Ateneo de Manila University Loyola Heights Quezon City
BASIC ECOLOGY
WHAT IS ECOLOGY the science that deals with the interactions between living organisms and their environment. etymology: Greek word `OIKOS' meaning house, thus literally ecology is the study of houses or more broadly "environments" and is often called environmental biology. Organisms rarely live alone. Organisms interact with each other. They live together as a group of interbreeding individuals called a population. In turn, a population interacts with other populations, forming a community bound together by a close feeding relationship. The community, on the other hand, interacts with physical and chemical factors of its environment. Such an interwoven system of interactions of a biotic community with its physico-chemical environment is referred to as an ecological system or ecosystem. An ecosystem is considered the basic structural and functional unit in ecology. It consists of living and non-living components. These components continually interact, producing an integral system with interdependent exchange of materials and energy. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM The structure of an ecosystem generally refers to its interacting living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components. A. The Biotic Components Biotic components in an ecosystem are bound together by a need for food. Hence, although there are over 1.7 million species of organisms documented throughout the world, they are basically classified into three (3) major groups only, based on their roles in the feeding relationship. They are classified as producers, macroconsumers and decomposers. 1. Producers The producers of an ecosystem are the organisms that have the ability to manufacture their own food. They are also known as autotrophs; from the Greek word autos meaning self, and trophikos meaning nursing (referring to nutrition). The main producers in the ecosystem are chlorophyll-bearing organisms, from the microscopic aquatic phytoplankton to the huge trees in the thickness of the forests. They can manufacture organic nutrients through the process called photosynthesis. In nature, photosynthetic organisms harness the radiant energy of the sun, using carbon dioxide and water, to produce carbohydrates such as sugars, starches, and cellulose. Carbohydrates are the basic building blocks from which nutrients such as proteins and fats are processed. Besides the conspicuous green plants and minute photosynthetic algae, two groups of bacteria can also manufacture their own food. They are the photosynthetic bacteria and the chemosynthetic bacteria. The latter use the chemical energy of simple inorganic materials rather than light in the manufacture of food. 2. Consumers a. The macroconsumers of the ecosystem include the animals. They are referred to as phagotrophs, from the Greek word phagos (meaning eat) and trophikos (nursing). They are heterotrophic organisms that eat others as food. Based on food sources, phagotrophs may be classified into three (3) major types: plant-eaters or herbivores - primary consumers that feed only on plants; flesh-eaters or carnivores - the secondary consumers that feed only on animals; and mixed eaters or omnivores - higher level consumers that feed on both plants and animals. b. The decomposers of an ecosystem are heterotrophs that cause decay of dead organisms. They are also called saprotrophs, because they feed on dead organic matter. They break down complex organic substances into simpler forms that can be re-used by the producers. Without them, the basic elements of life would be trapped in the complex molecules of the remains of the dead and become unavailable to the producers of the ecosystem. They play a significant role in the cycling of materials in the living world. B. The Abiotic Components The basic features of any ecosystem are determined to a large extent by its abiotic or nonliving components. In terrestrial ecosystems, three major factors constitute these abiotic components, namely: climate, soil and topography.
Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad Ateneo de Manila University Loyola Heights Quezon City Climatic factors that have significant effects on the ecosystem are light, temperature, water and wind. Various aspects of light affect living organisms. For instance, the rate of photosynthesis of both terrestrial and aquatic plants is greatly dependent on the intensity and quality of light; while leaf-fall and flowering are influenced by day-length. Likewise, day length influences certain animal behaviors such as nesting, hibernation and migration. The ecosystem is also directly and indirectly affected by temperature. Plants and animals require specific temperature ranges for efficient metabolism. Similarly, temperature can affect the rate of evaporation; hence significantly influence water availability to living organisms. Water constitutes the main bulk of a living organism. It is the medium of life in an aquatic habitat and an important resource in terrestrial habitats. The amount of rainfall influences vegetation type, which in turn, influences the variety and number of animals in a particular habitat. Wind is basically air in motion. The velocity of the wind influences the rate of evaporation of water from the earths surface. Wind action accelerates evaporation of water. The rate of evaporation serves as one of the factors that determine the atmospheric humidity in an ecosystem. Edaphic Factors pertain to soil factors. They include mineral nutrients, moisture content and acidity of the soil. In terrestrial habitats, the soil as a medium for plant growth serves as a water and mineral reservoir. The nutrient and moisture contents act as environmental controls, which determine the types and distribution of vegetation and, consequently, also determine the types and distribution of animal life. The pH or acidity of the soil influences the solubility and thus, the availability of essential inorganic substances in forms that can be used by plants. In addition, soil acidity and the size of its particles affect the water-holding capacity of the soil as well as its ability to leach out minerals. Topography or surface relief is another aspect of the physical environment which influences the distribution of biotic communities on land. The topographic factors that define the amount of solar energy which influences the climatic conditions affecting various life forms in terrestrial habitats include altitudes or elevations