Telling Stories of Partition and War: Saadat Hasan Manto and Istvan Orkeny

Author(s): Margit Koves

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 32, No. 33/34 (Aug. 16-29, 1997), pp. 2147-2153
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4405763 .
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T e l l i n g S t o r i e s o f Par t i t i o n an d W ar
S aad at Has an Man t o an d Is t van Or ke n y
Mar g i t Ko ve s
T hi s ar t i cl e l o o ks at t he s ho r t s t o r i e s o f S aad at Has an Man t o i n Ur d u abo ut t he Par t i t i o n an d o f Or ke n y, a
Hun g ar i an Je wi s h wr i t e r abo ut t he Ho l o caus t an d f i n d s t hat by ad o pt i n g a cr i t i cal d i s t an ce bo t h Man t o an d Or ke n y
we r e abl e t o e vo l ve n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s whi ch i n vi t e d t he r e ad e r s ' r e s po n s e an d s t i mul at e d ag e n cy. By co un t e r i n g
mo r al i s i n g an d s e n t i me n t al i t y i n t he i r n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s t he y e n abl e d t he r e ad e r t o d e al wi t h an d g o be yo n d
t he par al ys i n g e f f e ct s o f s uch t r aumat i c e xpe r i e n ce s .
"S t o p maki n g a f o o l o f yo ur s e l f ', s ai d Aur o r a.
"Eve r ybo d y he r e i s s ho cke d by t he Hi n d ut -
Mus l i m ki l l i n g s . Yo u have n o mo n o po l y o n
t hat pai n ..."
- T he Mo o r 's Las t S i g h
T HE d e cad e o f t he 1940s was t he e r a o f
t wo majo r hi s t o r i cal cat as t r o phe s , t he
s e co n d wo r l d war wi t h t he Ho l o caus t i n
Eur o pe an d t he Par t i t i o n i n In d i a. T he
e xpe r i e n ce s hape d t he co n s ci o us n e s s o f
s e ve r al g e n e r at i o n s bo t h i n Eur o pe (i n
Hun g ar y) an d i n In d i a. T he t r an s f o r mat i o n
o f t he hi s t o r i cal e xpe r i e n ce i n t o wo r ks o f
l i t e r at ur e i s r e f l e ct e d i n co n t e mpo r ar y
l i t e r at ur e wr i t t e n i n Hi n d i , Ur d u, Pun jabi ,
Be n g al i ' an d Hun g ar i an .2 Man y o f t he
wr i t i n g s o f t he In d i an , S aad at Has an Man t o
an d t he Hun g ar i an , Is t van Or ke n y (1912-
1979) we r e r o o t e d i n t he e ve n t o f t he Par t i t i o n
an d t he wo r l d war .
T he s i mi l ar i t y be t we e n s o me o f t he i r
wr i t i n g s , co n cr e t e l y be t we e n Or ke n y's
On e mi n ut e s t o r i e s an d Man t o 's S i yah
Has hye s t o r i e s , i s s t r i ki n g . T he cl o s e n e s s
be t we e n t he i r s t o r i e s pr o vo ke d t he que r y,
as t o ho w n ar r at i ve e n e r g y d e al s wi t h an
e xt r e me s i t uat i o n , l i ke t he cat as t r o phe o f
t he Ho l o caus t an d t he Par t i t i o n . T he s e
e ve n t s we r e n o t o n l y be n umbi n g
e xpe r i e n ce s but t he y al s o l ai d bar e mo r al ,
po l i t i cal an d i n t e l l e ct ual co n t r ad i ct i o n s ,
e vi d e n t o n l y i n a cr i s i s .3
T he n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s e mpl o ye d i n
me d i at i n g t he s e t r aumat i c e ve n t s ar e
co n n e ct e d wi t h t he chan g i n g po s s i bi l i t i e s o f
r e pr e s e n t at i o n . T he t i me an d hi s t o r i cal
co n t e xt o f wr i t i n g , t he e s t abl i s he d f o r ms o f
r e ce pt i o n i n f o r me d Man t o 's an d Or ke n y's
wo r k d i f f e r e n t l y. But t he i r s t o r i e s ar e r o o t e d
i n a s i mi l ar s at i r i cal , i r o n i cal s e n s i bi l i t y an d
co mpe l l e d by t he awar e n e s s o f t he n e e d f o r
o bje ct i vi t y.4
T he r e ar e an al o g i e s be t we e n Man t o an d
Or ke n y i n a wi d e r pe r s pe ct i ve . T he y d e f i n e d
t he i r i d e n t i t y as In d i an an d Hun g ar i an , had
t o co me t o t e r ms wi t h t he i r Mus l i m an d
Je wi s h i d e n t i t y, as me mbe r s o f mi n o r i t y
co mmun i t i e s , as d e f i n e d by t he majo r i t y
co mmun i t y an d l aw, an d t hi s al s o me an t
phys i cal t hr e at t o t he i r s ur vi val . Bo t h we r e
f o r ce d by t he po s i t i o n o f t he i r mar g i n al i t y
t o war d s l e f t r e vo l ut i o n ar y i d e o l o g y but
mai n t ai n e d a var yi n g d i s t an ce f r o m l e f t i s t
mo ve me n t s . T he i r l i ve s we r e par ad i g mat i c
i n t he co n t e xt o f co mmun al i s at i o n o f po l i t i cs
i n t he par t i cul ar hi s t o r i cal s i t uat i o n i n
Hun g ar y an d In d i a an d t he i r l i ve s r e pr e s e n t e d
po s s i bl e r e s po n s e s t o t he chal l e n g e s o f
po l i t i cal co n f r o n t at i o n .
My at t e mpt i s t o un d e r l i n e t he an al o g o us
e l e me n t s i n Man t o 's an d Or ke n y's wo r k an d
s ug g e s t a s i mi l ar i n ve s t i g at i o n o f Or ke n y's
an d Man t o 's n ar r at i ve ar t , s pe ci al l y t he On e
mi n ut e s t o r i e s an d t he S i yah Has hye s t o r i e s .
T he wo r ks i n cl ud e d i n t he s e vo l ume s
r e pr e s e n t a n e w g e n r e i n Hun g ar i an an d
Ur d u pr o s e r e l yi n g o n a n e w par t i ci pat i o n
by t he r e ad e r . Man t o 's mo ve away f r o m
t r ad i t i o n al r e al i s m me an t an i n ve s t i g at i o n o f
var i o us n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s , an e xpl o r at i o n
o f o t he r f o r ms o f r e f l e ct i o n . Af t e r t he n o ve l s
an d pl ays i n t he l at e 1 940s an d 1950s Or ke n y
al s o mo ve d away f r o m t r ad i t i o n al n o r ms o f
r e al i s m i n t he 1 960s an d e xpe r i me n t e d wi t h
a n e w f o r m o f s ho r t pr o s e l yi n g be t we e n
d r ama an d po e t r y. In t he cas e o f bo t h wr i t e r s
cr i t i ci s m f o un d i t d i f f i cul t t o d e f i n e t he g e n r e
o f wo r k t he y wr o t e i n . Dr ama an d f i l m, t he
me d i um t he t wo wr i t e r s ad d i t i o n al l y wo r ke d
i n , mo ul d e d t hi s n e w f o r m. Or ke n y's On e
mi n ut e s t o r i e s f o un d wi d e r e s po n s e i n
Hun g ar y an d i n i t i at e d a n e w s ho r t f r o m
t ake n o n by o t he r wr i t e r s i n t he 1970s . W hi l e
man y o f Or ke n y's pi e ce s be came par t o f
ur ban f o l kl o r e Man t o ,'s s t o r i e s i n t he S i yah
Has hye vo l ume we r e cr i t i ci s e d as a mo ve
away f r o m r e al i s m5 an d t he un co n ve n t i o n al i t y
o f t he f o r m l e f t hi s e d i t o r s wo n d e r i n g abo ut
t he d e f i n i t i o n an d t he ad e quat e f o r m o f
publ i s hi n g .6
S i n ce I d o n o t kn o w Ur d u I wo r ke d o n
t he bas i s o f En g l i s h t r an s l at i o n s an d I
us e d Hi n d i t r an s l at i o n s whe r e ve r i t was
po s s i bl e . I co ul d al s o n o t f o l l o w an i mpo r t an t
phe n o me n o n , t he e f f e ct o f Pun jabi -Ur d u
bi l i n g ual i s m o n Man t o 's l an g uag e . T he s e
as pe ct s wo ul d al s o n e e d f ur t he r i n ve s t i g at i o n .
Or ke n y's l an g uag e i s s t an d ar d , ur ban ,
l i t e r ar y Hun g ar i an , he us e s s i mpl e s yn t ax.
Fo r o bvi o us r e as o n s , I g i ve Or ke n y's
backg r o un d i n much g r e at e r d e t ai l , t han
Man t o ' s .
I
Is t van Or ke n y was bo r n be f o r e t he f i r s t
wo r l d war i n a mi d d l e cl as s , pr o f e s s i o n al
f ami l y i n t he s ame ye ar as Man t o . He s t ud i e d
i n a s cho o l o f t he Pi ar i s t s , aCat ho l i c t e achi n g
o r d e r . Hi s f at he r was a phar maci s t an d Or ke n y
d e ci d e d t o f o l l o w hi s pr o f e s s i o n . Or ke n y's
f i r s t majo r publ i cat i o n e n t i t l e d Re vo l ut i o n
publ i s he d i n 1937 t e l l s abo ut t he e s cape o f
l un at i cs f r o m an as yl um, a vi s i o n o f f as ci s t
t ake o ve r . A cat as t r o phi c t ur n o f hi s t o r y
as s o ci at e d wi t h t he l un at i c as yl um br i n g s
Man t o 's T o ba T e k S i n g h t o mi n d .
Or ke n y came f r o m an as s i mi l at e d Je wi s h
f ami l y. As s i mi l at i o n was par t o f t he l i be r al
pr o je ct o f e man ci pat i o n an d mo d e r n i s at i o n
i n Hun g ar y s i n ce t he 19t h ce n t ur y.7 It i n cl ud e d
a wi d e r an g e o f co n t r o ve r s i al phe n o me n a
s uch as t he cr e at i o n o f t he n e o l o g ue Je wi s h
Chur ch an d al s o l ar g e -s cal e co n ve r s i o n o f
Je ws , chan g i n g Je wi s h n ame s i n t o Hun g ar i an
o n e s , pur chas e o f ar i s t o cr at i c t i t l e s , g r e at e r
par t i ci pat i o n i n publ i c l i f e an d t he s t r ug g l e
f o r a un i f o r m ci vi l co d e , t he l e g al po s s i bi l i t y
o f i n t e r mar r i ag e be t we e n Je ws an d Chr i s t i an s .
A s pe ci f i c f e at ur e o f Hun g ar i an d e ve l o pme n t
was t hat Je wi s h as s i mi l at i o n was n o t f o l l o we d
by t he e r as ur e o f d i s t an ce be t we e n Je ws an d
o t he r g r o ups i n Hun g ar y. T he an t i -Je w l aws
(1938, 1939 an d 1941) whi ch acce pt e d t he
Nur e mbe r g d e f i n i t i o n o f t he Je w, co mpl e t e l y
r e mo ve d Je ws f r o m publ i c l i f e an d co n t r o l l e d
t he i r e mpl o yme n t . T hi s hi t Or ke n y l i ke man y
who we r e e ar l i e r co n s i d e r e d par t o f t he wi d e
s pe ct r um o f t he Hun g ar i an i n t e l l e ct ual s ce n e
f r o m Chr i s t i an Cat ho l i c t o Co mmun i s t .! In
hi s Le t t e r s i n On e Mi n ut e Or ke n y wr i t e s
abo ut hi s s e n s e o f i s o l at i o n 9 an d s ho ck o ve r
t he t r e at me n t me t e d o ut t o hi m at t he bar r ack
at Nag ykat a whe r e he was cal l e d up f o r
mi l i t ar y l abo ur . "I Man t o 's e xpe r i e n ce s i n t he
Bo mbay T al ki e s at t he t i me o f t he co mmun al
r i o t s i n 1947, hi s r e s po n s e t o t he hat e mai l
r e ce i ve d by hi s s upe r i o r s W acha an d As ho k
Kumar at t he t i me , an d t o S hyam's d e cl ar at i o n
t hat whi l e he was l i s t e n i n g t o t he acco un t
o f a S i kh r e f ug e e he co ul d have ki l l e d hi m
ar e co mpar abl e i n t he s he e r i n t e n s i t y o f
f e e l i n g s ud d e n l y cas t o ut o f s o ci e t y f o r n o
pe r s o n al mi s t ake o f hi s ."
