117

Analele Universitii Cretine Dimitrie Cantemir, Bucureti, Seria Istorie Serie nou, Anul 1, Nr. 4, 2010, p. 117-127
ISSN 2068 3766 (online); ISSN 2068 3758 (CD-ROM); ISSN 1584 3343 (print)



VITICULTURE IN ROMAN DACIA

Melinda-Leila MOLNR, PhD Student

Abstract. Viticulture in Roman Dacia. Viticulture was a very important part of ancient agriculture, daily life and trade.
Information is provided to us by the ancient authors. For Dacia we dont have ancient written sources, so the most
important information are provided by the archaeological discoveries (the waxed stales, the cella vinaria from
Potaissa, the will from Sucidava, viticulture tools). Dacians imported wine since the 6
th
century B.C. (fact proven by
foreign amphorae), but we can also talk about a local wine production.

Keywords: beverage, Roman Dacia, viticulture, wine.



1. General aspects of viticulture

Ancient authors offer us important information not only about the development of
agriculture, alimentation, recipes, but also about viticulture.
1

Marcus Porcius Cato in De Agricultura offers a list of different cultures, in which the top
position is occupied by the vine and olives, both very important in ancient trade.
2
He also wrote
about the staff needed to cultivate a 2 jugera (25 hectare) vineyard: a total of 16 slaves.
3

Varro in his agricultural manual Res Rusticae
4
said that certain grapes produce wine that
must be consumed in one year, before they became sour, others, like Falernian, became more
valuable after ageing.
Pliny in the XIV
th
book of Naturalis Historia speaks about the history of wine, viticulture,
wine making.
5

Other information are provided for us by Columella in De Re Rustica
6
, by Publius Ovidius
Naso in Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto
7
, by Xenofon n Anabasis
8
, Galen in De Antidotis.
Due to these ancient sources we can see the extremely important place occupied by wine in
daily life of Romans and in trade.
Wine plays an important role also in mythology. In Egypt wine was devoted to Osiris. In
Greece the symbolism of wine will be expressed by Dionysos, son of Zeus. Wine is assimilated
with the gods blood, who every year, on the 6
th
of January changes water into wine in his temple

Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, Faculty of History and Philosophy;

axayacatl4garry2005@yahoo.com.
1
We would like to thank for the financial support for Ph.D. scholarship, Project co-financed by the SECTORAL
OPERATIONAL PROGRAM FOR HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 2007 2013; Contract nr.: POSDRU
6/1.5/S/4 DOCTORAL STUDIES, A MAJOR FACTOR IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND
HUMANISTIC STUDIES Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
2
Mihilescu, 1950, p. 191.
3
Ibidem, p. 192.
4
Lascu, 1965, p. 20-21.
5
Ibidem, p. 21.
6
Ibidem.
7
Idem, 1973, p. 98-100.
8
tefan, 1964, p. 97.

118
from the island of Adros. According to Roman tradition, wine was brought by Saturn, the god of
vine and then dedicated to Bacchus.
9

The Greek philosophy about wine, knew different stages: first wine was considered the only
beverage that could guide man to a perfect union with the deity, but later they got to a point where drinking
lost all his importance. In Roman tradition, dating back to the earliest times, wine was seen as an ambiguous
drink: it was a divine gift, but also a source of tragedy and violence, due to his consequences. Seneca, even if
he was an experienced wine grower, thought that man should be able to give up wine drinking.
10

The extension of vineyards in the Mediterranean region is very old, because vine found
favourable soil and climate conditions. Viticulture indicates an advanced civilization, because it
needs constant, dedicated, active men power.
11
Italy is rich in vineyards. In the 3
rd
-2
nd
centuries
B.C. Romans imported considerable quantities of Greek wine. Around the middle of the first
century B.C., vineyards from different regions of Italy were recognised for their quality. In the
following decades Romans transformed viticulture in a real industry, exporting huge quantities of
wine in the new provinces form Gaul, often in exchange for Celtic slaves (one slave for an
amphora). Because of the necessary wine and oil quantities needed by the growing population of the
cities from Italy, couldnt be supported from local production, Romans started to import large
quantities from the provinces of the Empire. South Gaul was the main viticulture centre from the
provinces, but wine for export was also produced on the East and South-East coasts of Spain.
12

Vine was cultivated especially for wine. Grapes could also be consumed fresh, as fruits. Certain
varieties produce grapes for consumption. The most famous are: bumasti and uvae duracinae. The
conservation of grapes was very important. Some were left to dry on the vine, clusters could be suspended,
put on straw, on sawdust, exposed to smoke, put in vessels (uva ollares), kept in rain water.
13

