ments for crossing the line and descending below the published MDA or DA.

First, you must have the minimum required flight visibility, as shown in the
published instrument approach procedure. Second, one of ten individual ref-
erences for the intended runway of landing must be distinctly visible and iden-
tifiable from the cockpit. Well return to this later.
Estimating In-flight Visibility
Some day when the weather is bad and youre sitting around the hangar telling lies
and looking for a way to have fun, ask half a dozen people to estimate some distances.
With everyone else looking the other way, have one person at a time identify a reference
point that he or she thinks is 50 or 100 feet away. If the weather isnt that bad, go out-
side and continue the game, lengthening the distances.
You will discover two things. First, most people dont have the foggiest idea how far
anything over a few feet really is. Second, people arent even consistent in their inaccu-
racies.
Thats on the ground, standing still. Take the problem to the air, in a variety of atmos-
pheric conditions, with no visual references, and moving at a hundred miles an hour or
so. The last flyer that could consistently do this with a high degree of accuracy has since
returned to its native planet in another solar system.
If you want to win another one of those vending machine candy bar bets, try this. For
a chance to pull the chocolate handle of fortune, ask the next dozen pilots you meet which
is greater, a quarter mile or a thousand feet. Einstein worked out the special theory of
relativity quicker than youll get a confident answer to that question, because very few
people remember from their school daze that there are 5,280 feet in a statute mile (6080
feet in a nautical mile) and a quarter mile is thus longer.
It should come as no surprise, in light of all this, that one of the most perplexing ques-
tion facing IFR pilots is deciding whether they have the required legal flight visibility for
landing. To make this determination, you need to understand how approach procedures
are constructed. Knowing where and why marker beacons are placed along the approach
path, as well as knowing the function that approach lights serve, allows you to make a
more accurate visibility determination at the
missed approach point.
ILS Architecture
Most ILS gl i desl opes are
inclined at a three degree angle.
Glideslope antennas project this
beam outward on the approach so
that the glideslope beam inter-
sects the middle marker at
approximately 200 feet above
the touchdown zone elevation
(TDZE). A HAT of 200 feet is
the average Decision Altitude
for Category I ILS approaches.
16-2
Rod Machados Instrument Pilots Survival Manual
What, No Autospeak?
I was practicing a CAT II approach. I
decided to continue the approach to an autoland.
We became involved and never switched from Approach
Control to Tower. After we landed and cleared the runway,
Ground Control informed us we had forgotten to contact the
tower. The approach and landing is automatic, but the flight crew
has duties the system can't do. We made a mistake!
ASRS Report
Learning Lenticulars
Its no accident that middle marker beacons are placed at or near the Decision
Altitude point. The intent is to provide you a visible and audible warning when
nearing Decision Altitude. Its important to note that most middle markers are
physically located between .4 and .7 nautical miles from the runway threshold.
With one nautical mile equaling 6,080 feet (6,000 feet will be used for conven-
ience), this equates to approximately 2,400 to 4,200 feet of distance. A close look at
the profile views, as seen in Figure 1,
reveals the variable distances of the
middle marker from the runway thresh-
old. This distance provides the means
for determining in-flight visibility.
Preapproach Self-briefing
Before flying an ILS approach,
always have an accurate idea of the dis-
tance, in feet, from the middle marker
to the runway threshold (there is a
trend afoot to remove middle markers
from ILS approaches but this isnt
something that will happen overnight.
So for now there is still an ample sup-
ply of middle markers with which to
practice the following techniques.)
Chart distances are always depicted in
nautical miles. Converting nautical
mile distance to feet allows accurate assessment of in-flight visibility which is always
stated in feet or statute mile distances. The profile, in Figure 2, shows a middle marker
approximately 2,400 feet (.4 x 6,000)
from the runway threshold. At
Decision Altitude, which is near the
middle marker, a sighting of the run-
way threshold lights establishes an in-
flight visibility of at least 2,400 feet.
Its very important to understand that
in-flight visibility minimums are always
measured in statute miles or in feet.
The minimums section shows the
required in-flight visibility for this ILS,
with all the components working, is
statute mile or 2,640 feet (Im going to
assume that if you can see the thresh-
old markings at .4NMs out, then you probably have close to 2,640 feet or statue mile
visibilitya reasonable fudge here). With the threshold lights sighted and the in-flight
visibility requirement met, the aircraft is now legal to descend below Decision Altitude.
Visibility determination on an ILS is based on the assumption that Decision Altitude
is reached approximately when the middle marker is crossed. This is a reasonably accu-
16-3
Chapter 16 - Decision Altitude and MDAs
Figure 1. Middle marker distances from the runway threshold
can be found in the profile view.
