Debating: All Core Skills

Review Copy Copyright 2006 Gravitas Publishing
TALk Th TALk
TALk Th TALk
SPEECH AND DE8ATE MADE EASY
8y AIIm MeraII
Edmonton, Iberta
Coyiighi 2006 ly Alim Mciali
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TabIe oI Contents
Foreword by Shirley Konrad
Discover tIe rt oI SpeecI and Debate
Part -Road Map: Cear Up to TaIk the TaIk
Introduction
VIy Debate is tIe Sport oI tIe Mind
Chapter 1
Get Ready: Turn On tIe Pover oI Your Voice
Chapter 2
LiIt OII: Great Games to Get You Started
Part -Speech Savvy: DazzIe wIth a DynamIc StyIe
Chapter 3
VIat You Say: Inredients oI InteIIient Speakin

Chapter 4
Hov You Say It: DeIiverin vitI Poise and Pizzazz
Chapter 5
LiteraIIy Speakin: SpeecIes vitI Commentary
Part -DIscover Debate: How to WIn an Argument
Chapter 6
Nuts and BoIts: BuiIdin BIocks oI Debate
Chapter 7
Pros and Cons: SoIid Points and PoverIuI Cases
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Chapter 8
CIasI vitI Impact: Masterin tIe rt oI tIe ttack
Chapter 9
On TIat Point: Naviatin ParIiamentary Debate
Chapter 10
Yes or No: Commandin tIe Cross-Examination
Chapter 11
Foray into Forums: Standin Out Irom tIe Crovd
Chapter 12
Vars oI Vords: Debates vitI Commentary
Conclusion
TIe ViII to Vin vitI EtIics and Respect
Appendix A
Debate ResoIutions
Appendix B
}udin Criteria
Glossary
Bibliography
Acknowledgments
Index
About the Author
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Foreword
DIscover the Art oI Speech and Debate
TAKNC TALK TO THE NEXT LEVEL
Ve're surrounded by speecI and debate everyday and everyvIere, so
it's no surprise tIat ve oIten viev oraI communication as a naturaI,
eIIortIess activity. But is everyone you Iear equaIIy cIear or equaIIy
convincin Or do some peopIe stand out, capturin your attention
and securin your areement
TIere's a bi diIIerence betveen taIkin eIIortIessIy and commu-
nicatin eIIectiveIy. TaIkin takes IittIe eIIort, requirin otIers onIy to
Iear vIat you Iave to say. Communicatin is mucI more advanced.
Your audience Ias to be motivated-motivated by you, tIat is-to Iis-
ten, understand, and respond IavorabIy.
SimiIarIy, tIere's a bi diIIerence betveen statin your opinion and
presentin an arument. Statin an opinion caIIs on you to say vIat's
on your mind, essentiaIIy makin conversation or oin vitI your
ut instinct. Presentin an arument caIIs Ior convincin Ioic, cIear
structure, and condent deIivery. stron arument compeIs otIers to
aree vitI your perspective or to take tIe action you vant.
THE STYLE OF SUCCESS
II you tIink tIat reat speakers and debaters are dry, tIink aain! TIey
oIten use Iumor, and tIey keep tIeir audiences enaed and inter-
ested in vIat tIey're sayin. Most importantIy, tIey enoy vIat tIey
do, vIicI becomes apparent in tIe expressiveness oI tIeir deIivery.
TIey're interestin and dynamic peopIe-or at Ieast speecI and debate
brins out tIeir 'conceaIed' personaIities.

Xll
Great speakers and debaters Iave a variety oI styIes. Some are pov-
erIuI communicators because oI tIeir convincin tone, commandin
stae presence, and passionate oration. OtIers are ust as successIuI
by presentin tIouItIuI, inteIIient ideas vitI a caIm and metIodi-
caI styIe. ExceIIent communication skiIIs aren't excIusive to tIe most
taIkative amon us.
Despite tIe diversity oI styIes, tIere are certain traits common to
aII eIIective speakers and debaters. TIey Iave a sound rasp oI struc-
ture, makin sure tIat tIeir speecIes dov veII. DeIiverin cIearIy and
condentIy, tIey captivate tIeir audiences. Most importantIy, tIey
Iave tIe riIt attitude. TIey vant to improve tIeir skiIIs, and tIey
enoy nev cIaIIenes. TIey're active Iisteners vIo strive to Iearn Irom
vIat otIers Iave to say.
WHY 8OTHERZ
Debatin is one oI tIe oIdest and most common art Iorms. From ris-
totIe to }oIn F. Kennedy, dinner tabIes to nationaI IeisIatures, and stu-
dents to seniors, tIe art oI debate Ias been used to discuss competin
vievs Ior centuries.
TIrouIout 2S years as a speecI arts teacIer, I've seen students
become condent communicators and taIented debaters. Discover-
in tIe art oI speecI and debate isn't easy. It does take Iard vork
and dedication. nd vIat's tIe resuIt I've vitnessed Iundreds oI
youn Ieaders uneartI tIeir vocaI potentiaI to acIieve success in tIeir
scIooIs, communities, and careers.
TIe case Ior acIievin exceIIence in speecI extends mucI Iur-
tIer tIan competition. You'II ain a poverIuI IiIe skiII uaranteed to
improve your perIormance every time you communicate. EIIective
speakin enIances your perIormance in scIooI presentations and
cIass discussions. It IeIps you take cIare in IeadersIip positions and
makes you sIine in intervievs Ior obs, avards, and scIoIarsIips. Less
tanibIe, but equaIIy important, is Iov it improves your condence
vIenever you deaI vitI peopIe.
Learnin to debate viII IeIp you become more IoicaI vIen you
examine issues, tIouItIuI vIen you come up vitI ideas and insiIts,
and convincin vIen you arue your perspective. In addition, you'II
become more condent taIkin about vIat you aIready knov. VIat
use are bioIoy, cIemistry, Iistory, and Iiterature iI you aren't com-
IortabIe articuIatin your knovIede to otIers In today's competitive
orcuoru ly Sr:rcy orruu
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vorId, it's not enouI to knov tIe riIt ansver. It's ust as important
to knov Iov to communicutc your knovIede to otIers.
PRACTCE MAKES (ALMOST) PERFECT
SpeecI and debate can't be Iearned tIrouI readin aIone. II you
vant to discover tIis art, enoy Tulk tnc Tulk and put vIat you Iearn
to ood use in your everyday activities. I can't empIasize enouI Iov
important it is to make speecI and debate part oI your daiIy routine.
Participate in cIass discussions, debate sociaI and vorId issues at tIe
dinner tabIe, and et invoIved in practice rounds. Iso, you sIouId
oin a debate cIub and compete in tournaments. II one isn't aIready
estabIisIed at your scIooI, et a Iev Iriends toetIer and start one up.
Competitions viII ive you an opportunity to put your skiIIs to tIe test
aainst otIer students. Your experiences may even take you across
tIe country or around tIe vorId.
Enoy Iearnin speecI and debate and deveIopin your ovn
dynamic styIe. IndividuaIs vIo exceI at tIis poverIuI and necessary
skiII viII be a step aIead in acIievin success.

SIirIey Konrad
Founder and Director
TIe SpeecI Studio Inc.
80A0 NAP:
CEAR UP TO TALK THE TALK
Part
3
|otrod0ct|oo
Why Debate Is the Sport oI the MInd
From Iockey pIayers drivin tovard tIe net to skiers Iidin dovn
a IiII, atIIetes put tIeir bodies to tIe test every time tIey compete.
TIey do so in tIeir tIirst Ior victory. Some dene victory as reacIin
tIeir personaI best, sucI as beatin tIeir scorin record Irom tIe year
beIore or acIievin tIeir Iastest ever racin time. OtIers see victory as
risin above tIe competition and ascendin to tIe top oI tIe podium.
Can tIe same be said Ior debaters t rst, tIe comparison seems
IrivoIous. Debate doesn't require pIysicaI provess. debater can't et
inured in tIe Ieat oI competition (at Ieast ve Iope not!}. nd a debat-
er doesn't put Iis or Ier body tIrouI a rueIin pIysicaI test.
TIe sport oI debate exists in tIe mind. It requires mentaI provess,
as opposed to pIysicaI provess. ny inury is to one's inteIIectuaI pride
and sense oI bein riIt. debater exerts mentaI enery and uses tIe
pover oI tIe voice, not tIe strentI or aiIity oI tIe body.
It's a sport oI tIe mind because you pIay to reacI a IiIer standard.
Better aruments. Better counter-aruments. Better styIe and struc-
ture. Like any sport, you can aIvays outperIorm vIat you did previ-
ousIy. TIere's a touIer opponent out tIere vIo viII cIaIIene you to
debate more eIIectiveIy tIan you once tIouIt possibIe. No case and
no arument viII ever be perIect. TIere's aIvays sometIin reater to
acIieve. debater never says, "TIat's tIe best I can do."
It's a sport oI tIe mind because you Iave to tIink on your Ieet as
tIe ame oes on. Like most sports, debate isn't predictabIe. dapta-
tion is tIe name oI tIe ame. You come into it prepared to arue your
case. But you're equaIIy prepared to cIane on tIe dy. You're ready to
pounce on your opponent's veaknesses and to pIu IoIes tIat Iave
been inItrated by your rivaIs. TIere are no 'cookie-cutter' tempIates,
and no riid IormuIas. It's a ame vitI simpIe ruIes and eneraI strat-
eies Ior success. TIe rest is up to you.

