UNIVERSITY

MAKERERE






FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF A WINDMILL TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM FOR PUMPING WATER AT LOW AND INTERMITTENT
WIND SPEEDS

A FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY


JONAH MUMBYA
05/U/564


May-2009
i

DECLARATION
I Jonah Mumbya declare that this report is original and that it has never been produced in
part or full by anyone for any award in any university, college and institution of learning.

Signature
Jonah Mumbya
Date.
We, the undersigned supervisors declare that this report fulfills the examiners requirements
for the award of a bachelors degree in Mechanical Engineering of Makerere University.

Supervisor
DR. KARIKO BUHWEZI
Senior Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Technology
Signature .
Date.
Co-supervisor
MR. PAUL ISAAC MUSASIZI
Assistant Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Technology
Signature .
Date.

ii

DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my late mother, may her soul rest in eternal peace
iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have the pleasure and honor to thank the Almighty God for the gift of wonderful life he has
given me without which nothing would be done by me.
In addition, I would like to acknowledge the marvelous contribution made by the Italian Co-
operation towards this research by availing me with the simulation software that was a
prerequisite for the successful completion of this research.
Special thanks go to my supervisor Dr. Kariko B. Buhwezi for the advice and direction offered to
me during this research
I would also like to extend my many thanks to Mr. Paul Isaac Musasizi for the academic and
professional guidance offered to me during the entire research period from the word go.
Many thanks go to Mr. James Herzing the Product Support Engineer Autodesk Algor for all the
technical support he extended to me without which it would be difficult to realize the objectives
of this research.
Last but not least, I would like to especially thank my family members robina, agness, peter,
Charles and my dad for all the support psychological and financial that was rendered to enable
me finish this research, God bless you all.

iv

CONTENTS
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................................... x
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Main Objective ................................................................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Justification ............................................................................................................................ 2
1.5 Scope ....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.6 Summary of Methodology ...................................................................................................... 3
1.7 Summary of Results ............................................................................................................... 3
1.8 Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.9 Ethical Considerations: .......................................................................................................... 4
1.10 Report Outline........................................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................... 6
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Wind Resource ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Wind Power ............................................................................................................................ 6
v

2.4 Windmill ................................................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Windmill components ............................................................................................................ 7
2.6 Transmission System ............................................................................................................ 11
2.6.1 Belt Transmission Mechanism ......................................................................................... 11
2.6.2 Chain Drive Transmission Mechanism ............................................................................. 12
2.6.3 Gear Drive Transmission Mechanism .............................................................................. 13
2.6.4 Drive Shaft Mechanism ................................................................................................... 15
2.6.5 Crank Transmission Mechanism ...................................................................................... 16
2.7 Drag Devices ......................................................................................................................... 17
2.7.1 Torque ............................................................................................................................ 18
2.7.2 Power Coefficient ........................................................................................................... 19
2.7.3 Torque coefficient ............................................................................................................. 2
2.8 Hydraulic Power .................................................................................................................... 2
2.9 Transmission System Design and Modeling ........................................................................ 22
2.9.1 Physical Product Design .................................................................................................. 22
2.9.2 Computer Aided Drawing ................................................................................................ 22
2.10 Transmission System Testing............................................................................................... 22
2.10.1 Physical Testing .............................................................................................................. 22
2.10.2 Computer Simulation ...................................................................................................... 23
2.11 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 25
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Preliminary Design............................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Detailed Design ..................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.1 Wind Power .................................................................................................................... 29
vi

3.3.2 Rotational Shaft Speed ................................................................................................... 31
3.3.3 Shaft Torque ................................................................................................................... 32
3.3.4 Hydraulic Power ............................................................................................................. 33
3.3.5 Water Flow Rate ............................................................................................................. 35
3.3.6 Design Stroke Volume ..................................................................................................... 36
3.3.7 Pump Size ....................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.8 Pump Rod Design............................................................................................................ 38
3.3.9 Crank Mechanism Design................................................................................................ 42
3.3.10 Crank Shaft Design ......................................................................................................... 45
3.3.11 Design of Connecting Rod ............................................................................................... 51
3.3.13 Design of Yoke Pin .......................................................................................................... 53
3.4 Bearing Selection .................................................................................................................. 54
3.5 Computer Aided Drawings .................................................................................................. 57
3.6 Simulation ............................................................................................................................ 58
3.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 59
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .................................... 61
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 61
4.2 Mechanical Events Simulation ............................................................................................. 61
4.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 66
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................. 67
5.1 Recommended Specifications ............................................................................................... 67
5.2 Further Related Research .................................................................................................... 67
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 68


vii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Different Pump Types and Their Head Ranges and Maximum Efficiencies ................................. 10
Table 2: Drag Coefficient of Different Blade Shapes .............................................................................. 18
Table 3: Power Coefficient as a Function of Tip Speed Ratio .................................................................. 19
Table 4: Transmission System Concepts ................................................................................................ 25
Table 5: Concept Selection Creteria ...................................................................................................... 27
Table 6: A table Showing Values of Euler Constant C ............................................................................. 40
Table 7: Table of Preferred Sizes ........................................................................................................... 41
Table 8: Table of Fatigue Stress Constants ............................................................................................ 47
Table 9: Bearing Size Selection Table .................................................................................................... 50
Table 10: Table of Reliability Factors ..................................................................................................... 54
Table 11: Comparison of Bearing Types ................................................................................................ 54
Table 12: The Selection Scoring Matrix Is Table ..................................................................................... 56
Table 13: Table of Results on Connecting Rod ....................................................................................... 62
Table 14: Table of Results on Yoke Pins ................................................................................................. 64
Table 15: Table of Results on Crank Shaft ............................................................................................. 66
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Horizontal Axis Windmill .......................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2: ................................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 3: Flat Belt .................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 4: Pair of V-Belts ........................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 5: Chain Drive............................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 6: Spur Gear Interaction ............................................................................................................. 14
Figure 7: Spur-Rack Interaction ............................................................................................................. 14
Figure 8: Bevel Gear Interaction............................................................................................................ 14
viii

Figure 9: Shaft Drive Mechanism .......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 10: Single Crank Shaft ................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 11: An Example of a Cranking Transmission System .................................................................... 17
Figure 12: (a) Principle of a Persian Wind wheel (b) Siplified Model .................................................. 17
Figure 13: Isometric View Of The Transmission System ......................................................................... 28
Figure 14: Exploded View Of The Transmission System ......................................................................... 28
Figure 15: Monogram for Selecting Flow Rate of the Pump ................................................................... 35
Figure 16: Monogram for Selecting Pump Capacity ............................................................................... 36
Figure 17: Monogram for Determining Pump Size ................................................................................. 37
Figure 19: Euler Column........................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 18: Pump Rod Free Body Diagram .............................................................................................. 39
Figure 20: Crank Slide Mechanism ........................................................................................................ 42
Figure 21: Slide Crank Motion ............................................................................................................... 43
Figure 22: Figure for Selection of Crank Linkages .................................................................................. 44
Figure 23: Shaft Engineering Drawing ................................................................................................... 45
Figure 24: Shaft Free Body Diagram ...................................................................................................... 45
Figure 25: Shaft Moment Free Body Diagram ........................................................................................ 48
Figure 26: Shaft Bending Moment Diagram ........................................................................................... 49
Figure 27: Bearing Outline .................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 28: Engineering Drawing Of Connecting Rod .............................................................................. 51
Figure 29: Solid View Of Connecting Rod .............................................................................................. 51
Figure 30: Crank Pin Layout .................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 31: Crank Pin Bending Moment Diagram .................................................................................... 52
Figure 32: Solid View of Yoke ................................................................................................................ 53
Figure 33: Solid Model of Transmission System Assembly ..................................................................... 57
ix

Figure 34: Exploded View of Transmission System ................................................................................ 57
Figure 35: Model Mesh ......................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 36: MES Analysis of Connecting Rod Showing Von Mises Stress .................................................. 61
Figure 37: MES Analysis of Connecting Rod With Webs Showing Von Mises Stress................................ 62
Figure 38: MES Analysis of Yoke Showing Von Mises Stress................................................................... 63
Figure 39: MES Analysis of YOke With Bosses Showing Von Mises Stress .............................................. 63
Figure 40: MES Analysis of Upper Yoke Pin Showing Von Mises Stress .................................................. 64
Figure 41: MES Analysis of Lower Yoke Pin Showing Von Mises Stress .................................................. 65
Figure 42: MES Analysis of Crank Shaft Showing Von Mises Stress ........................................................ 65


x

LIST OF ACRONYMS
B Number of Blades
C Coefficient of Variation in Column
Loading
CAD Computer Aided Design
d
C Drag Coefficient
p
C Power Coefficient
D Drag Force (N), Diameter (mm)
E Kinetic Energy, Modulus of
Elasticity (N/m
2
)
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations
FEA Finite Element Analysis
g Acceleration due to Gravity (m
2
/s)
H Head (m)
I Second Moment of Area (m
4
)
l Length (m)
m Mass (kg)
MES Mechanical Event Simulation
N Factor of Safety
a
P Allowable Load (N)
cr
P Critical Load (N)
h
P Hydraulic Power (Watts)
shaft
P Shaft Power (Watts)
wind
P Wind Power (Watts)
q Flow Rate (m
3
/s) or (l/s)
R Rotor Radius (m)
T Torque (Nm)
V Linear Velocity (m/s)
q Efficiency
u Angle (degrees)
Tip-Speed Ratio
a
Air Density (kg/m
3
)
w
Water Density (kg/m
3
)
| Rotor Diameter (m)
O Rotational Speed (rads/sec)
2D Two Dimensions
3D Three Dimensions


xi

ABSTRACT
Many areas in Uganda are faced with an acute shortage of water supply for agricultural use and
domestic needs. With dry spells increasingly getting prolonged manifested with drying water
streams and inadequate rain falls, it leaves many persons especially rural dwellers with few
options for survival since they primarily depend on rain water and small streams as their primary
supply source.
Wind pumps are seen to be good alternatives to the steady supply of water with economic
feasibility. It has however been noted that some windmills that have been fabricated locally and
installed have failed to meet the desired objectives as they malfunction or fail to work at
commissioning sighting problems with the designs.
In this respect, a project was launched in 2007 under the Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Technology Makerere University funded by the Italian co-operation to optimize the
design of a wind mill able to operate in low and medium wind speed regimes.
So far a windmill rotor has been optimized and this research sought to optimize the transmission
system by using computer aided tools like CAD and computer simulation using Algor and
develop appropriate design specifications for the system. This involved MES of the models
aimed at establishing failure patterns, resultant stresses, forces and displacements.
From the research, recommendations were made sighting that a simple crank mechanism would
do well with the specifications thereof came up with.
Further research is hence needed in the optimization of the tower and the pumping system that
would pave way for the construction of better design windmills with foresight into their
operation and this will reduce on the sole dependence on rain fall as a source of water which is
becoming increasingly unreliable.



