The coast is an area where the consequences of depositional and erosional processes are clearly evident.

The physical management of the coast means reacting to processes such as storm erosion, flooding,
silting up of harbors and longshore drift.
Coastal defense is the general term used to encompass both coastal protection against erosion and sea
defense against sea and tidal flooding. It is used to cover all aspects of defense against coastal hazards.
The term coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular
as the field has expanded to include techniques that allow erosion to claim land.
The term sea defense is used to illustrate methods that are designed to prevent flooding of coastal
regions under extremes of waves and water levels or inundation of the coastline. Coastal protection
measures are aimed at protecting the coast against coastline retreat, thus protecting housing,
infrastructure, the coast and the hinterland from erosion often at the expense of losing the beach and the
dynamic coastal landscape. Sea defense and coastal protection structures are important components that
can help create a coastal squeeze, which can result in the loss of coastal habitats and ecosystems with
implications for the plants and animals occurring there. coastal squeeze

is an environmental situation
where the coastal margin is squeezed between the fixed landward boundary !artificial or otherwise" and
the rising sea level.
The approaches to the design of coastal defense methods are hard engineering and soft engineering.
They are described as follows#
HARD ENGINEERING
Traditional forms of coastal defense, and the ones still most commonly applied, consist of structures
designed to resist natural processes such as wave action and sediment movement. These are generally
$nown as hard engineering options. This is where man made coastal defense structures are used to
reflect large amounts of wave energy and hence protect the coastline. %ard engineering options tend to
be very expensive. They are often very obvious and have a high impact on the environment. Ironically,
the fact that they are very obvious ma$es them seen reassuring to people living near them. They loo$
strong and thus give people confidence in them.
%ard engineering aims to completely bloc$ waves and their effects, but this can have the unfortunate
side effect of causing erosion of the beach in front of them. They are sometimes found in seaside resorts
and where roads & buildings are sited right on the shoreline. Some techniques of hard engineering are as
follows#
Groynes
These are fences or walls generally perpendicular to the coastline that are built into the sea. It is
designed to intercept sand and gravel movement along the beach by longshore drift. The sand acts as
a natural protection against the force of the waves. The waves brea$ onto the beach and not the
cliffs. This reduces erosion as there is a larger beach, which absorbs more wave energy. This means
if any waves do hit the cliff they have a much reduced energy, which results in less erosion. 'roynes
are constructed from timber, sheet piling, concrete or boulders. (odern designs are often )*, T* or +*
shaped. 'roynes may however starve areas further down the coast of material by stopping longshore
drift, resulting in an increase in erosion in these areas.
Sea Walls
Sea walls are vertical or sloping walls, built along the shoreline formed of concrete, roc$, sheet
piling or timber. They concentrate wave energy and reflect it bac$ at the sea. ,aves scour at the
bases of the walls - eventually undermine them, causing failure. .ip*rap may be placed in front of
the wall to prevent this. They may have a curved top to reflect more wave energy. /therwise,
seawalls only provide temporary protection before needing replacement.

Revetments
revetment is a sloping ramp of concrete or wooden wall with gaps between each piece. They can
also have stones piled up behind them. The structures absorb the energy of the waves before they
reach the cliffs and prevents wave scour. .evetments also allow sediment to pass through them,
which means that long shore drift is not stopped. They are also very cheap as well as being visually
intrusive0 however they do need replacing more frequently than most other defence methods.

Rock Armour (Rip Rap)
.oc$ rmour are designed walls and revetments constructed of boulders of a uniform size, typically
many tonnes in weight !similar structures may, exceptionally, be formed from pre*cast concrete
bloc$s"0 rip-rap is a general term covering less tightly specified dumped or placed roc$ structures.
They are permeable structures so allow water through but they are able to dissipate wave energy by
absorbing the impact of the waves. The boulders can however be undermined easily by waves
washing away sand and shingle beneath them. 1oulders are much cheaper than sea walls - are
longer lasting. They can also act as groynes - can prevent longshore drift.
Gabions
'abions are strong wire bas$ets filled with stone, stac$ed vertically or stepped0 often sloped to form
gabion mattresses. They gradually get covered with grass and sand. The stones also dissipate the
strength of the waves before they hit the cliffs. They are cheaper than sea walls and can be very
effective where severe erosion is a problem. They can be placed on a beach or in front of a cliff.
%owever, potential problems arise when the wire mesh brea$s !risk of inury".

!ffs"ore #reak$aters
/ffshore brea$waters are located in the sea below the low water mar$. It may consist of dumped
interloc$ing material or concrete wall. This method protects the shore from all waves.

/ffshore brea$waters
Dumpin%
2umping piles of roc$, hard core or other waste material tipped over the coastal edge
&loo' embankments
3lood emban$ments are formed of metal, concrete, roc$, timber, rubble or turf.
S!&( ENGINEERING
4articularly in more rural settings, or those with a high conservation value, soft engineering options
are often considered. These are designed to emulate, harness or manipulate natural processes. This is
where beaches or naturally formed materials are used to control & re*direct erosion processes. Soft
engineering options are often less expensive than hard engineering options. They are usually also more
long*term and sustainable, with less impact on the environment. Some techniques of soft 5 engineering
are as follows#
#eac" Nouris"ment ) Replenis"in%
This involves the replacement of sand&pebbles on eroding beaches which has been dredged from the
sea bed. In some cases it is pumped onto the shore. 1eaches are the best natural protection against
erosion as they dissipate wave energy. The problem with beach nourishment is that one severe
storm event may remove vast amounts of the expensive sediment. 6nvironmentally, this is a
preferred option as it maintains the beauty of the landscape and avoids visual intrusion, however it
can be expensive to maintain as longshore drift continues to move beach material down the coast
and therefore regular replenishment is required.