Figure 2. The middle marker at .4 nautical miles or approx -
imately 2,400 feet from the runway threshold.
TDZE 400'
0 6.1
MM
10 NM
0.4
5.7
585'
2
5
5
^
M
LOM
3300'
2409'
TCH 47'
C
075^
2800'
GS
GS
TDZE 41'
TCH:
Runway end 85'
Displ threshold 12'
CUDAK
HUDAB
4600'
3400'
2
5
6
^
2
5
6
^
6.0
3400' GS
c
m
OM
MM
GS1683'
4.3
0.7 0 5.0
5.2
10.2 16.2
2
5
5
^
052^ 232^
1 Min
2
5
5
^
TDZE 636'
0 0.6
3.8
MM
C
GS
2100'
LINDN
3.1
869'
TCH 51'
4.4
GS 2100'
CAZBY
DEWYE
4400'
3000'
5.9
C
M
301^ TCH 59'
0
0.5
MM
1 Min
1600'
121^ 301^
GS
4.1
4.6 TO DISPLACED THRESHOLD
BECCA
TDZE 38'
1573'
GS 236'
GS
Gnd speed-Kts 70 90 100 120 140 160
3.00^
6.1 5:14 4:04 3:40 3:03 2:37 2:17 LOM to MAP
A
M
E
N
D
7
165
140
120
90
DA(H) 600'(200') MDA(H) 940'(540')
1
1
A
B
C
D
CIRCLE-TO-LAND
Max
Kts MDA(H)
STRAIGHT-IN LANDING RWY
ILS LOC (GS out)
1100'(700') -2
940'(540')
940'(540')-1
-1
Not Authorized North of Rwy 7L-25R
25R
RAIL or ALS out RAIL out ALS out FULL
TDZE 400'
0 6.1
MM
10 NM
0.4
5.7
585'
2
5
5
^
M
LOM
3300'
2409'
TCH 47'
C
075^
2800'
1100' 3000'
LV
374
VASI
GS
GS
377 484 538 646 753 861
1
1
2
1
3
4 1
1
4
3
4
3
4 2
1
2
1
RT
D
MALSR
T
E
R
P
S
A
1
4
1
2
Copyright 1991
Jeppesen-Sanderson
Inc. All rights reserved.
rate assumption for most ILS approaches. When marker beacon receivers are
operated in the low sensitivity mode, beacon reception will more accurately
approximate the transmitter location. This makes for a more accurate in-flight
visibility assessment. The high sensitivity position for marker beacon
receivers is really a carry-over from a time when this setting was necessary to
receive airway markers at higher cruising altitudes. Since we dont use white airway
marker beacons anymore this marker beacon receiver setting isnt of much value.
On a localizer approach, the middle marker is used to estimate the visibility in the
same manner as on an ILS approach. The only difference is that localizer approaches are
flown to a Minimum Descent Altitude and not to a Decision Altitude as are ILS approach-
es. When the marker activates on a localizer approach, you can still make an initial visi-
bility estimation as the aircraft overflies the middle marker to the missed approach point.
For most localizer approaches, the missed approach point is located at the runway thresh-
old and is often determined by timing from the FAF. This means that if you are flying
localizer rather than ILS approaches, you will have a little more time (but not much) to
estimate the in-flight visibility prior to reaching the missed approach point.
Approach Lighting System
Suppose the runway threshold or runway references beyond the threshold are not in sight
at the middle marker? How would you make an estimate of in-flight visibility in this circum-
stance? The secret lies in understanding the architecture of the approach lighting system.
Airports with instrument approaches usually have approach lighting starting at the
runway threshold and extending into the approach area. These lights generally extend a
distance of 2,400-3,000 feet for precision instrument runways and 1,400 feet for non-pre-
16-4
Rod Machados Instrument Pilots Survival Manual
Figure 3. Common approach lighting systems found in the U.S.
cision instrument runways. These approach lights are shown in Figure 3. The
differences in these approach lights will be discussed later. For now, its extreme-
ly important to notice that every approach lighting system has one key thing in
commona decision bar located 1,000 feet from the runway threshold, as shown
in Figure 4.
The Decision Bar
The sideways row of lights that is perpendicular to the approach light system is called
the decision bar. The decision bar is located 1,000 feet from the runway threshold and all
16-5
Chapter 16 - Decision Altitude and MDAs
Too Much Pushing
We were a scheduled air carrier trying to get in with enough time to turn around and make it out again by
the takeoff noise abatement curfew. The Center controller asked for our best forward speed. The Approach
controller turned us in at the marker. Due to the weather conditions, I was planning a coupled approach.