1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Windmills are machines designed to convert wind energy into mechanical energy using rotating
blades or sails. They were first built to automate the task of grinding grain and pumping water
for irrigation, domestic use and for livestock.
There are two types of windmill today which are the horizontalaxis wind machines and vertical-
axis windmills deriving the respective names from the orientation of the power transmission
shaft from the rotor. (www.westaustrianvista.com, 2008)
Windmills are not much in use in Uganda yet even when they could be a solution to the
unreliable supply of power to deliver both piped and natural water for domestic, irrigation and
livestock farming. In a few cases where they have been put up, they are either inefficient at work
or fail to work completely from the time of erection a typical example is of a windmill on a
Ranch in Mukono district that was installed to pump water for livestock and failed to work.
Failures of such windmills can be attributed to poor and rudimentary design practices that could
have been used paying little attention design parameters like materials used, dimensions, weight
and fabrication procedures. (Njuki, 2008)
It is against this background that a research program was instituted in January 2007 funded by
the Italian co-operation aimed at building research capacity and there after availing windmill
technology to the local manufacturers for development. If well developed, this technology can
help curb the acute problem of insufficient and unreliable supply of water by utilizing the
abundant wind energy resource that would see great improvements in agricultural practices like
commercializing farming, fish farming, livestock farming and many more.
Research therefore was commenced in 2007/08 by optimizing the design of a rotor (a component
of the windmill that transforms wind energy into rotary kinetic energy as wind strikes its blades)
that can work effectively in regions with low and irregular winds a typical scenario with Uganda.
This research is ongoing and now therefore seeks to design a transmission system that can work
with the optimized design of the rotor.
This involves the use of improved product design techniques like using structured engineering
design procedures and using computerized design tools like 3D computer modeling and
simulation tools like Algor to predict the performance of the models way before they are
fabricated and hence determining appropriate manufacturing procedures.

2

1.2 Problem Statement
Since research study in the optimization of design of a windmill rotor was done, there is need for
continuation into the design research of a windmill to operate in low and intermittent wind
speeds.
This therefore calls for the design and simulation of a transmission system to work with the
designed rotor in order to optimize performance of the windmill, using design tools like 3D
modelers like solid Edge and Algor to simulate the performance prior to fabrication and
installation.
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 Main Objective
The main objective is to develop design specifications for the transmission system to operate at
low and intermittent wind speeds.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are to;
1. Determine input parameters to the transmission system using the wind and rotor available
data.
2. Develop Computer Aided Drawings of the transmission system components and their
assembly.
3. Simulate the different components of the transmission system and their assemblies to obtain
stress reaction forces and displacement behaviors
4. Recommend appropriate design specifications of the transmission system based on
simulation results.
1.4 Justification
The following justifications are given for undertaking the above stated project;
This study can act as a benchmark for further studies in the design and development of windmills
on scholarly or commercial grounds.
Other windmills can be developed for other regions which even have different wind regimes
other than Mukono using the design parameters that shall be developed in this project. This can
be done by altering a few conditions like transmission system parameters to fit the conditions
prevailing in such areas like wind speeds, required heads and required rate of pumping.
3

This research can provide cheaper means of development of windmills locally designed to meet
local working conditions, an alternative to importation that ranges between US$9,000 and
US$25,000.
This research shall provide documented design specifications and parameters that can be based
on for further commercial and scholarly research into the operation of windmill water pumps in
Uganda and other regions.
After successful completion of this research, academic expertise and knowledge shall be
obtained in the field of product design and simulation.
1.5 Scope
A prerequisite research to this was conduct in 2007/08 which put emphasis on the design of a
windmill rotor, in this research therefore, focus shall be directed to the design and simulation of a
transmission system to work with the designed rotor. It shall look at the various types of
transmission systems selection of an appropriate system, the different components and hence
their design. It shall therefore not involve the design and simulation of the rotor, the support
structure, and the pumping unit.
1.6 Summary of Methodology
The methods that were used during the research study where;
Preliminary design that tackled the design considerations, the customer requirements, concept
generation and selection criteria, the components to be designed and the layout of the assembly
of the system and the selection criteria for materials
The detailed designed gave a detailed mathematical analysis of the power, torque and rotational
speed at the different wind speeds that are used in the design, pump sizing, design water flow
rate, component detailed design, bearing selection criteria and simulation of the modeled parts
and the assembly.
1.7 Summary of Results
The results obtained at the end of this research are as summarized below;
Shaft: Shaft diameter 80mm and of length 1.5m with a crank offset located at 1.1m from the
rotor side.
Crank Pin: Diameter of crank pin of 50mm and length 100mm
Connecting Rod: It is of 400mm length with webs of thickness 25mm with a yoke pin bore of
14mm diameter.
4

Yoke: This is of circular section of out diameter of 73.36mm and inner bore of diameter 40mm
and 40mm height, with bosses of protrusion 5mm at the upper pin bore.
Yoke Pins: Upper Pin Diameter of 14mm, Lower Pin diameter of 15mm
Pump Rod: This is of hollow circular section with outer diameter of 40mm and inner diameter
of 25mm and overall length of 15m.
Bearings: Spherical roller bearings are to be used.
1.8 Limitations
The major constraints to this research were as stated below;
Lower Systems Specifications Requirements: The biggest challenge was the inadequacy of
the computer that was used for this research had specifications below the minimum requirement
for some simulations like MES of assemblies. The minimum requirements for proper Algor
operation are, for a 32-bit processor;
Dual Intel Xeon or AMD Opteron Processor, 3 GHz or higher, 2 GB RAM or higher (3
GB for MES and CFD applications), 30 GB of free disk space or higher, 256 MB or higher
OpenGL accelerated graphics card, DVD-R drive.
While the computer used was a single 3.4GHz though it met all the other requirements, making it
difficult to carry out bulky simulations especially for assemblies.
Late Software Licensing: This affected the research in that the time for practicing and fully
appreciating the use of the simulation package was reduced. This was majorly as a result of poor
coordination amongst the three parties that were involve, Algor, Italian co-operation and the end
user.
Slow Internet Connections: The fact that the software licensing was done late, licensing was to
be done online which took some time to do because most of the trials were futile due to slow
internet connections at the faculty of technology by then.
Abrupt Load-Shedding in the Faculty: With a slow speed machine, setting up and running a
single simulation would take several hours and power cuts would occur amidst some simulation
processes calling for undesirable restarts of the analyses.
1.9 Ethical Considerations:
During the entire research study, there was keen observation of patent rights, copy rights and all
other rights covering the publication of research findings by other researchers and publishers as
governed by Makerere University and other regulating bodies.
5

1.10 Report Outline
This report starts with giving a deep background in chapter one that gives the state of windmill
technology; it then defines the problem and sets the desired objectives giving clear justification
of the research. It also gives a precise and concise spell on the summaries of the methodology,
results forth obtained and limitations with ethical considerations.
Chapter two reviews the literature that gives better understanding of the wind resource and the
power within the wind. It further gives account on the different components of the windmill
thereafter emphasizing the transmission system and its different mechanisms; it handles the CAD
method of modeling and computer simulation as a method of testing designs.
The methods that were used to realize the set objectives are presented in chapter three giving a
detailed spell of preliminary and detailed design, the CAD models and simulation procedures.
Chapter four presents the discussion of results obtained from the simulation of the CAD models
generated in chapter three.
Recommendations are presented in chapter five concluding with the areas for future research
6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter shall give coverage of the works and researches that have been carried out prior to
this one in the exploitation of wind energy for the pumping of water using windmills as working
equipments. It will give a deep oversight into the information that shall be important in the
design and simulation of a windmill transmission system as a requirement for this study.
2.2 Wind Resource
Global winds are caused by pressure differences across the earths surface due to the uneven
heating of the earth by the solar radiation. For example the amount of solar radiation absorbed at
the earths surface is greater at the equator than at the poles. The variation in incoming energy
sets up convective cells in the lower layers of the atmosphere (the troposphere). Thus is simple
flow model, air rises at the equator and sinks at the poles. The circulation of the atmosphere that
results from uneven heating is greatly affected by the effects of the rotation of the earth (at
speeds of about 600km/h at the equator, decreasing to zero at the poles) In addition; seasonal
variations in the distribution of solar energy give rise to variations in the circulation. (R. Gasch,
2002)
2.3 Wind Power
This refers to the power that can be tapped from the wind which relates to the velocity of the
wind V, the area impacted A, and the density of the flowing air as below;
3
2
1
AV P
a wind
= (i)
The expression above shows that the power in the wind P is proportional to the air density, the
intercepting area A and the third power of velocity V. Since the power held within the wind is
kinetic energy, we can equate power to the rate of kinetic energy;
2
2
1
mV E= .. (ii)
Then equating equations (i) and (ii), we obtain the mass of air through the area A over a period
of time as;

dt
dx
A AV
a m
= =
.
This is itself proportional to the velocity, the power is;
7

2 2
. .
2
1
2
1
AV V p
a wind m E
= = = .............. (iii) (R. Gasch, 2002)
2.4 Windmill
A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind. It is designed to convert the
energy of the wind into more useful forms using rotating blades or sails. The term also refers to the
structure it is commonly built on. There are two classifications of windmills that are; vertical and
horizontal axis windmills depending on the orientation of the transmission shaft connected to the
rotor.

