VEE JAY M.

QUIJANO
BS ECE 1-1

In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature
of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. It
began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered the scientific
mainstream in the early 19th century whendiscoveries in the field of chemistry
showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.
The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos, meaning
"indivisible".
[1]
19th century chemists began using the term in connection with
the growing number of irreducible chemical elements. While seemingly
apropos, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments
with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called
"indivisible atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic
particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately
from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments, such as neutron
stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing at all.
Since atoms were found to be divisible, physicists later invented the term
"elementary particles" to describe the 'indivisible', though not indestructible,
parts of an atom. The field of science which studies subatomic particles
is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover the true
fundamental nature of matter.











History Of Atomic Structure

-440 BC Empedocies stated that all matter were composed of four elements air, water, earth amd fire
-470 370 BC Democritus introduce the Greek word atomos which means uncut or indivisible and
thougth that all forms of matter consist of tiny indivisible particle called atom. Atoms are in constant
motion and combined with one another. His assumption is purely speculative hypothesis and not
based on scientific observations
-384 322 BC Aristotle opposed the theory of Democritus; he endorsed and advanced the
empedociean theory that matter was composed of four elements: air, water, earth and fire.
-1766 1844 more than 2000 years after Democritus, John Dalton and English Scientist and school
teacher revived and formulated the precise definition of the concept of atoms. He proposed the
modern atomic theory based on facts and experimental evidence which marked the beginning of the
modern era of chemistry. Hus hypothesis about nature of matter can be summarized as follows:
1. Matter consists of minute indivisible, indestructible particles called atom.
2. Atom of the same element are all alike in mass, size and chemical properties.
3. During chemical reaction there is only the separation, combination or rearrangement of
atoms, it does not result in the creation or destruction of atoms.
4. Atoms combine in different whole number ratio to form compounds.
In the physical sciences, subatomic particles are particles smaller than atoms.
[1]
There are two types of
subatomic particles: elementary particles, which according to current theories are not made of other
particles; and composite particles.
[2]
Particle physicsand nuclear physics study these particles and how
they interact.
[3]

In particle physics, the concept of a particle is one of several concepts inherited from classical physics.
But it also reflects the modern understanding that at the quantum scale matter and energy behave
very differently from what much of everyday experience would lead us to expect.
The idea of a particle underwent serious rethinking in light of experiments that showed that light
could behave like a stream of particles (called photons) as well as exhibit wave-like properties. This led
to the new concept of waveparticle duality to reflect that quantum-scale "particles" behave like both
particles and waves. Another new concept, the uncertainty principle, states that such their properties
as position and momentum cannot be measured exactly. In more recent times, waveparticle duality
has been shown to apply not only to photons but to increasingly massive particles.
[4]

Interactions of particles in the framework of quantum field theory are understood as creation and
annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics
with field theory.

ELECTRON
The electron (symbol: e) is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric
charge.
[8]
Electrons belong to the firstgeneration of the lepton particle family,
[9]
and are generally
thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure.
[2]
The
electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton.
[10]
Quantum
mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer
value in units of , which means that it is a fermion. Being fermions, no two electrons can occupy the
same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle.
[9]
Electrons also have properties
of both particles and waves, and so can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light.
Experiments with electrons best demonstrate this duality because electrons have a tiny mass.
Many physical phenomena involve electrons in an essential role, such as electricity, magnetism,
and thermal conductivity, and they also participate
in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions.
[11]
An electron in space generates an electric
fieldsurrounding it. An electron moving relative to an observer generates a magnetic field. External
magnetic fields deflect an electron. Electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when
accelerated. Laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons as
well as electron plasma using electromagnetic fields, whereas dedicatedtelescopes can detect electron
plasma in outer space. Electrons have many applications, including electronics, welding,cathode ray
tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors and particle
accelerators.
Interactions involving electrons and other subatomic particles are of interest in fields such
as chemistry and nuclear physics. The Coulomb force interaction between
positive protons inside atomic nuclei and negative electrons composes atoms. Ionization or changes
in the proportions of particles changes the binding energy of the system. The exchange or sharing of
the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding.
[12]
British natural
philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge
to explain the chemical properties of atoms in 1838;
[4]
Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named
this charge 'electron' in 1891, and J. J. Thomson and his team of British physicists identified it as a
particle in 1897.
[6][13][14]
Electrons can also participate in nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in
stars, where they are known as beta particles. Electrons may be created through beta
decay of radioactive isotopes and in high-energy collisions, for instance when cosmic rays enter the
atmosphere. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron; it is identical to the electron except
that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a
positron, both particles may be totally annihilated, producing gamma ray photons.