and slope orientation. Mossy forests dominate plant life at high elevations where cloud rats are found while field rats are confined to the thick vegetation of the lowlands. Water-loving plants flourish on gentle slopes while dry-tolerant ones thrive along steeper slopes. The warmer slope, directly oriented towards the sun, sustains more luxuriant vegetation than the shaded portions. Thus, marked variations in the biotic communities can be observed as an effect of topographic features in terrestrial ecosystems. Interdependence Nature teaches us that in an ecosystem, everything is connected to everything else. Every structure conforms to a particular function. Every function contributes to the integrity of the whole. After studying the structural components of an ecosystem, hopefully we can appreciate the fact that everything has an important role to play in the web of life. Hence, every life form has a place under the sun, because even unknown to man, every living thing is important to something or to someone. And even those that have no life are part of the pattern. The air that we breathe, the water that keeps us alive, and the land that provides our needs, help maintain the stability of our ecosystem. And so we respect life and all things that make life as we know it possible. FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM Food Web/Food Chain Organisms in a biotic community are bound together by their common need for FOOD. The complex pattern of food dependency relationship that defines who eats and who gets eaten is called a food web. Energy Flow Energy enters the biosphere in the form of light during photosynthesis. As energy moves from one trophic level to another, a certain amount of energy is lost.. It leaves the biosphere mostly in the form of heat Thus, we say that energy generally follows a one-way path in the biosphere. Biogeochemical Cycles also known as nutrient cycling is the continual exchange of matter between organisms and their nonliving environment.. Matter (that is, elements and inorganic compounds in the form of minerals in the soil, gases in the air and water) moves within an Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad Ateneo de Manila University Loyola Heights Quezon City ecosystem in a cyclic path. It enter the biosphere through physiological processes such as photosynthesis and ingestion and leave the biosphere through processes such as respiration and decay Biodiversity refers to the variety of genes, species and ecosystems important in maintaining stability. It is the wealth of all life forms on earth that is a product of years of evolutionary processes. Change Change may occur through growth and development at the various levels of biological organization that include organisms, populations and communities. Growth refers to quantitative changes such as population growth. Development refers to qualitative changes such as ecological or community succession. Cybernetics or self-regulation. The DYNAMIC BALANCE OR EQUILIBRIUM (in terms of population size of the different species) which results from the interactions among the members of a biotic community and from the interaction between organisms and their physical environment is known as balance of nature. FOOD CHAINS AND ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM 1. The earth is an open system. It receives inputs of energy from the sun and makes outputs of heat energy which are passed to outer space ("sink" - a place that absorbs a flux). 2. Through photosynthesis, sunlight is transformed into chemical energy and stored in complex chemical molecules. This energy can be released by the organism through the process of respiration. Photosynthetic plants possess the ability to transform solar energy to chemical form. They are called producers or autotrophs (auto = self; troph = nourishment). All other biotic components are dependent on prefabricated organic material. Heterotrophs (hetero = other; troph = nourishment) are either macroconsumers (phagotrophs) chiefly animals which ingest other organisms and particulate organic matter or microconsumers (saprotrophs and osmotrophs) chiefly bacteria and fungi. These latter organisms break down complex compounds of dead protoplasm, absorb products of decomposition and release inorganic nutrients. 3. Energy-rich molecules stored by the producers are eaten by a series of consumers. As food moves from one trophic level to another, so does the energy that food contains. This feeding relationship is either a food chain or a food web. 4. The laws of thermodynamics govern energy processes in biological systems. The First law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy) states that energy is neither created nor destroyed. Second law of thermodynamics (Entropy) states that each time energy is transformed it tends to go from a more organized and concentrated form to a less organized or more dispersed form. Corollary to this is that energy transfers are never 100% efficient. KEY CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES The major concepts in this discussion are listed below. 1. Ecosystem, the functional unit of the environment, consists of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. These components continually interact, producing an interdependent exchange of materials and energy. 2. The biotic components of an ecosystem include the producers, consumers and decomposers; while, the abiotic components refer to the climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic factors. 3. Ecosystem functions cover the major life sustaining processes that include production, consumption and decomposition. These functions involve a complex system of interactions and interdependence. 4. Feeding relationship is the type of relationship in which energy-rich molecules stored by producers are taken in by a series of consumers. 5. There is a one-way flow of energy in an ecosystem. Entering the living world mostly as light through the trophic chain, energy leaves mostly as heat. 6. In contrast, materials flow in an ecosystem in a cyclic pattern. Materials utilized by the biotic components of the ecosystem return to the physical world mainly through the processes of respiration and decomposition. 7. A balanced ecosystem is achieved when the natural processes involved are maintained in a steady dynamic state. Such dynamic balance is maintained through the unhampered interdependence of the biotic components as they interact with; and in turn, are affected by, their physical environment.