4
In tIe sport oI debate, your equipment is your voice. It's equipment
tIat must be Ioned and optimized Ior success. But your voice aIone
viII not make you a top debater. oIIer's drive is enIanced by Iis
or Ier cIoice oI cIubs, not accompIisIed by tIe cIubs aIone. Iockey
oaIie's pads IeIp to stop sIots, but tIe reaI test is one oI redexes and
anticipation. SimiIarIy, a compeIIin voice can onIy enIance vIat your
mind produces, but it's no substitute Ior reat ideas.
s you strive to exceI at debate, you'II make mistakes aIon tIe
vay. nd don't be too Iard on yourseII vIen you do. Not even tIe
vorId's Ieadin debaters perIorm davIessIy. Debate isn't a science tIat
you can perIect. Like any sport, iI you IaII, your best bet is to pick up
tIe pieces and move on.
So put yourseII into tIe mindset oI a competitor, and et set to
tackIe tIe sport oI debate!
5
Coming UpI
stron, IeaItIy voice aIIovs you to speak cIearIy and eIIectiveIy. TIis
cIapter viII sIov you Iov to prepare your voice and body and Iov to
controI your nerves. It viII aIso reveaI practicaI tecIniques to IeIp you
keep your voice in tip-top sIape.
0hAPT8 1
Cet Ready:
Turn On the Power oI Your VoIce

6
CET SET TO SPEAK
Like an atIIete vIo stretcIes beIore a ame, preparin your voice,
body, and mind is essentiaI to producin stron and cIear speecI.
UnIortunateIy, most peopIe don't associate varmin up vitI speecI,
vIicI is vIy most speakers don't varm up at aII. But tIose vIo vant
to ive tIemseIves a competitive ede don't miss tIis important step.
You're probabIy tIinkin tIat it vouId
be ratIer avkvard to varm up in Iront oI
otIer peopIe. TIankIuIIy, you can avoid
bein Iared at as you et yourseII ready to
speak. VIetIer you varm up in tIe car, in
an empty room, or at Iome, a Iev simpIe
strateies and exercises viII IeIp you speak
more comIortabIy and eIIectiveIy:
Walk before you talk. One oI tIe most eIIective vays to reIax your
mind and body is aIso tIe easiest. BeIore you speak, spend a Iev min-
utes vaIkin sIovIy in a room or IaIIvay. Imaine Iov Iast you'II be
taIkin, and 'matcI' it to your vaIkin speed. Takin a vaIk viII IeIp
you reIease any unnecessary tension and cIear your mind oI distrac-
tions. TIink about Iov you'II vaIk to tIe Iront oI tIe room and vIat
you'II do to enae your audience. Briedy recaII your introduction,
main points, and concIusion.
Relax your body. Stress in your body makes it more diIcuIt to speak
cIearIy and expressiveIy. Loosen your arms, sIouIders, and Ies in tIe
same vay you vouId iI you vere preparin Ior a run. TIis viII make
your voice more eIIective by Ireein up any tension in your body. Your
Iand estures and body Ianuae viII aIso seem more naturaI.
Loosen your jaw. strained av makes it more diIcuIt to articuIate
and proect your voice eIIectiveIy. Good articuIation IeIps you say
vords and pIrases vitI cIarity and precision. Stron proection IeIps
you convey condence and enae vitI tIe entire audience, incIudin
tIose seated at tIe back oI tIe room. BeIore you speak, try droppin
your av IooseIy severaI times. TIis viII keep it dexibIe and Iree oI
strain vIen it's your turn to taIk.
S0ccess T|p!
8eIore you speak, reIax
your mInd and body.
Cc Kcuuy. urr Or rc Foucr oj Your Vo:cc
7
Take deep breaths. BreatIin deepIy beIore you start to speak viII
IeIp you reIax. It viII aIso put you in a Irame oI mind to use deep
breatIin vIiIe you're speakin. TIis viII aIIov your speecI to dov
more smootIIy and naturaIIy.
Try a few tongue twisters. Doin so viII IeIp et your articuIators
ready Ior cIear communication. It's common to stumbIe over a Iev
pIrases vIen you deIiver a speecI. Goin tIrouI a number oI tonue
tvisters is one vay to reduce Iov oIten tIis Iappens. To practice a
variety oI sounds, use a Iev oI tIe tonue tvisters Iisted beIov, repeat-
in eacI one at Ieast tIree times in a rov:
YeIIov yo-yo. ViId vinter vind. Toy boat.
BIood red bed bus. Six seIsI sIeIIsI. Knapsack straps.
Tvo tootI sIeutIs. Hiccup teacup. SixisI.
SIop sin sIines. SIapstick skit. TruIy ruraI.
Stay calm. Don't put added pressure on yourseII. It viII onIy make you
more nervous beIore you speak and disappointed iI you make errors.
TIe best vay to be ready to perIorm is ettin into tIe riIt state oI
mind. II you teII yourseII tIat you're oin to succeed, you probabIy
viII. Most peopIe are tIeir ovn vorst critics and et nervous beIore
deIiverin a speecI. Be an optimist, and you'II be measurabIy more
comIortabIe vIen you speak in pubIic.
COOL YOUR NERVES
In surveys, peopIe oIten identiIy pubIic speakin as one oI tIeir top
Iears, oIten aIead oI IeiIts and deatI! Even iI you knov everyone
in tIe audience, it's not uncommon to Iave itters beIore and vIiIe
you speak. It's normaI to be appreIensive about speakin, but Iov
you deaI vitI it is vIat makes aII tIe diIIerence. You vant to appear
condent and reIaxed, vIicI viII improve tIe impression you make
on your audience.
It's easy to teII vIen a speaker is nervous. Nervous speakers oIten
sIake, det, stiIIen tIeir bodies, or seem Iike tIey're simpIy tryin to
et tIrouI tIeir speecI. ItIouI everyone deaIs vitI nervousness
in a diIIerent vay, tIere are a Iev simpIe tecIniques tIat you may nd
useIuI to IeIp you become more comIortabIe:

8
Memorize the hrst few words. TIere's notIin more comIortin tIan
a reat start. II you puII oII tIe rst Iine or tvo soIidIy, you'II IeeI tIat
you Iave momentum as you continue vitI your speecI. On tIe otIer
Iand, it's touI Ior many speakers to recov-
er Irom stumbIes in tIe openin pIrases.
Go into your speecI knovin exactIy vIat
you're oin to say at tIe start.
Go through your introduction many times.
In addition to memorizin tIe rst Iine or
tvo oI your speecI, it's aIso IeIpIuI to knov
Iov you'II dclivcr your introduction. TIe introduction sets tIe stae,
botI Ior you and Ior your audience. soIid, veII-deIivered introduc-
tion is a reat 'icebreaker' into tIe rest oI your speecI. It ives you
condence riIt vIen you bein.
Know your content well. NotIin beats nervousness more eIIectiveIy
tIan bein comIortabIe vitI your materiaI. Understand your topic in
detaiI, so tIat iI you Iose your pIace or Iave to ansver questions, you
can be condent tIat you knov tIe necessary concepts.
Practice out loud. VIetIer you practice by yourseII, at Iome in Iront
oI your IamiIy, or beIore a roup oI Iriends, verbaIizin your points
is a reat vay to reduce nervousness. You may even vant to vatcI
yourseII in tIe mirror, so tIat you can see vIat otIers viII be vatcI-
in as you speak. CIeck tIat you're esturin naturaIIy, standin vitI
condent posture, and usin ood IaciaI expression. TIis viII make
you IeeI Iar more comIortabIe as you o into your speecI.
Use pauses effectively. VIen you o to tIe Iront oI tIe room, ive
yourseII a moment to atIer your tIouIts and to estabIisI a reIaxed
and condent stance. RusIin into your speecI is a sure vay to accen-
tuate any nervousness. II you become nervous durin your speecI,
don't apoIoize or II in tIe space vitI tIe common "um" or "aI."
Pause, et back your composure, atIer your tIouIts, and continue
your speecI vitI condence.
Have conhdence in yourself. II you teII yourseII tIat you're oin to
do poorIy, tIere's a very ood cIance tIat you viII. Remind yourseII
tIat you knov your speecI and are condent in your abiIity. Not even
S0ccess T|p!
PerIect your openIng
to gIve yourseII earIy
momentum.
9
proIessionaIs vitI decades oI experience deIiver perIect speecIes, so
you sIouIdn't pressure yourseII to be perIect eitIer.
KEEP YOUR VOCE N TPTOP SHAPE
Imaine a skier racin vitI a broken poIe, or a rover paddIin vitI a
spIit oar. Hov veII vouId tIey do Most IikeIy, not veII at aII. tIIetes
in every sport Iave to keep tIeir equipment in reat sIape iI tIey
vant to perIorm up to tIeir potentiaI.
But vIat does any oI tIis Iave to do
vitI eIIective speecI and debate ctuaIIy,
more tIan you may tIink. II you vant your
voice to produce cIear, IiI-quaIity speecI
Ior your IiIetime, it's essentiaI tIat you take
care oI it. BuiIdin and sustainin a IeaItIy
voice requires you to pay attention to tIe
IoIIovin practices in your daiIy IiIe:
Avoid screaming and shouting. You may tIink tIat tIese common
practices are IarmIess, spontaneous reactions to tIe vorId around us.
TIe reaIity is tIat tIey put enormous strain on your vocaI cords. Over
time, tIey reduce tIe cIarity oI your speecI and damae your voice,
particuIarIy tIe muscIes tIat IeIp you produce sound. II you vant to
protect your voice aainst unnecessary damae, keep your speecI
vitIin a normaI voIume rane.
Drink plenty of water. Not onIy viII you improve your body's IeaItI,
you'II aIso enIance your voice by keepin your moutI moist and
reducin tension in your tIroat. EspeciaIIy beIore a speecI or debate,
sippin vater viII improve tIe cIarity oI your voice vIen you speak.
Break the bad habits of clenching or grinding your jaw. In addition
to your dentist's very vise advice, keepin your moutI reIaxed Ior
exceIIent speecI communication is anotIer reason to eIiminate tIese
unIeaItIy practices. Speakers and debaters need to manipuIate tIeir
articuIators in order to vrap tIemseIves around some oI tIeir more
sopIisticated vords and pIrases. voidin tIese Iabits viII make it
easier Ior otIers to understand vIat you're sayin.
watch 00t!
AvoId habIts that
straIn your voIce.