Eco n o mi c an d Po l i t i cal W e e kl y Aug us t 16-23, 1997 2147
Hun g ar y par t i ci pat e d i n t he s e co n d wo r l d
war o n t he s i d e o f Ge r man y whi ch f i r s t
mn e an t t hat f o r me r Hun g ar i an t e r r i t o r i e s we r e
g i ve n back (by t he Vi e n n a Awar d s 1938,
1940) an d t he s e ce s s i o n was f o l l o we d by t he
d e s pe r at e e f f o r t o f t he i l l -e qui ppe d Hun g ar i an
ar my t o f i g ht t he l o s i n g bat t l e o n t he R'us s i an
f r o n t . In 1943 al o n e n e ar Vo r o n e zh, at t he
be n d o f t he Do n r i ve r 40,000 Hun g ar i an
s o l d i e r s d i e d an d 70,000 we r e wo un d e d , a
t r acd y whi ch af f e ct e d al mo s t e ve r y f ami l y
i n Hun g ar y. T he r e s t r i ct i o n s o f mi l i t ar y
s e r vi ce i mpo s e d e ve n har d e r co n d i t i o n s o n
t ho s e who we r e o f Je wi s h o r i g i n . Fo r t he m
l i ke f o r Or ke n y i t act ual l y me an t f o r ce d
l abo ur wi t ho ut ar ms , d i g g i n g t r e n che s o r
as s i s t i n g i n t he mai n t e n an ce o f t he mai n
s uppl y r o ut e s . T hi s i s o f t e n t he vi s ual
backg r o un d o f Or ke n y 's On i e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s .
Hi s pl ay Vo r o n e c7h2 car r i e s t he n ame o f
t he pl ace , whe r e Or ke n y s pe n t hal f a ye ar
t i l l t he S e co n d Hun g ar i an Ar my was wi pe d
o ut .
Or ke n y be came a pr i s o n e r o f war an d
s pe n t f o ur ye ar s i n camps , whe r e he g ave
l e ct ur e s abo ut Hun g ar i an hi s t o r y an d
l i t e r at ur e an d mad e t he acquai n t an ce o f t he
phi l o s o phe r Ge o r g Lukacs , t he Co mmun i s t
Par t y t he o r e t i ci an Jo zs e f Re vai an d t he
par t y s e cr e t ar y Mat yas Rako s i . He ar r i ve d
back i n Bud ape s t i n 1946, af t e r t he war .
T hr o ug ho ut hi s l at e r l i f e Or ke n y co n f i r me d
t hat t he mai n e xpe r i e n ce o f hi s l i f e was t he
war , t he f r o n t an d t he camps f o r t he pr i s o n e r s
o f war .
Hi s t wo d o cume n t ar y n o ve l s , publ i s he d i n
Pe o pl e o f t he Camps '3 an d t he pl ay Vo r o n e zh
s e t o ut t o s ho w t ho s e e l e me n t s o f
co n s ci o us n e s s whi ch pe r mi t t e d a g e n e r at i o n
o f Hun g ar i an s t o s uppo r t t he war an d t he
t r an s f o r mat i o n o f co n s ci o us n e s s as t he e ve n t s
o f t he s e co n d wo r l d war un f o l d e d .
II
T he myt h o f n at i o n al i d e n t i t y i s d e pi ct e d
i n t he pr e s e n t at i o n o f t he var i o us char act e r s
o f t he pl ay Vo r o n e zh as t he y f ace t he
cat as t r o phe o f t he Hun g ar i an Ar my i n Rus s i a.
T he s e l f -i mag e o f Hun g ar i an s i s e xpr e s s e d
i n Pat aki 's wo r d s t o t he Rus s i an Raya:
Hun g ar i an s ar e ki n d . T he y ar e g e n t l e l i ke
chi l d r e n . T he y have a he ar t , but t he y ar e s t i l l
me n . T he y ar e r e ckl e s s , but t he y can s t ar t
cr yi n g whe n t he y he ar mus i c.
T he var i o us char act e r s o f t he pl ay, ar my
o f f i ce r s wi t h an ar i s t o cr at i c backg r o un d o r
mi d d l e cl as s s ubal t e ms l i ke Pat aki un d e r s t an d
t he i r Hun g ar i an i d e n t i t y t o a l ar g e e xt e n t as
s ubs e r vi e n ce t o aut ho r i t y o f t e n d e f i n e d by
t he m as l o yal t y t o t he n at i o n . T hi s i s co upl e d
wi t h a r o man t i ci s e d , f e ud al un d e r s t an d i n g
o f t he i r r e s po n s i bi l i t y i n t he g i ve n s i t uat i o n
as un wi l l i n g al l i e s o f t he Ge r man s i n Rus s i an
t e r r t o r y i n t he f i r s t d ays o f 1943 whe n t he
Re d Ar my car r i e s o n i t s o f f e n s i ve ag ai n s t
t he Ge r man s an d Hun g ar i an s at Vo r o n e zh.
Pat aki , a s ur vi vo r o f t he d e at h o f t he
Hun g ar i an ar my t ake s o n t o g i ve an accur at e
acco un t o f t he e ve n t s . T he pe r f o r man ce o f
t he pl ay i mme d i at e l y af t e r t he war d i d n o t
g e n e r at e much i n t e r e s t . It was o n l y l at e r i n
t he 1960s t hat publ i c i n t e r e s t was r e ad y t o
f o cus o n t he war i n a chan g e d hi s t o r i cal
co n t e xt whe n Or ke n y t o o k up t he t he me o f
t he war an d Hun g ar i an i d e n t i t y but e l abo r at e d
i t d i f f e r e n t l y i n abs ur d d r ama an d i n t he
g r o t e s que .
Man t o 's s t o r i e s abo ut t he Par t i t i o n al s o
d i d n o t s ubve r t t he myt h o f n at i o n al
co mmun i t y bas e d o n r e l i g i o n e ve n t ho ug h
hi s s ho r t s t o r i e s un d e r cut var i o us e l e me n t s
o f t hat i d e o l o g y. In 1948 he was accus e d o f
t ur n i n g t r ag e d y i n t o s e n s at i o n i n Co l d e r
t han Ice (T han d ha Gho s ht ) an d i n T he Re t um
(Kho l -d o ). Man t o i mpl i e d t hat hi s r e s po n s e
was co n n e ct e d wi t h an an al yt i cal d i s t an ce
f r o m t he e ve n t s - an appr o ach l i n ki n g hi m
wi t h Or ke n y - whi ch al s o r e f l e ct e d o n hi s
n ar r at i ve s t yl e . He d e f e n d e d hi ms e l f ag ai n s t
t he cr i t i ci s m o f t he Pr o g r e s s i ve W r i t e r s
Mo ve me n t al s o by s ayi n g ,".. .1 came t o acce pt
t hi s n i g ht mar i s h r e al i t y wi t ho ut s e l f -pi t y o r
d e s pai r ".'4
T he hi s t o r i cal e xpe r i e n ce s o f t he l as t 55
ye ar s s t i mul at e d i n ce n t r al -e as t Eur o pe t he
t r ad i t i o n al cul t ur e o f i r o n y t o i d e as ,
i n s t i t ut i o n s an d t o o n e ' s o wn s e l f -pe r ce pt i o n .
T hi s has be e n par t o f t he t o n g ue -i n -che e k
's t yl e ' o f s pe aki n g an d t he ar t o f s ur vi val
i n g e n e r al . Af t e r t he 1956 Upr i s i n g whe n
Or ke n y par t i ci pat e d i n t he pr o g r amme o f t he
n e wl y e s t abl i s he d 'Fr e e Rad i o ' hi s wo r ks
we r e n o t publ i s he d . He had t o t ake up a jo b
i n a phar mace ut i cal f act o r y i n 1958 whi ch
Or ke n y cal l e d a "us e f ul br e ak". He came t o
un d e r s t an d i r .n y as t he o n l y val i d r e l at i o n s hi p
t o t he wo r l d an d d e ci d e d t o g o back t o t he
pl ayf ul , i r o n i cal s t an ce o f hi s f i r s t s ho r t
s t o r i e s ."'
S at i r e an d i r o n y we r e par t o f t he Hi n d i '6
an d Ur d u l i t e r ar y t r ad i t i o n .'7 In t he 19t h
ce n t ur y Akbar Il ahabad i '8 r e s po n d e d t o t he
mo d e r n i s i n g t r e n d o f S i r S ayyi d Khan i n
s at i r i cal ve r s e . W r i t e r s l i ke Fi kr T aus wi '9
an d Ibn e l n s ha20 us e d s at i r e i n t he i r wr i t i n g s
o n t he Par t i t i o n . Man t o 's wr i t i n g f r o m t he
be g i n n i n g un d e r cut t he co n ve n t i o n al co n t e n t
n o r mal l y at t ache d t o val ue s l i ke ho n o ur ,
chas t i t y, f r e e d o m, ho s pi t al i t y an d pas s i o n .
Hi s s ho r t s t o r i e s wr i t t e n be f o r e t he Par t i t i o n
r e f l e ct a ki n d o f he r o i c i r o n y as i n T he Ne w
Co n s t i t ut i o n (Naya Kan un ) (pp 83-92) o r
e t hi cal i r o n y as i n Babu Go pi Nat h (pp 133-
47).2' T he s t o r i e s i n t he S i yah Has hye , s uch
as 'Mo d e s t y' (Kas r -i n af s i ) (p 27), 'Out o f
Co n s i d e r at i o n ' ('Ri aayat ') (p 31),
'De t e r mi n at i o n ' ('Is t akl al ') (p 28)22 ar e bui l t
o n t he co n t r ad i ct i o n be t we e n t he t i t l e an d
t he co n t e n t o f t he s t o r y. T hi s i s i n co n s i s t e n ce
wi t h Or ke n y' s i n s t r uct i o n s t o hi s On e Mi n ut e
S t o r i e s ad vi s i n g t he r e ad e r t o t ake t he t i t l e
o f t he s t o r y as s e r i o us l y as t he n umbe r o f
t he t r am t o be bo ar d e d .23
T he co mbi n at i o n o f i r o n y wi t h a n e w
s t r uct ur e o f n ar r at i ve ad d e d a n e w d i me n s i o n
t o Or ke n y's wo r k i n t he 1 960s . T hi s s t r uct ur e
i s bui l t o n t he d i al o g ue , l i ke be f o r e but
e mpl o ys t he f o r m o f t he par abl e an d i s o f t e n
s us t ai n e d by an e t hi cal , ae s t he t i c o r
e xpe r i e n t i al par ad o x. It us e s d e s cr i pt i o n s o f
t he s ur r o un d i n g s o n l y t o t he e xt e n t o f bar e
mi n i mum an d t he s t ar t i n g po i n t i s o f t e n a
d o cume n t , a pho t o g r aph ('Cat s pl ay') o r a
l e t t e r ('T he T o t Fami l y'). A s i mi l ar me t ho d
o f us i n g a n e ws pape r cl i ppi n g e n d s Man t o 's
s t o r i e s 'S har abi ' an d 'By t he Ro ad s i d e '
(S ar ak-ke ke n ar e ) (pp 231-36). He al s o bui l t
a s t o r y o n a f i ct i ve l e t t e r 'Ek Khat '24 whe r e
t he l e t t e r wr i t e r -n ar r at o r i s a wo man wo r ki n g
i n an o f f i ce . T hi s i s an e f f e ct i ve n ar r at o r i al
me t ho d t o cr e at e i mme d i acy be t we e n t he
r e ad e r an d t he e xpr i e n ce s o f o f f i ce l i f e as
r e l at e d by a yo un g wo man .
