GEOLOGY 115

LESSON 2: NAMING GEMS AND MEASURING GEMS:

Naming Gems:
Similarly to the way organisms are named in biology, in gemology, each
distinct type of gem has a species name.
Species: A gem species is a mineral that has a definite chemical formula,
and has a particular three dimensional structure. In regards to that
structure, gems can have a crystalline (highly regular and organized), or
amorphous (less organized) structure.
An example of a gem species is quartz. All quartzes, whatever their other
characteristics, share the same chemical formula: SiO
2
and are members
of the hexagonal crystal system. (We'll be looking at the characteristics of
the various crystal systems in a later lesson). The species "quartz"
encompasses many quite different looking gems, though, from amethyst
and citrine, to agate and jasper, to rutilated quartz and tiger'seye.
Another example of a gem species is corundum (commonly known as
sapphire). All corundum gems share the chemical formula: Al
2
O
3
and are
members of the trigonal crystal system.
Variety: A gem variety is composed of a sub-group, within the species, that
shares distinct and notable characteristics, such as color, degree of
transparency, inclusions, or optical phenomena with others of its kind. Not
every gem species has multiple varieties, for example, there are no
separate varieties within the gem species peridot.
Quartz Gems:
[Species quartz: Varieties: amethyst, agate]
Amethyst is transparent, crystalline, purple quartz. Agate is translucent,
usually banded or patterned,cryptocrystalline (made of ultra-microscopic
crystals in an aggregate) quartz. Amethysts come in a range of purple
colors from very light to dark, and agates come in a nearly infinite array of
colors and patterns.
Corundum Gems:
[Species corundum: Varieties: ruby, yellow sapphire, star sapphire]
Ruby is the variety name for red corundum, yellow sapphire is yellow
corundum and star sapphire is translucent to opaque corundum that
shows the optical phenomenon of asterism (forms a star figure from
reflected light). The only variety of corundum that is simply called
"sapphire" without any modifier is blue sapphire, all other colors have
their own variety name (like ruby) or use a modifier like star, yellow, pink,
white, etc.
Groups: In some cases, a number of closely related mineral species are
placed into a larger, more inclusive category, called a mineral group.
Examples are the garnet group and the feldspar group.
The individual species of the group share membership in the same crystal
system, but although the chemical formulas amongst group members are
very similar, they are not exactly the same throughout the group.
Typically, the formulas gradually change by substitution of a set of
chemical elements from one end of a continuum to the other.
Garnet Group: All garnets, whatever their individual species and varietal
designations, are members of the isometriccrystal system and are metallic
silicate minerals with various proportions of Ca, Fe, Mg, Al, Cr and Mn
substituting for each other within a similar chemical formula.
(To amplify: the generic formula for any garnet is A
3
B
2
Si
3
O
12
where the
"A" position can be occupied by iron, calcium, manganese or magnesium,
and the "B" position can be occupied by aluminum, iron, titanium or
chromium. The rest of the formula is standard for all gems known as
garnets).
Garnet Group Gems:
[Group: garnet, Species: Spessartite, Group: garnet, Species: grossularite,
variety: Tsavorite]
The orange oval stone above belongs to the Spessartite* species within the
garnet group. (Spessartites are manganese rich), and no individual
varieties are designated within this species. The green stones above belong
to the calcium rich grossularite species within the garnet group. There are
several named varieties of grossularites, including medium to dark green
stones colored by trace amounts of chromium and vanadium, called
Tsavorite. *
*When species or variety names come from proper nouns such as those
designating a person (like Kunzite, named for G. F. Kunz, or Spessartite,
named after the type location, Spessart in Germany), they are capitalized.
Otherwise lower case is used, as in grossularite, agate and amethyst.
Trade Names and Misnomers:
In addition to the official names given to gems, there are also a multitude
of trade names, brand names, and misnomers that are in use. In fact, just
as happened in the history of biology, the confusion over which mineral or
gem was called what, where, by whom, has led to the development of a
rigorous system for international naming of minerals and gems. Although
this formal system is used by professionals, students, and serious gem
enthusiasts among the public, many other names are still in use and can
create confusion.