Figure 1: Horizontal Axis Windmill
2.5 Windmill components
In order for the windmill to change the kinetic engergy in the wind to mechanical energy and to
transmit it to the where it is to be applied, the following components are necessary.
(a) Rotor
It is a circular wheel with a couple of curved blades mounted on it that help in the tapping of
wind energy (kinetic) and changing it into rotational (mechanical) energy. Therefore the rotor is
regarded as the most important part of the windmill because it determines the amount of work
the windmill can perform, the size of the windmill will always be described by the diameter id its
rotor. The rotor attaches to the windmills drive train to which it delivers its energy. (2004 Paul
Gipe Wind power)
The rotor speed is similar to the principal dimensions-one of the main design parameters of a
windmill. The power of a windmill
8

nT T P t 2 = O = is equivalent to rotor torque T times rotor speed t
2
n
= O with
1 1
2
v
R
v
nR
O = = t
, the rotor speed is linked to the tip speed and free stream velocity v
1
. The
tip speed ratio is an important parameter for the aerodynamic design of the rotor blades. Slow
speed windmills have a tip speed ratio of 1 = and provide a high torque (R. Gasch, 2002)
Solidity: This is the percentage of the circumference of the rotor filled by the blades. It is infact
the swept area of the rotor, which is filled with metal. The general equation for calculatng
solidity is given by;
| NB solidity 8 . 31 =

Where
N- Is the number of the blades
B- Is the blade width (m)
|
- Is the diameter of the rotor (m)
The greater the solidity of the rotor, the slower it needs to turn to intercept the wind. The high
speed two or three bladed turbine is caused by the fact is has to rotate very fast to intercept the
wind otherwise a lot of the wind energy would be lost through the large gaps between the blades.
The typical solidity of a multi-bladed rotor of a wind pump is between 40%-60%.
Tip-speed ratio: This is the ratio of the speed of the rotor blade tips to the speed of the wind.
The general formula for calculating the tip-speed ratio is;
v ratio speed Tip |e 052 . 0 =

Where;
| - is the rotor diameter (m)
e - is the rotational speed of the rotor (rpm)
v - is the wind speed (m/s)
If the rotor is rotating faster than the wind speed ratio, it will have a tip-speed ratio of greater
than one and if it rotates slower than the wind speed, its tip-speed ratio will be less than one.
9

Rotors that rely on drag forces to turn them such as panamones can never rotate faster than the
wind speed and will always have their tip-speed ratio of less than one.
(b) Yawing
The yawing system is used to orient the rotor into the wind. Horizontal axis devices orient their
rotors into the wind passively by wind vanes or actively by using fantails or yaw devices. (R.
Gasch, 2002)
(c) Braking System
It would not be feasible to dimension all components of a windmill so that they can extract the
immense power potential of storms. The cost for this extra yield would be too high, taking into
consideration the few incidents of such extreme wind speeds, hence windmills are shut down
during high wind speeds and having only to survive typical cut out speeds are between 20-
25m/s most windmills use brakes for the storm shutdown, they are triggered by a control
command of the supervisory system and operates mechanically on the drive train or
aerodynamically on the rotor, wind turbines with an active power control, the storm shutdown
can be considered an extreme limitation of the power output, a condition which the windmill
reaches gradually with increasing wind speed. Often the windmill is not completely stopped but
left spinning that is, idling at a very low rotational speed. (R. Gasch, 2002)
(d) Tower
The tower is as important for static stability of the windmill as it is for the dynamic behavior of
the windmill, therefore when preparing documentation, the manufacturer is obliged to analyze
his/her construction in details. The head assembly of the windmill (rotor, transmission, and
safety system) is supported by a tower. This tower raises the assembly over any obstructions into
a fair, unobstructed wind. (R. Gasch, 2002)
In addition the tower serves as a rig when installing the pipes of deep well pumps. Windmill
towers are normally of lattice construction, factory welded as complete sections, or bolted
together at the installation site. Normally they have four legs, sometimes three. Tower heights
range from 6 m for small windmills to 18m for large windmills
(e) Pumping System
A pump is a mechanical device used to move fluids, such as gases, liquids slurries. A pump
displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action
10

Table 1: Different Pump Types and Their Head Ranges and Maximum Efficiencies
Working
Principle
Displacement Flow Lift by Elevation Lift
Design
Type
Piston
Pump
Diaphragm
Pump
Eccentric
Screw Pump
Centrifugal
Singe Stage
Centrifugal
Multi
Stage
Screw
Pump
Chain
Pump
Mammoth
Pump
H/m 10-300 2-4 10-300 1-10 10-300 1-3 2-5 5-30
optimum
q 85% 70% 75% 75% 75% 65% 50% 50%
Figure 2:
Pumping from bore holes and deep wells require different pump designs and types from those
pumping from the earth surface. Sub merged pumps are used for deep well and bore hole
pumping. These pumps are normally one of the two major categories of water pumps that are
centrifugal or positive displacement pumps.
Surface water pumping on the other hand uses surface mounted pumps with suction lift. These
pumps are of many different categories but the most power driven is the axial flow, centrifugal
or mixed flow suction pump.
Positive displacement pumps: They may have a reciprocating or rotary drive, both types are
used for windmills but they require different transmission design and arrangements.
Piston pumps normally operate at very low speeds of between 1-50 strokes per minute. They
should not be operated faster than this because there is a danger of causing serious damage to the
pump rod from compression forces. The stroke speeds are similar to the rotation al speeds of
large wind pump rotors, so that wind pump rotors of more than 5m diameter can be directly
coupled to piston pumps without any need for gearing to reduce or increase the speed, small
wind pumps rotate faster than larger ones and in general need gearing down meaning pumps will
rotate/operate efficiently over their complete range of speeds but only disadvantageous in that
they require a much more greater torque to start than they do to keep them running.
Rotary positive displacement pumps: These share advantages with piston pumps for wind
pumping. They have an added advantage that they are not subject to such large impulse forces
such as piston pumps and may therefore be made from cheaper lighter components. They have a
disadvantage of starting torque being larger that running torque, although for different reasons.
When a rotary positive displacement pump is not in use the rotor tends to stick to the stator and a
larger force is needed to overcome this sticking when the pump is starting from rest. As the
pump becomes older and the stator wears, the sticking force lessens but the pump efficiency
drops because water can flow back the stator.
(f) Transmission System
After extracting energy from the wind by a rotor, it is required to be transferred to where it is to
be used to do work; a transmission system is therefore responsible for the transmission of this
11

mechanical energy from the prime mover (rotor) to where work is to be done and this can be
done by a mechanical connection which can either rotate (shafts, belts or gears) or reciprocate
(pump rods or levers), Where power has to be transmitted some distance, then electricity,
hydraulic pressure or compressed air can be used, since it is difficult to transmit mechanical
power any distance, especially if changes of direction or bends are needed.
2.6 Transmission System
There are several transmission mechanisms that can be exploited for the transmission of power
from the rotor to the pump and some of these include;
2.6.1 Belt Transmission Mechanism
A Belt is a looped strip of flexible material, used to mechanically link two or more rotating
shafts. They may be used as a source of motion, to efficiently transmit power, or to track
relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys. In a two pulley system, the belt can either
drive the pulleys in the same direction, or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the
shafts is opposite. As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is
adapted to continually carry a load between two points.


Figure 3: Flat Belt



Figure 4: Pair of V-Belts


(a) Power Transmission
Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be parallel.
Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The demands on a belt
drive transmission system are large and this has led to many variations on the theme. They run
12

smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes, albeit with
less strength than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts
in systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears.
(b) Pros and Cons
Belt drive, moreover, is simple, inexpensive, and does not require parallel shafts. Load
fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal
maintenance. They have high efficiency (90-98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for
misalignment, and are inexpensive if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is activated by
releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be obtained by step or tapered pulleys.
However, the angular-velocity ratio is not constant or equal to that of the pulley diameters, due to
slip and stretch. Heat accumulation is present, and speed is limited to approximately 2134m/min,
and a power of only 500 hp (370 kW). Temperatures range from -35 to 85 C. Adjustment of
center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch.
2.6.2 Chain Drive Transmission Mechanism
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used
to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used
in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.
Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain, passing over a
sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing with the holes in the links of the chain. The
gear is turned, and this pulls the chain putting mechanical force into the system. Another type of
drive chain is the Morse chain, invented by the Morse Chain Company of Ithaca, New York,
USA. This has inverted teeth

Figure 5: Chain Drive
13

Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or drag
objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by attaching
shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops, they can also go
around corners by placing more than two gears along the chain; gears that do not put power into
the system or transmit it out are generally known as idler-wheels. By varying the diameter of the
input and output gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be altered, so that, for
example, the pedals of a bicycle can spin all the way around more than once for every rotation of
the gear that drives the wheels.
Chains versus Belts: Drive chains are similar to drive belts in many ways, and which device is
used is subject to several design tradeoffs. Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts
are often rubber, plastic, or other substances. This makes drive chains heavier, so more of the
work put into the system goes into moving a chain versus moving a belt. On the other hand, well-
made chains are often stronger than belts. Also, drive belts can often slip (unless they have teeth)
which means that the output side may not rotate at a precise speed, and some work gets lost to
the friction of the belt against its rollers.
Teeth on toothed drive belts generally wear faster than links on chains, but wear on rubber or
plastic belts and their teeth is often easier to observe; you can often tell a belt is wearing out and
about to break more easily than a chain. Chains often last longer.
Chains are often narrower than belts, and this can make it easier to shift them to larger or smaller
gears in order to vary the gear ratio. Multi-speed bicycles with derailleur make use of this. Also,
the more positive meshing of a chain can make it easier to build gears that can increase or shrink
in diameter, again altering the gear ratio.
Both can be used to move objects by attaching pockets, buckets, or frames to them; chains are
often used to move things vertically by holding them in frames, as in industrial toasters, while
belts are good at moving things horizontally in the form of conveyor belts. It is not unusual for
the systems to be used in combination; for example the rollers that drive conveyor belts are
themselves often driven by drive chains.
2.6.3 Gear Drive Transmission Mechanism
A gear is a component within a transmission device that transmits rotational force to another
gear or device. A gear is different from a pulley in that a gear is a round wheel that has linkages
("teeth" or "cogs") that mesh with other gear teeth, allowing force to be fully transferred without
slippage. Depending on their construction and arrangement, geared devices can transmit forces at
different speeds, torques, or in a different direction, from the power source.
14

The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear, but a gear can mesh with any
device having compatible teeth, such as linear moving racks.