Or ke n y was an ad mi r e r o f Fr an z Kat ka
an d f o l l o we d t o a g r e at e xt e n t t he n ar r at i ve
co n s t r uct i o n o f Kaf ka's s ho r t s t o n r e s . T ho ug h
s o me o f Fr an z Kaf ka's wr i t i n g s l i ke
'Me t amo r pho s i s ' we r e t r an s l at e d i n t o
Hun g ar i an as e ar l y as t he 1920s , i n 1957 a
n e w co l l e ct i o n o f Kaf ka's s ho r t s t o r i e s was
publ i s he d ag ai n an d i n t he e ar l y 1960s
Kaf ka's wo r k e xe r ci s e d g r e at i n f l ue n ce i n
Hun g ar y. T hi s i n f l ue n ce was par t i cul ar l y
i n s t r ume n t al i n Or ke n y's cas e . T he par ad o x
o f s i t uat i o n s , t he par abl e -s t r uct ur e o f Kaf ka's
s t o r i e s ,25 an d t he n ar r at i ve t o n e o f o bje ct i vi t y
t o g e t he r wi t h t he pr e s e n ce o f t he g r o t e s que
s e e m t o be t he mo s t i mpo r t an t l i n ks , e s pe ci al l y
i n t he cas e o f Fr an z Kaf ka's l at e r s t o r i e s
whi ch ar e co l l e ct e d i n t he vo l ume De r
Hun g e r kun s t i e r . T he i r r at i o n al e l e me n t o f
Kaf ka's s t o r i e s was t r an s f o r me d i n Or ke n y' s
s t o r i e s by hi s t o r i ci s i n g t he n ar r at i ve o f an
abs ur d s i t uat i o n i n a co n cr e t e f r ame wo r k o f
r e f e r e n ce .26
Man t o 's e ar l y wo r k was t o a g r e at e xt e n t
i n f l ue n ce d by Che kho v who s e s t o r i e s he
t r an s l at e d an d publ i s he d i n a vo l ume Rus i
Af s an e . T he l at e r ye ar s al s o s ho w t he
i n f l ue n ce o f Maupas s an t . Bo t h Maupas s an t ' s
an d Che kho v's s t o r i e s have ad r amat i c qual i t y
wi t h man y d i al o g ue s . Che kho v's an d Go r ky's
d e pi ct i o n o f char act e r f r o m t he wo r ki n g cl as s
an d t he l o we r mi d d l e cl as s , t he r an g e o f
g e n r e s us e d by t he t wo Rus s i an wr i t e r s , t he
n ar r at o r 's r o l e i n Che kho v's s ho r t s t o r i e s
mo t i vat e d Man t o i n a s i mi l ar d i r e ct i o n . T he
pl o t has man y un e xpe ct e d t ur n s i n Man t o 's
s t o r i e s s i mi l ar l y t o Maupas s an t ' s .27
W he n Or ke n y s t ar t e d publ i s hi n g ag ai n i n
t he 1960s he br o ug ht o ut 'Cat s pl ay'2x (1963)
an d 'T he T o t Fami l y'29 (1964), whi ch al o n g
wi t h t he wo r ks o f t he Po l i s h wr i t e r s
Go mbr o wi t z, Mr o ze k, Ro ze wi cz an d t he
Cze ch Vacl av Have l d e ve l o pe d t he e as t
Eur o pe an ve r s i o n o f t he abs ur d .30 Bo t h
'Cat s pl ay' an d 'T he T o t Fami l y' we r e f i r s t
2148 Eco n o mi c an d Po l i t i cal
W e e kl y Aug us t 16-23, 1997
wr i t t _n as n o ve l s wi t h l ar g e s e ct i o n s i n
d i al o g ue an d we r e t r an s f o r me d l at e r i n t o
pl ays . T ho ug h t he t he at r e o f t he abs ur d i n
t he cl as s i cal s e n s e (as pr e s e n t e d i n t he wo r ks
o f Be cke t t , Ad amo v o r Jar r y) ar e co n s i d e r e d
n o t t o be co n n e ct e d wi t h co n cr e t e s pace o r
t i me an d as a co n s e que n ce al s o wi t ho ut a
l i n k t o hi s t o r y. Camus , i n t he 1955 e d i t i o n
o f t he Myt h o f S i s yphus , t he i n i t i at i n g wo r k
o f t he phi l o s o phy o f Abs ur d , s ug g e s t e d t hat
t he awar e n e s s o f t he abs ur d i t y o f e xi s t e n ce
was hi s t o r i cal l y co n d i t i o n e d by t he s e co n d
wo r l d war . Bo t h Or ke n y an d Man t o co n n e ct
t he abs ur d i t y o f e xi s t e n ce t o co n cr e t e
hi s t o r i cal s i t uat i o n s an d bui l d l i t e r ar y f o r ms
ar o un d par ad o xe s t o e xpo s e t he r e l at i ve val ue
o f jud g me n t s i n a hi s t o r i cal co n t e xt . Par ad o x
e me r g e s i n Man t o 's wo r k i n t he co n f l i ct o f
r e al i t y an d i l l us i o n .3'
T ho ug h t he t i me o f 'Cat s pl ay' i s t he 1 960s
i t g o e s back t o t he t i me o f t he f i r s t wo r l d
war i n t he f o r m o f a pho t o g r aph i n t e r pr e t e d
by t he t wo s i s t e r s Gi za an d Er zs i , acco r d i n g
t o t he i r d i f f e r e n t val ue s ys t e ms an d
s o ci o l o g i cal r o l e s i n l i f e , o n e l i vi n g i n r e l at i ve
l uxur y i n W e s t Ge r man y wi t h he r
bus i n e s s man s o n an d t he o t he r s t ayi n g i n a
Bud ape s t bl o ck o f apar t me n t s o n he r pe n s i o n .
De pe n d i n g o n t he vi e we r 's po i n t o f vi e w
Er zs i 's l i f e an d pas s i o n s , he r pe r s o n al i t y,
can be un d e r s t o o d bo t h as t r ag e d y o r co me d y.
T he abs ur d i t y o f e xi s t e n ce i s co mpl e m.e n t e d
by Or ke n y wi t h t he co n cr e t e hi s t o r i cal
s i t uat i o n .
T he pr o bl e m o f f as ci s m, t he 'ag e n cy o f
s mal l me n ', t he s ud d e n man i f e s t at i o n o f
human po t e n t i al was ad d r e s s e d ag ai n i n a
n e w f o r m i n 'T he T o t Fami l y'. Or ke n y s po ke
abo ut t he co n n e ct i o n be t we e n t he abs ur d i t y
o f e xi s t e n ce an d ag e n cy i n t he co n t e xt o f t he
s e co n d wo r l d war whe n he s ai d ,
It i s me r e l y a co n s e que n ce v? my
ps ycho l o g i cal co n s t r uct i o n an d n e r vo us
s ys t e m t hat f r o m t he abs ur d phe n o me n a o f
l i f e I d i d n o t co n cl ud e t hat l i f e i s abs ur d ,
ho pe l e s s an d un be ar abl e . I have be e n i n a
n umbe r o f abs ur d , ho pe l e s s an d un be ar abl e
s i t uat i o n s an i d pe r haps be caus e I d o n o t
appr o ach t hi s que s t i o n f r o m t he po i n t o f
vi e w o f t he t he o r y I al ways f i n d a t i n t y r ay
o f ho pe whi ch make s l i f e wo r t h l i vi n g ... I
be l i e ve i n man 's ag e n cy, an d t he l i f e -s avi n g
char act e r o f act i o n ...
In s i mi l ar cr i s i s d ur i n g t he Par t i t i o n whe n
t he mo r al t o t al i t y i n s o ci e t y i s f r act ur e d t he
cho i ce be t we e n g o o d an d bad pl ays an
e xt r e me r o l e .32 Man t o 's s ho r t s t o r i e s
i n t r o d uce pr o t ag o n i s t s who s ud d e n l y s e e
t he i r cr i me s i n ad i f f e r e n t mo r al -e t hi cal o r d e r
an d r e ach t he po i n t o f awar e n e s s t hat a
co n s ci o us cho i ce s ho ul d have be e n mad e .
Man t o d e d i cat e s S i yah Has hye t o t he man ,
who mur d e r e d but f i n al l y af t e r ki l l i n g an
o l d wo man f e l t t hat he ki l l e d s ug g e s t i n g
a n e w awar e n e s s i n t he e t hi cal o r d e r o f
t he mur d e r e r .
T he pr o t ag o n i s L o f 'T he T o t Fami l y' Lajo s
T o t i s r e ad y t o g o al o n g wi t h al l t he whi ms
o f t he Majo r o f hi s s o n 's un i t , be caus e he
l i ke t he r e s t o f hi s f ami l y wan t s t o s ave hi s
s o n 's l i f e . But whe n t he Majo r d e ci d e s t o
e xt e n d hi s s t ay T o t cho ps hi m i n t o f o ur
pi e ce s . Or ke n y i n hi s 'Le t t e r t o t he S pe ct at o r '
d e s cr i be s T o t as an abs ur d he r o r e ad y t o g o
al o n g wi t h t he humi l i at i o n s t i l l he r e be l s an d
ki l l s t he Majo r . T he g e n e r at i o n whi ch f o ug ht
t he war we n t al o n g t o t he ve r y e n d un d e r
t he i n n e r co mman d t o o be y, e ve n i f i t was
kn o wn t hat i t wi l l l e ad t o t he i r o wn
d e s t r uct i o n . T o t , un l i ke t he m, r e g ai n s hi s
aut o n o my whe n he ki l l s t he Majo r .
III
T he On e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s e n caps ul at e i n a
mi n i at ur e f o r m what t he n o ve l s an d pl ays
had e s t abl i s he d . In t he s e co n d hal f o f t he
1960s t he r e l e van t f o r m t o d e al wi t h t he
e ve n t s o f e as t Eur o pe an hi s t o r y an d t he s e co n d
wo r l d war was t he g r o t e s que whi ch co ul d
t r an s f o r m t he n ar r at i ve o f t he s e co n d wo r l d
war f r o m t he l e ve l o f par t i cul ar i t y t o t he l e ve l
o f g e n e r al i t y. It br o ug ht i n l i t e r at ur e a n e w
vo i ce , t he l an g uag e o f jo ke , par o d y an d
bl ack humo ur .
It was par t o f t he cul t ur al r e vi val whi ch
t o o k p!ace i n e as t e r n Eur o pe i n t he 1960s ,
t he r e n ai s s an ce o f Mar xi s m i n t he Lukacs
S cho o l i n Hun g ar y, Yug o s l avi a, Po l an d an d
Cze cho s l o vaki a. T he r e n e wal o f Mar xi s t
t he o r y was e xpe ct e d f r o m t he co n n e ct i o n
be t we e n t he o r y an d pr axi s , t he r o l e o f l abo ur ,
an d t hi s had a wi d e -r an g i n g e f f e ct o n
e co n o mi c r e f o r ms , n e w i n t e r pr e t at i o n s o f
d e mo cr acy, t he an al ys i s o f mo d e r n hi s t o r y
an d t he r e l at i o n s hi p t o i n s t i t ut i o n s .
In t he 1960s vi s ual ar t s i n cl ud i n g f i l m, ar t
e xhi bi t i o n s an d t e l e vi s i o n be came i mpo r t an t .
T hi s was t he g r e at ag e o f e as t Eur o pe an f i l m.
Po l i s h an d S o vi e t f i l m t ur n e d t o hi s t o r y i n
t he co n t e xt o f n at i o n (l i ke i n An d r ze y W ajd a's
'As he s an d Di amo n d ') o r t r ad i t i o n an d cul t ur e
(T ar ko vs ky's 'An d r e y Rubl jo v'). S at i r e an d
g r o t e s que we r e an i mpo r t an t e l e me n t o f t he
n e w Cze ch f i l m be f o r e 1968 (i n Fo r man 's ,
Me n ze l 's an d Chyt i l o va's f i l ms ). Fr o m 1964
t o 1971 t he Hun g ar i an Mi kl o s Jan cs o 's f i l ms
t o o k up t he pr o bl e m o f hi s t o r y an d t he
mas s e s ." Avan t -g ar d e i n ar t an d t he at r e i n
Hun g ar y i n t he 1960s i n t r o d uce d co l l ag e ,
abs t r act n o n -f i g ur at i ve ar t an d mo bi l e ar t ,
n o n -pr o f e s s i o n al e xpe r i me n t al t he at r e ,
o r g an i s e d happe n i n g s al l d e man d i n g t he
vi e we r 's par t i ci pat i o n . Las zl o Re be r pr o vi d e d
t he i l l us t r at i o n o f Or ke n y's On e Mi n ut e
S t o r i e s who s e cl e ar bl ack an d whi t e d r awi n g s ,
s i n g l e o ut l i n e f i g ur e s an d s pat i al ar r an g e me n t
ad d e d a n e o -pr i mi t i ve e f f e ct t o t he s t o r i e s .
T he s i mpl i ci t y o f n ar r at i o n co mbi n e d wi t h
t he phi l o s o phi cal co n t e n t an d t he e l e me n t o f
f an t as t i c (o t s ur r e al ) cr e at e s t hat s pe ci f i c
ae s t he t i c qual i t y34 whi ch s e t apar z t he g e n r e
o f Or ke n y's On e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s f r o m t he
an e cd o t e , t he jo ke , t he t al e an d pl ace s i t
cl o s e s t t o t he par abl e i n t he Bi bl e i n s pi t e
o f t he f act t hat i t has t ake n o ve r var i o us
e l e me n t s f r o m al l . T he Fr e n ch t i t l e o f
Or ke n y's 'g r o t e s que ' i s mi n i -myt hs i d e n t i -
f yi n g t he s ur r e al , f an t as t i c e l e me n t wi t h t he
cr e at i o n o f myt h. T he f un ct i o n o f t he
'g r o t e s que ' i s t he i n ve r s i o n o f t he myt h o f
i d e n t i t y o r s o ci al f o r m ye t i t can be pe r ce i ve d
as an t hr o po ce n t r i c myt h. T he e l e me n t o f
f an t as t i c o r s ur r e al t hat cr e at e s t he g r o t e s que
s e t s apar t Or ke n y's s ho r t s t o r i e s d e s pi t e t he
appar e n t s i mi l ar i t i e s f r o m Man t o 's S i yah
Has hye s t o r i e s . T he n ar r at i ve s o f bo t h ar e
pr e s e n t e d i n cl e ar , t r an s par e n t e ve r yd ay
l an g uag e , t he abs e n ce o f t he aut ho r , t he
abs ur d i t y o f co e xi s t e n ce o f co mi c an d t r ag i c
e l e me n t s . T he f i n al pun ch o f t he S i yah Has hye
i s pr o vi d e d by a l i n g ui s t i c e l e me n t , a d i s cl o s -
ur e o f t he t r ut h o r a s ud d e n e ve n t i n co n t r as t
t o t he f an t as t i c t ur n i n Or ke n y's wo r k.
