9

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are a new and upcoming technology in the transportation
and power sector. As they are defined by the IEEE, these vehicles have a battery storage system of 4
kWh or more, a means of recharging the battery from an external source, and the ability to drive at
least 10 miles in all electric mode . These vehicles are able to run on fossil fuels, electricity, or a
combination of both leading to a wide variety of advantages including reduced dependence on
foreign oil, increased fuel economy, increased power efficiency, lowered greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology.
For the first time it was German inventor, Nikolaus Otto, who made it possible to use combustions
engines in cars by the invention of the first four-stroke internal combustion engine in 1862. These
types of engines are continuously being used in so-called conventional vehicles. The low-efficiency
of ICE (Internal Combustion Engines) and high emission production are the most negative points
about these types of vehicles. In the figure 1.1, the recent development in car industry is been
shown.

Figure 1.1 : Developments in Car Industry
Next were the hybrid vehicles which first commenced in 1997 in Japan by the introduction of
Toyota Prius. The main specification of this type of vehicle is the operation of the ICE on its efficient
interval by means of a regenerative braking system. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) refers to a
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vehicle with an electric motor, an internal combustion engine, and limited onboard energy storage
that improves fuel and engine efficiency. Automotive manufacturers are now turning to plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV). PHEVs and BEVs have more
onboard energy storage than HEVs and give owners the ability to charge the vehicle battery from a
stationary electrical sourcefor example, an outlet in the garage. A PHEV contains an internal
combustion engine, has a limited range in all-electric mode, and uses gasoline for long trips. A BEV
has an electric motor, but no internal combustion engine, and it has a larger battery and a range
longer than the all-electric range of a PHEV.

The models that are currently available or will soon appear in the market include the Chevy Volt
(2010), Cooper Mini E (current), Fisker Karma (2010), Nissan LEAF (2010), and the Tesla Roadster
(current). With these advantages in mind, an estimate has been made that there will be a market
penetration of roughly 1.5 million PHEVs in 2016 increasing to over 50 million in 2030 with roughly
25% of all newly purchased vehicles being PHEVs [5]. The US government has also put their full
faith and credit behind PHEV initiatives by setting a goal of 1 million PHEVs on the road by 2015
and by developing a set of incentives that allow PHEVs to repay its full value to its owners within the
first 25% of its life span [4]. These incentives were put in place as part of the American Recovery
and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and allow for credits between $2500 and $7500 for newly purchased,
four or more wheeled PHEVs that weigh no more than 14,000 pounds. Vehicle conversion is granted
a 10% reimbursement to a maximum of $4000.

Table 1.1 Representative Electric Vehicles Available in the United States by 2012


Note: Battery Size gives the energy storage capacity of the battery in kilowatt-hours. This parameter also provides a relative
physical size of the batteryfor a given battery chemistry, e.g., lithium-ion, the battery size is directly proportional to capacity.
Onboard Charger is the power capability of the charger which is integral to the car. This is the rate at which the battery can be
charged by the internal charger. Quick Charger is the power capability of an external (optional) charger. The quick charger can
provide a more rapid charge than the internal charger, as shown by the Charging Time data.







11

1.2 The V2G/G2V Concept :

PEVs can serve in discharge mode as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) devices and in charge mode as grid to-
vehicle (G2V) devices [1]. The V2G concept has attracted attention from grid operators and vehicle
owners. This report reviews V2G/G2V technology and requirements, economic costs, challenges,
and strategies for V2G interfaces of both individual PEVs and vehicle fleets. For purposes of the
paper, V2G is used generically for both V2G and G2V energy flows. The context is PEVs
whether purely electric or hybrid.

The connection to the electric power grid offers opportunities for PHEVs for charging the vehicle but
also for discharging and thus injecting energy into the grid. In the ideal case, the electricity
consumption should match perfectly with wind and solar energy and the generation of conventional
power plants. Because of forecasting errors and the intermittent behavior of renewable resources,
imbalances occur and generation and demand do not perfectly match. The vehicles can help to match
consumption and generation bycharging and discharging on the right moment.