Trade Names:
In modern times, trade names have most often developed when a new gem
material is first discovered and marketed, as a way to "romance the
stone". Let's say you are in Tanzania and you mine a facetable, but insipid
looking light brown, transparent form of the mineral zoisite. You discover
that heat treating will turn it to a gorgeous blue-violet color. The correct
descriptive term would be: heated brown zoisite.
Who would rush out to buy that? But, what if you call this gem something
exotic and evocative of its foreign mine site, like "Tanzanite"--> now you
something more marketable!
[Heated brown zoisite = Tanzanite]
Sometimes, what starts out as a trade name becomes so widely used that it
is essentially adopted as the official name. Exactly this has happened in the
case of Tanzanite.
Other examples of names which started out as marketing ploys and ended
up on the officially sanctioned list include: "Kunzite" for pink spodumene,
named for the famous early 20th century gem explorer and writer, G. F.
Kunz and, "Tsavorite" for green grossular garnet named for its original
mine locale (Tsavo National Park in Kenya).
[Kunzite, Tsavorite]
This strategy doesn't always work, and intended trade names sometimes
fail. There are numerous examples in which trade names were used for a
period of time, or by a specific seller, but then either died out, or never
became widespread. An aggressive campaign to present heated blue zircon
as "Starlite" failed, as did a similar effort to label high grade sugilite as
"Royal Azel".
[Still just blue zircon and gem grade sugilite]
The jury is still out on some:
The relatively recent gem discovery, blue pectolite, which occurs only in
the Dominican Republic in one location, has been promoted vigorously as
"Larimar"--> named by the mine owner for a conjuction of his daughter's
name and the local word for "sea". At this point the general consensus
seems to be in favor of this lovely name.
Within the last few years a deposit of strikingly marked purple and white
opalized fluorite has been sold as "Picasso Stone" among other creative
trade names. Although you still see this and various other terms in use,
most folks in the gem world seem to be sticking with the more
mineralogically descriptive name, opalized fluorite.
[Blue pectolite or "Larimar"?, "Picasso stone" or opalized fluorite?--> not
finally decided yet!]
Brand Names:
Brand names usually develop when a seller is trying to differentiate their
product from other identical or very similar ones. A case in point--> each
of the two major home shopping channels sells its own brand named
version of the diamond simulant cubic zirconia. QVC sells it as
"Diamonique
TM
" and HSN as "Absolute
TM
". Cubic zirconia, or CZ, is
widely sold under its generic name at lower prices, so here, the name
becomes a way of "branding" that creates "added value" in the
marketplace. We are all quite familiar with this concept in the marketing
of common food staples like catsup and mayonnaise, but it is every bit as
effective a device in selling gems and jewelry.
[Absolute
TM
, Diamonique
TM
or plain old CZ?: depends on the seller]
Misnomers:
A misnomer is a wrong, or false, name. Often misnomers are folk names,
from ages past, that have persisted into modern times. Sometimes they are
used out of ignorance, but sometimes, unfortunately, they are used to
deceive.
[Misnomers: "smoky topaz", for smoky quartz, "white turquoise" for
howlite]
One of the few vintage misnomers that can still occasionally be heard, even
among modern day jewelers, and reputable gem dealers, is "smoky topaz".
For many years this name was used incorrectly for the gem smoky quartz.
Probably, it started out innocently enough, as many such names do, as a
language translation failure, or an inability to correctly identify the
species. Its use grew, however, even after the true identity was established,
due primarily to the profit motive. Topaz is a generally more valuable gem
than quartz, so by calling this variety of quartz by the topaz misnomer, it
could sometimes be sold at higher prices to the unwary.
In their defense, individuals from earlier centuries who searched for, and
traded in gems, did not have the gemological knowledge or instruments
necessary to make the exacting identifications of today. Usually the
location, color, and some simple physical characteristics like hardness,
luster, crystal habit, and cleavage were the only basis for naming, and
many incorrect identifications were made.