Ancient authors offer us information about vine varieties. In the 2
nd
century B.C. Cato knew
only 7, but in the first century A.D. Columella spoke about 58 and Pliny the Elder about 91.
14
The
vine is planted in autumn or in spring. The best is not to mix different varieties. Vine is multiplied
by grafting, cutting or layering. Vineyards must be exposed to the sun. The vine must be dressed
several times. The breaking up of the earth is made at the beginning of spring, then in April and
June.
15
Another important work is cutting the vine (putatio, resectio), usually made with vine hook
(falx vineatica). Romans often used trees as vine prop. The most frequently used trees were: elm,
poplar, ash, olive, plane, tile, hornbeam, maple, cypress, willow, oak. They were planted in straight
lines. Every tree had between 3 and 10 vines.
16
Pliny talked about a single vine from the garden of
Livia from Rome that produced 312 litres of wine every year.
17
A work that had to be done in
spring was the weeding of useless brushwood. Vine must be protected from bad weather. In
Crimeea, in the winter, vine was covered with earth. In spring was indicated to light fires to avoid
white frost. In Baetia, on very warm days, vine used to be covered with rugs, to avoid dehydration.
After the grapes were picked, the first operation was crushing them. This was made by slaves
with their naked feet. The place where they were crushed was composed by a rectangular stone tank,
with low edges (lacus vinarius, calcatorium), flanked on two of its sides by tanks for must. From these
tanks must flew in jars.
18
It was very important not to drop anything in the tank, because that would
spoil the flavour of the wine and it would also render it impure for religious purposes.
19
After crushing,
the grapes still contained a considerable amount of must, so they were put in the wine press
(torcularium) to press them. The wine press was described by Cato and was discovered in good shape at

9
Montignac, 2010, p. 16-17.
10
Dona, 2010, p. 37-60.
11
Daremberg, Saglio, 1919, p. 912-913.
12
Cary, Schullard, 2008, p. 435-436.
13
Daremberg, Saglio, 1919, p. 919.
14
Lascu, 1965, p. 37.
15
Ibidem.
16
Ibidem, p. 38-39.
17
Faas, 2005, p. 112.
18
Lascu, 1965, p. 39-40.
19
Faas, 2005, p. 113.

119
Pompei, in the villa Boscoreale. It was composed of two big plane tables, between which grapes were
put to be pressed with the help of a lever.
20
The obtained must was drained in large jars, from there it
was put in pichers (urcei mustarii) and took in the wine cellar, where impurities were removed by
straining through a basket (saccus vinarius), and after that must was poured in barrels.
21

The wine cellar (cella vinaria) could be underground or on the level of the house. If both of the
types exist, in the underground one were kept the old wines and in the other the new ones. In the wine
cellar were clay jars of different sizes, some could reach to 8-19 hectolitres (dolia), and others were
small pichers (seriae). The few years old wine was put in small amphorae and taken to the wine shed
(cella superior, apotheca), which was located in the garret, under the roof, where the ageing process
continued in heat. After that wine was put in a higher space of the garret (fumarium), where all the
smoke from the house gathered. The clay vessels used to keep the wine were usually poorly burnt, so to
make them waterproof they were painted with liquid pitch in the inside, but this gave the wine a taste.
Sometimes resin was added for a better preservation of wine.
22
One side of the wine cellar, or at least its
windows, must face north-east or east. Dunghills and tree roots, especially figs, must be kept at a
distance, since wine easily absorbs other flavours. Space must be left between the jars to prevent the
spreading of infections, to which wine is extremely susceptible. Jars must be washed with seawater or
salted water. They must be sprinkled with ashes from vine-cuttings or white clay, than brushed clean
and smoked out with myrrh. The same must be done regularly with the wine cellar.
23

Romans had the habit of mixing wine with water before drinking it. Undiluted wine was
considered a habit of the provincials and the barbarians. Usually Romans mixed one part wine with
two parts water (sometimes hot or seawater). Greeks mixed wine with three or for parts water,
always by adding wine to the water. Often poor wines were made better by adding good wine.
Smoked wines were often bitter and their colour changed. Romans remedied these things by dyeing
with aloe, saffron, and elderberry. It could also be sweetened with reduced must. All kinds of
flavourings were added, such as myrtle, rush-flowers, nard, roses, violets, lilac flowers, coriander,
celery, anis, almonds, pepper, and cinamon. Some wines were flavoured with resin.
24

For the transportation of wine usually amphorae were used, placed in arm racks if
transporting on ships and stiffed in sand when depositing in cellars. The small clefts on the walls of
the amphora were stopped up with pitch or wax. The mouth of the amphorae were closed with cork,
pitched, well tied and then covered with fine clay or plaster. On the neck of the vessels they made
an inscription with paint (red or maroon) witch indicated the name of the merchant, the place of
production and the volume of the amphora. This noting formed a sort of label of warranty and
advertisement (pittacium).
25

The Romans distinguished between sweet and dry wines. Pliny identifies four colours:
Albus light white wine
Fulvus golden yellow, like a dessert wine
Sanguineus blood red, like most young wines
Niger black, probably used for aged red wines and red passito wines
It is not always clear witch ancient wines belong to witch colour group, because in literature
the colours are mentioned only sporadically.
26
The number of vine and wine varieties was countless.
We will give here only a few examples:
Albanum of two kinds, dry and sweet. The wine was matured for fifteen years.
Calenum the favourite wine of the patricians, lighter then the Falernum
27
.