THE PROTON AND NEUTRON
The proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol p or p+ and a positive electric charge of
1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom. Protons
and neutrons are collectively referred to as "nucleons". The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is referred to as its atomic number. Since each element has a unique number of protons, each
element has its own unique atomic number. The name proton was given to the hydrogen nucleus
by Ernest Rutherford in 1920, because in previous years he had discovered that the hydrogen nucleus
(known to be the lightest nucleus) could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by collision, and
was thus a candidate to be a fundamental particle and building block of nitrogen, and all other heavier
atomic nuclei.
The concept of a hydrogen-like particle as a constituent of other atoms was developed over a long
period. As early as 1815, William Prout proposed that all atoms are composed of hydrogen atoms
(which he called "protyles"), based on a simplistic interpretation of early values of atomic
weights (see Prout's hypothesis), which was disproved when more accurate values were measured.
In 1886, Eugen Goldstein discovered canal rays (also known as anode rays) and showed that they were
positively charged particles (ions) produced from gases. However, since particles from different gases
had different values of charge-to-mass ratio (e/m), they could not be identified with a single particle,
unlike the negative electrons discovered by J. J. Thomson.
Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, Antonius van den
Broek proposed that the place of each element in theperiodic table (its atomic number) is equal to its
nuclear charge. This was confirmed experimentally by Henry Moseley in 1913 using X-ray spectra.
In 1917, (in experiments reported in 1919) Rutherford proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in
other nuclei, a result usually described as the discovery of the proton.
[19]
Rutherford had earlier
learned to produce hydrogen nuclei as a type of radiation produced as a product of the impact of
alpha particles on hydrogen gas, and recognize them by their unique penetration signature in air and
their appearance in scintillation detectors. These experiments were begun when Rutherford had
noticed that, when alpha particles were shot into air (mostly nitrogen), his scintillation detectors
showed the signatures of typical hydrogen nuclei as a product. After experimentation Rutherford
traced the reaction to the nitrogen in air, and found that when alphas were produced into pure
nitrogen gas, the effect was larger. Rutherford determined that this hydrogen could have come only
from the nitrogen, and therefore nitrogen must contain hydrogen nuclei. One hydrogen nucleus was
being knocked off by the impact of the alpha particle, producing oxygen-17 in the process. This was
the first reported nuclear reaction,
14
N +
17
O + p. (This reaction would later be observed
happening directly in a cloud chamber in 1925).
Rutherford knew hydrogen to be the simplest and lightest element and was influenced by Prout's
hypothesis that hydrogen was the building block of all elements. Discovery that the hydrogen nucleus
is present in all other nuclei as an elementary particle, led Rutherford to give the hydrogen nucleus a
special name as a particle, since he suspected that hydrogen, the lightest element, contained only one
of these particles. He named this new fundamental building block of the nucleus the proton, after the
neuter singular of the Greek word for "first", . However, Rutherford also had in mind the
word protyle as used by Prout. Rutherford spoke at the British Association for the Advancement of
Science at its Cardiff meeting beginning 24 August 1920.
[20]
Rutherford was asked by Oliver
Lodge for a new name for the positive hydrogen nucleus to avoid confusion with the neutral
hydrogen atom. He initially suggested both proton and prouton (after Prout).
[21]
Rutherford later
reported that the meeting had accepted his suggestion that the hydrogen nucleus be named the
"proton", following Prout's word "protyle".
[22]
The first use of the word "proton" in the scientific
literature appeared in 1920.
[23]

The neutron is a subatomic hadron particle that has the symbol n or n0. Neutrons have no
net electric charge and a massslightly larger than that of a proton. With the exception of hydrogen-1,
the nucleus of every atom consists of at least one neutron as well as one or more protons. Protons
and neutrons are collectively referred to as "nucleons". Since interacting protons have a
mutual electromagnetic repulsion that is stronger than their attractive nuclear interaction, neutrons
are often a necessary constituent within the atomic nucleus that allows a collection of protons to stay
atomically bound (seediproton & neutron-proton ratio).
[4]
Neutrons bind with protons and one
another in the nucleus via the nuclear force, effectively stabilizing it. The number of neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom is referred to as its neutron number, which reveals the specific isotope of that
atom. For example, the abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, whereas the rare
radioactive carbon-14 isotope also has 6 protons but, instead, 8 neutrons. Elements may be found in
nature as only one isotope or with as many as 10 isotopes (manganese and tin, respectively).
While the bound neutrons in nuclei can be stable (depending on the nuclide), free neutrons are
unstable; they undergobeta decay with a mean lifetime of just under 15 minutes (881.51.5 s).
[5]
Free
neutrons are produced in nuclear fissionand fusion. Dedicated neutron sources like neutron
generators, research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in irradiation and
in neutron scattering experiments. Even though it is not a chemical element, the free neutron is
sometimes included in tables of nuclides.
[6]