Examples can be seen in the misidentification of some of the famous gems
of history, such as Cleopatra's emeralds (which were probably peridots).
Or as in the case of the "Black Prince's Ruby" in the Crown Jewels of
England, which turned out, upon testing, to be a spinel.
[Green rough stones, collected circa 1900 from the now exhausted St. Johns
Island mine in Egypt, legendary home of Cleopatra's "emeralds": the gems
are, in fact, peridot: Image courtesy of www.irocks.com]
Additionally, the folk name of a gem in one language may not have
translated exactly, and may have innocently acquired new shades of
meaning as the goods changed hands in international commerce.
Lists of such misnomers and folknames fill databases with thousands of
items, many of which can still be found in use in various locations.
Hopefully, as the level of gemological education and sophistication among
both buyers and sellers grows, the majority of such terms will slowly drop
out of circulation.
Misnomer/Folk Name Correct Name
Balas Ruby Red Spinel
Transvaal Jade
Translucent Green
Hydrogrossular Garnet
Mexican Onyx Banded Calcite Marble
Swiss Lapis
Dyed Blue Chalcedony or
Jasper
Black Hills Ruby Pyrope Garnet
New Jade Bowenite or Serpentine
You can see from this short list that when a gem name that consists of a
"modifier" in front of a recognized gem species or variety name, it is likely
to be a misnomer. The material is most probably something else, not the
gem (ruby, jade, lapis, etc.)-->usually something less valuable but with
superficially similar characteristics. (Remember the distinction between a
simulant and fake from Lesson 1: serpentine sold as faux jade or imitation
jade is a simulant, serpentine sold as New Jade (which implies it is really a
type of jade) is a fake, and the name is a misnomer.)
In today's competitive world of marketing gems, misnomers are making
something of a comeback. An example which can commonly be seen on TV
shopping channels, in mail order catalogues, at flea markets, and even in
retail stores is the term "white turquoise" for the mineral howlite, which is
a creamy white with veins of darker color running through it.
Gemologically, turquoise is defined by the presence of the copper in its
chemical makeup. The copper content invariably gives it some shade of
blue or green. So "white turquoise" is not only a misnomer, but an
oxymoron as well.
Don't feel like a dummy if you find that you've purchased something sold
under a misnomer. It can happen to anyone--> here's a picture of a
"smoky topaz" ring I bought from a well known retail jewelry chain, years
before I became a gemologist. I still like it and wear it, even though I now
know it's quartz and I paid way too much money for it. :-)
[Your instructor's "smoky topaz" ring]
Check the web: This website has an authoritative and amusing list of gem
misnomers:http://www.thegemdoctor.com/misnomers.html
Weighing Gems:
In the early history of gem marketing, depending on the geographic
location, one of two common items, familiar to both buyers and sellers, was
used to measure the amount of gem material being bought and sold: the
wheat grain and the carob seed. Each of these commodities was known for
being particularly uniform in size and weight. We still see remnants of this
early system in today's terms: "carat" the international metric unit used
for gems, and "grain" a unit sometimes used in selling pearls, and also in
today's system of apothecary measure.
**As we work through this section, you'll probably begin to wonder why it's
all so complicated, confusing and haphazard seeming. Unfortunately, the
system in place today developed bit by bit from mergers and splits amongst
pre-existing local systems. The, sometimes frustrating, result is pretty much
of a hodgepodge. Although some degree of uniformity has been introduced
by the use of the metric system, things still are far from predictable and
totally logical.
Carat: The carat, pronounced like the vegetable, carrot, and abbreviated
"ct" is 0.2 grams. So, there are five carats per gram. The metric system is
the basic international standard used for gem commerce. Many of us who
live in the US or UK where English measure is more common, need to take
time, and do some practice, in order to get a "feel" for carats, grams, etc.