20
Tudor, 1976, p. 190.
21
Ibidem, p. 39-40.
22
Daremberg, Saglio, 1877, p. 988-989; Lascu, 1965, p. 40-41.
23
Faas, 2005, p. 113-114.
24
Ibidem, p. 117-118.
25
Tudor, 1976, p. 191.
26
Faas, 2005, p. 115-116.
27
Ibidem, p. 116.

120
Caecuban sweet, white wine from Latium. In the first century B.C. was the best wine,
finer then the Falernian, fuller then the Alban.
Falernum one of the most famous wines of antiquity, frequently mentioned in literature.
It was best drunk after ageing for ten to twenty years. It had two colours: white and peach (rose).
Fundanum a strong wine, which made you drunk quickly (according to Athenaeus).
28

Lora-called also vinum operariorum. Sour wine, made from the leftovers of the pressing,
mixed with water. It was usually served to slaves, inferior classes and soldiers.
Mamertine it originated in Sicily, it became famous thanks to Caesar, who used to serve
it at pulic events and triumphs.
Massilitanum a heavy, smoked wine, which according to Galen, was healthy and delicious.
Martial thought it disgusting. He recommends giving it to beggars to poison them. In addition it was
cheap: Martial remarks that it was not cooled with snow, because the snow was more expensive.
Nomentanum a mediocre wine which, according to Martial, you should not give to your
friends, and which was only drinkable at five years old.
29

Sorrentinum a light wine, drunk young. It was sour and tasted of earth. It owed its fame
principally to the beautiful clay drinking bowls that came from the same region and from which the
wine was traditionally drunk.
Tarentinum according to Galenus, was a wine with a light taste and low in alcohol.
Martial thought it was terrific.
30

Beside wine, the ancients also consumed other beverage. We can mention here:
Alica a cheep beverage from cereals and water, with a low content of alcohol.
Beer (cervisa) is the oldest alcoholic drink in the world. The Mesopotamians and the
Egyptians were the first beer-drinkers of ancient times. The latter brewed it from rye bread crumbled in
water, which was left to ferment with date juice, myrtle, cumin, ginger and honey. It was sometimes
drunk warm. Upper-class Romans did not drink beer. It cost half the price of bad wine, so it was not for
the sophisticated. In Italy and Gaul beer was made from rye. The Spaniards discovered how beer could
be kept under pressure, and so it acquired a foamy head. Pliny said beer-foam was used by women for
cosmetic purpose. Hops, which give beer its bitter taste, were not used until the 13th century.
31

Mead (aqua mulsa) an older and simpler drink than mulsum. It was seen as inferior to wine
and more suites to the simple honey god, Liber, than to the sophisticated Bacchus. Because it did not
contain grape juice, just honey and water, it could also be made in the bleak Northern provinces and is still
popular in Scandinavia. Mead is made by combining water, honey and yeast and leaving the mixture to
ferment. It has a wonderful golden colour, high alcohol content and the subtle fragrance of honey.
32

Melca was a kind of yoghurt, thought to aid digestion. It was made of sheeps and goats
milk. Apicius suggests serving melca with pepper and garum, or with coriander and salt.
Milk was drunk by children, but rarely by adults. In the kitchen it was used in several
desserts, but Roman cuisine was not dairy-oriented. Most milk was made into cheese. According to
Pliny, camel milk was the most delicious kind and it was drunken diluted with three parts water to
one part milk. Only wealthy Romans could afford it. Goats and sheeps milk were easiest to obtain.
Cows milk was not popular as a drink, but it was well suited to cheese-making. The milk of horses
and asses was used also in cosmetic purposes.
33

Mulsum was wine to which honey was added, either during the production process or
afterwards. While Columella thinks you should mix sweet wine with honey, Pliny disagreed, saying
that dry wine should be used, because sweet wine does not mix well with honey.
34


28
Ibidem, p. 116; Gozzini Giacosa, 1992, p. 31.
29
Ibidem, p. 116-117.
30
Ibidem, p. 117.
31
Ibidem, p. 122; Gozzini Giacosa, 1992, p. 192.
32
Faas, 2005, p. 120.
33
Ibidem, p. 123-124; Gozzini Giacosa, 1992, p. 191.
34
Faas, 2005, p. 119-120.