Bo t h Man t o an d Or ke n y wan t t o g o be yo n d
t he e s t abl i s he d l i t e r ar y t r ad i t i o n t o pr o vo ke
t he r e ad e r t o co n t e mpl at e r e al i t y. T he i r
n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s wo r k r at he r o n s i g n al i n g
s i t uat i o n s , r e co g n i s i n g act i o n , t han o n
d e t ai l e d d e s cr i pt i o n o f t he s ur r o un d i n g s . T hi s
i s why t he t i t l e an d r e co g n i s i n g t he par ad o x
o f t he t i t l e an d t he co n t e n t o f t he s t o r y i s
i mpo r t an t i n t he cas e o f bo t h t he On e Mi n ut e
S t o r i e s an d t he S i yah Has hye s t o r i e s . T he r e
i s an o bvi o us an al o g y wi t h Be r t o l t Br e cht 's
e pi c t he at r e bui l d i n g o n t he r e ce pt i o n o f t he
aud i e n ce , o n t he pr o ce s s o f r at i o n al l y
r e f l e ct i n g o n t he act i o n d ur i n g t he
pe r f o r man ce an d t aki n g a po s i t i o n r e l at e d t o
bo t h t he co n t e n t o f t he pl ay an d t he pr o ce s s
o f capi t al i s t pr o d uct i o n i n r e al i t y.35
T we n t y ye ar s af t e r t he wo r l d war an d
t r an s f o r mat i o n t aki n g pl ace i n Hun g ar y
Or ke n y co ul d r e l y o n ; a mo r e r e ce pt i ve
aud i e n ce t han Man t Q i mme d i at e l y af t e r t he
Par t i t i o n . By t he 1960s a n e w r e ad i n g publ i c,
a mo r e r e ce pt i ve aud i e n ce g r e w up i n
Hun g ar y wi t h a g r e at e r o pe n n e s s t o i r o n y.
T hi s was r e i n f o r ce d by an i r o n i cal
r e l at i o n s hi p t o i n s t i t ut i o n s , apo l i t i cal cul t ur e
o f i r o n y, e ve r yd ay f o r ms o f ur ban cul t ur e ,
jo ke s , an e cd o t e an d bl ack humo ur s har e d by
man y an d al s o i mpo r t an t i n chan n e l i s i n g
t e n s i o n s abo ut t he pr act i ce o f 's o f t
d i ct at o r s hi p' .36
As Or ke n y s ai d i n an i n t e r vi e w hi s On e
Mi n ut e S t o r y i s l i ke a mat he mat i cal e quat i o n
t o be s o l ve d by t he r e ad e r wi t h mi n i mum
i n f o r mat i o n pr o vi d e d by t he n ar r at o r . He
us e s "d r as t i c me t ho d s " t o achi e ve "an
e xpl o s i o n i n t he br ai n o f t he r e ad e r ". T he
f an t as t i c e l e me n t i s co mpl e me n t e d by a
co mmo n pl ace s i t uat i o n whi ch i s par t o f t he
be g i n n i n g o f t he s t o r y. W hi l e Or ke n y co ul d
d e ve l o p hi s s t o r y i n t o a n e w s mal l f o r m, a
n e w g e n r e , t he g r o t e s que whi ch e ar l i e r e xi s t e d
at t he l e ve l o f s t yl e o n t he bas i s o f a s har e d
cul t ur e an d val ue s ys t e m o f a r e ce pt i ve
aud i e n ce , Man t o had t o bui l d o n r e ce pt i o n
Eco n o mi c an d Po l i t i cal W e e kl y Aug us t 16-23, 1997 2149
o n a d i f f e r e n t bas i s . Hi s 'avs an an ch' (t he
d i mi n ut i ve o f Ur d u 'avs an a' 's ho r t s t o r y')
al s o d i g r e s s e s f r o m l i t e r ar y t r ad i t i o n an d hi s
s t o r y i s al s o bui l t o n t he r e co g n i t i o n o f t he
val i d i t y o f a ce r t ai n par ad o x but he s t i cks
t o t he r e al i s t i c e l e me n t .
IV
In s pi t e o f a s i mi l ar cr i t i cal r e l at i o n s hi p
be t we e n Man t o an d Or ke n y t o t he myt h o f
mo r al an d cul t ur al val ue s o f ce r t ai n s o ci al
cl as s e s , t he e s t abl i s he d t r ad i t i o n s o f pr o s e
af f o r d e d Man t o d i f f e r e n t po s s i bi l i t i e s t o d e al
wi t h n ar r at i ve s pace t han Or ke n y. T he
i n t e r s e ct i o n o f f e ud al an d capi t al i s t e l e me n t s
i n ur ban In d i a, an d t he pr e s e n ce o f t he
i n d e pe n d e n ce mo ve me n t pr o mpt e d Man t o
t o e xpe r i me n t wi t h var i o us n ar r at i ve
s t r at e g i e s . As an e xpe r i me n t t o co n n e ct
n ar r at i o n wi t h a ce r t ai n s o ci al r e al i t y I wo ul d
l i ke t o t ake up t he e xampl e o f t wo s t o r i e s
wr i t t e n by Man t o be f o r e t he Par t i t i o n be f o r e
co mi n g t o a co n cr e t e co mpar i s o n o f t he
S i yah Has hye an d t he On i e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s .
T he s t o r i e s 'T he Ne w Co n s t i t ut i o n ' ('Naya
Kan un ') (pp 83-92) an d 'Babu Go pi Nat h'
(pp 133-47) wr i t t e n be f o r e i n d e pe n d e n ce
s ho w t he cl as h be t we e n t he i n s t i t ut i o n s o f
t he Raj, t he n o r ms o f f e ud al In d i a an d t he
e n t r y o f mo d e r n i t y. T he ambi g ui t y o f val ue s
i n s o ci e t y, t he i r co mi c an d t r ag i c e l e me n t s ,
un f o l d i n t he n ar r at i ve o r i n t he d i al o g ue .
In 'T he Ne w Co n s t i t ut i o n ' Man g u, t he
t o n g awal a pl ace s al l ho pe s o f ajus t s o ci e t y,
e man ci pat i o n wi t h mo r e e qual r e l at i o n s
be t we e n man an d s o ci e t y; o n t he Go ve r n me n t
o f In d i a Act o f 1935, as s o me t hi n g whi ch
has an i n t e r n al r e l at i o n s hi p t o hi s l i f e .
T he o n l y t hi n g he -co ul d co mpar e t he n e w
co n s t i t ut i o n wi t h was t he s pl e n d i d br as s an d
g i l t par aphe r n al i a he had pur chas e d a co upl e
o f ye ar s ag o f o r hi s t o n g a f r o m Chaud hr y
Khud a Bux. T he n e w co n s t i t ut i o n g ave hi m
t he s ame n i ce , war m f e e l i n g .
He pl ace s al l co n ve r s at i o n s t hat he
o ve r he ar s i n t he co n t e xt o f t he chan g e . On
t he d ay whe n t he l aw i s br o ug ht i n he r e s po n d s
t o t he pr o vo cat i o n o f an En g l i s hman an d
l an d s up i n jai l . Hi s aut o n o my e me r g e s f r o m
t hi s abi l i t y t o t ake r i s k an d hi s as s aul t o n
t he En g l i s hman i s jus t i f i e d by hi s
po l i t i ci s at i o n an d e n g ag e me n t wi t h i s s ue s
l i ke t he s ucce s s o r f ai l ur e o f t he Co n g r e s s
Par t y t o achi e ve
S war aj,
t he caus e o f Hi n d u-
Mus l i m r i o t s , Lhe ci vi l war i n S pai n an d hi s
un d e r s t an d i n g o f hi s t o r y, r e f l e ct e d by t he
d i al o g ue s wi t h t he o t he r s at t he s t an d o r
r e po r t e d i n a pl ayf ul l y ce r e mo n i o us , i r o n i cal
n ar r at i ve by t he aut ho r ."7
'Babu Go pi Nat h' d e pi ct s f e ud al e xi s t e n ce
i n a s e mi -mo d e r n s ur r o un d i n g . Char act e r s
wi t h co n f l i ct i n g n o r ms an d i n t e r e s t s pr o vi d e
an i n s i g ht i n t o t he s i mul t an e o us f un ct i o n i n g
o f t he var i o us l aye r s o f f e ud al an d capi t al i s t
s o ci e t y. T he r e al i s t n o ve l i n t he 1 9t h ce n t ur y
r e f l e ct e d t he chan g e o f g e n e r at i o n s , t he bi r t h
an d d e cl i n e o f i n s t i t ut i o n s . In t he s pace t he
s ho r t s t o r y pr o vi d e s Man t o d e s cr i be s t he
t e n s i o n s an d co n t r ad i ct i o n s i n co n t e mpo r ar y
In d i an s o ci e t y by e mpl o yi n g t wo n ar r at o r s
co l l e ct i n g an d s har i n g i n f o r mat i o n i n t he
co ur s e o f t he n ar r at i ve . On e n ar r at o r i s Man t o ,
t he aut ho r who i s i n t r o d uce d t o Babu Go pi
Nat h by S an d o , t he s e co n d n ar r at o r . Hi s
i n f o r mat i o n abo ut t he r e l at i o n s hi ps o f t he
char act e r s , who pr o f i t s an d what f r o m who m
i s co r r e ct e d an d mo d i f i e d by Man t o , t he
aut ho r an d f i r s t n ar r at o r . Babu Go pi Nat h
i s a me mbe r o f t he l an d e d g e n t r y. He co me s
t o Bo mbay wi t h Ze e n at , a pr o s t i t ut e o f g r e at
l o yal t y, who m he wan t s t o he l p t o be
f i n an ci al l y i n d e pe n d e n t . Ze e n at i s us e d an d
e xpl o i t e d by e ve r ybo d y, t i l l s he me e t s a r i ch
an d han d s o me l an d l o r d , Ghul am Hus s ai n ,
t o who m s he i s mar r i e d o f f by Babu Go pi
Nat h.
Babu Go pi Nat h who s e t wo pas s i o n s i n
l i f e ar e t o f r e que n t br o t he l s an d s har e t he
co mpan y o f ho l y me n i s awar e o f ho w pe o pl e
make us e o f hi m, but co n s i d e r s hi ms e l f par t
o f a cul t ur al s e t up i n whi ch he i s s uppo s e d
t o f ul f i l a f un ct i o n . T he n ar r at o r 's l as t me e t i n g
wi t h Babu Go pi Nat h at t he we d d i n g , hi s
un i n t e n d e d i n t e r f e r e n ce at t he s i g ht o f t he
br i d al be d , po i n t s t o Go pi Nat h's s e n t i me n t al
val ue s ys t e m co upl e d wi t h s e l f -d e ce pt i o F
an d i n ve r t s t he i l l us i o n t hr o ug h t he acce pt an ce
o f r e al i t y.
T he s t o r i e s wr i t t e n af t e r t he Par t i t i o n , bo t h
t ho s e whci h ar e par t o f t he S i yah Has hye
co l l e ct i o n an d t ho s e whi ch ar e d i r e ct l y
co n n e ct e d wi t h t he Par t i t i o n e xpe r i e n ce o r
r e f l e ct t he r e l at i o n s hi p t o hi s t o r y by d e pi ct i n g
s o me o t he r hi s t o r i cal e ve n t , d e mo n s t r at e i n
var i o us ways t he i n t e n t i o n t o avo i d
mo r al i s at i o n . T he abs e n ce o f t he n ar r at o r i n
t he S i yah Has hye s t o r i e s , t he al t e r n at i ve
e n d i n g s i n 'It Happe n e d i n 1991' ('1991 ki
e k bat ') (pp 47-56), f r ami n g a s t o r y i n s i d e
t he s t o r y i n 'Co l d e r t han Ice ' ('T han d a
Gho s ht ') o r l i n ki n g t wo s t o r i e s l i ke i n 'T he
Pr i ce o f Fr e e d o m' ('S war aj-ke l i ye ') o r i n
a f i r s t pe r s o n n ar r at i o n l i ke i n 'Do i n g Go d 's
W o r k' s ucce s s f ul l y pr o t e ct t he r e ad e r f r o m
co mi n g un d e r t he mo r al aut ho r i t y o f t he
n ar r at o r . T he aut ho r o f t he S i yah Has hye
vo l ume i s an o bje ct i ve o bs e r ve r who
t r an s cr i be s t he e ve n t s wi t ho ut co mme n t ar y,
as i n Or ke n y's On i e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s whe r e
t he aut ho r i s a s i l e n t s pe ct at o r . T he n ar r at o r
i s pr e s e n t i n t he S i yah Has hye vo l ume o n l y
i n t he d "d i cat i o n ad d r e s s e d t o t he man , who
f i n al l y co me s t o t he awar e n e s s t hat he ki l l e d .
It s ho ws t he co n ce r n Man t o had i n t he pr o ce s s
o f i n s i g ht , appl yi n g al s o t o t he r e ad e r who
i n t he co ur s e o f r e ad i n g wo ul d be pr o vo ke d
t o cr i t i cal l y e xami n e hi s pl ace , pe r s pe ct i ve s
an d i l l us i o n s i n hi s e ve r yd ay act i vi t i e s . At
t hi s cr i t i cal mo me n t o f hi s t o r y af t e r t he
Par t i t i o n , t hi s was a po s s i bl e way t o chan g e
t he r e ad e r 's as s o ci at i o n wi t h t he s t o r y f r o m
pas s i ve e mo t i o n al i d e n t i f i cat i o n t o r e f l e ct i o n .