The neutron has been key to the production of nuclear power. The neutron was discovered in 1932,
and in 1933, it was realized that it might mediate a nuclear chain reaction. In the 1930s, neutrons were
used to produce many different types of nuclear transmutations. When nuclear fission was discovered
in 1938, it became clear that, if the process also produced neutrons, this might be the mechanism to
produce the neutrons for a chain reaction. This was proven in 1939, opening the path to nuclear
power production. These events and findings led directly to the first self-sustaining, man-made,
nuclear chain reaction (Chicago Pile-1, 1942) and to the first nuclear weapons (1945).

Thomson atomic model, earliest theoretical description of the inner structure
of atoms, proposed about 1900 by Lord Kelvin and strongly supported by Sir Joseph John Thomson,
who had discovered (1897) the electron, a negatively charged part of every atom. Though several
alternative models were advanced in the 1900s by Lord Kelvin and others, Thomson held that atoms
are uniform spheres of positively charged matter in which electrons are embedded. Popularly known
as the plum-pudding model, it had to be abandoned (1911) on both theoretical and experimental
grounds in favour of theRutherford atomic model, in which the electrons describe orbits about a tiny
positive nucleus.
RUTHERFORDS NUCLEAR MODEL
Rutherford overturned Thomsons model in 1911 with his famous gold-foil experiment, in which he
demonstrated that the atom has a tiny, massive nucleus (see figure). Five years earlier Rutherford had
noticed that alpha particles beamed through a hole onto a photographic plate would make a sharp-
edged picture, while alpha particles beamed through a sheet of mica only 20 micrometres (or about
0.002 cm) thick would make an impression with blurry edges. For some particles the blurring
corresponded to a two-degree deflection. Remembering those results, Rutherford had his
postdoctoral fellow, Hans Geiger, and an undergraduate student, Ernest Marsden, refine the
experiment. The young physicists beamed alpha particles through gold foil and detected them as
flashes of light or scintillations on a screen. The gold foil was only 0.00004 cm thick. Most of the
alpha particles went straight through the foil, but some were deflected by the foil and hit a spot on a
screen placed off to one side. Geiger and Marsden found that about one in 20,000 alpha particles
had been deflected 45 or more. Rutherford asked why so many alpha particles passed through the
gold foil while a few were deflected so greatly. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch
shell at a piece of tissue paper, and it came back to hit you, Rutherford said later.

BOHRS MODEL OF AN ATOM In atomic physics, the Rutherford
Bohr model or Bohr model, introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913, depicts the atom as a small, positively
charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleussimilar in
structure to the solar system, but with attraction provided by electrostatic forces rather than gravity.
After the cubic model(1902), the plum-pudding model (1904), the Saturnian model (1904), and
the Rutherford model (1911) came theRutherfordBohr model or just Bohr model for short (1913).
The improvement to the Rutherford model is mostly a quantum physical interpretation of it. The
Bohr model has been superseded, but the quantum theory remains sound.

QUANTUM THEORY also quantum mechanics, in physics, a
theory based on using the concept of the quantum unit to describe the
dynamic properties of subatomic particles and the interactions of matter and
radiation. The foundation was laid by the German physicist Max Planck, who
postulated in 1900 that energy can be emitted or absorbed by matter only in
small, discrete units called quanta. Also fundamental to the development of
quantum mechanics was the uncertainty principle, formulated by the German
physicist Werner Heisenberg in 1927, which states that the position and
momentum of a subatomic particle cannot be specified simultaneously.

Quantum numbers describe values of conserved quantities in the dynamics of
a quantum system. In the case of quantum numbers of electrons, they can be defined as "The sets of
numerical values which give acceptable solutions to the Schrdinger wave equation for
theHydrogen atom". Perhaps the most important aspect of Quantum mechanics is
the quantization of observable quantities, since quantum numbers are discrete sets of integers or half-
integers, although they could approach infinity in some cases. This is distinguished fromclassical
mechanics where the values can range continuously. Quantum numbers often describe specifically
the energy levels of electronsin atoms, but other possibilities include angular momentum, spin, etc.
Any quantum system can have one or more quantum numbers; it is thus difficult to list all possible
quantum numbers.
[1]
1. The principal quantum number (n) describes the electron shell, or energy level, of an atom.
The value of n ranges from 1 to the shell containing the outermost electron of that atom,
i.e.
[3]