121
Passum is a sweet white raisin wine, to which no honey is added. It is made with half
dried grapes, which contain relatively large amounts of sugar and little juice. Columella describes
the producing of passum.
35

Posca was a refreshing drink made of vinegar and water, popular with travellers. They
carried vinegar in a flask, ready to dilute when they found water. The vinegar was sometimes
flavoured with spices and honey.
Snow was eaten on its own and sometimes flavoured with spiced wine and mulsum. Melted
snow was drunk for its purity and snow was used in cooking as a cooling agent. In winter snow and ice
were stored between layers of straw in well-insulated cellars. Only the rich had their own ice cellars.
36

Water most of the people drink water from wells or collected rain. Nero had the idea of
boiling it then cooling it in snow, but the Romans found this absurd and decadent. Mineral waters
were highly esteemed.
Egypt was the first country from the Mediterranean basin who cultivated vine, however the
consumption was limited. Due to its sacred character it was mainly used in religious ceremonies. The
pharaoh drunk wine, but he preferred beer, his peoples drink.
37
Greeks used wine with moderation. At
Milet the law forced women to drink only water. Wine played an important role at symposium, where
men drunk wine, discussed different themes, listened to music or poetry.
38
Greeks usually mixed wine
with seawater. Romans also drunk diluted wine. After the foundation of Rome only men passed 30 had
the right to drink wine. For a long time women were forbidden to drink. Dinner is followed by the
comissatio, where men drunk wine. Sour wine and vinegar were present in the alimentation of the
soldiers. Officers with a higher pay were able to buy expensive food and good wines.
39

Wine was also used in the kitchen, as an ingredient for different recipes (desserts, sauces).
The Romans enjoyed aged wines: they were not only more delicious than young ones, but thought
beneficial to health. They were supposed to be strengthening, to improve the circulation of the
blood and give it a deep red colour, aid digestion, ensure a good nights sleep.
40

Wine, from the earliest times, had also an important therapeutic role. The oldest mention of
a therapeutic usage of wine was discovered in an Egyptian tomb, dated around 4000 B.C. Greeks
used it in medicine from the earliest times. With Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, wine
became extremely important in the field of therapeutics. He recommends, beside internal usage,
also as dressing or for the treatment of wounds and rheumatisms. Teofrast invented the medicinal
wines, adding to wine herbs and spices with fitotherapeutic properties. At Rome wine does not lose
any of its therapeutic properties.
41

Wine also played an important role in trade. Greek and Roman amphorae were found all
around the Roman Empire and even beyond its boundaries. The prices of wine depended on the
years and vineyards. Variations were pretty frequent, giving place for speculations. Sometimes huge
profits were achieved. To avoid the fall of prices, the measures tend to limit the production. Even if
the numbers given by the ancient authors arent 100% accurate, it is a certain fact that viticulture
had a huge economical importance.


35
Ibidem, 2005, p. 120-121.
36
Ibidem, p. 122-123.
37
Montignac, 2010, p. 24.
38
Ibidem, p. 25.
39
Goldsworthy, 2008, p. 99.
40
Faas, 2005, p. 115.
41
Montignac, 2010, p. 80-83

122
2. Viticulture in Dacia

Vine cultivation and wine preparation has been studied since the 19th century by B. P.
Hadeu (Originile viticulturii la romni. Columna lui Traian, Bucureti, 1974) based on linguistic
data, then the problem was studied by agriculture and viticulture historians (for example: A.
Urbeanu, Istoricul buturilor alcoolice n Romnia, Bucureti, 1901; I. C. Teodorescu, t. C.
Teodorescu, G. C. Mihalcea, Via de vie de-a lungul veacurilor, Bucureti, 1966; T. Martin,
Viticultura, Bucureti, 1960), by geographers (N. Al. Rdulescu, I. Velcea, N. Petrescu, Geografia
agriculturii Romniei, Bucureti 1968), by etnographers and ethnologists (like N. Al. Mironescu,
Paul Petrescu, Valeriu Butur) and by historians (Nicolae Iorga, C. C. Giulescu, C. Constantinescu).
Viticulture in Dacia and Scythia Minor was also studied by historians based on written
sources (I. Weiss, Alexandra tefan) and on religious cults and the representation of vine on
monuments (R. Vulpe, N. Lascu, H. Daicoviciu, Constantin Pop).
42