"T he s e n s e o f s hame an d he l pl e s s n e s s at
be i n g a wi t n e s s " an d n o t be i n g abl e t o he l p
t ho s e who we r e at t he r e ce i vi n g e n d i n t he
r i o t s 38 o r t he s he e r humi l i at i o n at be i n g
r e d uce d t o a s pe ct at o r was t he r e al l i f e
e xpe r i e n ce o f e ve n t ho s e who we r e par t o f
t he o r g an i s at i o n al machi n e r y t o co n t r o l t he
t r an s f e r o f po we r .?9 T he ae s t he t i cs o f t he
S i yah Has hye s t o r i e s chal l e n g e s pas s i ve
acce pt an ce as a pr i mar y r e s po n s e t o r e ad i l ;-6
an d pr o vo ke s t he an al ys i s an d t he act i ve
un d e r s t an d i n g o f t he r e ad e r . T he r e ad e r l i ke
t he n ar r at o r has t he s t at us o f t he s pe ct at o r
who make s co n n e ct i o n s . :bl i s he s l i n ks
wi t h t he t i t l e , f i l l s t he g aps an d i n t e r pr e t s
t he s t o r y. T he i n t e r pr e t at i ve mo ve me n t
be t we e n t he co mi c an d t r ag i c co n t e n t o f t he
s t o r y pr o vo ke s r e ad e r s i n var i o us ways an d
r e l e as e s var i o us e n e r g i e s .40
S i mi l ar l y, i n Or ke n y's s ho r t s t o r i e s t he
r e ad e r i s chal l e n g e d t o r e s o l ve t he l i n k
be t we e n t i t l e an d co n t e n t . T he co n n e ct i o n
mo s t l y un d e r cut s val ue s ys t e ms i n t he S i Yah
Has hye , 'T he S we e t Mo me n t ' (S aat -e s hi r i n )
(p 3) i s t he t r ag e d y o f Gan d hi 's d e at h, i n
'Out o f Co n s i d e r at i o n ' a g i r l i s n o t ki l l e d
i n f r o n t o f he r f at he r but s t r i ppe d an d ke pt
wi t h t he o t he r wo me n . In 'Mo d e s t y' ('Kas r -
i n af s i ') (p 27) t he r i o t e r s f i r s t ki l l t he me mbe r s
o f t he o t he r co mmun i t y t r ave l l i n g i n t he t r ai n
an d t he n apo l o g i s e t o t he o t he r pas s e n g e r s
f o r n o t r e ce i vi n g t he m wi t h mo r e ho s pi t al i t y.
Apar t f r o m t he S i yah Has hye s t o r i e s man y
o f t he l o n g e r s t o r i e s ar e al s o bui l t o n an
e t hi cal o r e xi s t e n t i al par ad o x. 'T he Pr i ce o f
Fr e e d o m' (S war aj-ke l i ye ) (pp 57-73) t he
pr i ce f o r par t i ci pat i o n i n t he f r e e d o m s t r ug g l e s
i s t he l o s s o f co n t r o l o ve r o n e 's pe r s o n al
l i f e ,4' t he pr o t ag o n i s t who cl ai ms t o s pe n d
hi s l i f e wi t h char i t y i n 'Do i n g Go d 's W o r k'
('S hahi d -s az') (pp 39-45) t ur n s o ut t o be
d e s i g n i n g a d i s as t e r f r o m whi ch he can pr o f i t
f i n an ci al l y.
W hi l e i r o n i cal s e n s i bi l i t y mo t i vat e d Man t o
be f o r e t he Par t i t i o n t o pr e s e n t a cl as h o f
val ue s an d i n t e r e s t s i n 'T he Ne w
Co n s t i t ut i o n ' an d i n 'Babu Go pi Nat h' an d
t he i r o n y r e s po n d s t o t he co n t r ad i ct i o n s
wi t hi n t he s ame char act e r t he po s s i bi l i t y o f
bal an ce i s s ug g e s t e d i n t he r e l at i ve har mo n y
o f pr e s e n t at i o n . T he Par t i t i o n e xpe r i e n ce
r e mai n e d cr uci al i n Man t o ' s wo r k. T he s ho r t
s t o r i e s 'T he Pr i ce o f Fr e e d o m' o r 'Do i n g
Go d 's W o r k' pr e s e n t e d mai n l y f i r s t pe r s o n
d i s co ur s e s d i s pl ayi n g a d i s appo i n t me n t
i n hi s t o r y, po l i t i cs , t he g e n e r at i o n o f
f r e e d o m f i g ht e r s an d t he f ut i l i t y o f al l
act i o n .
Nar r at i ve i s o f t e n us e d t o mo r e po i g n an t l y
un d e r l i n e t he par ad o x. Bo t h Man t o an d
Or ke n y d i s mi s s d e t ai l o f d e s cr i pt i o n i n t he
s e n s e cl as s i cal r e al i s m. Or ke n y d i s cl o s e d
t hat he f e l t
i t was n o us e t o d e s cr i be a r o o m be caus e
al l wo ul d i d e n t i f y i t mwi t h t he i r uo wn e xpe r i e n ce
o f a r o o m.
2150 Eco n o mi c an d Po l i t i cal W e e kl y Aug us t 16-23, 1997
T hi s co n ve ys t he chan g e i n n ar r at i ve
co n ce r n s . It i s t he co n s t r uct i o n o f t he vi s ual
s pace o f t he s t o r y, s paci al o r t e mpo r al
co mbi n at i o n o f l o cat i o n whi ch i n f r i n g e s o n
t he r e ad e r 's co n ve n t i o n al acce pt an ce o f
r e al i t y. In 'Je l l y' (p 18) -t he s paci al l i n k o f
t he pus hcar t o f t he d e ad i ce cr e am s e l l e r an d
t he mo n t ag e o f chi l d an d mo t he r g o i n g by,
(t he chi l d mi s t aki n g bl o o d f o r je l l y, whi ch
i s t he r e l e van t as s o ci at i o n wi t h i ce cr e am)
i n ve r t s t he e f f e ct o f t he i n i t i al s ce n e . T he
co mbi n at i o n o f co mi c an d t r ag i c d e t ai l
co n n e ct s man y o f t he ?S i vah Has hye s t o r i e s
wi t h bl ack humo ur . 'Mi s t ake Re mo ve d '
('Is l ah') (pp 16-17), 'Pat han i s t an ' (p 20),
'Pe r man e n t Vacat i o n ' ('Hame s ha-ki
Chhut t i ') (p 22), 'Ri t ual i s t i c Di f f e r e n ce '
('Hal aal aur Jhat ka') (p 23) d e pe n d o n an
un d e r s t an d i n g o f s o ci al pr act i ce , o n a s har e d
d i s cur s i ve co n t e xt . Or ke n y's On e Mi n ut e
S t o r i e s l i ke t he 'In qui r y i n t o t he S t at e o f My
He al t h' an d 'In Me mo r i am Dr GHK', ar e
al s o bas e d o n a s i mi l ar pe r ce pt i o n o f cul t ur al
co n t e xt . Ibn In s ha's l at e r s t o r i e s 'Our
Co un t r y' an d 'Paki s t an ' ut i l i s e t he n ar r at i ve
f o r m o f d i al o g ue an d n ar r at i o n al abs e n ce t o
a s i mi l -n i a i r o n i cal e f f e ct o f pun ct ur i n g s o ci al
val ue s .
Man t o e xpl o i t s t he s o ur ce o f po s s i bl e
i d e n t i f i cat i o n by t he r e ad e r i n f ami l i ar
n ar r at i ve s i t uat i o n s (d i al o g ue d ur i n g a t r ai n
jo ur n e y wi t h a n ar r at o r an d l i s t e n e r who
i s t he wr i t e r , o r t he pr o t ag o n i s t n ar r at i n g
hi s s t o r y i n t he f i r s t pe r s o n ) o n l y t o d i g r e s s
f r o m t he pr o ce s s o f t he l i t e r ar y co n ve n t i o n
an d pr o vi d e ad d i t i o n al po s s i bi l i t i e s o f
i n t e r pr e t at i o n . T he n ar r at i ve s t r at e g y us e d
by Man t o un d e r mi n e s t he val ue -s ys t e m as
t he r e ad e r i s chal l e n g e d t o co n f r o n t t he
ban al i t y an d n ar r o wn e s s o f n o r ms he l d by
t he co mmun i t y.
V
Eve n af t e r s e ve r al d e cad e s , t he war
e xpe r i e n ce r e mai n e d ce n t r al i n Or ke n y's
wo r k. T he r e al i s m i n t he e l abo r at i o n o f t he
myt h o f n at i o n al i d e n t i t y o f Vo r o n e zh we n t
t hr o ug h a chan g e i n t he d i r e ct i o n o f t he
abs t r act . T he On e Mi n ut e S t o r y i n t he n e wl y
e l abo r at e d f o r m o f g r o t e s que , i s a
phi l o s o phi cal r e f l e ct i o n o n l an g uag e an d t he
i n ad e quacy o f s pe e ch i n human co n t act s .
T he d e mo cr at i c s o ur ce o f t he g r o t e s que i n
jo ke s , n e ws pape r ar t i cl e s an d i n s l an g an d
t he po s s i bl e e l e me n t o f f an t as t i c s e t t i n g i t
apar t f r o m Man t o 's s t o r i e s has al r e ad y be e n
d i s cus s e d . On t he o n e han d he co n s i d e r e d
t he s ho r t f o r m o f t he g r o t e s que as t he po s s i bl e
f r ag me n t o f a bi g ar t i s t i c f o r m (t he n o ve l o r
pl ay) an d o ccas i o n al l y us e d t he m i n hi s l at e r
pl ays . On t he o t he r han d t he r e d uct i o n o f
t he pr o s e f o r m t o a mi n i mum r ai s e d t he
que s t i o n o f t he val i d i t y o f t he f o r m o f
g r o t e s que an d pr o s e as s uch.
In t wo On e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s o f co n t e mpo r ar y
t he me s t he pr e s e n ce o f t he f an t as t i c e l e me n t
s ho ws ho w s i g n i f i can t t he g r o t e s que was i n
Or ke n y' s pr o s e t o wr i t e abo ut co n t e mpo r ar y
r e al i t y. 'In qui r y abo ut t he S t at e o f My He al t h'
t ur n s t he po l i t e f o r mal i t y o f i n qui r y i n t o a
s ur r e al e n d i n g ut i l i s i n g an e xpr e s s i o n f r o m
s l an g . (Eve r yt hi n g i s pe r f e ct l y f i n e e xce pt
f o r t hat I am pul l i n g my i n t e s t i n e s be hi n d
me .) T he f an t as t i c i s al s o pr e s e n t i n t he
'Bal l ad abo ut t he Po we r o f Po e t r y' whe r e
t he t e l e pho n e bo o t h co me s t o l i f e , f al l s i n
l o ve , wal ks al l o ve r t he f avo ur i t e par k o f
l o ve r s i n Bud ape s t , af t e r t he po e t r i n g s up
hi s e d i t o r an d r e ad s o ut at t he r o ad s i d e bo o t h
hi s n e wl y wr i t t e n po e m.
'In Me mo r i am Dr GHK' 'S o n g ' an d 'T wo
Cupo l as i n a S n o w-co ve r e d Lan d s cape ',42
al l t hr e e wr i t i n g s co n n e ct e d wi t h t he war ,
appr o ach t he war f r o m t hr e e d i f f e r e n t an g l e s .
Al l t hr e e r e d uce i n f o r mat i o n an d l an g uag e
t o t he mi n i mum an d t he l i n ks have t o be
e s t abl i s he d by t he r e ad e r . W hi l e t he f i r s t
s t o r y wi t h t he d i al o g ue an d s ho r t i n f o r mat i o n
by t he n ar r at o r i s o n e o f t he cl as s i c e xampl e s
o f Or ke n y's On e Mi n zut e S t o r i e s , t he o t he r
t wo ar e r e co l l e ct i o n s o f Or ke n y's war
e xpe r i e n ce s . T he d i al o g ue be t we e n t he g uar d
an d Dr G H K i n 'In me mo r i am Dr G H K
e xpo s e s an e xi s t e n t i al par ad o x. Dr G H K's
i n t e l l e ct ual d i s cus s i o n abo ut var i o us Ge r man
po e t s i s i n d i r e ct co n t r as t t o hi s e xi s t e n t i al
s i t uat i o n as a pr i s o n e r o f t he camp. T he
par ad o x i s r e s o l ve d by t he e xe cut i o n o f G
H K as bar bar i s m e xt e r mi n at e s t ho s e who
r e pr e s e n t ci vi l i s at i o n .43
T he l o cat i o n i n 'S o n g ' an d i n 'T wo
Cupo l as i n a S n o w-co ve r e d Lan d s cape ' i s
s i g n al e d by t he n ame s o f t wo vi l l ag e s ,
Ni ko l aye vka an d Davi d o vka t wo vi l l ag e s i n
t he Ukr ai n e l yi n g o n t he r o ut e o f t he
Hun g ar i an ar my t o Vo r o n e zh. T he 'S o n g '
pr e s e n t s t he d ual i s m o f phys i cal d e s t r uct i o n
(e n d l e s s mar ch i n t he s n o w, br i d g e s an d
ho us e s bl o wn up) an d un ce as i n g cr e at i vi t y
i n t he pe r s o n o f Jan as z, t he s o n g wr i t e r . Eve n
hi s d e at h un d e r l i n e s t he mi r acl e , t he po t e n t i al
o f cr e at i vi t y i n e ve r y be i n g . "Each o f us can
d o s o me t hi n g n o o n e e l s e can d o t he s ame
way".