n = 1, 2, ... .
For example, in caesium (Cs), the outermost valence electron is in the shell with energy
level 6, so an electron in caesium can have an n value from 1 to 6.
For particles in a time-independent potential (see Schrdinger equation), it also labels
the nth eigenvalue of Hamiltonian (H), i.e. the energy, E with the contribution due to
angular momentum (the term involving J
2
) left out. This number therefore has a
dependence only on the distance between the electron and the nucleus (i.e., the radial
coordinate, r). The average distance increases with n, and hence quantum states with
different principal quantum numbers are said to belong to different shells.
2. The azimuthal quantum number () (also known as the angular quantum number or orbital
quantum number) describes the subshell, and gives the magnitude of the orbital angular
momentum through the relation
L
2
=
2
( + 1).
In chemistry and spectroscopy, " = 0" is called an s orbital, " = 1" a p orbital, " = 2" a d
orbital, and " = 3" an f orbital.
The value of ranges from 0 to n 1, because the first p orbital ( = 1) appears in the
second electron shell (n = 2), the first d orbital ( = 2) appears in the third shell (n = 3),
and so on:
[4]

= 0, 1, 2,..., n 1.
A quantum number beginning in 3, 0, describes an electron in the s orbital of the
third electron shell of an atom. In chemistry, this quantum number is very
important, since it specifies the shape of an atomic orbital and strongly
influences chemical bonds and bond angles.
3. The magnetic quantum number (m) describes the specific orbital (or "cloud") within that
subshell, and yields the projection of the orbital angular momentum along a specified axis:
Lz = m .
The values of m range from to , with integer steps between them:
[5]

The s subshell ( = 0) contains only one orbital, and therefore the m of an electron in an
s orbital will always be 0. The p subshell ( = 1) contains three orbitals (in some systems,
depicted as three "dumbbell-shaped" clouds), so the m of an electron in a p orbital will
be 1, 0, or 1. The d subshell ( = 2) contains five orbitals, with m values of 2, 1, 0, 1,
and 2.
4. The spin projection quantum number (ms) describes the spin (intrinsic angular momentum)
of the electron within that orbital, and gives the projection of the spinangular
momentum S along the specified axis:
Sz = ms .
Analogously, the values of ms range from s to s, where s is the spin quantum number,
an intrinsic property of particles:
[6]

ms = s, s + 1, s + 2,...,s 2, s 1, s.
An electron has spin s = , consequently ms will be , corresponding with "spin"
and "opposite spin." Each electron in any individual orbital must have different spins
because of the Pauli exclusion principle, therefore an orbital never contains more
than two electrons.
Note that, since atoms and electrons are in a state of constant motion, there is no universal fixed
value for m and ms values. Therefore, the m and ms values are defined somewhat arbitrarily. The only
requirement is that the naming schematic used within a particular set of calculations or descriptions
must be consistent (e.g. the orbital occupied by the first electron in a p orbital could be described
as m = 1 or m = 0, or m = 1, but the m value of the other electron in that orbital must be the
same, and the m assigned to electrons in other orbitals must be different).
the same, and the m assigned to electrons in other orbitals must be different).

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution
of electrons of an atom ormolecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular
orbitals.
[1]
For example, the electron configuration of theneon atom is 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
.
Electronic configurations describe electrons as each moving independently in an orbital, in an average
field created by all other orbitals. Mathematically, configurations are described by Slater
determinants or configuration state functions.
According to the laws of quantum mechanics, for systems with only one electron, an energy is
associated with each electron configuration and, upon certain conditions, electrons are able to move
from one configuration to another by the emission or absorption of a quantum of energy, in the
form of a photon.
Knowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is useful in understanding the structure
of the periodic table of elements. The concept is also useful for describing the chemical bonds that
hold atoms together. In bulk materials, this same idea helps explain the peculiar properties
of lasers and semiconductors.