When the autopilot captured the glideslope, the aircraft pitched over about 7 degrees and then began oscil-
lating to capture it. I didn't like the way the autopilot was handling the glideslope, so I disconnected it and
flew it manually. At the same time the autopilot was oscillating, I SEEM to remember the First Officer
switching to the Tower, and I remember the wind was given as 120 degrees at seven knots. When I was sta-
ble on the localizer and glideslope, I called for and completed the landing check. When that was done, we
broke out to see a jet still on the runway. I was concerned about him clearing the runway before we landed.
He turned off the runway as we crossed the approach lights, and we landed. The problem is that I'm not sure
whether or not I ever heard, "Cleared to land." The F/O said he was 99% sure that we were. We should have
been ABSOLUTELY sure!!! That's one problem. The other is that we were pushing, the company was pushing,
and the controllers were pushing. I hope I've learned that this is no way to run the airplane!!!
ASRS Report
Serious Cirrus Thoughts
Figure 4. The 1,000 foot decision bar found on all approach lighting systems.
U.S. approach lighting systems have them. It serves several purposes. First,
the decision bar (Figure 5) creates a reference to the horizon thats useful
when making a visual transition from instruments. While the threshold lights
may be off in the dis-
tance, the decision bar
is closer to the airplane. It
acts to help you keep your air-
planes wings level during a low
visibility landing (Figure 6).
When the aircraft is on the
glideslope at Decision Altitude,
the decision bar will usually be
seen going underneath the
cowling, as shown in Figure 7.
This may at first appear quite
contradictory. If the decision
bar is located 1,000 feet from
the threshold and Decision
Altitude is located near the
middle marker (.4 to .7 NM
from the threshold), how can
the decision bar appear to be
going underneath the cowling?
The answer lies in your obser-
vation angle. While looking in a
forward and downward angle
from this height, based on the
average arrangement of air-
craft cowling, panel and pilot
sitting height, it will appear
that the decision bar is just dis-
appearing below the dashboard,
as shown in Figure 8.
Second, the position of the
decision bar explains why
sequenced flashing lights, found
on some approaches, stop at the
decision bar. These balls of
light, flashing twice per second,
could be a real distraction dur-
ing the transition from Decision Altitude to touchdown. Fortunately, the sequenced flash-
ers end at the decision bar. At DA, these strobes disappear underneath the cowling and
are no longer a distraction. Prior to Decision Altitude, the sequenced flashing lights help
point you in the direction of the runway (Figure 9).
This explains why some pilots ask controllers to turn off the flashers when they have
spotted the runway prior to Decision Altitude. The professional jargon to use in asking
16-6
Rod Machados Instrument Pilots Survival Manual
Figure 5. The 1,000 foot
decision bar.
Figure 6. The decision bar as it appears
from the cockpit.
Figure 7. The decision bar appears just over the nose when the
airplane approaches Decision Altitude.
the controller
to turn off the
s e q u e n c e d
flashers is, Kill
the rabbit. I had
one gentleman in a
seminar, several years ago,
who thought it was actu-
ally, Kill the parrot. I
had to inform him that he
was killing the wrong
thing. He said, Oh, maybe
that explains why they
never turned it off. He
couldnt honestly say no
birds were harmed in the
making of his approaches,
though all his approaches
were fur sure.
Third, the decision bar
is a valuable aid in helping
pilots gauge in-flight visi-
bility. If the aircraft is at
the middle marker, and
the runway threshold can-
not be seen, you should
look for the decision bar.
If the middle marker is .6
miles (3,600 feet) from the
runway threshold, and the
16-7
Chapter 16 - Decision Altitude and MDAs
Figure 8. At or near DA, the decision bar is usually visible over the panel.
Figure 9. Sequenced flashing lights dont go beyond the decision bar.
A young student pilot
from Lyme,
Whose negligence
seemed just a crime
Took off one fine day
In the most careless way
Said, Im lost but Im
making good time.
Ellis S. Nelson
Reprinted with permission of
Professional Pilot Magazine
I FR Wi sdom
decision bar is visible, then the visibility from the cockpit is 2,600 feet (Figure
10). If the approach minimum calls for a half mile visibility (2,640 feet), the
minimum visibility requirement for landing is met (Ill give you the 40 feet).
Similarly, if the mid-
dle marker is .5 miles
(3,000 feet) from the
threshold, and the decision
bar is spotted but nothing is
visible inside the decision
bar, the estimated in-flight
visibility is approximately
2,000 feet. Based on this esti-
mate, the approach mini-
mum of a half mile visibility
(2,640 feet) would not be
met.