Figure 6: Spur Gear Interaction

Figure 7: Spur-Rack Interaction


Figure 8: Bevel Gear Interaction
The gear's most important feature is that gears of unequal sizes (diameters) can be combined to
produce a mechanical advantage, so that the rotational speed and torque of the second gear are
different from those of the first. In the context of a particular machine, the term "gear" also refers
to one particular arrangement of gears among other arrangements (such as "first gear"). Such
arrangements are often given as a ratio, using the number of teeth or gear diameter as units. The
term "gear" is also used in non-geared devices that perform equivalent tasks:
The interlocking of the teeth in a pair of meshing gears means that their circumferences
necessarily move at the same rate of linear motion (for example, meters per second, or feet per
minute). Since rotational speed (for example measured in revolutions per second, revolutions per
minute, or radians per second) is proportional to a wheel's circumferential speed divided by its
15

radius, we see that the larger the radius of a gear, the slower will be its rotational speed, when
meshed with a gear of given size and speed. The same conclusion can also be reached by a
different analytical process: counting teeth. Since the teeth of two meshing gears are locked in a
one to one correspondence, when all of the teeth of the smaller gear have passed the point where
the gears meet that is to say, when the smaller gear has made one revolution -- not all of the
teeth of the larger gear will have passed that point -- the larger gear will have made less than one
revolution. The smaller gear makes more revolutions in a given period of time; it turns faster.
The speed ratio is simply the reciprocal ratio of the numbers of teeth on the two gears.
(Speed A * Number of teeth A) = (Speed B * Number of teeth B)
This ratio is known as the gear ratio.
2.6.4 Drive Shaft Mechanism
A drive shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to
connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of distance
or the need to allow for relative movement between them.
Drive shafts are carriers of torque: they are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the
difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to bear
the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.

Figure 9: Shaft Drive Mechanism
These are typically ideal for VAWT where there is direct connection between the windmill rotor
and the pump. This mechanism has the following advantages;
- Drive system is less likely to become jammed or broken, a common problem with chain-driven
bicycles
- More consistent performance. Drive shafts consistently deliver 94% efficiency, whereas a
chain-driven system can deliver anywhere from 75-97% efficiency based on condition.
16

- They are ideal for systems in which the pump and rotor are at a considerable distance hence
gears cannot apply.
However a drive shaft system weighs more than a chain system and at optimum upkeep, a chain
delivers greater efficiency
2.6.5 Crank Transmission Mechanism
A crank is an arm at right angles to a shaft (an axle or spindle), by which motion is imparted to
or received from the shaft; it is also used to change circular into reciprocating motion, or
reciprocating into circular motion. The arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm
keyed to it.
This mechanism is used well in pumping systems that use reciprocating pumps like piston and
diaphragm pumps.


Figure 10: Single Crank Shaft
The distance the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft determines the piston
stroke measurement; a common way to increase the low-speed torque of an engine is to increase
the stroke.
Shaft
Connecting
rod
Crankshaft
Webs
17


Figure 11: An Example of a Cranking Transmission System
2.7 Drag Devices
Drag devices utilize the force that acts on an area perpendicular to the wind direction. The force
is referred to as drag. Torque, rotational speed and power of the designed vertical-axis windmill
working by the drag principal can easily be determined based on the simplification that the
torque of the substitute system in (b) above is equivalent to that of the actual wheel in (a). The
substitute system ignores the coming and going and the effect of the preceding and the following
sail.
The air velocity at the plate is u v w = , a composition of wind speed v and the blade tip speed
u=w/rpm of the interrupting area at a mean radius
m
R . The drag force is thus (R. Gasch, 2002)

Figure 12: (a) Principle of a Persian Wind wheel (b) Siplified Model
2 2
) (
2 2
u v C Aw C D
a
D
a
D
= =

.............................................. (iv)
This gives the mean driving power (actual power is slightly pulsating) of
18

|
.
|

\
|
= =
v
u
v
u
C Av C u D p
D
a
D
2
3
1
2

. (v)
|
.
|

\
|
= =
v
u
C Av u D p
p
a 3
2

... (vi)
The term in the curly brackets is equal to the power coefficient
p
C (aerodynamic efficiency). It
gives the portion of the total wind power that is converted into mechanical energy. This
coefficient has to be smaller than the maximum
Betz p
C = 0.59 determined by Betz. It depends on
tip speed ratio
v
R
v
u
m
e = = . At complete stand still, 0 = , no power is extracted from the
wind. Neither it is at idling 1 = =
Idle
when the intercepting area moves at a blade speed
equal to the speed of the wind. In between, the power coefficient reaches its optimum of
16 . 0
max
~
p
C at 33 . 0 ~
optimum
hence only 16% of the wind energy can be converted to
mechanical energy.
D
C = drag coefficient is a proportional constant and describes the
aerodynamic quality of the body; the smaller
D
C is the smaller are the drag forces.
Table 2: Drag Coefficient of Different Blade Shapes
D
C
Body
1.11 Circular plate
1.10 Square plate
0.34 Semi-sphere (open back)
1.33 Semi-sphere (open front)
2.7.1 Torque
This is the turning force produced by the rotor. It depends on the solidity and tip-speed ratio of
the rotor. High solidity rotors with low tip-speed ratios (such as the wind pump rotors) produce
much more torque than low solidity high speed machines (such as wind turbines)
However, the high speed rotors have a slightly higher maximum performance coefficient but low
staring torque. On the other hand the high solidity machines produce high starting torque but
slightly lower maximum performance coefficient.
19

The choice hence of the rotor depends on the load characteristics, a positive displacement pump
such as those used in bore holes demands a higher staring torque and hence a higher solidity
rotor is essential unless some method of unloading the rotor to make it start is included.
Positive displacement pumps that are invariably used with the wind pumps need fairly high
torque to start but will then continue to run with a lower torque. The rotor of a wind pump will
always rotate at a speed such that the torque produced exactly matches the torque required by the
pump. For this reason the torque characteristics of a windmill are important. In order to produce
a high staring torque, a high solidity rotor is needed and this is why high solidity multi-bladed
rotors are used in windmills.
For reciprocating positive displacement pumps approximately three times as much torque is
needed to start it to keep it running. This means that a wind pump will be able to operate even at
low speeds of the wind, it will just need a gust of high speed to actually start it. For example a
wind pump will need about 4.5m/s wind speed to start it but will continue to run at speeds even
lower than 2.5m/s.
2.7.2 Power Coefficient

Is the ratio of the mechanical power delivered by the windmill to the power that is in the wind
passing the rotor disc if the rotor were not present. This is represented as;
3
5 . 0 Av
P
c
a
p

= Where,
P- Is the power delivered by the windmill.
a
- Is the air density
A- Is the swept area of the rotor.
v-Is the wind speed
Table 3: Power Coefficient as a Function of Tip Speed Ratio

optimum
P
C

optimum
P
C
0.5 0.289 2.5 0.533
1.0 0.416 5.0 0.750
1.5 0.477 7.5 0.581
2.0 0.511 10.0 0.585


2

2.7.3 Torque coefficient
This is the ratio of the torque delivered by the windmill to the reference wind torque. Since
power = rotational speed times Torque, ( O =T P ), a similar relation is found for the
corresponding coefficient
R Av
T
c
q
2
5 . 0
= Where,
A- Is the rotor swept area
T- Torque
R-Rotor radius
v- Wind speed
a
- Air density
2.8 Hydraulic Power
Once the effective output, the actual amount of water the user needs, has been determined, one
must calculate the amount of power needed to pump this volume of water. The net amount of
hydraulic (pumping) energy required to lift a volume of water over a head H is given by;
gHq P
w h
=
Where;
h
P - is the required energy (Watts)
w
- is the water density (1000kg/m
3
)
H- is the head (m)
g- Acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s
2
)
q- Is the flow rate or the volume of water lifted per second in m
3
/s
This equation can be expressed as;
Hq P
h
3
810 . 9 = Watts
This can take two alternative forms as seen below;
Hq P
h
81 . 9 = - if q is expressed in liters/second and,
Hq P
h
113 . 0 = - if q is expressed in liters/day.
22


2.9 Transmission System Design and Modeling
2.9.1 Physical Product Design
Physical product design and modeling has been and is still in use for the production of
windmills. This method involves making either full size or scaled down models of the windmill
and then subjecting them to varying wind conditions to check their performance. The procedure
followed is; data on the wind speeds is collected from the area where the installation is to be
made. This data is then used to determine the parameters needed for windmill design.
2.9.2 Computer Aided Drawing
Computer Aided Drawing (CAD) is the use of computer technology to aid in the design and
particularly the drafting (technical and engineering drawings) of a part or product, including
entire buildings. It is both a visual (or drawing) and symbol-based method of communication
whose conventions are particular to a specific technical field. Drafting can be done in two
dimensions (2D) and three dimensions (3D). Drafting is the integral communication of technical
or engineering drawings and is the industrial art sub-discipline that underlies all involved
technical endeavors. In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional
drawings, these objects have traditionally been represented by three projected views at right
angles.
This technique is replacing the traditional way of generating design drawings and brings so many
advantages to the engineering world of design like improved accuracy, lowered design time,
better visualization and cost cuts. Many programs are on the market now to do this for example
Solid Edge, Solid Works, Unigraphics and so on.
2.10 Transmission System Testing
2.10.1 Physical Testing
After all the parameters have been ascertained, a scaled or full size windmill model is then
manufactured and subjected to tests. In the earlier years and in some cases now the physical
models are subjected to tests at the site of the windmill installation or outdoors using the
naturally occurring wind. In the previous years, and to some extent today, wind tunnels are used
for these tests.