The current status and implementation impact of V2G technologies on distributed systems are
reviewed in this report, and points such as impact of V2G/grid-to-vehicle (G2V) technologies on
distributed systems, requirements, benefits, challenges, and strategies for V2G interfaces of both
individual vehicles and fleets are discussed.


12

CHAPTER 2
V2G System Working, Requirements and Power Flow

2.1 Components of V2G System
Elements required for V2G are :
1) Power connection for electrical energy flow from vehicle to grid,
2) control or logical connection, needed for the grid operator to determine available capacity,
request ancillary services or power from the vehicle, and to meter the result, and
3) precision certified metering on board the vehicle.
4) For fueled vehicles (fuel cell and hybrid), a fourth element ment, a connection for gaseous fuel
(natural gas or hydrogen),could be added so that on board fuel is not depleted.

V2G System consists of six major subsystems as shown in figure 2.1.


Figure 2.1 : Components and Power Flow of a V2G System
13

These subsystems are :
1) energy resources and an electric utility
2) an independent system operator and aggregator
3) charging infrastructure and locations
4) two-way electrical energy flow and communication between each PEV and ISO or aggregator
5) on-board and off-board intelligent metering and control and
6) the PEV itself with its battery charger and management.




Figure 2.2 : Infrastructure required to implement PHEV charge control and demand management, including AMI,
a PHEV control unit and a remote switch for PHEV control.


2.2 Charging and Discharging of PHEV:

The charging behavior of PEVs is affected by different factors, such as :

a. the type of connection (unidirectional or bidirectional),
b. geographical location,
c. the number of PEVs being charged in a given vicinity, their charging voltage and current
levels, battery status and capacity, charging duration, etc.
d. Fast charging can stress the grid distribution network because power is high.
e. Injected harmonics and low power factor can be serious problems if the charger does not
employ state-of-the-art conversion.

V2G/G2V interfaces can reflect any possible charging rates; industry has defined three typical rates ,
as summarized in Table 2.1

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Table 2.1: Charging Power Levels




2.2 Unidirectional or Bidirectional Power Flow

Power flow between PHEV and grid can be either one way or both ways. Both the methods have
their own advantages and disadvantages. Their comparative study is made in the table 2.2 .

2.2.1 Unidirectional Power Flow :
The unidirectional power flow requires no hardware other than an outlet and avoids extra EV
battery degradation from cycling. A typical circuit is realized using a diode bridge in conjunction
with filtering and dcdc conversion. Unidirectional V2G, the basic battery charge process, can
provide services based on reactive power and dynamic adjustment of charge rates even without
reversal. Properly designed unidirectional chargers can supply or absorb reactive power by means of
current phase-angle control. Control complexities outlined in grid interface standards such as IEEE-
1547 are avoided since utility backfeed is not possible.

Implementation of this system can be done at almost no additional cost . Basic control can be
managed with time-sensitive energy pricing. Research on unidirectional charging has developed
optimal charging strategies that maximize benefits to the vehicle owner, aggregator, and utility, and
explores the impact on distribution networks . With unidirectional charging, however, PEVs are
likely to be connected for relatively short intervals since owners may not need to connect a fully
charged vehicle. Some services can only be supported while batteries are charging, so this trades off
utility benefits against owner practices. Even so, with a higher penetration of PEVs and active control
of charging current, a unidirectional charger can meet most utility objectives while avoiding cost,
performance, and safety concerns associated with bidirectional chargers .


2.2.2 Bidirectional Power Flow :

A bidirectional charger has two stages: an active grid connected bidirectional acdc converter that
enforces active power factor correction, and a bidirectional dcdc converter to regulate the battery
charge or discharge current.

15

Modes of Operation : When operating in charge mode, the charger should draw a sinusoidal current
with a defined phase angle to control power and reactive power. In discharge mode, the charger
should return current in a similar sinusoidal form.