Eve n t , l o cat i o n , i d e n t i t y o f par t i ci pan t s
an d t he i r co mpl i ci t y i n 'T wo Cupo l as i n a
S n o w-co ve r e d Lan d s cape ' ar e e s t abl i s he d
by t he r e ad e r o n t he bas i s o f t he i n f o r mat i o n
s uppl i e d by t he n ar r at o r who r e d uce s t he
r e po r t t o e xt e r n al f act s , l e avi n g a n umbe r o f
g aps . T he pho t o g r aph r e co r d e d o f t wo cupo l as
i n t he s n o w an d t he f ace o f a l i t t l e g i r l i s
a r e mi n d e r o f t he e xe cut i o n o f a Rus s i an
wo man wi t h he r d aug ht e r l o o ki n g o n . T he
abs ur d i t y o f t he e ve n t , t he e xe cut i o n o f a
yo un g wo man t r i e d by a Ge r man mi l i t ar y
co ur t , i s i n d i cat e d by t he abs e n ce o f d i al o g ue .
S pe e ch i s pr o d uce d o n l y whe n t he g i r l
mi s un d e r s t an d i n g t he s i t uat i o n cal l s he r
mo t he r wan t i n g he r t o s t o p pl ayi n g . T he
f o cus i s o n t he s ur r o un d i n g o bje ct s wi t ho ut
ad je ct i ve s : t he t r e e , t he g i r l un d e r t he t r uck,
t he o n l o o ke r s , d e cr e as i n g i n n umbe r as t he
han g i n g g o e s o n an d o n , t he Hun g ar i an
e xe cut i o n e r who han g s t he wo man f o r t hr e e
l i t e r s o f r um. T he r e d uct i o n o f t he r e po r t t o
t he bar e mi n i mum s ho ws t he aut ho r 's
d i s i n cl i n at i o n t o pas s o bvi o us mo r al
jud g me n t . T he n ar r at o r , l i ke Man t o 's abs e n t
n ar r at o r i n t he S i yah Has hye s t o r i e s o r i n
'Co l d e r t han Ice ' r e je ct s t he r o l e o f mo r al
aut ho r i t y. T he n ar r at i ve , s i mi l ar t o an
o bje ct i ve r e po r t , f un ct i o n s as e vi d e n ce f o r
t he r e ad e r t o r e s po n d .
A pr o d uct o f t he i n t e r co n n e ct i o n o f
me mo r y, vi s ual r e co r d an d hi s t o r y, Or ke n y' s
s t o r y i s an ae s t he t i c s t at e me n t abo ut t he
r e f e r e n t i al i t y be t we e n 'f act s ', 'r e pr e -
s e n t at i o n ', 't r ut h' an d t he l i mi t s o f n ar r at i ve
i n t he 1 960s , much be f o r e t he r e ce n t acad e mi c
d e bat e r e vo l vi n g ar o un d r e al i t y, e xpe r i e n ce ,
e vi d e n ce an d ae s t he t i c i mag i n at i o n i n
co n n e ct i o n wi t h t he Ho l o caus t ."
T he r e ar e a var i e t y o f l i t e r ar y f o r ms whi ch
can s e r ve as a f r ame wo r k f o r t he n ar r at i ve
o f a hi s t o r i cal cat as t r o phe : d o cume n t ar y
r e co r d , d r ama, s ho r t s t o r y. T he s e l i t e r ar y
r e co r d s co n t r i but e t o t he r e val uat i o n o f
hi s t o r y, an d t he r e i n t e r pr e t at i o n o f t he i d e n t i t y
o f a g r o up, hi g hl i g ht a t r ai t o f 'n at i o n al
char act e r ' (co n ce i t , bl i n d n e s s o f t he
ar i s t o cr acy, s e r vi l i t y i n Vo r o n e zh) o r
e mphas i s e ce r t ai n po i n t s o f t he t r ag e d y whi ch
l i n ks f act s t o s ug g e s t ce r t ai n d yn ami cs i n t he
hi s t o r i cal e ve n t s . T he cho i ce o f f o r m d e pe n d s
o n t he l i t e r ar y t r ad i t i o n , o n t he aut ho r 's
cho i ce an d cr e at i ve po t e n t i al , an d al s o o n
t he d i s t an ce i n t i me f r o m t he cat as t r o phe .
T he r e i s a s t r e t ch be t we e n t he o bje ct i vi t y o f
r e co r d an d t he phi l o s o phy o f t he g r o t e s que .
In Man t o 's cas e t he r i o t s o f Par t i t i o n ar e
pr e s e n t e d i n t he f o r m o f r e po r t s o r d i al o g ue s
whi ch al l o w hi m t o avo i d maki n g mo r al o r
po l i t i cal jud g me n t . T he d i s t an ce o f hi s t o r y
an d t he co n d i t i o n s i n Hun g ar y i n t he 1960s
pr o vi d e d Or ke n y t he po s s i bi l i t y t o appr o ach
t he pr o bl e m o f t he s e co n d wo r l d war an d
f as ci s m d i f f e r e n t l y. T he n e w g e n r e i n s ho r t
s t o r y, t he g r o t e s que , was mo s t l y t he ad e quat e
f o r m o f e xpr e s s i o n . In Or ke n y's n ar r at i ve
ar t i t was al s o r e l e van t f o r t he e xpr e s s i o n
o f co n t e mpo r ar y r e al i t y.
S ho r t s t o r i e s us e n o t o n l y a mul t i pl i ci t y
o f s ubje ct s but al s o e mpl o y d i f f e r e n t n ar r at i ve
s t r at e g i e s . Or ke n y us e d t he f o r m o f d i al o g ue ,
t he 'mi n i mal ' r e po r t an d d e ve l o pe d a
phi l o s o phy o f abs ur d d r awn f r o m t he
hi s t o r i cal e ve n t s o f t he s e co n d wo r l d war .
Man t o e xpe r i me n t e d wi t h a n umbe r o f
n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s i n hi s s ho r t s t o r i e s abo ut
t he Par t i t i o n . In t he s e s t o r i e s Man t o al l o ws
t he d i al o g ue s t o t ake o ve r an d pr o vo ke t he
r e ad e r t o a r e s po n s e . By ad o pt i n g a cr i t i cal
d i s t an ce bo t h Man t o an d Or ke n y we r e abl e
t o e vo l ve n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s whi ch i n vi t e d
t he r e ad e r 's r e s po n s e an d s t i mul at e d ag e n cy.
By co un t e r i n g mo r al i s i n g an d l s e n t i me n t al i t y
i n t he i r n ar r at i ve s t r at e g i e s t he y e n abl e d t he
Eco n o mn i c an d Po l i t i cal W e e kl y Aug us t 16-23, 1997 2151
r e ad e r t o d e al wi t h an d g o be yo n d t he
par al ys i n g e f f e ct s o f s uch t r aumat i c
e xpe r i e n e _s as t he Par t i t i o n an d t he s e co n d
vwr l d war .
No t e s
I Re ce n t co l l e ct i o n s o f Par t i t i o n l i t e r at ur e : Al o k
Bhal l a, S t o r i e s abo ut t he Par t i t i o n o f In d i a,
vo l s I-III, Ne w De l hi 1994 an d Mus hi r ul
Has an , In d i a Par t i t i o n e d . T he Ot he r Face o f
Fr e e d o n t , vo l s I-Il , Ne w De l hi 1995.
2 Mi kl o s Be l ad i , Mag yar Ir o d al o m T o r t e t n e t e
1945-1975, vo l 11/2 (Hi s t o r y o f Hun g ar i an
Li t e r at ur e ), Bud ape s t 1986 pp 563-654;
Mi kl o s Be l ad i an d Las zl o Ro n ay, Mag yar
Ir o d al o m T o r t e n t ce 1945-1975, vo l 111/1
(Hi s t o r y o f Hun g ar i an Li t e r at ur e ), Bud ape s t ,
1990, pp 17-73 an d pp 771-91. Li t e r at ur e
abo ut t he pe r i o d i n En g l i s h: T i bo r Kl an i czay,
A Hi s t o r y o f Hun g ar i an Li t e r ai t i ur e , Bud ape s t ,
1983, pp 399-476 an d Lo r an t Czi g an y, T ht e
Oxf o r d Hi s t o r y' o f Hun g ar i acn Li t e r at ur e ,
Oxf o r d , 1984, pp 418-84.
3 T he Par t i t i o n was al s o t he f o un d i n g mo me n t
o f t wo n at i o n s . T he r e was t he po s s i bi l i t y t o
pe r ce i ve t he cat as t r o phe as a apo cal yps e an d
i t s o r d e al as t r i al s l e ad i n g t o r e n e wal . In an
i n t e r vi e w i n Jul y 1977 In t i zar Hus ai n
co mpar e d t he mi g r at i o n at t he t i me o f Par t i -
t i o n t o t he Hi jr a (Mo han me d 's f l i g ht f r o m
Me cca t o Me d i n a): "...S o t hat e xpe r i e n ce , I
me an t he e xpe r i e n ce o f mi g r at i o n , i s
un f o r t un at e l y l o s t t o us an d o n us . An d t he
g r e at e xpe ct at i o n we had o f maki n g s o me -
t hi n g o ut o f i t at a cr e at i ve l e ve l an d e xpl o i t -
i n g i t i n d e ve l o pi n g a n e w co n s ci o us n e s s ,
s e n s i bi l i t y - t hat br i g ht e xpe ct at i o n has
n o w f ad e d an d g o n e ." Muhammad Umar
Me n o n , Par t i t i o n Li t e r at ur e : A s t ud y o f In t i zar
Hus ai n , Mo d e r n As i an S t ud i e s , 14(3), 1980,
pp 377-410.
4 Cr i t i ci s m o f t he t e r m o bje ct i vi t y i s par t o f t he
t he o r e t i cal d i s cus s i o n s t o d ay. I s t i l l t hi n k i t
i s po s s i bl e t o us e i t t o hi g hl i g ht d i f f e r e n ce s
wi t h d e bat e s o n r e al i s m. cf Hayd e n W hi t e .
T he Que s t i o n o f Nar r at i ve i n Co n t e mpo r ar y
Hi s t o r i cal T he o r y, i n Hi s t o r y an d T he o r y vo l
23, 1984, pp 1-33, Paul Ri co e ur , T i me an d
Nar r at i ve ,vo l s 1-11, 1984-1988.Fo r as ummar y
o f t he d e bat e i n Hun g ar i an s e e Ro be r t Br aun ,
Ho l o caus t , e l be s ze l e s , t o r t e n e l e m [Ho l o caus t ,
Nar r at i ve , Hi s t o r y] Bud ape s t 1995. A s ho r t e r
ve r s i o n o f t he s ummar y i n En g l i s h: Ro be r t
Br aun , T he Ho l o caus t an d Pr o bl e ms o f
Hi s t o r i cal Re pr e s e n t at i o n , i n Hi s t o r y an ad
T he o r y, vo l 133, 1994, pp 173-97.
5 "T he y [t he s t o r i e s o f S i yah Has hye ] al s o s ho w
t hat Man t o had ye t t o d e al r e al i s t i cal l y wi t h
t he human e mo t i o n s an d d i f f i cul t i e s
e n g e n d e r e d by t he uphe aval o f Par t i t i o n " o n
pp 72-77 an d pp 108-12 i n hi s o t he r wi s e
i n f o r mat i ve bo o k, Le s l i e Fl e mmi n g (T he Li f e
an d W o r ks (o f S aad at Has an i Man t o , Laho r e
1985) cr i t i ci s e s S i yah Has hye s pe ci f i cal l y
be caus e o f t he l ack o f r e al i s m. Fl e mmi n g
al s o r ai s e s t hi s cr i t i ci s m o n p 28 r e f e r r i n g
t o S ar d ar Jaf f r i 's chan g e o f o pi n i o n abo ut
Man t o 's s ho r t s t o r i e s an d hi s e val uat i o n
co n n e ct e d wi t h hi s s t ud y o f t he Pr o g r e s s i ve
W r i t e r s Mo ve me n t . T he r e l at i o n s hi p t o t he
Pr o g r e s s i ve W r i t e r s Mo ve me n t an d t he i r
co n ce pt o f r e al i s m had a wi d e r e f f e ct o n Ur d u
l i t e r at ur e . It may be us e f ul t o r e cal l t he
t he o r e t i cal d e bat e whi ch s t ar t e d i n t he l at e
1920s i n t he S o vi e t Un i o n f o cus e d o n
pr o l e t ar i an l i t e r at ur e an d t he "e xpr e s s i o n i s m
d e bat e " i n t he 1930s s par ke d o f f af t e r Ge o r g
Lukacs publ i s he d hi s ar t i cl e abo ut Ge r man
e xpr e s s i o n i s m d e bat e " i n t he 1930s s par ke d
o f f af t e r Ge o r g e Lukacs publ i s he d hi s ar t i cl e
abo ut Ge r man e xpr e s s i o n i s m. T he i mme d i at e
co n t e xt o f t he d e bat e was Go t t f r i e d Be n n , an
e ar l i e r e xpr e s s i o n i s t who jo i n e d t he Nazi s .