23

2.10.2 Computer Simulation
Computer simulation is the discipline of designing a model of an actual or theoretical physical
system, executing the model on a digital computer to determine its real behavior when being
operated in the real world, it is hence used to predict the performance of the model before actual
physical modeling, Simulation embodies the principle of ``learning by doing to learn about the
system we must first build a model of some sort and then operate the model. To understand
reality and all of its complexity, we must build artificial objects and dynamically act out roles
with them. Computer simulation is the electronic equivalent of this type of role playing and it
serves to drive synthetic environments and virtual worlds. Within the overall task of simulation,
there are three primary sub-fields: model design, model execution and model analysis
Computer simulation can be very vital in the following cases, when;
- The model is very complex with many variables and interacting components
- The underlying variables relationships are nonlinear
- The model contains random variants
- The model output is to be visual as in a 3D computer animation.
(Fishwick, Thu Oct 19 10:30:41 EDT 1995)
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for
specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is
able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to
manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify
the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be
used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition and resources like
Algor, Unigraphics, SIMULIA, SolidWorks and Abaqus from Dassult systems and many more.
2.11 Conclusion
The literature review has presented the wind source and the energy that can be extracted from
wind, a renewable and abundant source of energy, the technology that can be used to tap into the
extraction of this energy with its history and the components of the technology. The methods of
development and testing of this technology have been explored and a gap between the traditional
rudimentary and modern methods can be seen. It is hence pertinent in this research to design a
windmill that can effectively work in this modern age which requires modern methods of design
and testing.
24

The following chapter hence presents the methodology of the research that shall be explored by
the student during the design.
25

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
After realizing a research problem, setting the necessary objectives of a research study and
justifying the problem, it is necessary to explain how the set objectives shall be realized. This
chapter hence gives an account of the design and simulation of the transmission system
This chapter is devoted to the presentation of the progress of events in the design and
simulation of the windmill rotor. The criterion for development of the simulation model is
the heart of this chapter.
3.2 Preliminary Design
(a) Design Considerations
These shall include the following;
- Weight
- Rotor outputs
- Durability
- Efficiency
- Ease of fabrication/ manufacture
- Cost of production
- Safety
- Cost
- Maintenance
- Corrosion
- Serviceability
- Noise
- Reliability Size
(b) Customer Needs
The following are some of the customer needs that were established in this design research;
- Transmission System that can operate with already designed rotor
- System which is able to pump water for over 100 heads of cattle and sheep
- A system that is affordable, durable and easily maintained
- Operates at low and intermittent speeds of wind
(c) Target Specifications
25

These are a reflection of the needs of customers structured in an engineering language with
design parameters and are as follows;
- The system that can pump over 7500 liters of water per day
- A system the can run at wind speeds as low as 2.5 m/s and that are intermittent
- The system capable of operating with a rotor of diameter 8m with 24 blades pitched at 45
0
.
(d) Concept Generation
After benchmarking with the existing windmills locally fabricated and those available on
international markets in addition to brainstorming, the following concepts were generated in
regards to the transmission system to use in this research.
Table 4: Transmission System Concepts




26











27

(e) Concept Criteria
Table 5: Concept Selection Creteria
Parameters for
Selection Of Concept
Concepts
1 2 3 (REF)
4
5 6 7
Weight + - + 0 + + +
Torque requirement + 0 + 0 - - -
Cost of
manufacturing
+ + - 0 + + +
Cost of maintenance + 0 + 0 + + +
Space requirements + + + 0 + + +
Easy of assembly + + + 0 + + +
Noise levels + 0 - 0 - - -
Water output quantity - - - 0 - - -
Sum of +s 7 3 5 0 5 5 5
Sum of 0s 0 3 0 8 0 0 0
Sum of s 1 2 3 0 3 3 3
Net score 6 1 2 0 2 2 2
Rank 1 6 2 7 2 2 2
Continue? YES NO NO NO NO NO NO

The selected concept is concept one, that is the simple crank mechanism since it has ranked
highest of all the concepts developed. Concept 4 was taken as a reference in the selection.
(f) Components for Design
The transmission system has got the following components that are to be designed;
- Crank shaft
- Connecting rod
- Crank pin
- Pumping rod
28

- Pump size
- Bearings
- Connecting pins
- Yoke
(g) Transmission system layout
The system has the lay out shown below;

Figure 13: Isometric View Of The Transmission
System

Figure 14: Exploded View Of The Transmission
System

(h) Materials selection
Materials to be used are selected basing on the following factors;
Strength
Corrosion resistance
Machinability
Weldability
Cost
Availability
The material chosen from rule of thumb is steel AISI 1040 as a standard material but final
material to be used is to be selected after the simulations. This means that the materials that shall
display better results at simulation are to be selected since most of the AISI 104X steels have
almost the same machinability, availability, weldability and cost, the prime factors for
consideration shall be strength and corrosion resistance
29

3.3 Detailed Design
3.3.1 Wind Power
(a) At 2.5m/s wind speed
This is given by the expression below;
3
2
1
Av P
a wind
=
Where;
wind
P is the power that is in the wind
a
is the air density
V is the wind velocity
A is the swept area of the rotor
The blades are 2.5m in length hence do not sweep over the entire 8m rotor diameter when
rotating (this means that a diameter of 3m is not swept by the rotor blades) therefore, actual
swept area is given by;
2 2 2
2 . 43 ) 3 8 (
4
m A = =
t

3
5 . 2 2 . 43 2 . 1 5 . 0 =
wind
P
Watts 405 =
But not all this power is trapped by the rotor therefore the rotor power is much smaller that the
wind power and can be expressed as below (for drag machines);

|
.
|

\
|
=
v
u
v
u
C Av C P
D
a
D shaft
2
3
1
2

Where
shaft
P is the power at the shaft
D
C is the drag coefficient
And the parameters in the carry brackets equal to the power factor
p
C
30

From table 1,
D
C =1.10 for square blades. And from table 2; the design power ratio at design
tip speed ratio of 1 = (for wind mills), is 0.416., design wind speed v=2.5m/s
2
.
3
5 . 2 5 . 0 416 . 0 10 . 1 = A P
shaft

A-is the swept area of the rotor.
3
5 . 2 2 . 43 5 . 0 416 . 0 10 . 1 =
shaft
P
Watts 4 . 154 =
(a) At 6m/s wind speed
This is given by the expression below;
3
2
1
Av P
a wind
=
Where;
wind
P is the wind power.
a
is the air density
V is the wind velocity
A is the swept area of the rotor
The blades are 2.5m in length hence do not sweep over the entire 8m rotor diameter when
rotating (this means that a diameter of 3m is not swept by the rotor blades) therefore, actual
swept area is given by;
2 2 2
2 . 43 ) 3 8 (
4
m A = =
t

3
6 2 . 43 2 . 1 5 . 0 =
wind
P
kW
Watts
6 . 5
7 . 5598
~
=

But not all this power is trapped by the rotor therefore the rotor power is much smaller that the
wind power and can be expressed as below (for drag machines);

|
.
|

\
|
=
v
u
v
u
C Av C P
D
a
D shaft
2
3
1
2

31

Where
shaft
P is the power at the shaft
D
C is the drag coefficient
And the parameters in the carry brackets equal to the power factor
p
C
From table 1,
D
C =1.10 for square blades. And from table 2; the design power ratio at design
tip speed ratio of 1 = (for wind mills), is 0.416., design wind speed v=2.5m/s
2
.
3
6 5 . 0 416 . 0 10 . 1 = A P
shaft

A-is the swept area of the rotor.
3
6 2 . 43 5 . 0 416 . 0 10 . 1 =
shaft
P
Watts 2135 =
3.3.2 Rotational Shaft Speed
(a) At 6m/s wind speed;

Given that 1 = , and the expression of the tip speed ratio is given by
V
R O
=
Where;
O Is the rotor rotational speed (rads/s)
V is the wind speed
R is the rotor radius
R
V
= O
4
6 0 . 1
=
s rads/ 5 . 1 = O

32

(b) at 2.5m/s wind speed
Given that 1 = , and the expression of the tip speed ratio is given by
(c)
V
R O
=
Where;
O Is the rotor rotational speed (rads/s)
V Is the wind speed
R Is the rotor radius
R
V
= O
4
5 . 2 0 . 1
=
s rads/ 625 . 0 = O
3.3.3 Shaft Torque
(a) At 6m/s wind speed
This is obtained from the expression for the shaft power which is;
O =T P
shaft