In Dacian settlements and sometimes necropolises were discovered curved knives of
different dimensions with the edge on the concave part. Some were 20-23 cm long, similar to
sickles. These surely had a special use (Maria Coma thinks that they were used in viticulture).
Those of bigger dimensions were probably used for cutting the vine sprouts or sometimes even the
branches of the fruit trees. These kind of knife-hooks were discovered at Vldiceni-Schit (Vaslui
District) in a Getic settlement dated the 4-3
th
centuries B.C.; in a tumulus from Telia (Tulcea
District), others in the settlements from Bucureti-Dudeti, Bucureti-Lacul Tei, Tilica, Grditea
Muncelului, dated in the I
st
century B.C. I
st
century A.D. We know that smaller curved knives
were used in Italy for harvesting grapes. Similar curved knives were discovered in settlements,
fortifications and fortresses from Moldova, Muntenia, Oltenia, Dobrogea, Transylvania, but also in
Dacian funerary complexes and graves with Celtic character.
43

Simultaneously with the curved knives were also used hooks for the maintenance of the vine
and for the harvesting of the grapes. These kinds of tools were discovered in Dacian settlements and
fortifications and in the workshop from the 8th terrace from Grditea Muncelului. For digging the soil
where the vine would be planted and for the maintenance of the soil from around the vine, the ancients
also used other tools: prong hoe, pickaxe, grubbing hoe. A double tool, on one part a grubbing hoe and
on the other an axe, was used for the maintenance of the vine: with the axe they used to cut the thicker
branches from the base of the vine and with the grubbing hoe they dug the soil around the vine.
44

Concerns regarding the cultivation of wine are reflected also by the reproduction of the vine
leaf on the Dacian painted luxury pottery, discovered at Grditea Muncelului. In the same location
a hinge was discovered: the part which was fixed on the wood had the form of a vine leaf. In the
Dacian settlement from Teiu, in the south of Arge District, charred vine chords were discovered.
45

Regarding the vine cultivation at the Thraco-Dacians Maria Coma draw some conclusions.
The archaeological discoveries confirm and complete the data handed over by the sources and also
offer some clues about the degree of development of viticulture at the Thraco-Dacians. The special
tools for the maintenance of the vine and for harvesting the grapes appeared in Dacia in the 6
th
century
B.C. In the 2
nd
century B.C. appeared the curved knives, special tools for harvesting grapes. These knives
remain the same till the first century A.D. or sometimes even till the Middle Ages. In the 4
th
-3
rd
centuries
B.C. appeared also the hooks.
In the 6
th
-1
st
century B.C., Dacian viticulture was influenced by the Greek one, and then the
Roman one. After the intensification of Roman influence in the first century A.D. appeared more
improved tools for the maintenance of the vine. Based on the archaeological discoveries it can be affirmed
that Geto-Dacians practiced viticulture in all the known viticulture areas.
46


42
Ibidem, p. 57-58.
43
Ibidem, p. 59-66.
44
Ibidem, p. 67-74.
45
Ibidem, p. 74-77.
46
Ibidem, p. 78-79.

123
The written sources give us information about the fact that Dacians knew and appreciated
wine: Platon, Laws, I, 637d; Diodor from Sicily, Biblioteca istorica, XXI, 12,5; Strabo, Geografia,
VII, 3, 11; Ovidiu, Tristia, III, 10, 23-24; Vergilius, Georgica, III, 364. To these we can add the
archaeological discoveries that certify the existence of vine and the production of wine at the
Dacians. In the settlements from Brad, Piscul Crsani, Popeti were discovered grape seeds. To the
consumption of local wines we could add, at least for the east and south Carpathian areas, the
imported wines (especially from the Greek world, fact proven by the stamped amphorae from
Rhodos, Thasos, Cnidos, Cos). Dacians also consumed beer and mead.
47

In the Roman period viticulture knew a huge development. To the old varieties new ones
were added, superior working methods, brought by the settlers. One of these methods was the
cultivation of vine in association with different trees. In the 1
st
-2
nd
centuries A.D. viticulture became the
main agricultural occupation in almost all of the provinces of the Roman Empire. The cult of Liber Pater
was encouraged by some emperors like Hadrian, Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Heliogabal. In Dacia the
popularity of Liber, alone or with his pair Libera, is certified by the presence of dedications to Liber or
Liber and Libera from all over the province, not only in agricultural and viticulture areas, on the territory
of towns and villages, but also in the stationary places of the Roman troops.
48