But i n t he wi d e r backg r o un d t he r e was Lukacs '
wo r k abo ut t he g e n e s i s o f Fas ci s m. Br e cht 's
t he o r y o f a n e w t he at r e , Ems t Bl o ch's l e r i t ag e
o f o ur T i me an d An n a S e g he r s ' n o ve l T he
S e ve n t h Cr o s s acco mpan i e d by var i o us
appr o ache s t o t he co n t e mpo r ar y n o t i o n o f
r e al i s m. Br e cht , who was i n e xi l e i n De n mar k,
e mphas i s e d t he r o l e o f pr o l e t ar i an cl as s e t hi cs
an d he l d al l f o r ms an d me t ho d s acce pt abl e
f o r t he r e f l e ct i o n o f r e al i t y. Br e cht 's ar t i cl e s
we r e n o t publ i s he d at t he t i me . T he s e an d
o t he r ar t i cl e s we r e publ i s he d i n Ge r man y i n
1973.
6 Man t o , Das t ave z, vo l 11, De l hi , 1993, Bal r aj
Me n r a an d S har ad Dut t (e d s ), p 452. In t he
n o t e o f t he e d i t o r s t he g e n r e i s cal l e d
avs an an ch f r o m Ur d u avs an a.
7 Vi kt o r Kar ad y, 'As s zi mi l aci o e s t ar s ad al mi
kr i zi s ' [As s i mi l at i o n an d Cr i s i s i n S o ci e t y]
i n t he mo n t hl y Vi l ag o s s ag [Li g ht ],
vo l XXXIV,, 1993, Mar ch, pp 33-60 an d
An d r as Ko vacs , Id e n t i t as e s Et i n i ci t ai s , Zvi d o
Id e n t i t a(t t as pr o bl e mak a hai b(o r u ut an i
Mag yar o r s zag o n [Id e n t i t y an d e t hn i ci t y.
Pr o bl e ms o f Je wi s h i d e n t i t y i n Hun g ar y af t e r
t he W ar ) i n Zvi i d o k, Id e n t i t as , T o r t e n e l e m
[Je ws , Id e n t i t y an d Hi s t o r y], M M Ko vacs ,
Yi t zhak M Kas ht i , F Er o s (e d s ), Bud ape s t ,
1992, pp 97-113.
8 Ivan Bo l d i zs ar , 'A Lo s t Ge n e r at i o n ', s ho r t
s t o r i e s an d po e ms by Kar o l y Pap, Mi kl o s
Rad n o t i an d An d o r En d r e Ge l l e r i i n T he Ne w
Hun g ar i an Quar t e r l y, Aut umn 1969, No 36,
pp 25-60, Jan o s Pi l i n s zky (1921-1981), a
po e t , who came t o kn o w abo ut t he e xi s t e n ce
o f co n ce n t r at i o n camps at t he t i me o f hi s
mi l i t ar y s e r vi ce i n 1944 i n Ge r man y an d
Aus t r i a, wr o t e abo ut t he f o r mat i o n o f t hi s
g e n e r at i o n i n hi s e s s ay "T r ag i c Ge n e r at i o n "
i n 1965: "Pe o pl e who ar e i n t he i r 40s have
n o w r i pe n e d i n t o a g e n e r at i o n t hr o ug h t he
war . Dar k f r ame , t r ag i c be g i n n i n g . Ye t I f e e l ,
t he r e we r e f e w g e n e r at i o n s whi ch had a wi d e r
an d mo r e un i ve r s al t e achi n g . Pe r s o n al l y I
t ho ug ht r e al i t y was abo ve pe r s o n al f at e , t he
r e al i t y o f s o ci e t y an d human i t y d ur i n g t he
war ...In t he vwar we al l be came ho me l e s s an d
t hi s co mmo n t r ag e d y be came o ur un i ve r s al
ho me ."
9 Or ke n y wr i t e s i n a l e t t e r t o Mi l an Fus t (1886-
1967), po e t an d wr i t e r , i n 1941 af t e r Fus t
s e n d s hi m a d e d i cat e d co py o f hi s S e l e ct e d
Po e t r y: "...Pe r haps i t i s i n o r d e r , t hat I me e t
yo u o n l y n o w, "n e l me zzo d e l cami s " r i g ht
n o w, e xact l y i n t he s e d i f f i cul t ye ar s whe n as
a r e s po n s e t o my-o n ce -ag ai n -Je wi s h-e xi s t e n ce
l o n e l i n e s s i s mul t i pl yi n g an d i n cr e as i n g
ar o un d me l i ke i ce i n t he At ar ct i c"; i n Is t van
Or ke n y, Le ve l e k e g y pe r cbe n [Le t t e r s i n o n e
mi n ut e ], Zs uzs aRad n o t i (e d ), Bud ape s t , 1992,
p 17.
10 S e e i n g hi s whi t e o f f i ce r 's un i f o r m
-
he was
a r e s e r ve o f f i ce r i n t he ar my be f o r e t he an t i -
Je w-l aws - hi s s upe r i o r s l appe d hi m an d had
hi m t i e d an d hun g f r o m a po l e , i bi d , p 19.
II Khal i d Has an , 'In t r o d uct i o n ' i n S aad at Has an
Man t o , Ki n g d o m's En d an d Ot he r S t o r i e s ,
t r an s l by Khal i d Has an , Ne w De l hi , 1989,
pp 1-10. Re f e r e n ce s t o En g l i s h t r an s l at i o n s
o f Man t o 's l o n g e r s t o r i e s ar e al l f r o m t hi s
vo l ume .
12 Is t van Or ke n y, Dr ai mak [Pl ays ], Bud ape s t ,
1982, vo l I, pp 9-77.
13 Is t van Or ke n y, Lag e r e k n e pe [Pe o pl e o f t he
Campus ], Bud ape s t , 1981.
14 Mus hi r ul Has an , o p ci t , vo l 1, p 89.
15 Be t we e n t he wr i t e r an d r e al i t y a n umbe r o f
d i f f e r e n t me d i at i o n s ar e cr e at e d . T hi s g i ve s
r i s e t o var i o us f o r ms o f pr o s e d e pe n d i n g o n
t he hi s t o r i cal co n d i t i o n s . T he d ual i t y an d
an t ag o n i s m o f appe ar an ce an d r e al i t y, t he
par ad o xe s o f e xi s t e n t i al , e t hi cal an d
phi l o s o phi cal val ue s ar e t he s o ur ce s o f par o d y,
s at i r e , i r o n y an d g r o t e s que . T he d o mi n an t
e l e me n t o f pr o s e (s t yl e o r g e n r e ) al s o d e pe i .d s
o n t he co n t r ad i ct i o n s i n s o ci e t y. Par o d y i s o n e
o f t he e l e me n t ar y f o r ms whi c:i i mi t at e s i t s
o bje ct but i t al s o i n cl ud e s d i f f e r e n t i at i o n an d
t r an s g r e s s i o n . Bo t l d i f f e r .n t i at i o n an d
t r an s g r e s s i o n ar e pr e s e r " n ut hcr ,t r e e f o r ms ,
s at i r e , i r o n y an d g r o t e s que but t he y ar e
mo d i f i e d acco r d i n g t o t he n at ur e o f
an t ag o n i s ms i s s o ci e t y. S at i r e i s ai me d at a
co n cr e t e pe r s o n an d t he pr act i ce o f a ce r t ai n
t ype o f mo r al i t y. It i s pr act i s e d i n a f ai r l y
s t abl e s o ci e t y wi t h a co mmo n un d e r s t an d i n g
o f e t hi cal val ue s by t he co mmun i t y. Ir o n y i s
bas e d o n t he l o s s an d an t ag o n i s m o f val ue s
i n a chan g i n g s o ci e t y. It has a d i al e ct i cal
appr o ach t o t he o bje ct , a mi xt ur e o f t r ag e d y
an d co me d y whi ch o f t e n d e pe n d s o n t he po i n t
o f vi e w o f t he r e ad e r . T he s ame i s t r ue o f t he
wr i t e r 's un d e r s t an d i n g o f hi ms e l f an d t hi s
l e ad s t o s e l f -i r o n y. T r ag e d y an d co me d y,
an i mat e an d i n an i mat e , i mag i n at i o n an d r e al i t y
can be r e pl ace d as f an t as t i c i n t he g r o t e s que
whi ch r e f l e ct s t he br e akd o wn o f d i vi d i n g
l i n e s i n val ue s o f a mo r al t o t al i t y. Ir o n y i s
pr e d o mi n an t i n Man t o 's wr i t i n g whi l e
Or ke n y's wo r k i s d e ve l o pme n t f r o m i r o n y t o
g r o t e s que . cf Al vi n B Ke r n an , T he Pl o t o f
S at i r e , Ne w Have n an d Lo n d o n , 1965: Ge o r g
Lukacs , A kl as s zi kus s zat i r ae l me l e t e s
f e l bo ml as a a l i be r al i s e s zt e t i kaban [T he
cl as s i cal t he o r y o f s at i r e an d i t s d i s s o l ut i o n
i n l i be r al ae s t he t i cs ] i n Ad al e ko k az e s zt e t i ka
t o r t e n e t e he z [Co n t r i but i o n t o t he Hi s t o r y o f
Ae s t he t i cs ], Bud ape s t , 1972, vo l I, pp 629-
56; Li n d a Hut che o n , T hi e T he o r y an d Po l i t i cs
o f Ir o n y, Lo n d o n 1994.
16 Kabi r 's i n ve r t e d r e pr e s e n t at i o n o f n o r ms o f
s o ci al be havi o ur s , hi s t r an s i t i o n al mo cki n g
us e o f a d i f f e r e n t pe r s o n a i s d i r e ct e d at t he
r e ce pt i ve l i s t e n e r . Char l o t t e Vaud e vi l l e ,
Kai bi r , Oxf o r d , 1974, pp 144-48.
17 Mauhammad S ad i q, A Hi s t o r y o f Ur d u
Li t e r at ur e , De l hi , 1984 an d As g har W ajahat ,
'Ur d u i r o d al o m' [Ur d u l i t e r at ur e ] i n
Vi l ag i r o d al mi Le xi ko n , Vo l 16, Bud ape s t ,
1994.
18 Ral ph Rus s e l an d Kur s hi d ul Is l am, 'T he
S at i r i cal Ve r s e o f Akbar Il ahabad i ' i n Ral ph
Rus s e l , T he Pur s ui t o f Ur d u Li t e r at ur e ,
Lo n d o n , 1992, pp 129-75 an d 'T he S at i r i cal
Ve r s e o f Akbar Il abahad i ' i n Ral ph Rus s e l ,
Hi d d e n i n t he Fl ut e , Ne w De l hi , 1995,
pp 200-07.
19 Mus hi r ul Has an , o p ci t , vo l I, p 100-12.
20 Al o k Bhal l a, o p ci t , vo l II, pp 105-08.
21 Pag e n umbe r s i n t he pape r f o r l o n g e r s t o r i e s
by Man t o ar e f r o m Ki n g d o m's En d .
22 Re f e r e n ce s t o s ho r t s t o r i e s f r o m t he S i yah
Has hye vo l ume ar e f r o m S aad at Has an Man t o ,
Par t i t i o n S ke t che s an d S t o r i e s , t r an s l by
Khal i d Has an , Ne w De l hi , 1991 (pag e n umbe r s
i n t he pape r appl y t o t hi s bo o k); s e e al s o
Mus hi r ul Has an i n Mus hi r ul Has an , i bi d , vo l
1, pp 88-99; Jai Rat an al s o t r an s l at e d e xce r pt s
i n In d i an Li t e r at ur e , 1985, vo l XXVIII, pp
22-36. T he De van ag ar i t r an s cr i pt i o n s o f S i yai h
Hal s hye i n S aad at Has an Man t o , Dal s t al ve z
Bal r aj Me n r a an d S har ad Dut t (e d s ), vo l II,
2152 Eco n o mi c an d Po l i t i cal W e e kl y Aug us t 16-23, 1997
De l hi , 1993, pp 273-312 an d De ve n d r a Is s ar 's
co l l e ct i o n Man t o n ama, Ne w De l hi , 1991, pp
271-81. Pr o bl e ms o f phi l o l o g i cal r e l i abi l i t y
co n n e ct e d wi t h Khal i d Has s an 's t r an s l at i o n s
we r e e l abo r at e d by As ad ud i n i n t he s e mi n ar
T he Li f e an i d W o r ks o f S aad at Has an Man t o
he l d at t he In d i an In s t i t ut e o f Ad van ce d 'S t ud y,
Ras ht r apat i Ni was , S hi ml a May 21-23, 1996.