Where T is the shaft torque
O
=
shaft
P
T

3 . 1423
5 . 1
2135
= =
Therefore the shaft toque
Nm T
shaft
3 . 1423 =


(b) At 2.5m/S Wind Speed
33

This is obtained from the expression for the shaft power which is;
O =T P
shaft

Where T is the shaft torque
O
=
shaft
P
T

247
625 . 0
4 . 154
= =
Therefore the shaft toque
Nm T
shaft
247 =

3.3.4 Hydraulic Power
This is the power that is required by the windmill to pump water through a given head H. This
can be found from an expression below;
Hq P
hyd
113 . 0
Where q is the volume flow rate in litters/day and H is the total head in meters.
The design required rate of water flow is 7500 liters/day and H=20m.
Or
Hq P
h
81 . 9 = When q is the flow rate in liters per second.
Given that the rotational speed of the rotor and hence the shaft is 0.625rads/s since there is no
gearing.
But s rev s rads / 1 / 2 = t
s revs s rad /
2
1
/ 1
t
=
s revs s rads /
2
1
625 . 0 / 625 . 0
t
= O
s revs/ 0995 . 0 =
34

But since each complete revolution made by the shaft represents a single stroke by the piston
pump; then this means that the pump will be running at a speed of 0.0995 strokes per second and
in a minute there would be 5.97 strokes made.
Using a pump of design capacity of 4 liters per stroke (Designed by Agricultural Engineering
Appropriate Technology Institue-Namalele)
From table 3; piston pumps have an efficiency of 85%. This means that for each stroke then, the
piston shall deliver;
stroke liters / 4 . 3 85 . 0 4 =
This then can give the flow rate per second as;
( ) ond strokes stroke liters sec / 0995 . 0 ) / ( 4 . 3
ond liters sec / 3383 . 0 =
ond liters q sec / 3383 . 0 =
From previous research (Victoria Njuki; Simulation of a Windmill Rotor Suitable for Pumping
Water at Low and Intermittent Wind Regimes
; 2008), it was established that in Uganda, on average the wind speed is at 2.5m/s for about 6.5
hours a day, therefore;
The daily water delivery would be;
onds onds Hrs sec 000 , 23 sec ) 60 60 5 . 6 ( 5 . 6 = =
day liters
delivery water Daily
/ 7916 2 . 7916
23400 3383 . 0
~ =
=

Note: This is more than the least design water delivery rate per day of 7500 liters per each day.
But this delivery rate can be enhanced by modifying the pump to a double acting one in which
the delivery is doubled for the same design parameters, the pump delivers;
ond liters sec / 6766 . 0 3383 . 0 2 =
Therefore, on a daily basis in the 6.5 hours that the wind speed is at least 2.5m/s, the rate of
water delivery would be;
4 . 15832 23400 6766 . 0 =
day liters / 15832 ~
35

Therefore, the design flow rate ond liters q sec / 3383 . 0 = to give at least 7500liters per need.
Hydraulic power required therefore is;
Watts
Hq P
hyd
4 . 64
3383 . 0 20 81 . 9
81 . 9
=
=
=

If the piston used is double acting, then the hydraulic power shall eventually double to
64.4x2=128.8 Watts
Therefore the hydraulic power required is Watts P
hyd
4 . 66 =
Since shaft power is greater than hydraulic power, and then it means that the windmill is able to
deliver the required water.
3.3.5 Water Flow Rate
This can be obtained from the monogram as seen below which is done by matching the known
parameters on the monogram like the average wind speed, rotor diameter and water lifting head.

Figure 15: Monogram for Selecting Flow Rate of the Pump
36

This is found to be about 0.34 liters/second which is approximately equal to that found by
calculation.
3.3.6 Design Stroke Volume
Using the monogram below and by matching parameters like rotor diameter, wind speed and the
total static head. This is found to be equal to 4liters per stroke from the monogram below.

Figure 16: Monogram for Selecting Pump Capacity

37

3.3.7 Pump Size
Using the monogram below, on the basis of the stroke volume thus obtained, one will depend on
the stroke settings available in the windmills transmission and on the pump diameters available.
Sometimes an important limiting factor for the pump diameter is the tube-well in which the
pump has to fit.

Figure 17: Monogram for Determining Pump Size
For purposes of reducing the jerking forces on the shaft as it sweeps through the crank diameter,
the stroke of 200mm is selected which is below the maximum stroke and from the chart the
corresponding diameter is obtained at a stroke volume of 4 liters

38

3.3.8 Pump Rod Design
(a) Forces Acting on the Pump Rod
This is the force required to lift the piston and is given by the total weight of the water column
above the piston. The cross section of the column is taken to be less than a half of that of the
pump piston that is 100mm.
For analysis, it is assumed that the pump rod is weightless; therefore the only force acting on the
rod is that due to the water column above the piston.
gH
w
A F =
Where
A is the cross section area of the piston
w

is the water density
g is the acceleration due to gravity
H is the total static head
Using the water column diameter of 100mm, the cross section area is;
Cross section area of the piston
2
2 2
0079 . 0
4
1 . 0 142 . 3
4
m
d
=

= =
t

Therefore, using a static head of 10m above the pump level to the storage tank,
N
is column water the of Weight
99 . 774
10 1000 81 . 9 0079 . 0
=

Hence the force acting on the pump rod is 774.99N




39









(b) Pump Rod Diameter
Treating this rod as a strut and using the Euler treatment of struts, since both ends are considered
to be rounded or pivoted as shown below;

Figure 19: Euler Column



Using Eulers equation, the critical load P
cr
is
given by;
2
2
l
EI C
P
cr
t
= where P
cr
-is the critical load
E- is the modulus of elasticity
I-is the second moment of area
C-is the coefficient of variation in column
loading



774.99N
774.99N
Figure 18: Pump Rod Free Body Diagram
40


Table 6: A table Showing Values of Euler Constant C
Column end
condition
End condition constant C
Theoretical value Conservative
value
Recommended
value*
Fixed-free 0.25 0.25 0.25
Rounded-rounded 1 1 1
Fixed-rounded 2 1 1.2
Fixed-fixed 4 1 1.2
Source: mechanical Engineering design-Joseph Edward Shigley.
*To be used only with liberal factors of safety when the column load is accurately known.
Using the theoretical value of C=1 (for rounded-rounded situation)
2
2
l
EI
P
cr
t
=
E
l P
I
cr
2
2
t
=
The allowable load
N
P
P
cr
a
= , where N-is the design factor of safety
Using the factor of safety of N=1.2;
Then
N P
cr
99 . 929 99 . 774 2 . 1 = =
This gives the second moment of area as below;
4 7
9 2
2
2
2
10 1 . 1
10 193 142 . 3
15 99 . 929
99 . 929 99 . 774 2 . 1
m I
E
l P
I
N P
cr
cr

=


= =
= =
t

41

But
4
1
4
64
64
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
t
t
I
D
D
I

mm m D
D
7 . 38 10 87 . 3
10 1 . 1 64
2
4
1
7
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

t

The slenderness ratio for this size is obtained as follows;
42 . 1550
4
7 . 38
15000
4
= = =
d
l
k
l

To be sure that this is Euler column; we use the limiting slenderness ratio expression as below;
8 . 95
10 415
10 193 1 2
2
lim
2
1
6
9 2
2
1
2
lim
= |
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
k
l
CE
k
l
y
t
o
t

Table 7: Table of Preferred Sizes
0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 8.0 9.0 10 11 12 14 16 18 20 22
25 28 30 32 35 40 45 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
200 250 300
Source: Table A-17 Mechanical Engineering Design; Joseph Edward Shigley.
42

Since the limiting slenderness ratio is less than
k
l
and greater than
6
1
, the column is indeed a
Euler column and hence using the table above, the rod diameter is 40mm.
A solid pump rod of 40mm diameter would be an over design for this operation hence an
equivalent piped rod can be used giving the same results of operation but lighter and hence lesser
materials used in its production.
Since the desired outside diameter is established and the second moment of are I is to remain
unchanged; an equivalent rod can be obtained from;
4
1
4
4 4
64
64
) (
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
t
t
I
D d
d D
I

Where, d is the internal diameter of the rod and D is the outside diameter of the rod.
Using D=40mm,
mm m d
d
8 . 23 10 38 . 2
142 . 3
10 1 . 1 64
) 10 40 (
2
4
1
7
4 3
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Using the table above (of proffered sizes), the internal diameter is set to be 25mm
3.3.9 Crank Mechanism Design
This is a mechanism responsible for transforming the rotary motion of the shaft at a given
rotational speed to reciprocating motion of the pump rod and hence the pump piston which uses
an up and down movement to pump a fluid.
The schematic layout of this mechanism takes the shape below;

Figure 20: Crank Slide Mechanism

43

(a) Design Equations
Using the above figure, the analysis of position, velocity and acceleration of the different
linkages can be carried out using the following formulae;
) ....( .......... 0
) ( . 0
) ....( .......... 0
0
3 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
0
1
3 2 1
3 2 1
ii e l e l l
i eqn to in this feeding But
i e l e l e l
gives which l l l
j j
j j j
=
=
=
=
u u
u u u
u

This gives the following
;
,
) ....( .......... 0
) ( .
) .........( 0 sin cos sin cos
3 2
3 3 2 2
1
.
3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1
below as equation on accelarati
the obtain we equation velocity the ating differenti and
iv e j l e j l l
is which
obtained is equation velocity the ii eqn ating Differenti
iii j l l jl l l
j j
=
=
u u
e e
u u u u

) .....( 0
) .....( 0
3 3 2 2
3 3 2 2
2
3 3 3 3
2
2 2 2 2
1
..
2
3
2
3 3 3
2
2
2
2 2 2
1
..
vi e l e j l e l e j l l
gives this
v e j l e j l e j l e j l l
j j j j
j j j j
= + +
=
u u u u
u u u u
e o e o
e o e o

But of interest in this design is establishing the lengths of the different linkages to give the
desired motion of the crank mechanism therefore, this can be done using the following analysis;

Figure 21: Slide Crank Motion
44

(b) Crank Parameters
For a symmetrical slider motion
Crank length
2
) (
max 4
2
R
l
A
=
But
max 4
) (R A is the stroke length that is the distance between the top dead center and the bottom
dead center of the piston pump cylinder which is 200mm.
mm l 100
2
200
2
= =
To produce smooth acceleration of the crank mechanism, l
3
>>l
2