Evidence of practicing viticulture on the territory of Dacia are: the will from Sucidava (CIL
III, 14493); the waxed slate form Alburnus Maior (CIL III, tab. cer. XV); a fragment of stamped
amphora from Porolissum which proves the import of southern wine or oil form the time of emperor
Traian (the neck of the amphora is marked with: IMP (eratoris) NERVAE AVG (usti) and it was
probably brought by the first settlers who came in the north of Dacia); the wine cellar (cella
vinaria) and the calcatorium discovered at Potaissa
49
; an inscription from Colonia Ulpia Traiana
Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa which talks about offerings to the gods and mentions mulsa (a mix
from water and honey) and merum (which is not mixed with water vinum non mixtum)
50
;
ornaments representing stalks and branches with leaves of vine and clusters of grapes, frequently
depicted on stone monuments; numerous dedications to Liber Pater and his fine art representations
of the wine god (reliefs and statues)
51
; the discovery of tools (like wine hooks).
The waxed slates (25 pieces) were discovered accidentally by the miners between 1786 and
1855 in the abandoned gold mines from Alburnus Maior (Roia Montan). The pieces were dated
between 131-167 A.D. and the finding place, their content and destination shows that they belonged
to the miners or to those who worked here.
52
The simultaneous consumption of local and imported
wine is certified in the text of one of the waxed slates (CIL III, tab. cer. XV) which mentions the
expenses for a banquet of a board in Alburnus Maior. Two kinds of wine are mentioned: merum and
vinum. From merum three heminae (= 0.822 l) were consumed and from vinum two cvadrantale and
two heminae (= 32.56 l). Merum, a sweet wine was an expensive beverage (almost 2 denars per
litre) and it was considered foreign, vinum was probably local (0.54 denar per litre).
53

The wine cellar from Potaissa was discovered in the south-western part of Turda, on uia
Hill, in 1978, when the steep edge of the quarry collapsed and a rectangular underground room
appeared (oriented East-West). The walls were raised with local stone; their interior was plastered
totally but the exterior only the parts above the soil. No traces of painting or graffiti were found.
54

The room was used in two stages. In the interior a lot of fragments from tiles and hollow tiles were
discovered. Near the southern wall the remains of a burned firm wood beam were discovered,
probably from the roofs framework. The role of the building was established based on the
discovery of a lot of pottery, a wine hook (falx vineatica) and annex equipment used to crush the
grapes: it was a cella vinaria, a wine cellar. The equipment used to crush the grapes was discovered

47
Suciu, 2001, p. 171-172.
48
Milea, Luca, 1978, p. 236.
49
Brbulescu, 1994, p. 124.
50
Arde, 2006, p. 48.
51
Macrea, 1969, p. 297.
52
IDR I, 1975, p. 244-246.
53
Tudor, 1976, p. 398-399.
54
Ctina, Brbulescu, 1979, p. 101-103.

124
near the underground room. It is a quadrilateral pit dug in rock. The bottom of the pit was carefully
worked and a 25 cm thick floor was made. This way a small tank was made (calcatorium) where
the grapes were crushed. The floor being so tough, we can presume that the tank was also used as a
component part of the wine press (torcular), by setting above it the wooden equipment.
55
A rich and
various archaeological material was found: different types of pottery, metal, bone, glass objects,
fragments from a terra-cotta statuette, fragments from a stone relief. The archaeological material
confirms the role of the complex. It wasnt excluded the assumption that this could have been the
annex of a larger household, a villa suburbana near the ancient town. The cella vinaria and torcular
from Potaissa was near or in the vineyard. The underground room in which the wine was kept might
also serve as a store for the viticulture tools or a house for the guardian.
56

The will from Sucidava is the will of an anonymous, partially preserved. From this epitaph we
learn about the cultivation of vine in southern Dacia and on the terraces of the Danube. The owner of the
two jugera vineyard was the owner or the concessionaire of a fund, he had the right to leave a will. It was
dated in the 2
nd
century A.D.
57
Based on the text we can see that the production of the two jugera could
provide bread to the caretaker and all that was necessary for the periodical sacrifices. This attestation of
local wine production proves that in Dacia local wine was also consumed, not only imported one, which
probably was of a better quality but was also a lot more expensive then the local wine.
The import of wine in Dacia begun in the 4
th
-3
rd
centuries B.C. when the local aristocracy
was buying amphorae with Greek wine through the Greek merchants from the Hellenistic towns
from the Dobrogean shore. Greek amphorae appear until the Roman conquest. In the pre-Roman
period the penetration of the Greek amphorae was documented only on the extra-Carpathian area
(Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldova).
58
Based on the Greco-Italic imports Dacia can be seen as a territory
with extremely active trade.
59
In the Roman period the wine and oil trade reached the north of
Transylvania (at Porolissum). The import of these amphorae knew the maximum development in
the period of the Sever dynasty, period when Dacia knew its maximum economical prosperity.
60

Wine and oil import was maintained until the 6
th
century A.D., fact proven by the discovery of
Roman amphorae in settlements from Dacia dated after the abandonment of the province. The
consumption appears in the settlements of the migrating population but also in the Roman-Byzantine
fortresses from the left shore of the Danube. But now the imports come from the Egeean isles.
61

The amphora was a vessel used for keeping and transporting liquids. It had a tall body, two
handles and a cone-shaped bottom (this is why it had to be placed on props or transported stiffed in
sand). Some had stamps of the producer and/or tituli picti, certifying the capacity or content, placed
on the handles or the neck of the vessel.
62