Bidirectional V2G is not currently available with existing PEVs. There are several challenges to me
addressed before it is realized. These include battery degradation caused by frequent charge and
discharge cycling for regulation. There are extra costs for bidirectional converters, metering issues,
and interface concerns. Anti-islanding protection and other interconnection issues must also be
addressed.


Table 2.2 : Comparison between unidirectional and bidirectional power flow




2.4 Charging-Recharging frequency and strategies :
The economic costs, emissions, and distribution system impacts of the V2G concept depend on PEV
penetration and charging/discharging strategies.



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2.4.1 Uncoordinated Charging/Discharging :
Uncoordinated charging indicates that PEV batteries either start charging immediately when plugged
in or start after a user-adjustable fixed delay, and continue charging until they are fully charged or
disconnected. This charging system is most likely at Level 1(Table 2.1). Uncoordinated charging
operations tend to increase the load at peak hours and can cause local distribution grid problems such
as extra power losses and voltage deviations that affect power quality. They may lead to overloads in
distribution transformers and cables, increased power losses, and reduction in grid reliability and
cost.

Some utility companies offer a dual tariff (cheap night rates) to PEV owners as a way to reduce peak
load .When the user agrees to an adjustable fixed delay, owners can wait for cheap off-peak prices.
Off-peak charging takes place during the night when the electricity demand is low and generation is
mostly base load. When PEV nightly charging is added, the load factor improves as some portions of
the off-peak valley are filled.


2.4.2 Coordinated Smart Charging/Discharging :

Advantages of this technique is that it is possible to optimize time and power demand and reduce
daily electricity costs, voltage deviations, line currents, and transformer load surges. It can also
flatten the voltage profile of a distribution node. Incremental investments and high energy losses can
be avoided, and wasting renewable energy and network congestion prevented.Ssmart charging allows
attaining the highest PEV penetration level without violating the network technical limits .
Coordinated charging system is more suitable for high power level (Levels 2 and 3). Optimization of
charging time and energy flows reduces daily electricity cost with little effect on peak capacity
needs.

Coordinated charging management concepts can be divided into centralized and decentralized
approaches. The decentralized approaches let the PEV optimize its charging behavior based on a
price signal broadcast. The drawback of this approach is that the PEV needs to collect and store the
trip history. The centralized approaches focus on a centralized unit that directly controls PEV
charging.

Smart V2G charging and discharging, in which PEVs are charged from renewable resources and
discharged to the grid at peak load, is reported to offer the best potential for maximum utilization of
renewable sources to reduce cost and emmissions. A smart metering and control system must be
implemented to combine PEVs and renewable energy.

An alternative battery charging strategy is to swap depleted batteries with a fresh pack. If this can be
automated, exchanges can be compared to duration of conventional vehicle refueling. This method
reduces the impact on distribution systems since more flexible charge timing becomes possible




17


Table 2.3 : Smart Charging Methods and Coordinated/Uncoordinated Smart
Charging/Discharging Comparision :





2.5 PEV Aggregation as a storage of Stored Energy
The energy stored in an individual PEV is negligible relative to the grid. The aggregation concept has
been proposed to provide viable storage and add to the smart grid for better coordination and
reliability.

To maintain grid stability, two-way energy flow and communication needs to be controlled between
the aggregated vehicles and the grid . An aggregator in a V2G system is shown in Fig. 2.1. It collects
individual PEV data, detects and records the SOC of each PEV, and provides an interface to the
18

independent system operator . When the power grid requests power, the power grid operator sends
signals to the aggregator to manage PEV discharging. This minimizes charging and discharging costs
subject to a number of technical and contractual constraints . Each PEV can be contracted
individually or an aggregator can negotiate a contract for a fleet to implement ancillary services , . In
the aggregative structure, the aggregator receives ancillary service requests from the grid operator
and issues individual power and reactive power commands to contracted vehicles. PEV aggregations
can also provide spinning reserves. PEV aggregations can easily start generating within a ten-minute
requirement.