Then, by rule of thumb;
mm l
l
400
100 4
4l L3
3
3
2
>
>
>

Using the graph below for an inline slider crank

Figure 22: Figure for Selection of Crank Linkages
With l
1
=0, implying that 0
2
1
=
l
l
, then using the curve of 0
2
1
=
l
l
as shown on the graph, it is
shown that smooth acceleration can be achieved between 5
2
1
=
l
l
and 10
2
1
=
l
l
. But in the interest
45

of limiting the space occupied by the system as a design consideration, a trade-off between the
absolute smoothness and space is made therefore taking the coupler ratio of 5 . 4
2
1
=
l
l
for this
design is appropriate enough.
mm
l
l l
400
100 4
4
3
2 3
=
=
=

3.3.10 Crank Shaft Design
This is designed to withstand the worst wind conditions, that is; at a maximum likely wind speed.
From the research, simulation of a windmill rotor suitable for pumping water at low and
intermittent wind regimes, Design and simulation of a windmill rotor to operate at low and
intermittent wind regimes: Njuki Victoria 2008, the likely maximum average wind speed was
found to be 6m/s, therefore at this speed;
(a) Engineering Drawing of the Shaft

Figure 23: Shaft Engineering Drawing
(b) Free Body Diagram

Figure 24: Shaft Free Body Diagram
46

In designing of the shaft, it is designed against fatigue loading, bending moment and axial
loading. The diameter of the shaft is obtained using the Soderberg formula as shown below;
3
1
2
1
2
2
32

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e y
shaft
S
M
S
T N
d
t

Where;
shaft
d is the diameter of the shaft
N is the design factor of safety
T is the applied torque
M is the maximum bending moment
S
y
is the yield strength of the material
S
e
is the modified endurance strength of the shaft
But e
f e d c b a e
S K K K K K K S
1
=
Where;
K
a
=surface factor
K
b
=size factor
K
c
=reliability factor
K
d
=temperature factor
K
e
=modifying factor for stress concentration
K
f
=miscellaneous effects factor
Where;
ut
b
a
aS K = And assuming the shaft is to be machined, using the table below;

47

Table 8: Table of Fatigue Stress Constants
Surface finish Factor a (MPa) Exponent b
Ground 1.58 -0.085
Machined or cold drawned 4.51 -0.265
Hot rolled 57.7 -0.718
As forged 272 -0.995
SOURCE: Joseph Edward Shigley-mechanical engineering design
This means, from the table above that a=4.51MPa, b=-0.265 and ut
b
S =620MPa.
( ) 821 . 0 620 51 . 4
265 . 0
= =

a
K

s s
|
.
|

\
|
s s
|
.
|

\
|
=

mm d mm
d
in d in
d
K
b
51 79 . 2
62 . 7
2 11 . 0
3 . 0
1133 . 0
1133 . 0

But for large sizes of shaft, K
b
varies between 0.60-0.75 for bending and torsion
Taking K
b
=0.75.

>
s
=
shear and torsion
bending
MPa S loading axial
MPa S loading axial
K
ut
ut
c
577 . 0
1
1520 1
1520 923 . 0

577 . 0 =
c
K
The temperature factor is obtained as below.

s s
s
=
C T C
C T
K
d
0 0
0
500 350 5 . 0
350 1

1 =
d
K Since the operating temperature of the windmill hence the shaft is assumed to be less
than 350
0
C.
K
e
is assumed to be equal to 1 with no stress risers and taking the miscellaneous factor is also
assumed to be 1.
Using a low carbon steel AISI 1045 as rolled;
48

MPa
S
e
3 . 220
620 1 1 577 . 0 75 . 0 82 . 0
=
=

(c) Shear and Bending Moment of Shaft
Free body diagram of the shaft;

Figure 25: Shaft Moment Free Body Diagram

1 . 7
87 . 0 1 . 3 1 . 3
0
044 . 0 05 . 0 87 . 0
1
= +
+ = + +
=
= =

B A
B A
R R
R R
Fy
Then
kNm M

kN R
R
B M B
A
A
6 . 13
5 . 0
82 . 6
5 . 1 1 . 3 6 . 0 1 . 3 044 . 0 3 . 0 87 . 0 5 . 0
0 ) ( .
= =
+ + + =
=

And
kN
R
B
5 . 6
6 . 13 1 . 7
=
=

49


Figure 26: Shaft Bending Moment Diagram
From the diagram of bending moment, the maximum bending moment is 3.41kNm and using the
torque T=1.4233kNm.
Then from
3
1
2
1
2
2
32

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e y
shaft
S
M
S
T N
d
t

Note: for machine elements which are ductile under conditions of moderate uncertainty with
regard to material properties, nature of loading or adequacy of stress of the stress analysis, N=3.
Therefore the diameter of the shaft can be obtained as below;
3
1
2
1
2
6
2
6
10 3 . 220
3410
10 415
3 . 1423 3 32

(
(

|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

=
t
shaft
d
This gives diameter as
mm m d
shaft
5 . 78 0785 . 0 = =
The standard shaft diameter can be obtained from the table below; this is used because standard
bearings are to be used.
50


Figure 27: Bearing Outline
Table 9: Bearing Size Selection Table
Inner diameter d(mm) Outer diameter D(mm)
10 30
12 32
15 35
17 40
20 47
25 52
30 62
35 72
40 80
45 85
50 90
55 100
60 110
65 120
70 125
75 130
80 140
85 150
90 160
95 170
100 180
Source: Robert L. Mott-machine elements in mechanical design (third edition)
Therefore the shaft standard nominal diameter is 80mm

51

3.3.11 Design of Connecting Rod
Assuming that it is made of the same material as that used for the main shaft, and that the forces
acting on it are a result of the pump rod and water column weight.

(a) Layout

Figure 28: Engineering Drawing Of Connecting Rod


Figure 29: Solid View Of Connecting
Rod

Since there are no loads in the perpendicular direction to the paper, the thickness can be assumed
to be 15mm and at the pin connections, it can be taken as 35mm.
The reactions on the crank pin constitute the force that acts on the crank webs at a distance equal
to the radius of the crank which is a half of the pump stroke, that is mm 100
2
200
=

3.3.12 Design of Crank Pin
Assuming that the crank pin is simply supported, with simple loading from the water column and
pump rod weights.


52

(a) Lay Out

Figure 30: Crank Pin Layout
kN R R
E D
435 . 0
2
1
87 . 0 = = =
Treating the pin as a shaft, of the same material as that of the main shaft.
(b) Shear and BM Diagrams

Figure 31: Crank Pin Bending Moment Diagram
Maximum bending moment is kN 022 . 0 05 . 0 435 . 0 =
And using N as 3 and S
y
=415MPa
( )
3
1
32
2
1
2 2
(
(

+ = M T
S
N
d
y
cp
t

( )
3
1
2
1
2 2
6
22 3 . 1423
10 415
3 32
(

+


=
t
cp
d

mm m d
cp
1 . 47 0471 . 0 = =
53

But since this is to be connected to a connecting rod and hence rotating in a bearing, the
appropriate size of the pin is obtained from the table above (of the nominal sizes of bearings)
mm d
cp
50 =
3.3.13 Design of Yoke Pin
Note: Points on a shaft where no torque is applied and where the bending moments are zero or
very low often subjected to significant vertical shearing force which then govern the design
analysis.

Figure 32: Solid View of Yoke
A
V
3
4
max
= t Where; V is the vertical shearing force and A is the area of cross section.
When stress concentration factors are to be considered.
Using the distortion energy theory, the endurance strength in shear is n sn s s
1 1
577 . 0 = but
max
1
t
sn s
N = becomes
max
1
577 . 0
t
n s
N = .
This gives |
.
|

\
|
=
A
V
k
N
s
t
n
Design
3
4 577 . 0
1
t therefore
V k
A s
V k
A s
N
t
n
t
n ) ( 433 . 0
) 4 (
) 3 ( 577 . 0
1 1
=
This gives the shear cross section area as;
n
t
n
t
s
N
V k D
s
VN k D
A
1
1
2
) ( 94 . 2
31 . 2
4
=
=
t

For sharp fillets, 5 . 2 =
t
k and
R S n n
C C s s =
1
, where
S
C is the size factor and
R
C is the reliability
factor.
54

From table below;
Table 10: Table of Reliability Factors
Desired reliability Reliability factor
0.50 1.00
0.90 0.90
0.99 0.81
0.999 0.75
Source: Table 12-1, Reliability Factors
R
C , Mott.
Choosing a reliability of 0.99, the reliability factor
R
C =0.81 and
S
C =0.85, therefore;
MPa s
n
87 . 426 81 . 0 85 . 0 620
1
= =
So, the pin diameter becomes
mm D
table sizes preferred from But
mm D
D
14
, '
6 . 13
10 87 . 426
3 10 87 . 0 5 . 2 94 . 2
6
3
=
~
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

3.4 Bearing Selection
These were selected basing on the type of forces that act on them say;
Axial loads: which act towards the centre of the bearing along a radius. Such loads are typical
of those created by power transmission elements on shaft such as spur gears, belt drives and
chains.
Thrust loads: are those that act parallel to the axis of the shaft. Bearings supporting shafts with
vertical axes are subjected to thrust loads due to the weight of the shaft and the elements on the
shaft as well as from axial operating forces.
Table 11: Comparison of Bearing Types
Bearing type Radial load
capacity
Thrust load capacity Misalignment
capacity
55

Single deep-grove ball Good Fair Fair
Double-row deep-grove ball Excellent
good
Good Fair
Angular contact Good Excellent Poor
Cylindrical roller Excellent Poor Fair
Needle Excellent Poor Poor
Spherical roller Excellent Fair/good Excellent
Tapered roller Excellent Excellent poor
Source: Table 14-1 Mott-Mechanical Elements in Mechanical Design 3rd-Edition
Using a scoring matrix with a scale of 1-5 with 5-excellent, 4-good, 3-fair, and 1-poor.
Radial load capacity being the most vital attribute, a weight of 60% is attached to it and 25% to
thrust load capacity and 15% for misalignment capacity.