10
Take in plenty of air. ir must dov IreeIy and IrequentIy in order Ior
your voice to Iunction at its IiIest possibIe quaIity. Takin pIenty oI
pauses viII IeIp increase tIe air dov. nd don't taIk too Iast, as doin
so viII onIy make it Iarder to et enouI air.
Don't overuse your voice when you're sick or tired. IIIness and Iatiue
can strain your vocaI instruments. Over many years, taIkin excessive-
Iy vIen your body is veak can be damain. Limitin Iov mucI you
taIk vIiIe you're sick or tired viII o a Ion vay in reducin unneces-
sary Iarm to your voice.
Never clear your throat harshly. Doin so pIaces unnecessary stress
on your vocaI cords. EventuaIIy, your voice viII be become Iess cIear
and Iess pIeasin to tIe Iistener. Drinkin vater, svaIIovin, or couI-
in entIy are aII appropriate aIternatives.
II you IoIIov tIe tips discussed in tIis cIapter, you'II enIance tIe
quaIity oI your speecI, and you'II IeeI more prepared and condent
vIen it's your turn to taIk.
11
Chapter 1: Keys to Success

Warm up before you speak. You'II IeIp prepare your voice Ior
exceptionaI verbaI communication and your body Ior eIIective
non-verbaI communication. In addition, you'II put your mind in
a more comIortabIe, reIaxed mood, vIicI viII IeIp you speak
more smootIIy and naturaIIy.
Keep your nerves in check. It's naturaI to be nervous, but it's
easy to x. PIacin yourseII in tIe riIt state oI mind viII IeIp
you overcome any itters you may Iave. Even iI you're sIiItIy
nervous, don't make it obvious to your audience.
Maintain a healthy voice. SimiIar to Iov inuries to your
body make it touI Ior you to exceI at sports, strainin your voice
makes it Iarder Ior you to perIorm at your peak vIen speakin
and debatin. void bad Iabits tIat Iurt tIe cIarity and expres-
siveness oI your voice.
13
Coming UpI
It oIten takes a quick and enoyabIe varm up to et your mind ready
Ior speecI and debate. TIis section viII teII you about a Iev ames
and exercises tIat viII IeIp prepare you to speak. TIese activities viII
aIso introduce you to some common speecI and debate tecIniques.
0hAPT8 2
LIIt Oh:
Creat Cames to Cet You Started

14
NOT YOUR TYPCAL '8ORED' CAMES
In addition to varmin up and practicin your vocaI skiIIs, tIere are a
number oI ames and exercises tIat viII ear up your mind Ior speecI
and debate. Some oI tIese activities, sucI
as Rupid Spcuk and Puss tnc Buton, can be
done vitI tvo or tIree peopIe. OtIers, sucI
as Crossprc and On Tnut Point, require a Iar-
er roup. You're encouraed to adapt tIese
ames to your specic situation, incIudin
tIe number oI peopIe in your roup and
Iov mucI time you Iave.
Rapid Speak
TIe main purpose oI tIis ame is to aIIov you to practice speak-
in vitIout preparation, aIso knovn as impromptu speakin. It viII
encourae you to use eIIective transitions, vIicI viII IeIp make your
pIrasin smootIer. Here's Iov Rupid Spcuk vorks:
Stcp #l. Cnuirpcrson uitn curds. CIairperson Ias a stack oI 30 to 40
cards, eacI oI vIicI Ias a random vord tIat tIe participant must
incorporate into Iis or Ier speecI.
Stcp #2. Purticipunt sturts to spcuk. TIe CIairperson sIovs a randomIy
seIected vord to tIe participant, vIo must tIen start a speecI on tIat
subect or on a reIated area.
Stcp #3. Flipping to ncu uords. TIe CIairperson dips to a nev vord
every 1S seconds, at vIicI point tIe speaker Ias to make a IoicaI
transition to tIe nev subect. EacI speaker oes tIrouI 12 vords, or
approximateIy tIree minutes oI speecI.
You'II probabIy end up vitI a ratIer creative and Iumorous speecI,
especiaIIy considerin tIe random nature oI tIe vord seIection. It's
okay Ior you to take some time vIen transitionin to tIe nev point.
Here's a condensed exampIe oI Rupid Spcuk:
"|Pizza| Yesterday evenin, I vent out Ior pizza vitI my IamiIy.
My youner brotIer Iad tIe misIortune oI spiIIin Iis pop aII over
S0ccess T|p!
PIay a game at
the begInnIng oI a
practIce sessIon.
:j Ojj. Crcu Cumcs o Cc You Surcu
15
tIe tabIe vIicI, sadIy, did not come as a surprise. My parents toId
Iim |ScIooI| tIat Ie vouId et a detention iI Ie did tIat sort oI
tIin at scIooI, but oI course my brotIer tends not to Iisten to any-
tIin. Last veek, Ie ot into troubIe Ior spittin at anotIer student
|Music| in tIe middIe oI Iis music cIass."
Crosshre
TIis ame aIIovs you to participate in a dynamic, back and IortI
debate vitIout Iavin to deIiver a IentIy expIanation Ior eacI aru-
ment. It Iorces you to come up vitI points on tIe spot-a key skiII in
debate. Crossprc aIso ets you used to debatin botI sides oI an issue,
vIicI you'II Iave to do in a debate tournament. Here's Iov it vorks:
Stcp #l. Form tcums. t tIe Iront oI tIe room, spIit into tvo Iines: one
side aruin Ior tIe topic and tIe otIer side aruin aainst it.
Stcp #2. Sct tnc dcbutc. TIe students at tIe Iront oI tIe Iines sIouId
be Iacin eacI otIer at tIe center oI tIe room. CIairperson tIen
presents a statement Ior debate.
Stcp #4. Point in juvor. TIe rst speaker in Iavor oI tIe statement
speaks Ior 1S to 30 seconds and moves to tIe back oI tIe otIer Iine.
Stcp #5. Point uguinst. TIe rst speaker aainst tIe topic speaks Ior 1S
to 30 seconds and moves to tIe back oI tIe otIer Iine.
Stcp #6. Continuc tnc dcbutc. TIe back and IortI process continues
untiI every debater Ias spoken at Ieast once Ior botI sides.
EacI time it's your turn, Iimit yourseII to one cIear point. It can be
a nev arument or opposition to an arument made by tIe otIer
side. Make sure to keep tIe debate dovin, as tIe oaI is to Iorm and
respond to aruments quickIy.
On That Point
TIis ame aIIovs tvo participants to vork toetIer as tIey represent
a perspective, vIiIe everyone eIse ets practice askin cIaIIenin
questions. It's particuIarIy ood practice Ior parIiamentary debate,

16
vIicI aIIovs seated debaters to ask questions to tIe person speakin.
On Tnut Point operates accordin to tIe IoIIovin procedures:
Stcp #l. Cct into tcums. Tvo participants o to tIe Iront oI tIe room to
arue Ior an opinion statement oI tIeir cIoice. Everyone eIse is in tIe
audience, vIicI Iorms tIe team debatin aainst tIis statement.
Stcp #2. Tuo spcukcrs sturt. TIe tvo debaters aruin in Iavor oI tIe
statement taIk one at a time. OnIy tIe person IoIdin tIe baton can
speak. VIen tIe debater vIo Ias tIe door passes tIe baton to Iis or
Ier teammate, tIis individuaI continues tIe debate.
Stcp #3. "On tnut Point. nyone Irom tIe audience can stand up at
any time and say, "On tIat point" and ask a criticaI question to tIe tvo
debaters. TIe ame oes on Ior up to 10 minutes.
It's important tIat tIe audience strikes a ood baIance betveen ask-
in enouI questions and not bombardin tIe tvo debaters vitI
too many questions. IIov tIe speaker to compIete tIe ansver and
to continue tIe speecI beIore askin anotIer question. BeIov is an
excerpt Irom a sampIe ame oI On Tnut Point on tIe topic, "Students
Iave a riIt to privacy in scIooIs."
Spcukcr #l: " student's Iocker sIouId be a private space to store pos-
sessions. Ve vouIdn't aIIov poIice to searcI arbitrariIy tIe bedrooms
oI students at tIeir Iomes. Likevise, vIat a student keeps in a Iocker
is nobody eIse's business."
Audicncc Mcmbcr A: "On tIat point! But vIen students enter a scIooI,
aren't tIey enterin a pubIic space, subect to tIe ruIes and reuIa-
tions oI tIat particuIar institution"
Spcukcr #l: "CertainIy, vIat tIey do in cIassrooms and IaIIvays sIouId
be overned by tIe scIooI's ruIes. But tIe very nature oI a Iocker-a
closcd, lockcd area-makes it a student's private area." (Baton ets
passed to partner.}
Spcukcr #2: "Not onIy tIat, but aIIovin scIooI oIciaIs to searcI stu-
dents' Iockers is a system tIat's very prone to abuse. In particuIar,
tIere's no IormaI varrant process, and no IeaI ustication is ever
17
required beIore a searcI is conducted. TIis Ieaves students vonderin
vIetIer tIey can trust scIooI oIciaIs."
Audicncc Mcmbcr B: "On TIat Point, sir. Don't you tIink tIat scIooI oI-
ciaIs Iave a responsibiIity to ensure tIat drus, veapons, and otIer
banned items aren't brouIt to scIooI"
Pass the Baton
Puss tnc Buton aims Ior tIe type oI back
and IortI dov seen in Crossprc, but it takes
pIace as a roup discussion ratIer tIan as a
Iead to Iead battIe. It ives you virtuaIIy no
time to prepare an arument, vIicI serves
as a true test oI debatin skiIIs. TIe ame
invoIves tIe IoIIovin steps:
Stcp #l. Sturt tnc dcbutc. Everyone in tIe roup stands in a circIe and
ointIy seIects a topic Ior debate. One person, vIo IoIds tIe baton,
beins tIe debate by makin an arument in Iavor oI tIe statement.
Stcp #2. Tnc ncxt pcrson opposcs. Once tIe rst speaker Ias nisIed
makin a sinIe arument, tIe baton ets passed to any otIer person
in tIe circIe. TIis participant must oppose vIat tIe rst speaker Ias
said, eitIer directIy or vitI a nev arument.
Stcp #3. Tnc dcbutc continucs. TIe second speaker passes tIe baton to
anotIer participant, and tIe process continues untiI eacI person Ias
spoken tvo to tIree times.
You von't knov vIen you'II be caIIed to speak or vIat side you'II be
aruin. It's essentiaI tIat you Iisten careIuIIy to tIe dov oI tIe discus-
sion and anticipate vIat you vouId do iI you Iad to speak next. TIis
dynamic and IiveIy ame is sure to keep you on your toes. BeIov is a
seIection Irom a sampIe Puss tnc Buton ame on tIe subect, "Museums
and tIeatres sIouId Iund tIemseIves."
Purticipunt #l (in juvorj: "II peopIe truIy vant museums and tIeatres,
tIey sIouId be viIIin to pay Ior tIem. VIy sIouId tIe pubIic subsi-
dize someone's pcrsonul entertainment" (Baton ets passed on.}
watch 00t!
When pIayIng debate
games, be careIuI not
to get oh topIc.