The ounce, a familiar English unit of weight, equals approximately 142 cts.
So, there really isn'tan appropriately small unit in the English system
which could be easily applied to gem weights. [To illustrate: a 1 ct. gem
weighs 0.007 oz.]
Another oddity of the US system is our use of the term "karat", also
pronounced like the vegetable carrot, but abbreviated "k" or "kt" to
indicate the fineness (purity) of gold. In most other countries, the purity of
gold is indicated by the number of parts of gold out of 1000, such as 585 or
750, so there is no chance of confusion with gem weights. The number 585
means that 585 out of 1000 parts of the alloy are gold or, in other words,
that the gold content is 58.5%.
In comparison, the karat system uses the number of parts out of 24 that
are gold. 24k means 24/24th, pure gold, also known as "fine" gold, 18k
gold = 18/24th gold, and 14k = 14/24th gold. (14k and 18k and 24k
translate then, in the International system, to 585, 750 and 999
respectively).
**Check the text: See Lyman, pg. 41. The authors (who are Italian and can
be forgiven because as Europeans they don't use the karat system, mistakenly
use the word "carat" instead of "karat" in describing how gold is marked in
the US, and Lyman, the American editor, didn't catch it. So, don't you be
confused: For gems it's carat, for gold it's karat !!
[Stamp on a 24k or "fine" gold piece]
The time honored way that jewelers and gold dealers tested gold purity
was by using acids and a set of test needles of known karatage. A streak
was made by the object being tested on a stone plate and comparison
streaks made below it with the test needles. Then the acid solution was
applied to all. Based on the degree and color of the reaction, compared to
the test streak reactions, the composition could be closely approximated.
We get our terms "touchstone" and "acid test" from this ancient
procedure. Kits using this same principle are sold, and still widely used
today, although a newer system based on electrical conductivity is
becoming popular. In devices of this newer type the test object is immersed
in a few drops of electrolyte solution, and then subjected to a current--> its
purity level can then be read directly from the scale.
["Acid Test" kit, electronic gold tester: images courtesy of Prettyrock.com]
Getting to know the carat:
Below, you see the carat weights of three common objects: since you are
likely to be familiar with their approximate weights, this can perhaps help
you begin to get a "feel" for the weights represented in carats.
Common items weighed in carats:
[Small, (1.5" x 2.0") Post-it note = .75 ct., standard bobby pin = 2.8 ct., dime
= 11 ct.]
Special Cases:
Pearls
Pearl Grain: The pearl grain, is .25 grams, so one gram is equal to 4 pearl
grains. Thankfully, the only remaining use of this once important measure,
is sometimes seen in the sale of natural pearls by weight. Because there is
very little commerce today in natural pearls (virtually all pearls on the
market are cultured), it is fast becoming obsolete.
Many cultured pearl wholesalers still sell bundles of pearls in larger units
called "momme" which, historically, weighed 75 pearl grains.
Cultured pearls are sold by diameter (millimeters) if they are round, or
near round, and by carat if they are oddly shaped (baroque).
[9 mm. round cultured pearl, 8.4 ct. baroque cultured pearl]
Check the web: The folks at pearl-guide.com have (among articles on just
about any aspect of pearls you'd like to learn about), a short and clear web
page explaining pearl weights: http://www.pearl-guide.com/pearl-
weights.shtml
Melee & Total Weight
Melee: Gems weighing .20 ct. or less are referred to by the gem trade as
"melee". They are most often not sold by weight, but rather by girdle
diameter: 2 mm., 3.5 mm., etc. Such stones are generally used as accents,
for cluster settings, or in pave' work.
Total weight: When a jewelry piece has more than one stone, such as a
center stone and accents, the total carat weight, must be used: abbreviated
as "ct. tw."
[Ring with diamonds and Tsavorite pave' melee of .70 ct. tw., pendant with
rubellite tourmaline and diamonds: .66 ct. tw.]