56

Table 12: The Selection Scoring Matrix Is Table
Selection
criteria
W
e
i
g
h
t

S
i
n
g
l
e

d
e
e
p
-
g
r
o
v
e

b
a
l
l

D
o
u
b
l
e
-
r
o
w

d
e
e
p
-
g
r
o
v
e

b
a
l
l

A
n
g
u
l
a
r

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

C
y
l
i
n
d
r
i
c
a
l

r
o
l
l
e
r

N
e
e
d
l
e

S
p
h
e
r
i
c
a
l

r
o
l
l
e
r

T
a
p
e
r
e
d

r
o
l
l
e
r

R
a
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

s
c
o
r
e

R
a
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

s
c
o
r
e

R
a
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

s
c
o
r
e

R
a
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

s
c
o
r
e

R
a
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

s
c
o
r
e

R
a
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

s
c
o
r
e

R
a
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

s
c
o
r
e

Radial Load
Capacity
60% 4 2.4 5 3 4 2.4 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3
Thrust Load
Capacity
25% 3
0.7
5
4 1 5
1.2
5
1
0.2
5
1
0.2
5
3
0.7
5
5
1.2
5
Misalignment
Capacity
15% 3
0.4
5
3
0.4
5
1
0.1
5
3
0.4
5
1
0.1
5
5
0.7
5
1
0.1
5
Total
score
3.6 4.45 3.8 3.7 3.4 4.5 4.4
Rank
6 2 4 5 7 1 3
Selec
t
No No No No No Yes No
Therefore the spherical roller bearing is selected for use.
Machines for intermittent service where reliable operation is of great importance, the life of the
spherical bearings is 8-14kHrs.
Taking an average of 11kHr, the life in terms of total revolutions that have to be made before
change is given by,
) min/ 60 )( )( ( hr rpm h L
d
=
. Taking the worst average case of 6m/s wind
speed, the speed is about 85rpm hence life becomes
s revolution
L
d
000 , 100 , 56
) 60 )( 85 )( 11000 (
=
=


57


3.5 Computer Aided Drawings
These drawings were generated using a computer aided drawings package solid edge version 19
commercial. It has direct and simple interfacing with Algor the simulation package by easily
exporting the generated drawings into Algor or importing into it for analysis.
The following is an assembly CAD model of the of the transmission system and its exploded
view;

Figure 33: Solid Model of Transmission System Assembly

Figure 34: Exploded View of Transmission System

58

3.6 Simulation
The simulation was carried out to establish the forces that result from the loading of the
transmission system.
Assumption
The AISI 1045 steel is used for the construction of the transmission system with the properties
below;
Density 7.7-8.031000 kg/m3 Poisson's Ratio 0.27-0.30 Elastic Modulus 190-210GPa Tensile
Strength 585 Mpa Yield Strength 505Mpa
It is assumed that the operating temperature is 300C and hence simulation is carried out at this
operating temperature.
Procedures Followed in the Simulation
The solid edge models developed were imported into the Algor environment where the
simulation was carried out.
The model was assigned material properties of AISI 1045 steel in the materials options
The analysis type to be carried out was specified say mechanical events simulation with non
linear materials from the analysis menu.
The constraints were applied on the model fixing the bottom parts of the bearings
Loading at the different components with the obtained forces was done. This was done by
selecting the surfaces upon which the forces would be acting and assigned them with surface
forces with the desired directions of action
The input torques obtained from calculation was fed into the model
A model mesh was generated at a mesh size setting of 100%(4.39mm) fineness and 0.01
tolerance value
59


Figure 35: Model Mesh
The analysis parameters were set from the default ones, specifying the output parameters, the
time steps to use in the simulation and the conditions of the analysis
The analysis was then carried out to establish the forces and displacements that result from the
loading and constraining of the system.
3.4 Conclusion
This chapter has covered the methodology that was followed to meet the objectives of this
research. It has identified the input parameters to the transmission system for example the torque
that is generated at the rotor with the different wind speeds, the water flow rates for this design,
the power (hydraulic and shaft) that is required and generated by the system respectively.
Herein have been deep analyses of the linkage mechanisms and the forces that act on the
different components and the appropriate dimensions of the different parts as obtained from
standard equations.
In chapter four, the test results as carried on the CAD models herein generated are presented.
61

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
Following the setup procedures as described in the preceding chapter, the simulation were
carried out to determine whether the designed models confirm to the performance requirements
of the transmission system. This represents the forces acting on the components that are a result
of component interactions.
4.2 Mechanical Events Simulation
This was carried out with the worst case scenario with forces resultant at 6m/s wind speed. It
shows the forces that act on the individual parts and the failure patterns. This assumed non-
linear materials and analyzing each component as a unit.
Failure of the components start when the von Mises stress reaches a critical value known as the
yield strength, S
y
. The von Mises stress is used to predict yielding of materials under any loading
condition from results of simple uniaxial tensile tests. The von Mises stress satisfies the property
that two stress states with equal distortion energy have equal von Mises stress.
(a) Connecting Rod
From the simulation, it is shown that the von Mises stress that the connecting rod is subjected to
as a result of its interaction with other system components is 15.9514N/mm
2
(16Mpa) for a
connecting rod with no webs and 16.85N/mm
2
for that with webs. These are far less than the
yield stress of 415Mpa or 415N/mm
2
.

Figure 36: MES Analysis of Connecting Rod Showing Von Mises Stress
62


Figure 37: MES Analysis of Connecting Rod With Webs Showing Von Mises Stress
Table 13: Table of Results on Connecting Rod
Case Von Mises (N/mm
2
) Displacement (mm) Reaction forces (N)
Without web 15.59 0.16 587.55
With web 16.85 0.13 354.1
The results above show that the connecting rod with webs of thickness 15mm and depth of
10mm does better than that without webs especially on displacement and reactions induced since
the Von misses stresses are almost the same therefore a webbed connecting rod is used.
(b) Yoke
This is used to connect the pump rod and the connecting rod. The simulation results are as
below;
63


Figure 38: MES Analysis of Yoke Showing Von Mises Stress
The simulation above shows that the resultant Von Mises stress is 7.27N/mm
2
and the reaction
force as a result is 37.4N. When the upper part of the yoke is modified by adding protrusions of
bosses, the results change to 8.67N/mm
2
Von Mises and 37.89N reaction force

Figure 39: MES Analysis of YOke With Bosses Showing Von Mises Stress

64

(c) Yoke Pins
These pins are vital for linking the connecting rod to the pump rod through the yoke and the
results obtained in the simulation show that they can withstand the calculated operating forces.

Figure 40: MES Analysis of Upper Yoke Pin Showing Von Mises Stress
Table 14: Table of Results on Yoke Pins
Yoke pin Von Mises (N/mm
2
) Displacement (mm) Reaction forces (N)
Top Pin (To
Connecting Rod)
90.43 0.01 36.19
Lower Pin (To Pump
Rod)
50.85 0.0047 5.15
65


Figure 41: MES Analysis of Lower Yoke Pin Showing Von Mises Stress
(d) Crank shaft
This is the prime part of the transmission system and test results should show that it operates far
below the limits of failure otherwise it can fail immediately after commissioning.

Figure 42: MES Analysis of Crank Shaft Showing Von Mises Stress
The results below were obtained from the simulation;
66

Table 15: Table of Results on Crank Shaft
Case Von Mises (N/mm
2
) Displacement (mm) Reaction forces (N)
Wind-speed of 6m/s 111.74 3.96 436.38
For shaft design of more than 1m length, the maximum deflection from its axis is 10mm hence
the displacement of 3.96mm is well in the allowable range and with the developed stresses being
lower than the failure stress, the design can operate safely.
4.3 Conclusion
Chapter four has presented the results of the simulation carried out on the components of the
transmission system and the assembly showing the resulting forces and displacements hence
giving an overview of how the system is likely to operate in the real world with all the operating
constraints subjected to it. It also has shown some areas that need some modifications from the
mathematical design parameters before manufacturing the system.
Chapter five presents the recommendations made basing on the results herein obtained from the
simulations and is presented below.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Recommended Specifications
The main objective of this research was to design and develop design specifications of the
transmission system that is to work with a rotor designed to run in a low and medium and
intermittent wind speeds.
This was intended to use improved methods in design that are better than the rudimentary means
that were more costly and gave difficult to predict performance of the systems.
From the research hence, the following specifications were developed and henceforth
recommended;
Shaft: The recommended shaft is of 80mm diameter and of length 1.5m with a crank offset
located at 1.1m from the rotor side.
Crank Pin: This is recommended to be of diameter 50mm and of length 100mm
Connecting Rod: It is of 400mm length with webs of thickness 25mm with a yoke pin bore of
14mm diameter.
Yoke: This gives a connection between the pump rod and the connecting rod and is of circular
section of out diameter of 73.36mm and inner bore of diameter 40mm and 40mm height, with
bosses of protrusion 5mm at the upper pin bore.
Upper Yoke Pin: Recommended diameter is 14mm
Lowe Yoke Pin: Diameter of 15mm
Pump Rod: This is a hollow circular structure with recommended outer diameter of 40mm and
inner diameter of 25mm with overall length of 15m.
Bearings: The bearings recommended for this system are the spherical roller bearings.
5.2 Further Related Research
For the complete set of wind mill technology, all the components of the windmill as were stated
herein this report (Chapter Two section 2.5) have to be designed and optimized. This hence
means that future research should be concentrated on the design and optimization of the pump
system and the tower unit after which the windmill shall be ready for construction.



68

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