18
Purticipunt #2 (opposcdj: "Hovever, Iet's not Ioret tIat museums and
tIeatres are ood Ior tIe pubIic as a vIoIe. Ve aII benet vIen ve
preserve and enIance our cuIture." (Baton ets passed on.}
Purticipunt #3 (in juvorj: "VeII, not everyone benets equaIIy. Ve eacI
Iave Iikes and disIikes. TIere's no vote to determine vIetIer an art
institution ets pubIic Iundin. Let tIe peopIe decide vitI tIeir vaI-
Iets!" (Baton ets passed on.}
Purticipunt #4 (opposcdj: "You're basin your arument on tIe idea tIat
museums and tIeatres sIouId aII be commerciaI, Ior-prot operations.
I beIieve tIat tIey sIouIdn't be run exactIy tIe same vay as private
companies. TIey're supposed to serve society as a vIoIe, not ust tIe
business interests oI an ovner."
Trafhc Lights
TIe purpose oI tIis ame is to ive every participant a cIance to speak
tIree times, eacI time Ior a distinct purpose. You'II eitIer Iave to make
a point, raise a concern, or reIute a point made by anotIer participant.
You et to decide vIen you vant to speak, vIat side you vant to take,
and Iov to arue Ior tIe perspective oI your cIoice. Trujpc Lignts runs
accordin to tIe IoIIovin ruIes:
Stcp #l. Curds gct distributcd. Every member oI tIe roup Ias a reen
card, a yeIIov card, and a red card. EacI card can be used onIy once in
tIe debate, and cards cannot be traded betveen pIayers. To taIk, you
must use tIe appropriate card:
Crccn is Co: Make a nev arument tIat adds to tIe debate.
Ycllou is Cuution: Raise a concern or question you vant addressed.
Rcd is Stop: Oppose tIe arument tIat Ias ust been presented.

Stcp #2. Anyonc bcgins tnc dcbutc. TIe rst person to use a reen card
starts tIe debate. reen card uarantees tIe person usin it at Ieast
30 seconds oI uninterrupted time.
Stcp #3. Anotncr pcrson intcrjccts. Iter tIis 30 second period Ias
expired, anyone eIse can use a card. reen card uarantees a IresI
30 second period, a yeIIov card 1S seconds to ask a question, and a
19
red card 30 seconds to oppose tIe point made previousIy. II eitIer a
yeIIov card or a red card is used, tIe oriinaI speaker ets to continue
tIereaIter untiI someone eIse uses a card.
Stcp #4. Tnc dcbutc continucs. Trujpc Lignts continues untiI every par-
ticipant is out oI cards. TIis means tIat everyone viII Iave raised an
arument, opposed an arument, and asked a question, aII oI vIicI
are important debatin skiIIs.
Debate Duel
Dcbutc Ducl aIIovs you to o Iead to Iead aainst otIer competitors,
spicin up tIe debate vitI some Ieated rivaIry. Your oaI is to sur-
vive tIe battIes as Ion as you can by continuin to vin mini-debates
aainst diIIerent opponents. But your Iate Iies in tIe Iands oI your
peers. Here's Iov to pIay Dcbutc Ducl:
Stcp #l. Tukc your positions. TIere are tvo debaters standin at tIe
Iront oI tIe room Iacin eacI otIer: tIe CIampion and tIe CIaIIener.
Everyone eIse sits in tIe audience and makes up tIe }ury. TIe }ury
must act obectiveIy. IternativeIy, you can opt Ior an independent
}ury tIat doesn't participate in tIe debate.
Stcp #2. Bcgin tnc buttlc. TIe CIampion, vIo is seIected randomIy Ior
tIe rst round, ets 30 seconds to present an arument on any topic
oI Iis or Ier cIoice. TIe CIaIIener tIen ets 30 seconds to present a
counter-arument.
Stcp #3. Tnc jury votcs. Iter botI peopIe Iave tIeir say, tIe }ury, by
a maority vote, eIiminates tIe debater it beIieves Iost tIe dueI. TIe
person IeIt is tIe CIampion, and tIe participant voted oII becomes a
member oI tIe }ury.
Stcp #4. A ncu Cnullcngcr cmcrgcs. ccordin to a pre-set order, a mem-
ber oI tIe }ury tIen takes tIe position oI CIaIIener, and tIe process
starts aain. TIe person vIo Ias tIe Ionest consecutive run as tIe
CIampion vins tIe ame.

20
The Great Race
TIis ame pits teams aainst eacI otIer in a battIe oI quick tIinkin,
vIicI is reat practice Ior tIe Iast-paced vorId oI competitive debat-
in. Hesitation viII cost you dearIy. Here's Iov Tnc Crcut Rucc vorks:
Stcp #l. Cct into tuo tcums. HaII oI tIe participants Iorm one team and
stand on one side oI tIe room, and tIe rest oI tIe participants Iace
tIem and make up tIe otIer team.
Stcp #2. Prcpurc jor tnc rucc. In betveen tIe teams, tIere's a tabIe vitI
a buzzer or beII. member Irom eacI team stands on eitIer side oI tIe
tabIe. BotI competitors must Iave tIeir Iands beIind tIeir backs.
Stcp #3. Tnc rucc is on. TIe CIairperson announces a statement Ior
debate. TIe rst person to rin tIe buzzer or beII Ias to make an aru-
ment in Iavor oI tIe statement, vIicI sIouId Iast Ior approximateIy
10 seconds. TIe team represented by tIis participant scores a point. II,
Iovever, tIe speaker vaits or Iesitates, or iI tIe CIairperson decides
tIat tIe arument isn't a vaIid point, tIe otIer team scores a point.
Stcp #4. Tnc sprint continucs. Iter eacI round, a nev person takes tIe
position at tIe tabIe. Keep on pIayin tIe ame untiI eacI person Ias
spoken at Ieast once, or tvice iI tIere are onIy a Iev participants.
Survivor
Survivor is a 'vinner takes aII' competition in vIicI every debater tries
to outIast everyone eIse by presentin tIe stronest aruments. To vin
at Survivor, you Iave to perIorm veII round aIter round, or eIse you
may et voted oII tIe IsIand. Here's Iov to pIay tIe ame:
Stcp #l. All ubourd tnc Islund. TIe Contenders stand in a roup at tIe
Iront oI tIe room. TIe }ury sits in tIe audience, vIicI consists onIy oI
tIe CIairperson at tIis point.
Stcp #2. Tnc round bcgins. TIe CIairperson announces a topic, and
every debater Ias to present an arument oI approximateIy 1S sec-
onds Ior or aainst tIis statement.
21
Stcp #3. Somconc gcts votcd ojj. EacI member oI tIe }ury-one person in
tIe rst round-casts a vote Ior tIe debater vIose arument seemed
tIe veakest. TIe person vIo ets tIe most votes is eIiminated Irom
tIe IsIand and oins tIe }ury. In tIe event oI a tie, tIe CIairperson
casts tIe decidin vote.
Stcp #4. Buttlc to tnc cnd. Iter eacI round, tIe }ury pooI viII increase
by one member and tIe Contender roup viII decrease by one mem-
ber. Keep on pIayin tIe ame untiI onIy one Contender, tIe 'Survivor',
is IeIt standin.
TIe ames and exercises discussed in tIis cIapter are a Iev oI tIe
vays tIat you can et into tIe riIt Irame oI mind Ior eIIective debat-
in and pubIic speakin. TIey're IiveIy and enoyabIe, makin tIem
reat activities Ior a roup oI peopIe.

22
Listen to the back and forth ow of arguments. Understand-
in Iov tIe aruments sIiIt Irom side to side is centraI to rasp-
in tIe debate. EquaIIy important, pay attention to vIat causes
an arument to o oII topic, so tIat you can avoid sucI situa-
tions vIen you debate.
Think about how you would expand on the points. Most oI
tIe ames require very brieI aruments. In an actuaI debate, you
vouId Iave to expand tIese brieI aruments into more com-
pIete points by addin expIanations and detaiIs.
Be fully involved. II you're a beinner, tIese ames viII IeIp
you et comIortabIe makin aruments. Even iI you Iave sini-
cant experience, tIey'II keep your skiIIs sIarp and provide reat
vays to varm up beIore you debate.
Enjoy yourself. You'II nd tIat tIese ames oIten et ratI-
er IiItIearted and Iumorous, vIicI is vIy tIey're reat Ior
varmin up and practicin. So don't anaIyze your perIormance
too criticaIIy. Enoy tIe ames, particuIarIy tIe interaction vitI
your IeIIov participants.
SP0h SAVVY:
DAZZLE WTH A DYNAMC STYLE
Part
25
Coming UpI
TIe rst step tovard masterin speecI and debate is to knov Iov to
buiId an interestin, reIevant, and eIIective speecI. TIis cIapter viII
sIov you Iov to zero-in on your primary purpose and Iov to deveIop
and structure your key points.
0hAPT8 3
What You Say:
ngredIents oI nteIIIgent SpeakIng