T he y s ur f ace pr o mi n e n t l y i n t he S i yah Has ye
t r an s l at i o n s . W hi l e t he t i t l e s i n t hi s t r an s l at i o n
r e pe at o n e ke y-wo r d i n t he s t o r y, t he
co n t r ad i ct i o n s be t we e n t he t i t l e an d t he co n t e n t
i s mo r e appar e n t i n t he o r i g i n al t i t l e s .
23 Is t van Or ke n y, Eg ype r ce s n o ve l l ak (1968),
[On e mi n ut e s t o r i e s ] Jo zs e f T amas Re me n yi
an d T amas T ar jan (e d s ), Bud ape s t 1996, p 8.
24 T he s t o r y i s a cl as s i c e xampl e o f Bakht i n 's
co n ce pt o f he t e r o g l o s s i a. T hr o ug h he r vo i ce
n o t o n l y he r t ho ug ht s an d i mpr e s s i o n s but t he
s ur r o un d i n g co me s t o l i f e , t he co r r i d o r s o f
t he o f f i ce , t he s o n g s t he d r un ks s i n g i n t he
n i g ht ; Man t o , Das t ave z, vo l II, pp 43-51,
Mi khai l Bakht i n , Di al o g i c Imag i n i at i o n ,
Aus t i n 198 1.
25 T he 20t h ce n t ur y payabl e r e val uat e s t he
f un ct i o n o f n ar r at i ve . It i s co n s t r uct e d o n
a s pe ci al hypo t he t i cal s i t uat i o n , e ve n i f
bas e d o n a hi s t o r i cal e ve n t . T he pl o t t ake s
pl ace i n a s pe ci al s i t uat i o n i n a cr i s i s o f
n o r ms an d co n ve n t i o n s . As a r e s ul t t he f o r ce s
an d cr acks o f t he wo r l d ar e e xpo s e d an d
e t hi cal o r phi l o s o phi cal axi o ms e me r g e i n a
co n d e n s e d f o r m. Par abl e s we r e us e d by Br e cht
an d S ar t r e . In t he 1960s be s i d e t he e s s ay-
n o ve l an d t he s o ci o l o g i cal r e po r t -n o ve l , t he
n o ve l -par abl e an d t he s ho r t s t o r y-par abl e
be came a pr o mi n e n t g e n r e i n Hun g ar i an
l i t e r at ur e . Kaf ka's s t o r i e s , e s pe ci al l y De r
Hut n g e r kun s t l e r , ar e avai l abl e t o me i n t he
co l l e ct i o n Fr an z Kaf ka, Er zahl un g e n ,
Fr an kf ur t am Mai n , 1952.
26 Lajo s Po k, 'Ro bi n s o n e s a zas zl o ,
Me g je g yze s e kKaf kan o ve l l ai ho z' [Ro bi n s o n
an d t he f l ag . No t e s t o Kaf ka's s ho r t s t o r i e s ]
i n Fr an z Kaf ka, El be s ze l e s e k [S ho r t S t o r i e s ],
Bud ape s t , 1973; pp 523-41].
27 Man t o we n t t hr o ug h a pr o ce s s (s i mi l ar t o t he
g r e at Rus s i an n o ve l i s t s Do s t o ye vs ky an d
T o l s t o y) o f as s i mi l at i n g an d d e ve l o pi n g
mo d e l s f r o m we s t e r n l i t e r at ur e s al o n g
wi t h t he pr o s e i n t hi s o wn l an g uag e t o r e f l e ct
hi s o wn s o ci al r e al i t y. T he d e ve l o pme n t o f
capi t al i s m i n t he Pun jab an d Bo mbay we r e
as i mpo r t an t f o r Man t o as we s t Eur o pe an an d
Rus s i an mo d e l s o f wr i t i n g .
28 Is t van Or ke n y, Ki s r e g e n ye k (No ve l s ),
Bud ape s t , 1981, pp 99-203. T he En g l i s h
t r an s l at i o n o f t he pl ay i s i n T he Ne w Hun g ar i an
Quar t e r l y, No 44, pp 69-106.
29 Is t van Or ke n y, Ki s r e g e n ye k (No ve l s ),
Bud ape s t , 1981, pp 205-97. T he En g l i s h
t r an s l at i o n o f an e xce r pt i s i n T he Ne w
Hun g ar i an Quar t e r l v, No 28, pp 69-106. T he
Hi n d i t r an s l at i o n o f t he pl ay i s i n Rag huvi r
S ahay, T e e n Hun g ar i Nat ak, Ne w De l hi , 1983,
pp 111-92.
30 Mar t i n Es s l i n , T he T he at r e o f t he Abs ur d ,
Lo n d o n , 1982, pp 316-26 an d pp 392-95.
31 T hi s was po i n t e d o ut by Bi s ham S ahan i i n
hi s pape r pr e s e n t e d at t he s e mi n ar T he Li f e
an d W o r ks o f S aad at Has an Man t o he l d at
t he In d i an In s t i t ut e o f Ad van ce d S t ud y,
Ras ht r apat i Ni was , S hi ml a(21-23 May, 1996)
cal l e d "t he cl as h be t we e n r e al i t y an d make -
be l i e f '.
32 T he e pi s t e mo l o g i cal co n t r ad i ct i o n an d t he
par ad o x i n cho i ce was ad d r e s s e d by He g e l
who r ai s e d t he e xi s t e n t i al par ad o x o f be i n g
e qual s n o n -be i n g an d s ug g e s t e d a d i al e ct i cal
s o l ut i o n , t he n o t i o n o f be co mi n g , t o t r an s ce n d
t hi s par ad o x. Ki e r ke g aar d 's f amo us s e r i e s o f
par ad o xe s i n Ei t he r /Or man i f e s t t he f ut i l i t y
o f cho i ce . S ar t r e i n Be i n g acn d No t hi n g n e s s
at t ache s e n o r mo us mo r al r e s po n s i bi l i t y t o t he
r i g ht t o cho o s e an d d e f i n e s man 's f r e e d o m
by t he mo d e an d s t yl e t ake n by e ach cho i ce .
33 Gr aham Pe t r i e , Hi s t o r y Mus t An s we r t o Man ,
T he Co n t t e mpo r ar y Hun g ar i an i i Ci n e mn a,
Bud ape s t , 1981 an d Is t van Ne me s kur t y, W o r d
an d Imag e , Hi s t o r y o f t he Hun g ar i an Ci n e ma,
Bui d ape s t 1974, pp 187-217.
34 B M Ei che n baum, Kak s d 'e l an i a 's hi n 'e l
'Go g o l ya [Ho w i s Go g o l 's 'Ove r co at ' mad e ?],
i n Po e t 'i ka [Po e t i cs ] e d by Gy Ki r al y an d A
Ko vacs , Bud ape s t , 1982, pp 409-21 an d Ako s
S zi l ag yi , Vazl at a g r o t e s zkr o l [S ke t ch abo ut
t he Gr o t e s que ] i n Ne i n vag yo k kr i t i kut s [I am
n o t a cr i t i c], Bud ape s t , 1984.
35 S e e W al t e r Be n jami n 's d i s cus s i o n o f 'n e w
o bje ct i vi t y' i n t he ar e a o f pho t o g r aphy f i l m
an d mai n l y i n Be r t o l t Br e cht 's e pi c t he at r e
i n Un d e r s t an d i n g Br e cht , Lo n d o n , 1977.
36 Er vi n Cs i zm,ad i a, A
mag ya)'r
d e ,n o kr at i kus
e l l e n i ze k ( 1968-1988) [De mo cr at i c Oppo s i t i o n
i n Hun g ar y], vo l 1-111, Bud ape s t , 1995.
37 T he co mi c t o uch i n t he char act e r i s at i o n o f
Man g u's 'acad e mi c ve r s at i l i t y' co me s f r o m
t he s ame s o ur ce as hi s f aul t , 'hamar t i a' whi ch
i n Ar i s t o t l e 's d e f i n i t i o n i s t he mi s jud g me n t
by t he t r ag i c he r o . T hi s wr o n g i n t e r pr e t at i o n
o f t he act r e f l e ct s hi s ambi t i o n t o t ake car e
o f t he l ar g e r i s s ue s o f In d i a an d i s al s o t he
i mme d i at e caus e o f hi s ar r e s t .
38 Khwaja Ahmad Abbas , 'W ho Ki l l e d In d i a'
i n Mus hi r ul Has an , o p ci t , vo l II, pp 229-44.
39 W I-l Mo r r i s -Jo n e s , 'A T r an s f e r o f Po we r ,
1947. A Vi e w f r o m t he S i d e l i n e s ', Mo d cr n
As i an S i ui l i e s 16, 1982, pp 1-32.
40 Han s Ro be r t Jaus s , T o war d an Ae s t he t i c o f
Re ce pt i o n , S us s e x, 1982 an d Er n s t Bl o ch,
He r i t ag e o f Our T i un e s , Cambr i d g e 1991,
pp 187-250.
41 "At t hi s mo me n t , a s e r van t cn t e r e d t he r o o m.
He was car r yi n g a chi l d who was ho l d i n g a
bal l o o n . Li ke a mad man , Ghul am Al i po un ce d
o n t he bai l o o n . T he r e was a ban g an d al l t he
chi l d was l e f t wi t h was a pi e ce o f ug l y
r ubbe r d an g l i n g at t he o t he r e n d . W i t h t wo
f i n g e r s Ghul am Al i car e f ul l pi cke d up t he
d e f l at e d bal l o o n an d t hr e w i t away as i f
i t we r e a par t i cul ar l y d i s g us t i n g pi e ce o f
f i l t h".
42 Is t van Or ke n y, Eg ype r ce s n o ve l l ak (1968)
i bi d :Azut o l s o vo n at [T he l as t t r ai n ], Bud ape s t ,
1977, pp 408-523; En g l i s h t r an s l at i o n s i n
On e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s , s e l e ct e d an d t r an s l at e d
by LT An d r as an d Car l R Er i cks o n , Bud ape s t ,
1992; On e Mi n ut e S t o r i e s , s e l e ct e d an d
t r an s l at e d by Jud i t h S o l l o s y, Bud ape s t 1994.
43 As par t o f t he Aus t r o -Hun g ar i an e d ucat i o n
s ys t e m man y Hun g ar i an i n t e l l e ct ual s , a g r e at
n umbe r o f t he m o f Je wi s ho r i g i n ,we r e br o ug ht
up i n a bi l i n g ual , bi cul t ur al at mo s phe r e . T he y
kn e w Ge r man , r e ad an d wr o t e Ge r man as we l l
as Hun g ar i an . Ge r man l i t e r at ur e an d Ge r man
cul t ur al val ue s we r e cul t i vat e d by t he m, t he y
we n t t o Ge r man un i ve r s i t i e s an d co n s i d e r e d
i t a jo ke o f f at e t hat Nazi po l i t i cs wan t e d
t o pur i f y Ge r man cul t ur e by e r ad i cat i n g
t he m.
44 Hi s t o r y an d T he o r y, 1993. 1994.
T he Eco n o my an d Bud g e t 1997-98
May 17-24. 1997
Macr o -Eco n o mi c Po l i cy an d In co me Di s t r i but i o n : A No t e - Pr abhat Pat n ai k
Eco n o mi c Re f o r ms an d In s t i t ut i o i i s - Mur al i Pat i ban i d l a
S AP: Is s ue s an d Co n d i t i o n al i t i e s - Bi pl ab Das g upt a
Po l i t i cal Eco n o my o f S t at e In t e r ve n t i o n i n Fo o d Eco n o my - Ut s a Pat n ai k
In d i a's S t r uct ur al Ad jus t me n t : An As s e s s me n t i n
Co mpar at i ve As i an Co n t e xt - Jayat i Gho s h
Fo r e i g n T r ad e an d Re al Exchan g e Rat e Be havi o ut , 1980-96 - Pr abi r ji t S ar kar
Bud g e t 1997-98: Un d e r l i n i n g NEP - Ar i n Gho s h
In d i a's Eco n o my: Po i s e d f o r T ake -Of f - Ki r i t Par i kh
W hy No t Pus h f o r a 9 Pe r Ce n t Gr o wt h Rat e ? - S e bas t i an Mo r r i s
T he In t e r e s t Rat e Imbr o g l i o : Mo n e t ar y an d Fi s cal Di me n s i o n s - D M Nachan e ,
A V Kar n i k, N R Hat e kar
Lo w T axat i o n an d Hi g h In t e r e s t Rat e s : Ad ve r s e
Co n s e que n ce s f o r Gr o wt h - Er r o l D'S o uza
Di vi d e n d T axat i o n an d Har mo n i s at i o n o f De pr e ci at i o n Rat e s :
S o me Po l i cy S ug g e s t i o n s - K C S har ma
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Bud g e t 1997-98 an d Ro l e o f t he S t at e - Aji t Kar n i k
He al t h Car e Bud g e t s i n a Chan g i n g Po l i t i cal Eco n o my - Ravi Dug g al
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Fo r co pi e s wr i t e t o :
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Eco n o mi c an d Po l i t i cal W e e kl y,
Hi t kar i Ho us e , 6t h Fl o o r ,
284, S hahi d Bhag at s i n g h Ro ad ,
Mumbai 400 001.
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