A word of cauti on i s
appropriate here. FAR 91.175
C2 specifically requires that,
to descend below DA or the
MDA, the flight visibility
cant be less than that pre-
scribed in the approach pro-
cedure being used. Another
regulation in the same section, FAR 91.175 D, specifically states that no pilot may land
an airplane if the flight visibility is less than that specified in the procedure. Having the
required visibility at Decision Altitude is no guarantee that it wont change as you
approach the runway. A lot can happen in the seven tenths (or less) of a nautical mile
from the ILS missed approach point to touchdown. If, upon reaching the runway, the
flight visibility has decreased below that required, then a missed approach must be made.
Always be prepared for a change in visibility when approaching the runway. The most
likely cause for such a change in visibility is variable cloud density near the touchdown
zone. This is one reason why professional pilots pay special attention to varying Runway
Visual Range (RVR) values. This usually indicates that visibilities near the runway could
be much different from those found at Decision Altitude.
You can make a more refined estimate of in-flight visibility by using the distance
between the individual approach light bars. Figure 11 shows two of the basic approach
light structures available in the U.S. The ALSF type has light bars, separated by 100 feet,
along the lighting system. The MALS and similar approach lighting systems have light
bars separated by 200 feet. The number of lighting bars you can see beyond the decision
bar will help you more accurately estimate the in-flight visibility. If youre at the middle
marker and are using an ALSF system and can see three light bars past the decision bar,
you have an additional 300 feet of visibility.
At this point you may be wondering, Do I have enough synaptic connections to han-
dle estimating in-flight visibility at 90 knots in bad weather? Unless you took too many
fizzies in the 60s, the answer is a qualified, Yes.
16-8
Rod Machados Instrument Pilots Survival Manual
Figure 10. Determining in-flight visibility at Decision Altitude.
Determining visibility is a percep-
tual skill. Its similar to learning how
to scan for traffic. It requires practice
to develop this ability. Its much like a
class I took in college on culture aes-
thetics. We studied beginning taste and
learned new and wonderful ideas such as how to
tell a painting from a sculpture. You should
have no difficulty acquiring this perceptual
skill. However, if you are attending flight school
on a mud wrestling scholarship and have been
known to nod your head at the speakers of a
hamburger stand, Id be a little less optimistic
about your potential for success.
Another method of determining in-flight vis-
ibility is to make an estimate based on viewing
the entire approach lighting system prior to
Decision Altitude. The ALSF I and II approach
lighting systems, as shown in Figure 12, range
from 2,400 to 3,000 feet in length. Seeing the
entire length of the lights while on approach
identifies the in-flight visibility as a half mile or
greater. Lighting systems like MALSF, SSALF and MALS are 1,400 feet in length. With
approach lighting systems like the MALSR and SSALR, these structures have RAIL
(strobe lights) extending the length of the lighting system beyond 1,400 feet. With
16-9
Chapter 16 - Decision Altitude and MDAs
Figure 11. Approach light spacing differences.
Figure 12. Approach lighting systems have variable lengths which can help pilots determine flight visibility.
sequenced flashers, these lighting systems can extend to 3,000 feet. If
sequenced flashers are available but not operating, and the visibility is low, its
best to have the controller activate them. I suppose the pilot could ask ATC to
Resurrect the rabbit. Perhaps this explains the origin of the Easter Bunny. If
you try this, dont tell them I sent you.
RAIL and SF
In case youre curious, RAIL (runway alignment identifier lights) and SF (sequenced
flashing lights) are the same type of strobe lights. The difference between the two is
where the strobe lights stop. In the case of sequenced flashing lights, strobes go all the
way to the decision bar as shown in Figure 12 (repeated below). This is why ALSF-I and
II, MALSF and SSALF (they all have the letters SF in them) all have strobes that end
at the decision bar. On the other hand, MALSR and SSALR have strobe lights that end
where the white approach light bars begin.
The difference between the medium intensity (MALSR, MALSF) and the simplified
short (SSALR, SSALF) approach lighting systems is light intensity. The medium inten-
sity usually have only two settings, low and medium white approach lights. The simpli-
fied short system can have all three lighting intensities, high, medium and low.
Light Knowledge
Approach lighting is a valuable resource, but only if you know whats there and how
to use it to your maximum benefit.
You can always get a good idea of what approach lights are available by looking at the
beginning of the missed approach strip under the profile view on Jeppesens charts
16-10
Rod Machados Instrument Pilots Survival Manual
Figure 12 (Repeat). The difference between RAIL and SF lights depend on where these strobe lights stop.
RAIL lights stop here.
SF lights stop here.