26
WHAT'S YOUR PONTZ
Greek pIiIosopIer ristotIe once said, " speecI Ias tvo parts. You
must state your case, and you must prove it." t its core, tIis is vIat a
speecI boiIs dovn to. Sounds simpIe VeII, it isn't.
BeIore you start to deveIop your speecI,
you need to knov vIat exactIy you're try-
in to accompIisI. It's important to make
your speecI reIevant to tIe specic issue
or situation. void tryin to say anytIin
and everytIin about tIe subect. Instead,
Iocus on a Iev main ideas and expIain tIem
cIearIy and compIeteIy.
SpeecIes are eneraIIy intended to injorm, to pcrsuudc, or to cntcr-
tuin. You may nd it necessary to combine tIe tecIniques oI more
tIan one oI tIese types oI speecIes. For instance, many persuasive
speecIes Iave Ieavy inIormative content as a vay oI Iayin tIe Ioun-
dation Ior tIe main aruments. nd some oI tIe most captivatin
speakers inect Iumor into tIeir speecIes. UItimateIy, you Iave to
consider your topic, your intent, and your environment.
In the Know: Informative Speeches
VIen speakin to inIorm, your main obective is to expIain, detaiI,
instruct, or cIariIy. In tIis type oI speecI, tIe precision and cIarity oI
your ideas are criticaIIy important, because you're tryin to IeIp your
audience understand tIe issue. Given tIe nature oI an inIormative
speecI, it's temptin to overIoad your Iisteners vitI Iacts and detaiIs.
void tIis tendency as mucI as possibIe. TIe inIormation you present
is onIy useIuI to tIe extent tIat it's ubsorbcd and rcmcmbcrcd. InIor-
mative speakin skiIIs viII IeIp you reatIy in debatin, particuIarIy
vIen you Iave to present evidence and cIearIy expIain concepts to
your udes. Here are a Iev exampIes oI inIormative speecI topics:
TIe Internet's impact on education and researcI.
CIanes to tIe scIooI discipIinary poIicy.
United Nations peacekeepin invoIvement.
DeveIopments in naturaI, aIternative medicines.
Nev Irontiers in science and tecInoIoy researcI.
0|d Yo0 koow?
A 8rItIsh Iawyer once
deIIvered a speech that
Iasted 119 days.
Vru You Suy. rqrcu:crs oj rc:qcr Spcur:rq
27
The Sales Pitch: Persuasive Speeches
Your abiIity to deIiver persuasive speecIes is essentiaI to debatin.
TIe purpose is to convince your audience about a set oI vaIues or pro-
posaIs and, in some cases, to inspire or compeI a roup to take action.
n exampIe oI persuasive speakin you'II be IamiIiar vitI is a cam-
pain speecI Ior student overnment. Important attributes Ior tIis
type oI speakin incIude a set oI stron aruments, a convincin tone,
and a passionate styIe oI deIivery. II you vant to convince otIers to
aree vitI your aruments, it's vitaI tIat you speak vitI conviction.
Here are a Iev exampIes oI persuasive speecI topics:
TIe miIitary sIouId receive more Iundin.
Standardized tests sIouId be pIased out.
Space expIoration sIouId be stopped.
ScIooI uniIorms sIouId be eIiminated.
Votin sIouId be mandatory.
Make Them Laugh: Entertaining Speeches
speecI to entertain viII most commonIy be deIivered as a speciaI
occasion speecI, sucI as an aIter dinner speecI or a comedy routine
durin a taIent sIov. In some instances, you may Iave a persuasive
intent, sucI as usin Iumor to mock a poIicy. You'II typicaIIy use
entertainin speakin strateies so tIat your speecI to inIorm or per-
suade viII become more interestin. To be entertainin, your entire
speecI need not be Iunny or on a Iumorous topic. In Iact, usin vitty
vords or a IiItIearted and Iumorous styIe can be equaIIy eIIective.
Even tIe most serious aruments can be iIIustrated usin Iumor.
CET TO THE PONT: YOUR MAN DEA
Prior to decidin on your key points, vrite
a sentence tIat summarizes your speecI's
eneraI idea. TIis topic sentence sIouId be
your Iocus vIen you buiId tIe content oI
your speecI. You're mucI more eIIective
vIen you Iocus on tIe core oI your ideas
tIan vIen you ump around Irom topic
watch 00t!
AvoId makIng broad,
unIocused speeches.

28
to topic vitIout a stron connection betveen points. Considerin tIat
you Iave Iimited time, you sIouId incIude onIy a Iev, veII-deveIoped
points in your speecI.
CHURN OUT THE PONTS
Once you've identied your purpose and your overaII tIeme, tIe next
step is to nd tIree to ve main points tIat you vant to taIk about.
Less tIan tIree seems too 'bare', and more tIan ve seems too 'busy'.
Bein tIis brainstormin process usin a Iist or a mind map. IncIude
everytIin you knov about tIe topic, even iI you don't immediateIy
tIink it's reIevant or important.
In a sIort period oI time, you'II IikeIy nd many diIIerent points
tIat you vant to discuss. Your next step is to narrov dovn your speecI
to a Iev key ideas. One ruIe oI tIumb is to use tIe 3S system, or Sort,
Sclcct, and Summurizc:
1. Sort similar ideas together. You may Iave Iisted severaI points tIat
can be added as detaiIs and expIanations Ior a Iarer idea.
2. Select only the most essential topics. It's mucI more eIIective to
Iocus on your primary purpose tIan to rambIe into unreIated ideas
tIat decrease tIe overaII impact oI your speecI.
3. Summarize each topic with a title. Iter you're dovn to tIree to
ve points, a brieI Ieadin Ior eacI one viII IeIp you nd detaiIs and
viII enabIe you to Iocus your expIanations.
8REAK T DOWN: STRUCTURNC YOUR SPEECH
Once you've come up vitI your main ideas,
tIe next step is to oranize your speecI Ior
maximum eIIectiveness. SpeecI oraniza-
tion isn't diIcuIt, but it is very important.
It makes your speecI cIearer and your ideas
easier to remember. TIe basic oraniza-
tion Ior any speecI, eitIer on its ovn or in
a debate, is an introduction, tIree or Iour
content sections, and a concIusion.
S0ccess T|p!
Match your structure
to your subject.
29
TIere are many diIIerent vays to break dovn your key ideas.
VIicI metIod you seIect depends in Iare part on tIe type and topic
oI your speecI. It's important Ior you to tIink careIuIIy about Iov
you vant to oranize your points, because your structure can make
or break Iov easiIy tIe audience is abIe to rasp vIat you're sayin.
Here are some oI tIe vays to structure your points:
Topics and Themes. TIis is tIe most common vay to oranize a
speecI. TIe idea is to divide your points into diIIerent subect areas
and to Iocus eacI point on a sinIe topic. common pitIaII is tIat tIe
subect areas are overIy distinct, makin tIe speecI seem disointed.
Be sure tIat one area Ieads smootIIy into tIe next by seIectin and
orderin tIe tIemes in a IoicaI manner. Here's an exampIe oI orani-
zation by topic Ior a speecI expIainin Iov media oranizations Iave
a sociaI responsibiIity:
Point #l. Tnc mcdiu providcs vitul ulcrts. You couId taIk about advisories
durin naturaI disasters and aIerts oI missin cIiIdren. Makin tIis
point your rst one is IoicaI, because by cIearIy expIainin a criticaI
Iunction, it sets tIe tone Ior your overaII messae.
Point #2. Tnc mcdiu cducutcs us on importunt muttcrs. Here, you couId
discuss media reportin oI IeaItI issues, saIety tips, IauIty consumer
products, and otIer matters important to our daiIy Iives. It's a IoicaI
extension Irom tIe rst point, because it deaIs vitI media Iunctions
tIat are criticaI to us personaIIy. But it's diIIerent enouI Irom tIe
rst point, as its Iocus is on Iess urent matters.
Point #3. Tnc mcdiu kccps us injormcd ubout currcnt ujjuirs. TIis sec-
tion couId Iocus on our desire to be inIormed about nationaI poIiticaI
aIIairs, IobaI poIitics, sports, and otIer day to day events. TIis point
extends IoicaIIy Irom tIe second point. It's simiIar in its Iocus on
matters oI daiIy importance, but it's diIIerent in its empIasis on inIor-
mation tIat's not as essentiaI.

Time and Progression. CIronoIoicaI oranization is oIten tIe easiest
Ior tIe audience to IoIIov. PeopIe naturaIIy tIink in terms oI time. For
exampIe, vIat do I need to do in tIe mornin, tIen in tIe aIternoon,
and tIen in tIe evenin Extendin tIis Ioic to speecI, oranizin by
time aIIovs you to Iead your audience on an easy to understand pro-