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CHAPTER-3
ADVANTAGES OF V2G SYSTEMS :

3.1 Environmental Advantages :
Studies by NREL and the Northwest Power and Conservation Council determined that CO2
emissions would fall significantly if PEVs replace conventional ICE vehicles. When the V2G
concept is added PEVs could offer further environmental benefits and directly. reduce greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions.

If electricity is produced from polluting sources, the environmental advantages of PEVs are more
limited: GHG emissions range between 0 g/km for renewables and 155 g/km for lower coal-based
plants . If PEVs charge their batteries from low quality coal-fired sources, their emissions may be 7
21% lower than HEVs . Even when powered entirely by coal-fired electricity, PEVs still produce
around 25% Fewer GHG emissions than ICE vehicles.

Automotive and oil companies allege that EVs would have a net negative effect on the environment
because of lead discharges from battery manufacturing facilities and battery disposal , but this
conflicts with results from the existing lead-acid battery market, which dwarfs that of vehicles, and
moves to other battery chemistries.


3.2 Ancillary Services :

PHEVs are for the moment more expensive compared to conventional vehicles.Selling energy could
be beneficial for these vehicles. The batteries can act as a source of stored energy to provide a
number of grid services. The most promising market for these vehicles is probably that of the
ancillary services . Possible services for V2G are: supply of peak power,supply of primary,
secondary and tertiary control (for frequency regulation and balancing), load leveling, and voltage
regulation. PHEVs are able to respond quickly and thus serving for high value electrical services. It
is unlikely that each vehicle will be contracted separately because the maximum power output of
each vehicle is too low. But a fleet manager or aggregator could conclude a contract for a fleet of
PHEVs. The advantage of dealing with an aggregator or fleet manager is that a single party
represents amore significant amount of power, that is the accumulated power of the vehicles in the
fleet.


3.2.1 Load Leveling and Load Shifting


For load leveling, the demand is shifted from peak hours to off-peak hours. Therefore, dispatching is
necessary. PHEVs could discharge during the daily peak loads, replacing the peak capacity
generators that are only used during peak demand hours. If these vehicles want to discharge during
the peak hours, they will have to charge during the off-peak hours. In the case the energy which
20

is stored during off-peak hours, is released during peak hours to relieve congestion in the grid
infrastructure, supplying peak power and load leveling are the same. Supplying peak power is
possibly difficult for PHEVs because of the relatively long duration and the storage limitations. Thus,
supplying peak power is generally not profitable as the largest cost is the wear of the batteries [14].
Load leveling is more likely because the vehicle does not necessary need to discharge during peak
hours. The total consumption of electricity will not be lowered but shifted to the hours of low
electricity consumption which are the off-peak hours to minimize the power losses and to increase
grid efficiency. The implementation of smart meters or real-time pricing and coordinated charging is
essential.


3.2.2 Frequency Regulation

Frequency regulation is used to balance supply and demand for active power . Currently, frequency
regulation is achieved mainly by cycling large generators , which is costly.

The primary reserves regulate the frequency and stabilize the European grid to avoid blackouts. The
frequency control is activated automatically and continually. Primary control can only be activated if
primary reserves are available. The primary reserves are about 100MW capacity. The response time
is smaller than 1 s. Secondary reserves are allocated a day ahead to balance the grid and are adjusted
automatically and continually, both upward and downward on a 15 min time base. If the frequency is
lower than 50 Hz, the batteries could be discharged (regulation up) and if the frequency is above 50
Hz, the batteries could be charged (regulation down). On average, the regulation up and down are
equal. The impact on the battery is a small discharge due to charge and discharge efficiency. The
reaction time is a few seconds. These reserves are used for imbalances between nominated and
measured power injections and to restore the frequency. There are two types of tertiary reserves:
tertiary production and tertiary offtake reserves. These reserves are used for major imbalances and
congestions. In contrast to primary and secondary reserves, these are activated manually and only a
few times per year. These reserves must deliver their power within 15 min.

Fast charging and discharging rates of PEV batteries makes V2G a promising alternative for
frequency regulation.A PEV could provide regulation down by charging its battery. If there is a need
for regulation up, the battery could be discharged into the grid. If the PEV is charging at this
moment, charging can be stopped rather than transitioning to discharge. For secondary and tertiary
frequency control, activation is based on bids. When demand for regulation up arises, the lowest bid
is activated first. Because delivering regulation down means charging at a lower price, this can be
profitable for PEVs. In and , primary control is expected to have the highest value for V2G.


3.2.3 Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation is used to balance supply and demand for reactive power. PEVs can respond
quickly to regulation signals . This regulation can be controlled independently by each PEV. A
voltage control can be embedded in the battery charger. A charger can compensate inductive or
capacitive reactive power by properly selecting the current phase angle . When the grid voltage
becomes too low, vehicle charging can stop. When the voltage becomes high, charging can start .


21

3.3 Renewable Energy Supporting and Balancing

V2G thus increases the flexibility for the grid to better utilize intermittent renewable sources.. For
example, peak solar radiation occurs a few hours before peak energy draw in many markets .. Wind
power is more complex, and unpredictable variations in wind speed make it strongly intermittent,
leadingto imbalances . If the energy injected to the grid from renewable resources is too high,
centralized power plants must decrease their production to restore balance or the distributed
generator units must be curtailed. Vehicles can help match consumption and generation by
discharging and charging so the utility does not need to decrease the power output. PEVs also can
store excess renewable energy. This stored energy can be used for driving needs or to provide power
to the grid at a later time.



22

CHAPTER 4
CHALLENGES TO V2G CONCEPT

There are many benefits of V2G systems, increasing the number of PEVs may impact power
distribution system dynamics and performance due to several reasons :

Distribution grid has not been designed for bidirectional energy flow, and this tends to limit the service
capabilities of V2G devices.

Challenge in implementing assured and secure communications particularly between the aggregator and the
large number of PEVs . A reliable two-way communication infrastructure network is needed to enable V2G
technology.

Increasing the number of PEVs may impact power distribution system dynamics and performance through
overloading of transformers, cables, and feeders. This reduces efficiency, may require additional generator
starts, and produces voltage deviations and harmonics.

Depending upon the different levels of PEV penetration on distribution network investments and
incremental energy losses, additional generation investments may be needed to serve the extra PEV
demand.

These issues are discussed below in detail :


4.1 Battery Degradation

Battery degradation depends on the amount and rate of energy withdrawn and is a function of
discharge depth discharge and cycling frequency. Bidirectional V2G for ancillary services is likely to
reduce battery life. For many types of batteries, deeper discharge increases the cell deterioration rate,
resulting in a faster Equivalent series resistance increase. The internal resistance tends to increase at
low temperatures and at both ends of SOC. Using the battery in the middle SOC range is a good way
to slow the degradation.

Battery cycle life greatly varies depending on chemical structure and manufacturing process. Li-ion
batteries are the best present candidate for V2G, because of their long cycle life, reasonable deep
cycling capability, relatively high energy density, and high efficiency. An Li-ion battery lasts for
20004000 deep cycles, and estimated future Li-ion battery investment for mass production lies in
the range of $200500 per kWh [54].A battery investment cost of $300 per kWh and a lifetime of
3000 cycles at a depth of discharge of 80% suggest battery degradation cost of $130 per MWh.







23

4.2 Effects on Distribution Equipment


Depending on the PEV penetration scenarios, Level 2 and 3 battery chargers can quickly overload
local distribution equipment. They increase distribution transformer losses, voltage deviations,
harmonic distortion, and peak demand . This calls for additional investments in larger underground
cables and overhead lines, and more transformer capacity . The cost could significantly impact the
reliability, security, efficiency, and economy of newly developing smart grids due to possible loss of
transformer life.
































24

CONCLUSION


25

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