Big Items
Gem rough, and in some cases, carvings and ornamental objects are sold
by the gram, (gr) or kilogram, (kg) as the carat is an inappropriately small
unit for such goods. Occasionally, you see such wares with simply a per
piece price without any weight measure listed at all.
[57.5 gr. ruby in zoisite gem carving ]
Metals
Metals, like gold, platinum and silver, are not weighed in the metric system
of carats and grams, nor the English system of ounces and pounds, but in
the "Troy" system. Unfortunately, the Troy system also uses the terms
"ounce" and "pound" but these terms are not equivalent between systems.
When you hear that gold is selling at $900 per ounce, it is a Troy ounce
which is about 10% heavier than an "English" ounce. (An English ounce =
~ 142 ct. whereas a Troy ounce = ~ 156 ct.) Troy ounces are subdivided
into smaller units called pennyweights, abbreviated "dwt.". There are 20
dwt./ troy oz. Jewelers generally buy their gold casting grain, by the
pennyweight. To further complicate matters, there are 12 Troy ounces in a
Troy pound rather than 16 oz/lb as in the English system!
Remember, in the last web lecture, gold was said to be worth substantially
less than $10.00/ct.? We can now see how that figure was calculated: gold
at $900 per ounce (Troy) = $900 per 156/ct., so dividing 156 into $900 gives
us $5.77/ct. Check the current price to get a more accurate figure.
Check the web: This website tracks gold prices minute to
minute: http://goldinfo.net/gold1.html
Food for thought: Presuming you want the most gold possible: (Answers to
the questions are found at the end of the lesson.)
Question One: Would you rather have a Troy ounce of gold or an English
ounce?
Question Two: Would you rather have a Troy pound of gold or an English
pound of gold?
Precision
In commerce, colored stones are generally weighed to 0.1 ct. and diamonds
are usually weighed to .01 ct. Each 1/100th of a carat is called a "point".
So, one could alternately describe a 0.50 ct. diamond as weighing 50
points. {Interestingly, in the world of diamond sales, 50 points
is not precisely the same as "1/2 carat". Fractional parts of carats actually
refer to ranges! It is legal and proper to advertize and sell to any diamond
within the range of 0.45 ct to 0.55 ct. as a 1/2 carat stone.
Tools for Weighing
Long ago, gems and precious metals were weighed for trade by using
simple hand held or platform mounted pan balances. The dealer placed the
requisite number of carob seeds or wheat grains (common items with very
standard weights) in one pan and added gems or gold in the other pan
until the two pans hung level. Although this sounds primitive, a practiced
user can get veryaccurate weights, and such tools are still in use in much of
the world, although carob seeds have been replaced by tiny, carefully
calibrated metal "weight standards" marked in carats or grams.
[Antique brass pan balances]
Several decades ago, mechanical spring balances or beam balances were
state of the art, today, however, virtually all gems are weighed on
electronic scales. The basic principle is the same as that of the spring or
tension balance (like the kind you weigh produce in at the grocery store).
The difference is that the pressure from the object being weighed, instead
of stretching or compressing a spring, creates increased electrical
resistance. The result is displayed digitally as the object's weight.
[Electronic carat scale]
Factors affecting weight:
It might seem, at first thought, that all 6 millimeter round gems would
weigh about the same, but there aretwo important factors which greatly
affect individual gem weight: 1) the density of the material (its weight per
unit), and 2) the proportions of the cut. In the next lesson we'll learn more
about gem density (specific gravity) but the basic idea is that some gem
species weigh more per unit than others, just like a 4" cube of steel will
weigh more than a 4" cube of oak. (Sapphire, for example, has a higher
density than quartz, so a 6 millimeter round sapphire, all other factors
being equal, would weigh more than a 6 millimeter round quartz.)
The cut, particularly in regards to the pavilion depth and degree of
pavilion bulge, is equally important in determining the weight of any given
gem of a certain length and width. The diagram below shows two gems of
the same face up dimensions, let's say 6 millimeter rounds, but which are
cut to very different proportions. The deep or "belly" cut gem weighs
much more, both due to the greater depth of the pavilion and to the
bulging out of the sides. It is quite common to find "native cut" gems of
this type. This is partly because the lapidaries in the country of origin are
frequently paid by weight, but also because such gems, though awkward to
mount in standard Western commercial settings, deepen the apparent
color of lighter gem materials. (There is more to come about cut in Lesson
7).
[The effect of cut on gem weight: Image courtesy of www.tripps.com]
Measuring Gems
The common household ruler, generally has inches on one side and
millimeters on the other side. It's a good item to keep handy when first
attempting to get a feel for metric gem measurements. If you saw a
description of a gem that says it measures 8 x 10 millimeters, that might
not bring up an immediate mental picture of its size. Using your ruler, it's
pretty easy to make a small sketch to represent the gem. Doing this a few
times is all that's necessary to begin to think more easily in millimeter
sizes.
Such a ruler isn't precise enough for jewelers or gem dealers, who have a
variety of moderately to extremely accurate measuring devices at their
disposal. The simplest, least expensive, and most portable of these is the
engraved brass sliding pocket gauge, seen below. The gem is placed
between the jaws which are gently slid into contact with it. The lower scale
generally reads in millimeters and the upper scale in inches.
For greater precision there are several other options to choose from, such
as the screw micrometer and the digital sliding gauge.
[Brass sliding gauge]
[Digital sliding gauge]
With the simple brass sliding gauge accuracy is to tenths of millimeters,
hundredths of millimeters must be estimated, not so with the digital
version.
A specialized type of jeweler's measurement tool, which has great
versatility, is called the Leveridge gauge, available in both mechanical
(seen below) and electronic types. Besides measuring loose gems, this
device is useful in taking certain measurements on gems already set into
jewelry. This can be done directly if the setting is open on the bottom-->
one prong goes on the gem's table and the other on its culet or keel. In
addition, the pointed jaws opposite the prongs, can be used to get pretty
good estimates of distances, even if the setting is closed.
[Leveridge gauge: Image courtesy of www.riogrande.com]
Also favored by jewelers are stone and hole gauges, which can be used to
get fairly accurate estimates of the dimensions of a given gem, or the size of
a particular opening on a setting.

[Stone gauge, stone and hole gauge: Images courtesy of www.riogrande.com]
Where to Measure ?
Having a good tool is necessary, but you also need to know the appropriate
place to take each measurement. Length and width are the two primary
dimensions of interest, although in the formal cut grading system for gems
a large group of other measurements are taken, such as table width, total
depth, crown height, etc.
Each of the regular shapes of gemstones has a preferred position for taking
length and width measures. Most are pretty obvious (the two longest
perpendicular dimensions), but the special situation of the heart shape
bears mentioning. The length of heart shaped gems is measured from a
hypothetical line joining the tops of the lobes, rather than from the cleft.
[Correct measurement sites for common shapes: Graphic courtesy of
www.tripps.com]
Answers to the thought exercises for this lesson. (If you don't understand
why these are the correct answers, then it's a good time to email me and ask!)
1): Troy ounce. If we use carats, then it's easy to decide on the Troy ounce
which weighs 156 ct. compared to the English ounce's 142 ct.
2): English pound. Since there are only 12 Troy ounces in a Troy pound,
then there are only 12 x 156 or 1872 carats in a Troy pound, whereas there
are 16 x 142 = 2272 carats in an English pound, as English pounds have 16
ounces each.
You have now completed the web lecture for the second lesson!
Go back the the course website to: 1) complete and submit the homework
assignment on the text readings and assigned web essays 2) take the non-
graded practice quiz on this web lecture 3) post a comment to the discussion
board for this lesson, and 4) when it is available, complete the graded quiz
based on this web lecture.
When you're ready, proceed on to Lesson Three: Physical Properties of
Gems

All text and images are Copyright of Barbara W. Smigel, 2012 unless
otherwise indiated.
!o reprodution allowed without expliit permission.