30
ression. BeIov is an exampIe oI time-based oranization Ior a speecI
outIinin Iov tIe IocaI overnment couId encourae recycIin:
Point #l. Mukc it cusy jor pcoplc to rccyclc. You couId suest tIat reuIar
pickups and Iree recycIin boxes divided into cateories oI materiaIs
is tIe rst step in encourain more recycIin. II it's not convenient,
notIin eIse is IikeIy to vork.
Point #2. A cumpuign to motivutc pcoplc to rccyclc morc. Once you've
made it convenient to recycIe, a IoicaI next step is to teII tIem vIy
tIey sIouId even botIer. teIevision advertisin or direct maiI cam-
pain couId be part oI tIis section.
Point #3. A long-tcrm strutcgy to injorm tnc public. Nov tIat you've
encouraed peopIe to recycIe more, Iov do you make sure tIat tIey
continue to do so in tIe Ion-term OI course, continuin to make it
convenient and advertisin tIat tIey sIouId recycIe couId be part oI
tIe stratey. But you couId say tIat tIe next maor step is to teII tIe
pubIic about tIe positive resuIts oI its cooperation.
Physical Location. Many peopIe oranize tIeir tIouIts accordin
to vIere items are or vIere situations occur. TIe same tooI can be
appIied to speecI topics, particuIarIy vIen tIere are muItipIe events
or circumstances Iappenin in diIIerent areas. Say you're taIkin about
soIutions to poverty in various parts oI tIe vorId:
Point #l. Improving govcrnmcnt systcms in Ajricu. You couId arue tIat
buiIdin democratic and transparent overnment institutions is tIe
rst step in aIIeviatin poverty in Irica. TIe incentives oI debt reIieI
and aid couId be used to pusI Iorvard tIese reIorms.
Point #2. Rcjorming cconomic systcms in Lutin Amcricu. Economic and
currency instabiIity in many parts oI Latin merica couId be cited as
probIems in need oI action.
Point #3. Building injrustructurc in Soutn Asiu. You couId make tIe case
tIat tIe Iare, but mostIy poor popuIations oI SoutI sia vouId ben-
et Irom inIrastructure investment. DeveIopment oI roads, scIooIs,
IospitaIs, and sanitation systems couId be touted as soIutions.
31
Problem and Solution. TIis oranizationaI metIod is reat iI a prob-
Iem isn't videIy accepted or understood, and iI you're tryin to estab-
IisI tIe probIem as tIe basis Ior a soIution. It's important tIat your
soIution cIoseIy matcIes and directIy addresses tIe probIems. Here's
an exampIe oI tIis type oI speecI structure iI you're aruin tIat pIar-
maceuticaI companies sIouId Iave to make more oI tIe data Irom
cIinicaI triaIs avaiIabIe to tIe pubIic:
Point #l. Problcm oj mcdicul sidc-cjjccts. ExpIain tIe extent to vIicI
drus approved by overnment aencies are Iater Iound to pose seri-
ous IeaItI risks. In particuIar, you couId use veII-pubIicized exampIes
oI drus vIicI vere reIeased and Iater discovered to cause IeaItI aiI-
ments, incIudin severe iIInesses and deatIs.
Point #2. Problcm oj insujpcicnt injormution. You couId arue tIat vitI-
out IuII inIormation Irom aII cIinicaI triaIs, medicaI proIessionaIs and
members oI tIe pubIic don't Iave enouI oI an abiIity to scrutinize
drus and make tIeir ovn udments.
Point #3. Solution oj morc public injormution. Your soIution couId be tIat
pIarmaceuticaI companies sIouId Iave to reIease more inIormation
to tIe pubIic. TIe immediate resuIt vouId be at Ieast a partiaI soIution
to tIe probIem oI insuIcient inIormation. TIen, you couId arue tIat
iI tIis probIem is soIved and tIere is reater pubIic scrutiny oI drus,
tIe resuIt vouId be Iever medicaI side-eIIects.
Building the Pieces: Structuring Each Point
Like eacI pararapI in an essay, eacI section in a speecI needs to
Iave a sound structure. eneraI ruIe to remember is to "CIaim, Com-
ment, Cite, and ConcIude" Ior eacI section:
1. Claim your point, usuaIIy in a sinIe sentence. TIis serves as a
'sinpost' to your audience members, settin tIe stae Ior vIat you're
Iopin to expIain to tIem. You vant your Iisteners to be tIinkin to
tIemseIves, "Okay, ve're on a nev point nov, and tIat's preciseIy
vIat tIe point is about. Let's see vIat tIe speaker Ias to say about
it." n exampIe oI cIaimin your point is, "My second point is tIat
iI eneticaIIy-modied Ioods are soId vitIout appropriate IabeIin, it
reduces tIe condence tIat peopIe Iave in tIe Iood suppIy."

32
2. Comment on tIe point, presentin important anaIysis and Ioic.
ExpIain in reater deptI vIat tIe point means, or vIy it's correct.
Usin tIe previous exampIe, you couId say, "Everyone vants to IeeI
certainty and security vIen tIey pick up Iood Irom tIe rocery store.
II tIey don't Iave suIcient inIormation ."
3. Cite diIIerent pieces oI evidence to support your underIyin cIaims.
TIis essentiaIIy teIIs your audience, "Don't ust take my vord Ior it.
TIere are Iacts tIat support vIat I'm sayin." Continuin vitI tIe
issue oI eneticaIIy-modied Ioods, you couId state, "TIe percent
oI eneticaIIy-modied Ioods IabeIed as sucI is very Iov, especiaIIy
vIen compared to tIe percent oI peopIe vIo vant to knov tIis inIor-
mation. It's been Iound tIat ."
4. Conclude tIe section eitIer by restatin tIe main point in diIIerent
vords or by expIainin tIe importance oI tIe point to tIe main idea
oI tIe speecI. For exampIe, "TIereIore, it's cIear tIat tIe absence oI
standard and enIorceabIe IabeIin requirements Ias caused unaccept-
abIe Iarm to pubIic condence in Iood products."
Completing the Puzzle: Overall Organization
TIe order in vIicI you present your content sections is IareIy a mat-
ter oI udment and personaI preIerence. Many speakers viII start and
nisI vitI tIeir most important ideas. Hovever, particuIarIy in per-
suasive speecIes, you may vant to buiId your points into a naI idea
tIat proves your overaII tIeme.
Most audience members Iave reat diI-
cuIty rememberin a point tIe rst time
tIey Iear it. s tIe speaker, it makes per-
Iect sense to you, but your audience usuaIIy
needs reminders. Many communicators IaiI
to uide tIeir Iisteners. TIey onIy briedy
summarize tIeir speecI, out oI Iear tIat
tIey're simpIy repeatin tIemseIves. VeII,
repetition vorks. Most oI vIat ve Iearn is repeated to us severaI times,
aItIouI oIten in diIIerent Iorms and styIes. Here's a reat Iramevork
Ior makin your speecI oranized and your points easier Ior tIe audi-
ence members to remember:
S0ccess T|p!
ReInIorce your
Ideas wIth remInders.
33
1. "Tell them what you're going to tell them." Paint a road map Ior
tIe audience. t minimum, teII tIem in eneraI terms vIat tIey can
expect to Iear Irom you. speecI isn't a mystery noveI. II you vant
to capture interest and create understandin, teII your Iisteners vIat
patI you'II be takin vitI your speecI.
2. "Tell them." TIis section incIudes tIe tIree to ve main points
oI your speecI. TIey must be distinct sections vitI smootI transi-
tions and IoicaI orderin. In tIis part, you convey tIe 'meat' oI your
speecI-tIe points and supportin detaiIs tIat deIiver your messae.
3. "Tell them what you told them." HuI But didn't you aIready teII
tIem ctuaIIy, tIe most eIIective speakers remind tIe audience oI
tIeir key points. TIe concIusion sIouId tie tIe entire speecI toetIer,
takin a variety oI points and summarizin tIem around your core
tIeme. Your audience viII remember mucI more oI your speecI iI you
do a point by point summary.
SEARCHNC FOR SUPPORT
Iter you Iave an overaII skeIeton oI your
speecI, nameIy tIree to ve main points,
you're ready to nd tIe detaiIs necessary
to be eIIective. TIere are many pIaces you
can Iook to nd tIis inIormation, vIicI are
IikeIy tIe same pIaces you vouId o iI you
vere vritin an essay. BeIov are some oI
tIe pIaces to searcI Ior detaiIs:
Libraries viII IikeIy Iave inIormation on your subect. It's nov easier
tIan ever to nd vIat you're Iookin Ior, because most Iibraries Iave
eIectronic searcI databases. You'II aIso vant to Iook in encycIopedias
and otIer reIerence vorks Ior any reIevant detaiIs.
The Internet is tIe Iastest and easiest vay to nd current inIorma-
tion on virtuaIIy any subect. UnIortunateIy, it's aIso IIed vitI many
unreIiabIe sources, so you'II Iave to use your ood sense and criticaI
udment to separate Iact Irom ction.
S0ccess T|p!
Stay on top oI what's
happenIng In the news.

34
Family and friends vIo vork in a eId reIated to your speecI topic,
or vIo you IeeI vouId Iave sinicant knovIede about your subect,
are aIvays exceIIent resources to contact.
PROVNC THE PONTS
Many diIIerent types oI evidence can be useIuI in botI inIormative
and persuasive speecIes. TIese incIude statistics, events, quotations,
reports, and anaIoies, to name a Iev. You sIouId use one or tvo pieces
oI evidence to support eacI oI your points, aIon vitI cIear expIana-
tions oI Iov tIe evidence proves vIat you're sayin.
Flaunting the Facts
Statistics are typicaIIy anytIin to do vitI numbers. Your statistics
sIouId come Irom reIiabIe sources. For instance, tIe audience mem-
bers are more IikeIy to beIieve Iacts Irom a study by a veII-respected
university tIan Irom a speciaI interest roup tIat tIey've never Ieard
oI beIore (not to mention tIat tIe roup may appear biased}. Be care-
IuI not to overuse statistics, because unIess you're speakin to a roup
oI academics, tIe audience viII IikeIy et quite bored. II used correctIy,
Iovever, statistics and reports can add sinicant credibiIity, deptI,
and cIarity to your main ideas.
For exampIe: Hov many peopIe died Irom cancer over tIe Iast
year Hov mucI money does it cost to provide prescription dru ben-
ets to every one oI tIe country's senior citizens VIat percent oI tIe
city's teenaers use iIIeaI drus
Making it Real
True events, stories, and comparisons are some oI tIe exampIes you
may vant to incIude in order to enIance your speecI. TIey sIov tIat
an action or circumstance actuaIIy did Iappen or is takin pIace cur-
rentIy, Iendin credibiIity to your main ideas. nd tIey're eIIective at
simpIiIyin or cIariIyin your position. II you vant to use a IypotIeti-
caI event or story, make sure it's reaIistic, or eIse it von't add any reaI
vaIue. comparison can be useIuI in dravin cIear distinctions, IeIp-
in to iIIustrate your points. Here are some oI tIe speecI topics Ior
vIicI an event, story, or comparison may be eIIective:
35
Drunk driving: II tryin to prove tIe detrimentaI impact tIat drunk
drivers Iave on society, it couId be useIuI to taIk about a recent and
IocaI traedy, and Iov it cIaned IiIe Ior tIe victim's IamiIy.
Land mines: II your obective is to debate in Iavor oI bannin tIe
production and saIe oI Iand mines, try describin tIe story oI a cIiId
vIo vas a victim oI a Iand mine expIosion.
Post-secondary education: career, IiIestyIe, and saIary comparison
oI a student vitI post-secondary education to a student vitI onIy a
IiI scIooI dipIoma couId be an eIIective vay to prove tIe vaIue oI
continuin education past IiI scIooI.
Evoking the Experts
Used properIy, quotations Irom Iamous peopIe or experts in tIe eId
can be vaIuabIe additions to your speecI. For exampIe, iI your speecI
is about Ireedom and civiI riIts, you couId quote Irom Martin LutIer
Kin }r.'s "I Have a Dream" speecI. VIen considerin tIe use oI a quo-
tation, make sure it adds substance, not ust an endorsement. nd
don't overuse quotations, because tIey redect someone's opinion
ratIer tIan concIusive evidence.
NTRCUNC NTRODUCTONS
TIe rst 30 to 40 seconds oI your speecI are in many respects tIe
most important, because tIey ive you an opportunity to capture tIe
audience's attention. It's your vay oI say-
in, "Listen to vIat I Iave to say," as veII as
estabIisIin your main idea and outIinin
your structure. Start vitI sometIin tIat
rabs attention, sucI as a startIin statistic,
a rIetoricaI question, an appeaI to emotion,
or a Iumorous story. Here are some exam-
pIes oI attention-rabbin introductions:
Startling Statistics: "Last year aIone, 49 peopIe in tIis city vere mur-
dered. Out oI tIis aIarmin number, 38 vere innocent civiIians, and 11
oI tIem vere cIiIdren."
S0ccess T|p!
To make an emotIonaI
connectIon, use vIvId
Ianguage.

36
Rhetorical Questions: "Do you IeeI unsaIe tIese days re you aIraid
to vaIk outside at niIt Do you nov Iear Ior tIe saIety oI your youn
cIiIdren vIen tIey pIay in tIe Iront yard or o to scIooI"
Appeal to Emotion: "TIe criminaIs are vinnin tIe battIe aainst us,
tIe Iav-abidin citizens oI tIis city. Too many oI us are innocent victims
oI criminaIs, many oI vIom are ettin avay vitI vioIence because oI
Iax poIicin. Ladies and entIemen, I say it's time Ior cIane. It's time
Ior our overnment to pour in tIe resources necessary to make our
streets saIer Ior aII oI us."
Humorous Story: "Lady stor once said to Vinston CIurcIiII, 'Vin-
ston, iI I vere your viIe I'd put poison in your coIIee'. You vouId expect
tIe recipient oI sucI a personaI attack to be ratIer pIased and quite
anry. But in cIassic CIurcIiIIian IasIion, Ie instead quipped back,
'Nancy, iI I vere your Iusband I'd drink it.'"
TIere are many diIIerent vays to oranize your speecI's introduction.
Hovever, tIere's no perIect structure. It's important tIat you try a
variety oI styIes and Iormats. To et you started, Iere's one exampIe
oI a Iormat Ior your openin:
Step #1: Grab the audience's attention. s mentioned previousIy, tIe
most eIIective introductions start vitI a 'Iook' tIat encouraes tIe
audience members to Iisten to vIat you Iave to say. TIis attention-
rabber usuaIIy Iints at tIe topic or tIeme oI your speecI.
Step #2: Address the audience. Ivays acknovIede your audience.
For exampIe, you couId say, "Ladies and entIemen ." or "Mr. CIair-
person, udes, and vortIy opponents ." UnIortunateIy, many peopIe
spend too Ion on tIis part, presentin a Iaundry Iist oI peopIe in tIe
audience. TIere's no need to take up time sayin, Ior instance, "TeacI-
ers, parents, IeIIov students, scIooI administrators, eIected oIciaIs,
aIumni, and most veIcome uests."
Step #3: State the topic of your speech. Make it very cIear Ior your
audience exactIy vIat you're speakin about. Even iI tIe audience
knovs tIe eneraI topic, it's a ood idea to narrov it dovn to a more
concrete subect in order to provide a sense oI Iocus to your speecI.
37
Step #4: State your main idea or perspective. speecI isn't a dra-
ma. You sIouIdn't be Ieavin your Iisteners in suspense, Iopin tIat
tIey 'et it' by tIe end. State cIearIy and conciseIy vIat you Iope to
accompIisI. TIis vay, vIen peopIe are Iistenin, tIey'II knov tIat
your points are contributin tovard your main idea.
Step #5: Outline the three to hve main points of your speech. Many
Iisteners nd it IeIpIuI to knov vIat, in eneraI, tIe points viII be.
TIis makes it easier Ior tIem to IoIIov your speecI as you o aIon.
CATCHY CONCLUSONS
Your concIusion depends IareIy on tIe purpose oI your speecI. TIe
intent oI tIe cIosin couId be a caII to action, a vrap up oI your aru-
ments, a summary oI your inIormative points, a Iink back to your
introduction, or a combination oI tIese metIods.
VIiIe your introduction catcIes tIe audience's attention, tIe con-
cIusion is tIe naI 'saIes pitcI' Ior your content and a reminder oI
your speecI's main points. For exampIe, iI
you're speakin in Iavor oI more Iundin to
It IobaI poverty, you may Iave opened
your speecI by describin tIe imae oI a
starvin cIiId in SomaIia. You couId con-
cIude by summarizin tIe reasons Ior more
internationaI deveIopment aid, reiteratin
Iov everyone can take IocaI action to meet
tIis obective, and naIIy, presentin tIe
imae oI tIe youn cIiId in SomaIia bein iven Iope Ior a better IiIe.
VIatever you decide, make sure tIat you Ieave your audience vitI
a memorabIe statement tIrouI vIicI tIey can identiIy and tIink
positiveIy about your speecI.
VIen you're movin into your concIusion, make sure tIat your
audience knovs you're doin so. VIiIe tIe simpIest vay is to say, "In
concIusion," tIere are otIer metIods as veII. Sayin, Ior exampIe, "So
vIat Iave I discussed today" or "TIis speecI essentiaIIy comes dovn
to one overarcIin tIeme ..." viII ive your audience a cue tIat you're
movin into tIe naI part oI your speecI.
watch 00t!
Don't 'repeat' your
IntroductIon In your
concIusIon.

38
SMOOTH AND SMPLE TRANSTONS
VIen movin Irom section to section, you need a 'Iue' to IoId tIe
speecI toetIer. RatIer tIan sIiItin abruptIy betveen points, tie
your ideas toetIer to create a sense oI dov.
In persuasive speecIes, eIIective transitions can tie directIy into
tIe buiIdin oI aruments. For inIormative speecIes, it may be more
diIcuIt to nd tIis connection. Instead, you may vant to start a sec-
tion simpIy by sayin tIat you're movin on to tIe next point, vIiIe
reIerrin to tIe previous point. Here are a Iev exampIes:
Spcccn to Pcrsuudc: "Nov tIat I've proven tIe brutaI nature oI capitaI
punisIment, I viII sIov you Iov it's a vioIation oI a citizen's most
basic constitutionaI riIts."
Spcccn to Injorm: "Not onIy Ias space expIoration become Iess expen-
sive, it's nov mucI saIer Ior our astronauts because oI recent advances
in sIuttIe tecInoIoy."
s tIis cIapter Ias discussed, Iavin stron tIemes, points, and
detaiIs combined vitI a careIuIIy pIanned structure Iays tIe Iounda-
tion Ior an eIIective speecI. It's important to be seIective and metIodi-
caI in decidin vIat ideas you vant to et across to your audience.
39
A great speech is based on a unifying theme. Even iI tIey
don't remember aII oI tIe detaiIs, your audience members sIouId
remember tIis main idea. Make sure tIat aII oI your points reIate
to tIis tIeme so tIat your speecI stays on topic.
Develop possible points by brainstorming, and then place
these ideas into categories. You'II nd tIat your initiaI Iist oI
ideas contains points tIat are cIoseIy reIated and can be rouped
toetIer. Iso, you may nd tIat some points overIap or don't
reIate directIy to tIe tIeme. Use tIis process to narrov your
speecI dovn to a core set oI points.
Research details to support your key points. IncIudin evi-
dence, sucI as exampIes and statistics, adds credibiIity to your
speecI. In addition, evidence IeIps iIIustrate and enIance your
points, makin tIem cIearer and stroner.
"Claim, Comment, Cite, and Conclude" for each point. Bein
vitI a cIear statement oI your point. TIen, expIain your point in
reater deptI. Move on by usin evidence to support tIe expIa-
nations. FinaIIy, concIude and tie tIe point into tIe 'bi picture'
or tIeme oI your speecI. TIis metIod viII improve tIe structure
and compIeteness oI your key ideas.
"Tell them what you're going to tell them, then tell them,
and then tell them what you told them." Start your speecI by
Iayin out a 'road map' oI vIat you intend to accompIisI. Con-
tinue vitI tIe 'meat' oI your speecI, nameIy tIe main points
and detaiIs. To concIude, reiterate your main points and sIov
Iov tIey've proven tIe tIeme. Most peopIe need reminders in
order to understand IuIIy vIat you've said.
Transition smoothly between points. Your speecI sIouIdn't
be seen as isoIated cIunks oI inIormation. RatIer, it sIouId be
seen as a connected set oI ideas. Good transitions make it cIear
vIat you've accompIisIed and vIere you're oin next.
41
Coming UpI
Once you've pIanned a reat speecI, tIe next step is deIiverin it
eIIectiveIy. In tIis cIapter, you'II Iearn about diIIerent speecI deIivery
styIes, tooIs Ior verbaI and non-verbaI communication, Iov to mask
mistakes, and vays oI adaptin to your audience.
0hAPT8 4
How You Say t:
DeIIverIng wIth PoIse and PIzzazz

42
THE "WOW!" FACTOR
You've probabIy been toId not to ude a book by its cover. Do you
actuaIIy Iisten to tIat advice More IikeIy tIan not, you decide to pur-
cIase, borrov, or read a book aIter Iookin at tIe cover, scannin tIe
tabIe oI contents, and dippin quickIy tIrouI tIe rest oI it.
TIe same idea IoIds true Ior speecI and debate. Many students
spend Iours deveIopin exceptionaI content, onIy to deIiver tIeir
speecIes vitIout makin an impact. Most peopIe Iear otIers taIkin
Ior Iours eacI day, vIetIer it be teacIers, parents, or students. Do
you Iisten attentiveIy every sinIe time someone is speakin ProbabIy
not. You're naturaIIy dravn tovard cIear, convincin, and interestin
speakers. For tIese reasons, it's veII vortI your vIiIe to Iearn and
practice tIe tooIs Ior exceIIent speecI deIivery.
THE RCHT WAY TO WRTE T
Hov you vrite dovn your speecI (iI at aII} viII Iave a sinicant
impact on Iov veII you deIiver it. Ve eacI Iave our ovn styIe and
preIerences, so tIere's no 'one size ts aII' metIod. Hovever, tIere
are cIear advantaes to seIectin certain metIods and disadvantaes
to oin vitI otIers. BeIov is a discussion oI tIe diIIerent vays to
deIiver a speecI: Outlinc, Script, Mcmorizcd, and Impromptu.
Bare Bones: Outline Speaking
TIis type oI speakin invoIves tIe use oI
an outIine containin your main points.
ItIouI key pIrases and parts oI tIe
introduction and concIusion may be vrit-
ten dovn vord Ior vord, tIe speaker must
knov aII oI tIe inIormation veII enouI to
speak naturaIIy and cIearIy. Most successIuI
speakers use an outIine, because it aIIovs
Ior maximum duency and ease oI deIivery.
Some speakers vrite dovn onIy ve or six Iines as reminders oI
tIeir main points. OtIers incIude detaiIs under eacI point. Take a Iook
at tIe speecI outIines on tIe next pae to et a IeeI Ior tIis metIod.
S0ccess T|p!
Use an outIIne
rather than a scrIpt.
ou You Suy . c:.cr:rq u:r Fo:sc uru F:zzuzz
43

44
45
Put it on Paper: Script Speaking
II you're a beinner at speecI and debate, or iI it's essentiaI tIat every
pIrase be very accurate, you may vant to consider a script. In tIis
styIe oI speakin, you vrite dovn your entire speecI vord Ior vord,
and you use tIe script Ior deIivery. You sIouId try to make eye con-
tact vitI tIe audience as mucI as possibIe. II you don't, it viII seem
Iike you're taIkin to tIe pupcr more tIan you're communicatin and
enain vitI tIe uudicncc. ItIouI script speakin may initiaIIy
seem easier, it's Iess eIIective in terms oI duency and audience inter-
est. Try svitcIin to tIe outIine styIe as soon as possibIe.
II speakin vitI a script, '1.S space' your vritin so tIat it's easier
to nd your pIace as you present. Vrite dovn your most important
pIrases and main points in boId Iont, underIined, or itaIicized so tIat
tIese key Iines stand out. Take a Iook at tIe exampIes on tIe previous
pae to see tvo vays oI vritin dovn a speecI vord Ior vord.
Keep it in Mind: Memorized Speaking
II you Iave a pIotorapIic memory or too mucI time on your Iands,
you may vant to consider memorizin your speecI. Don't meet any oI
tIe above criteria You're not aIone! Memorized speakin isn't recom-
mended Ior most peopIe. Not onIy is tIis metIod diIcuIt, but it aIso
makes you seem Iess naturaI and reIaxed. Your audience viII IikeIy be
abIe to teII tIat you're struIin to remember eacI exact vord.
ItIouI memorizin an entire speecI is IrauIt vitI probIems,
you may vant to memorize tIe most important Iines. For instance, iI
you Iave a Iev Iines tIat you Iope viII stand out, sayin tIem by Ieart
may IeIp you Iocus on makin a connection vitI your audience.
In an Instant: Impromptu Speaking
VIenever you're speakin on tIe spot or vitI Iess tIan ve minutes
oI preparation time, you're speakin impromptu. Impromptu speak-
in skiIIs viII IeIp you in debates, because you'II Iave to cIasI vitI
your opponents' aruments vitIout bein abIe to anticipate exactIy
vIat tIey're oin to say. Iso, tIis type oI speakin is a reat skiII to
Iave Ior askin and ansverin questions, eitIer aIter a speecI or as
part oI a debate. II you practice impromptu speakin, you'II be abIe to
communicate dynamicaIIy on sIort notice, or even no notice at aII.

46
TOOLS FOR TOPNOTCH DELVERY
Your voice is a poverIuI instrument Ior communication, and usin it
correctIy takes sinicant skiII and practice. musician uses a variety
oI tecIniques to create quaIity sound, ust
as a speaker uses tIe voice to express ideas
cIearIy and eIIectiveIy. But tIere isn't a sin-
Ie 'riIt' speakin styIe. ItIouI tIere are
eneraI strateies Ior successIuI deIivery,
you must deveIop your ovn styIe. Here are
some oI tIe basics vIen it comes to maxi-
mizin your vocaI eIIectiveness:
Rate. For tIe speaker, vIo's mucI more IamiIiar vitI tIe speecI tIan
tIe audience members, tIe content may seem easiIy understandabIe
vIen spoken at a pace tIat vouId be used Ior everyday conversation.
Hovever, vIen speakin in pubIic, your rate must be sIov enouI so
tIat your audience can cIearIy understand your ideas. Be sure, tIouI,
to keep your presentation duent and IiveIy.
ItIouI tIere's no riid ruIe Ior tIe ideaI
speakin rate, most speecIes are deIivered
at 120 to 140 vords per minute. Iso, you
eneraIIy don't vant to keep a constant rate
tIrouIout your speecI. SIov dovn at your
key points, or vIen tIe content is more diI-
cuIt Ior otIers to understand.
Pitch. ItIouI tIere's no optimaI pitcI Ior pubIic speakin, variety
is very important nonetIeIess. It's ratIer borin Ior tIe audience iI
you maintain a constant and monotonous pitcI tIrouIout. Raise
or Iover your pitcI to add variety and empIasis. TIis pitcI variety
sIouId come naturaIIy iI you're comIortabIe vitI your speecI and iI
you speak eitIer impromptu or usin an outIine.
Pauses. In addition to IeIpin you nd your pIace or atIer your
tIouIts, pauses can be used strateicaIIy. It's important to pause
briedy aIter eacI oI your key points or aIter you deIiver vitaI inIorma-
tion, so tIat tIe audience members Iave an opportunity to absorb tIe
content. Iso, pauses can be used to create dramatic impact aIter tIe
most memorabIe and important Iines.
S0ccess T|p!
When a speaker
captures your Interest,
thInk about why.
0|d Yo0 koow?
The worId's Iastest
taIker speaks at over
650 words per mInute.
47
Tone. It's important tIat your speakin tone redects tIe intent oI your
speecI. For exampIe, a Iumorous speecI sIouId Iave a IiIter, more
upbeat tone; a tribute to IaIIen soIdiers sIouId Iave a more soIemn
tone; and a speecI to persuade tIe audience to take some sort oI
poIiticaI action sIouId be deIivered vitI a IiveIy and passionate tone.
In speecIes intended to inIorm, even tIouI tIe exact tone is Iess
important in terms oI redectin tIe content, you sIouId stiII be IairIy
IiveIy in order to maintain audience interest.
Volume. Make sure tIat you're speakin Ioud enouI so tIat tIe audi-
ence members vIo are IartIest avay Irom you can Iear you cIearIy.
You sIouId vatcI careIuIIy Ior reaction Irom tIe audience to deter-
mine iI anyone is Iavin diIcuIty Iearin your speecI. Very Iev
speakers are too Ioud, but make sure you don't seem to be 'sIoutin'
at tIe audience. Iso, you don't necessariIy Iave to speak at tIe same
voIume tIrouIout. Some deree oI voIume variety is an eIIective vay
to deIiver your speecI in a IiveIy, interestin manner.
Emphasis. In addition to pausin, your tone and voIume variety can be
used to empIasize key vords and pIrases in your speecI. ny cIane
in tone and voIume can make a Iine stand out, sucI as raisin your
voice or deepenin your tone.
Clarity. Hov you articuIate vords is criticaI iI you vant your audi-
ence to understand IuIIy vIat you're sayin. Make sure tIat you aren't
mumbIin or sIurrin your vords, and practice any diIcuIt vords
beIoreIand so tIat tIey aren't mispronounced vIen you speak.
THE SOUND OF SLENCE
On September 26, 1960, tIe debate betveen }oIn F. Kennedy and RicI-
ard Nixon Ior President oI tIe United States marked tIe rst time tIat
miIIions oI peopIe vatcIed sucI a contest on teIevision. TIe debate
vas ricI in substance, vitI botI participants conveyin key insiIts
into tIeir respective pIatIorms. Radio Iisteners vere aImost evenIy
spIit on vIo von tIe debate, Ieanin sIiItIy in Iavor oI Nixon. TIe
story vas very diIIerent vitI teIevision vievers. TIey Iavored Ken-
nedy by a vide marin. His youtIIuI and upbeat imae trumped tIe
more tired-Iookin and paIe Nixon.

48
Yes, body Ianuae does matter. You may tIink it sIouIdn't-tIat
ve sIouId be uded onIy accordin to vIat ve say. II so, Greek pIi-
IosopIer ristotIe vas probabIy in your camp vIen Ie vrote in Rncto-
ric, "TIe battIe sIouId be IouIt on tIe Iacts oI tIe case aIone." Today,
tIe Iact is tIat peopIe Iisten vitI tIeir eyes as mucI as tIey Iisten
vitI tIeir ears. Ve usuaIIy tIink oI audience members as 'Iisteners'.
PerIaps it's a ood idea to tIink oI tIem as 'vievers' as veII.
ExceIIent speakers communicate tIeir condence vitI tIeir pos-
ture and movement. TIey don't rock back and IortI or Irom side to
side, instead pIacin tIeir Ieet rmIy on tIe door. But tIat's onIy vIen
tIey're in one pIace. OIten, tIey move around tIe Iront oI tIe room,
addin coIor and empIasis to tIeir points. Never ones to sIoucI, tIey
stand vitI condence-and tIat's vIat tIe audience sees in tIem.
Stron communicators add empIasis and styIe usin estures. To
aIIov tIeir Iands to move IreeIy, tIey keep tIem out oI tIeir pock-
ets and oII tIe stand. ItIouI everyone Ias a diIIerent naturaI styIe
vIen esturin, Iere are some strateies to consider:
Avoid pointing your hnger. