecialist designer will be:
1. Vessel function.
2. Processmaterialsandservices.
3. Operatinganddesigntemperatureandpressure.
4. Materialsof construction.
5. Vessel dimensionsandorientation.
6. Typeof vessel headstobeused.
7. Openingsandconnectionsrequired.
8. Specificationof heatingandcoolingjacketsor coils.
9. Typeof agitator.
10. Specificationof internal fittings.
Pressure Vessel/ Data Needed
Pressure Vessel
For the purposes of design and analysis,
pressure vessels are subdivided into two
classes depending on the ratio of the wall
thicknesstovessel diameter:
thin-walled vessels, with a thickness ratio of
less than 1:10; and thick-walled above this
ratio.
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure
is normally taken as the pressure at which the relief
deviceisset.
This will normallybe 5to 10per cent abovethe normal
workingpressure.
Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed
to resist the maximumdifferential pressure that is likely
to occur in service. Vessels likely to be subjected to
vacuumshould be designed for a full negative pressure
of 1 bar, unless fitted with an effective, and reliable,
vacuumbreaker.
Design pressure
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
The strength of metals decreases with increasing
temperature.
Themaximumallowabledesignstresswill dependon
thematerial temperature.
Thedesigntemperatureat whichthedesignstressis
evaluatedshouldbe takenas themaximumworking
temperatureof thematerial, withdueallowancefor
any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall
temperatures.
Design temperature
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels are constructed fromplain carbon steels, low
and high alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate, and reinforced
plastics.
Selection of a suitable material must take into account the
suitability of the material for fabrication (particularly welding)
as well as the compatibility of the material with the process
environment.
Thepressurevessel designcodesandstandardsincludelistsof
acceptable materials; in accordance with the appropriate
material standards.
In the United Kingdom, carbon and alloy steels for pressure
vessels are covered by BS 1501 plates, BS 1502 section and
bars. BSforgings, andBS1504castings.
Materials
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
For design purposes it is necessary to decide a value for the
maximumallowable stress (nominal design strength) that can be
acceptedinthematerial of construction.
This is determined by applying a suitable "design stress factor"
(factor of safety) to themaximumstressthat thematerial couldbe
expected to withstand without failure under standard test
conditions.
In the British Standard, BS 5500, the nominal design strengths
(allowabledesignstresses), for usewiththedesignmethodsgiven,
arelistedinthestandard, for therangeof materialscoveredbythe
standard.
Typical designstressvalues for somecommonmaterials areshown
inTable1.
Design stress (nominal design strength)
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
The "corrosion allowance" is the additional thickness of
metal added to allow for material lost by corrosion and
erosion.
The allowance should be based on experience with the
material of construction under similar service conditions to
those for the proposed design.
For carbon and low-alloy steels, where severe corrosion is
not expected, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be
used; where more severe conditions are anticipated this
should be increased to 4.0 mm.
Most design codes and standards specify a minimum
allowance of 1.0 mm.
Corrosion allowance
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
Major loads
1. Designpressure: includinganysignificant static head
of liquid.
2. Maximumweight of the vessel and contents, under
operatingconditions.
3. Maximumweight of the vessel and contents under
thehydraulictest conditions.
4. Windloads.
5. Earthquake(seismic) loads.
6. Loadssupportedby, or reactingon, thevessel.
Design loads
General Design Considerations:
Pressure Vessels
There will be aminimumwall thickness required to ensurethat
any vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, and
anyincidental loads.
Asageneral guidethewall thicknessof anyvessel shouldnot be
less than the values given below; the values include acorrosion
allowanceof 2mm:
Minimum practical wall thickness
Vessel Thickness and Diameter
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
Minimum thickness required, e
1.0 Cylinders and spherical shells
Where D
i
is internal diameter f is the design stress
andP
i
, theinternal pressure.
(1)
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
Theendsof acylindrical vessel areclosedbyheads of
variousshapes. Theprincipal typesusedare:
Flat platesandformedflat heads; Figure13.9.
Hemispherical heads; Figure13.10a.
Ellipsoidal heads; Figure13.10b.
Torispherical heads; Figure13.10c.
2.0 Heads and closures
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
Hemispherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical
heads are collectively referred to as domed
heads.
They are formed by pressing or spinning; large
diameters are fabricated from formed sections.