For Dobrogea, Andrei Opai speaks about some preliminary conclusions. It can be noticed
the carrying on of some old commercial customs of the Istro-Pontic area with the Greek centres
(Rhodos, Chios, Samos, Cos). A local production exists but it reduces oneself to common used
pottery. From these regions fish and honey could have been exported. If there is a correlation
between the merchandise and the amphora, than the cone-shaped forms are for oil, the ovoid ones for
wine and the globular ones for cereals and fish. Opai differentiated 13 types: 4 would be for oil (tipe II,
III, IV, VI), 4 for wine (V, VII, VIII, IX), 4 for cereals or fish (X, XI, XII, XIII). Type I could be a local
product. The dimensions of the vessels maintained generally unchanged. The Danubian towns were
extremely active economically. Troesmis and Noviodunum were very important because they were
transit points for the southern merchandise towards the northern Danubian region.
63


55
Ibidem, 1979, p. 106-108.
56
Ibidem, 1979, p. 124-126.
57
andru, 2003, p. 197-198.
58
Tudor, 1968, p. 397.
59
Glodariu, 1972, p. 56.
60
Tudor, 1968, p. 397-398.
61
Ibidem, p. 399.
62
Brbulescu, 2005, p. 79.
63
Opai, 1977-1978, p. 310-314.

125
Amphorae with wine came to Dacia from Italy, Gaule, Hispania, Asia Minor or North
Africa. The cultivation of wine is one of the traditional occupations practiced in Dacia, even before
the Roman conquest. 43% of the amphorae from Dacia were filled with wine. The 45% imported
wine from Dacia came from Asia.
64
In Dacia 45 amphora types were distinguished, which were in
circulation during the 2-6th centuries.
Based on his studies A. Arde reached some conclusions concerning amphorae in Dacia:
From the 445 amphorae or fragments of amphorae 81% came from cities, 11,68% from
fortresses and 7,86% from rural settlements.
45 amphora types were identified, coming from 14 provinces from all over the Empire.
29% came from Occident, 62% from Orient and 9% from Africa.
It is difficult to establish exactly the content of the amphorae. 44,85% transported olive
oil, 43,01% wine, 6,61% fish products and 5,51% olives.
The wine from Dacia came from: Asia, Moesia Inferior, Italy, Pontus et Bithynia, Gaule,
Crete et Cyrenae, Egypt, Syria Palestina, Baetica, Africa Proconsularis.
From a chronological point of view: between 106 and 150 A.D. 80.76% from the
amphorae came from Occident and 42.85% transported wine. After the middle of the second
century the report changes: 74.09% came from Orient and 45.76% of wine amphorae came from
Asia. At the beginning of the 3
rd
century the supremacy stays the same: 79.28% Orient and 46.55%
of the wine came from Asia. Starting with the crisis period of the Empire there are no amphorae
from Occident, 70.68% Orient and 70.38% of the wine came from Asia. After 401 Orient represents
87% and 61.90% came from Asia.
The main access ways to Dacia, for the western products as well as for the eastern ones,
remain the fluvial ones.
65

The waxed slates are unique sources for prices in Dacia. It is important to study prices from
Dacia in connection with the prices from other provinces. Studies were made based on the prices
from the waxed slate that noted the products and the expenses for a banquet. For this study are
important the prices of wine. Three amphorae of wine would cost 35 or 22 denars, so a sextarius
would cost 3.8 or 2,2 aces. In the same period of time, a sextarius costed 1-4 aces at Pompei; 0.4
ace in Spain; 0.3-1 ace in Africa. Generally, in the first two centuries A.D. a sextarius costed between
0.4 and 8 aces. The prices from Dacia correspond with the values from the other provinces. We dont
know the quality of the wine mentioned in the waxed slate. A worker from Pompei could buy with his
one day pay 2-7 litres of wine, but in Dacia only 2.5-4 litres. This fact might be explained with smaller
pays than in Pompei, and also in Italy wine was in abundance, while in Dacia large quantities were
imported from Tracia or Asia Minor. In 301 an unskilled worker with his one day pay could buy only
1.8 litres of inferior quality wine.
66
The correspondence of the prices from Alburnus Maior with those
from other provinces in the I
st
-II
nd
century A.D. show a monetary stability and the lack of inflation
which will appear in the 3
rd
century. The prices from Alburnus Maior could be extended for the entire
province. The gold mines from Dacia were not isolated economicly; they were near by Apulum, an
important economical centre with an intense monetary circulation.
67

In conclusion we could say that viticulture was an important part of Dacian agriculture even
before the Roman conquest. Beside the imported wine, probably of a better quality, wine from local
production should not be neglected. In many regions of Dacia were viticulture exploitations, even in
areas not always favourable for vine. The existence of a local viticulture and the taste for imported
wines show the interest of Dacian population towards this product.