#eac" Res"apin% ) Stabili*in% San' Dunes
Sand dunes and cliffs are a natural sea defence. They dissipate wave energy and protect the area
behind from flooding. They are stabilised by fences or by planting grasses to hold the sand and
roc$s together. This is cheap and effective but easily damaged by people if not maintained and
has a short life span.

+ana%e' Retreat
(anaged retreat is also $nown as managed realignment. This is where in certain areas, the sea is
allowed to reclaim !flood" the land that was once covered by the sea by breaching an existing
coastal defense, such as a sea wall. This land is then left to be colonized by saltmarsh vegetation.
,hen established, the vegetation disperses wave energy, reduces erosion rates and provides new
habitats. natural and long*term sustainable solution..
6ngineers do nothing and the coast is allowed to suffer erosion, deposition and flooding
naturally. This is usually done where the land is of low economic value. It is, of course, very
inexpensive in the short term although if land erodes there may be a need to compensate people
for the loss of businesses, land and homes.

Se'iment #ypassin% , transport of beach sediment, usually by lorry, from the updrift side of an
obstruction, such as a pier, to the downdrift side.
Se'iment Recyclin% * Transport of beach sediment, usually by lorry, from the downdrift end of a
beach bac$ to its updrift end.
Wave barrier fencin%
#eac" Draina%e !r De$aterin% Sc"emes * 1urial of a permeable pipeline below a sandy beach
which, when connected to a pump, draws sea water from swashing waves downwards through
the beach surface reducing bac$wash and promoting sand deposition.
Set #ack * .emoval of coastal defenses inland to permit natural evolution of a shoreline and, if
the coastline is eroding, generation of a supply of beach sediment.
Certain other coastal defenses combine elements of hard and soft engineering. These include#
Nears"ore an' &ores"ore Revetments * +inear mounds of roc$ armour placed on the intertidal
or subtidal areas of the beach to reduce wave energy and create a wave shadow on the shore
where sediments will accumulate.
Stron%points , (ounds of roc$ armour placed strategically along an eroding cliffline0 these halt
erosion where placed but allow temporary retreat of the intervening land until a series of stable
bays is formed.
-!AS(A. DE&EN-E AND (HE EN/IR!N+EN(
3ew forms of coastal defense have a benign effect upon the environment, as all are designed to counter
the natural evolution of the coastline. ny form of defense which reduces or prevents sediment loss from
a previously eroding coastline reduces sediment supply to the beach and in so doing may contribute to
increased erosion elsewhere.
In practice coastal defense schemes may incorporate elements of both hard and soft engineering so that
the classification of each scheme is in part sub7ective. 8umerous factors affect the nature of any
environmental impacts and depending on the scheme9s design, not all may arise. The significance of any
potential environmental impact is strongly influenced by the size of the scheme concerned.
Coastal defense structures can shape the shoreline
Coastal defense structures have a strong influence on the configuration of the shoreline. rtificial
structures can influence sediment transport, reduce the ability of the shoreline to respond to natural
forcing factors and fragment the coastal space. This can result in loss of habitats and lead to noise and
visual disturbance of birds. /n the positive side, coastal defense structures can increase shipping and
tourism and increase or restore natural habitats in certain cases. new concept of sediment management
is needed to maintain sediment balance and fight coastal erosion.
.
Increasing erosion affects all coasts
The need for more coastal defense structures arises directly from the increasing coastal erosion that
affects many coasts. The ma7ority of these coastal erosion problems are induced by human activities. In
the future, the impact of global warming and climate change !sea level rise, storm surges, coastal floods"
will become more important. 4eople are increasingly occupying low*lying areas that are exposed to
flooding, thus exacerbating their vulnerability to extreme events. The importance and scale of coastal
defense structures will increase accordingly, potentially generating greater environmental impacts. n
evaluation of the present use of coastal defense techniques shows that in general, countries with short
coastlines and sandy beaches tend to protect the ma7ority of their coastline with both soft and hard
defense techniques. Countries with long coastlines, including cliffs and roc$s, protect only a small
portion of the coastline. This protection is generally restricted to hard defense techniques near harbours
and cities. %ard defense techniques, such as building sea walls, have been used since the :;<<s while
soft defense techniques have been used since the :=<<s. 1each nourishment, underwater sand
nourishment and beach scraping were first used in the :=><s and their use is increasing.
The environmental impacts of coastal defense structures are closely related to the different
techniques used
distinction has to be made between hard and soft coastal defense structures and between short*term
!construction, maintenance" and long*term impacts !operation". The expected short*term ecological
impacts of coastal defense structures are generally negative and include disturbance of birds and
destruction of marine coastal habitats with their associated flora and fauna. +onger*term impacts of hard
coastal defense structures, such as the creation of hard substrate habitats can be seen as a minor
beneficial effect in some cases. /ther long*term impacts can be seen as negative, including damage to
benthic communities and the possible invasion of non*indigenous species. The longer*term impacts of
soft coastal defense structures are case*specific and can be positive for some beach ecosystem
components or habitats but negative for others.
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