Torispherical heads are often referred to as
dished ends.
2.0 Heads and closures
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
Flat platesareusedascoversfor manways.
Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most
commonly used end closure for vessels up to operating
pressuresof 15bar.
Above 15 bar an ellipsoidal head will usually prove to be the
most economical closuretouse.
A hemispherical head is the strongest shape; capable of
resistingabout twicethepressureof atorispherical headof the
samethickness.
Thecost of formingahemispherical headishigher thanthat for
ashallowtorispherical head.
Hemispherical headsareusedfor highpressures.
Choice of closure
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
The thickness required will depend on the
degree of constraint at the plate periphery.
The minimum thickness required is given by:
3.0 Design of flat ends
(2)
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
The values of the design constant and nominal
diameter for the typical designs shown in Figure
13.9 are given below:
3.0 Design of flat ends
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
The ratio of the hemispherical head thickness to
cylinder thicknessshouldbe7/17.
However, the stress in the head would then be
greater than that in the cylindrical section; and the
optimumthicknessratioisnormallytakenas0.6
4.0 Design of domed ends
Hemispherical heads
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
Most standard ellipsoidal heads are
manufactured with a major and minor axis ratio
of 2 : 1 .
For this ratio, the following equation can be used
to calculate the minimum thickness required:
4.0 Design of domed ends
Ellipsoidal heads
(3)
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
Theminimumthicknessrequired:
4.0 Design of domed ends
Torispherical heads
(4)
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
4.0 Design of domed ends
Torispherical heads
The ratio of the knuckle to crown radii should not be less than 0.06, to avoid
buckling; and the crown radius should not be greater than the diameter of the
cylindrical section.
For formedheads(nojointsinthehead) thejoint factor J istakenas1.0.
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
Conical ends are used to facilitate the smooth
flow and removal of solids from process
equipment. Thickness required:
5.0 Conical sections and end closures
(5)
The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels
Under Internal Pressure
For torispherical heads. Thickness required:
The design factor C
c
is a function of the half apex
angle a:
5.0 Conical sections and end closures
(6)
The length of the thicker
section L
k
depends on the cone
angle and is given by:
(7)
Example 1
Estimate the thickness required for the component
partsof thevessel showninthediagram. Thevessel is
to operate at a pressure of 14 bar (absolute) and
temperature of 300C. The material of construction
will be plain carbon steel. Welds will be fully
radiographed. A corrosion allowance of 2 mmshould
beused.
Solution
Design of Vessels Subject to External
Pressure
For an open-ended cylinder, the critical pressure to
cause buckling P
c
is given by:
1.0 Cylindrical shells
(8)
Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure
For long tubes and cylindrical vessels this expression can be
simplified by neglecting terms with the group (2L/pD
o
)
2
in the
denominator; theequationthenbecomes:
For short closedvessels, andlongvesselsstiffeningrings:
1.0 Cylindrical shells
where K
c
is a function of the diameter and thickness of the vessel, and the effective
length L' between the ends or stiffening rings; and is obtained from Figure 13.16.
The effective length for some typical arrangements is shown in Figure 13.15.
(9)
(10)
Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure

2.0 Design of stiffness rings

(11)
Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure
Combiningequations(11) and(12) will giveanequationfrom
whichtherequireddimensionsof theringcanbedetermined:
2.0 Design of stiffness rings
(12)
(13)
Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure
Thecritical bucklingpressurefor aspheresubject to external
pressureisgivenby:
Minimumthickness:
For atorispherical headtheradiusR
s
istakenasequivalent to
thecrownradiusR
c
.
For an ellipsoidal head the radius can be taken as the
maximumradiusof curvature; that at thetop, givenbyEq. 13.
3.0 Vessel heads
(14)
(15)
Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure
3.0 Vessel heads
Example 2
A vacuumdistillation column is to operate under a
top pressure of 50mmHg. The plates aresupported
on rings 75 mm wide, 10 mm deep. The column
diameter is1mandtheplatespacing0.5m. Checkif
thesupport ringswill act aseffectivestiffeningrings.
The material of construction is carbon steel and the
maximumoperatingtemperature 50C, If the vessel
thicknessis10mm, checkif thisissufficient.
Solution
References
R. K. Sinnott, Chemical EngineeringDesign, Coulson
& Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Volume 6,
Fourthedition, Elsevier, 2005.