64
Arde, 2006, p. 47-50.
65
Ibidem, p. 246-264.
66
Mrozek, 1971, p. 446-447.
67
Ibidem, p. 451.

126
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184
Analele Universitii Cretine Dimitrie Cantemir, Bucureti, Seria Istorie Serie nou, Anul 1, Nr. 4, 2010, p. 184-186
ISSN 2068 3766 (online); ISSN 2068 3758 (CD-ROM); ISSN 1584 3343 (print)



Abbreviations



A.M.A.E. The Archives of the Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Bucharest
Abwehr Amt Ausland/Abwehr im Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (German Military
Intelligence; in German: defense)
ActaMP Acta Musei Porolissensis. Anuarul Muzeului Judeean Slaj, Zalu
b. born
cal. calibrated (radiometric data)
CC of RWP Central Committee of Romanian Workers Party
CHNA, CC of RCP-Chancellery Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party
Chancellery Collection (hereafter)
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin.
CIMEC Institutul de Memorie Cultural, Ministerul Culturii i Cultelor, Bucureti
CLEMAM Check List of European Marine Mollusca, Musum National dHistoire Naturelle,
Paris: http://www.somali.asso.fr/clemam
Col. collection
com. comuna (commune)
coord. coordinator
Corviniana Corviniana. Acta Musei Corvinensis, Muzeul Castelul Corvinetilor,
Hunedoara
d. dead
Dacia Dacia. Recherches et dcouvertes archologiques en Roumanie, Bucureti
Dacia, NS Dacia. Revue darchologie et dhistoire ancienne, Nouvelle Srie, Bucureti
Dpto Dipartamento
Drobeta Drobeta. Anuarul Muzeului Porilor de Fier, Drobeta-Turnu Severin
ECSC The European Coal and Steel Community
ed(s). editor(s)
ERAUL tudes et recherches archologiques de lUniversit de Lige, Lige
ETA Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (in Basque: Basque Homeland and Freedom)
EU European Union
FMES La Fondation Mditerranenne dtudes Stratgiques
i.p. in press
185
IDR Inscriptiones Daciae Romanae, Bucureti, Paris
ILD Petolescu, C. C., Inscripiile latine din Dacia, Bucureti, 2005
jud. jude (county)
KFOR Kosovo Force (NATO)
LGM Last Glacial Maximum
Lt.col. lieutenant-colonel
M.R.P. The Republican Popular Movement
Materiale Materiale i cercetri arheologice, Bucureti
MemAntiq Memoria Antiquitatis. Acta Musei Petrodavensis, Muzeul Judeean de Istorie
Neam, Piatra Neam
Mmoires de la SPF Mmoires de la Socit Prhistorique Franise, Paris
MNI Minimum number of individuals (archaeozoology)
MSD Medzinrodn sdny dvor
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NOMENCLATOR Mcsy, A., Feldmann, R., Marton, E., Szilgy, M., Nomenclator,
Dissertationes Pannonicae III, 1, Budapest, 1983
NR Number of rests (archaeozoology)
O.S.D. Overseas Surveys Directorate
ONOMASTICON Onomasticon provinciarum Europae Latinarum: I Lrincz, B., Red,
F., Budapest 1994; II Lrincz, B., Wien 1999; III Lrincz, B., Wien 2000; IV Lrincz, B.,
Wien 2002
P.C.F. The French Communist Party
P.R.L. Republican Party of Liberty
P.R.S. Republican Syndicalist Party
pl. plate(s)
Prhistorische Zeitschrift Prhistorische Zeitschrift, Berlin-New York
PUF Presses Univrsitaires de France, Paris
R.I. Independent Radicals
R.P.F. Rassemblement du Peuple Franais
RevBist Revista Bistriei, Complexul Muzeal Judeean Bistria-Nsud, Bistria
RPR Popular Republic of Romania
S.F.I.O. The Socialist Party-The French Section of the International Workers Movement
SCIVA Studii i cercetri de istorie veche i arheologie, Bucureti
sp. species
Speomond Speomond. Revista Federaiei Romne de Speologie, Bucureti
SSI Romanian Armys Intelligence Service
tab. cer. tabula(e) cerata(e)
Tibiscus Tibiscus. Anuarul Muzeului Banatului, Timioara
186
U.D.S.R. The Socialist-Democrat Union for Resistance
U.S.A. United States of America
UCK Ushtria lirimtare e Kosovs
UISPP Union Internationale des Sciences prhistoriques et protohistoriques de
lUNESCO, Paris
UN United Nations
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
vol. volume
( ). ., 2004
M. , Moscow

.
. - (Saint-Petersburg)