Diamagnetism
Any time two electrons share the same orbital, their spin quantum numbers have to be different. In
other words, one of the electrons has to be "spin-up", with , while the other electron is "spin-down",
with . This is important when it comes to determining the total spin in an electron orbital. In order to
decide whether or not electron spins cancel, add their spin quantum numbers together. Whenever
two electrons are paired together in an orbital, or their total spin is 0, they are called diamagnetic
electrons.
Think of spins as "clockwise" and "counterclockwise". If one spin is "clockwise" and the other is
"counterclockwise", then the two spin directions balance each other out and there is no leftover
rotation. Note what all of this means in terms of electrons sharing an orbital. Since electrons in the
same orbital always have opposite values for their spin quantum numbers, ms, they will always end up
canceling each other out. In other words, there is no leftover spin in an orbital that contains two
electrons.
Electron spin is very important in determining the magnetic properties of an atom. If all of the
electrons in an atom are paired up and share their orbital with another electron, then the total spin in
each orbital is zero and the atom is diamagnetic. Diamagnetic atoms are not attracted to a magnetic
field, but rather are slightly repelled. The following figure shows a thin black sheet of pyrolytic
graphite floating above the gold magnets.

Paramagnetism
Electrons that are alone in an orbital are called paramagnetic electrons. Remember that if an electron
is alone in an orbital, the orbital has a "net" spin, because the spin of the lone electron does not get
canceled out. If even one orbital has a "net" spin, the entire atom will have a "net" spin. Therefore, an
atom is considered to be paramagnetic when it contains at least one paramagnetic electron. In other
words, an atom could have 10 paired (diamagnetic) electrons, but as long as it also has one unpaired
(paramagnetic) electron, it is still considered a "paramagnetic atom".
Just as diamagnetic atoms are slightly repelled from a magnetic field, paramagnetic atoms are slightly
attracted to a magnetic field. Paramagnetic properties are due to the realignment of the electron
paths caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the
absence of an externally applied magnetic field, because thermal motion randomizes the spin
orientations. Stronger magnetic effects are typically only observed when d- or f-electrons are
involved. The size of the magnetic moment on a lanthanide atom can be quite large, as it can carry up
to seven unpaired electrons, in the case of gadolinium(III) (hence its use in MRI).
Particle Composition Theorized Discovered Comments
Electron e
elementary
(lepton)
G. Johnstone Stoney (1874)
J. J.
Thomson (1897)
Minimum unit of electrical
charge, for which Stoney
suggested the name in
1891.
[9]

alpha
particle
composite
(atomic
nucleus)
never
Ernest
Rutherford (1899)
Proven by Rutherford
and Thomas Royds in 1907
to be helium nuclei.
Photon
elementary
(quantum)
Max Planck (1900)
Albert
Einstein (1905)
or Ernest
Rutherford (1899)
as rays
Necessary to solve the
problem of black body
radiation inthermodynamics.
Proton p
composite
(baryon)
Long ago
Ernest Rutherford
(1919, named
1920)
The nucleus of 1H.
Neutron n
composite
(baryon)
Ernest Rutherford (c.1918)
James
Chadwick (1932)
The second nucleon.
Antiparticles Paul Dirac (1928)
Carl D.
Anderson (e+,
1932)
Now explained with CPT
symmetry.
Pions
composite
(mesons)
Hideki Yukawa (1935)
Csar
Lattes, Giuseppe
Occhialini(1947)
and Cecil Powell
Explains the nuclear
force between nucleons. The
first meson (by modern
definition) to be discovered.
Muon
elementary
(lepton)
never
Carl D. Anderson
(1936)
The first named meson;
today considered a lepton.
Kaons K
composite
(mesons)
never 1947
Discovered in cosmic rays.
The first strange particle.
Lambda
baryons
composite
(baryons)
never
University of
Melbourne (0,
1950)
[10]

The first hyperon discovered.
Neutrino
elementary
(lepton)
Wolfgang Pauli (1930), named
by Enrico Fermi
Clyde
Cowan, Frederick
Reines (
e, 1956)
Solved the problem of
energy spectrum of beta
decay.
Quarks
(u, d, s)
elementary
Murray Gell-Mann, George
Zweig (1964)
No particular confirmation event for the quark
model.
charm
quarkc
elementary
(quark)
1970 1974

bottom
quarkb
elementary
(quark)
1973 1977

Weak gauge
bosons
elementary
(quantum)
Glashow, Weinberg, Salam(1968) CERN (1983)
Properties verified through
the 1990s.
top quark t
elementary
(quark)
1973 1995
Does not hadronize, but is
necessary to complete the
Standard Model.
Higgs boson
elementary
(quantum)
Peter Higgs et al. (1964) CERN (2012)
Thought to be confirmed in
2013. More evidence found
in 2014.
[11]

Tetraquark composite ?
Zc(3900),
2013, to be
confirmed as a
tetraquark
A new class of hadrons.
Graviton
elementary
(quantum)
Albert Einstein (1916) Not discovered
Interpretation of
a gravitational wave (also
hypothetical) as a particle is
controversial.
Magnetic
monopole
elementary
(unclassified)
Paul Dirac (1931) Not discovered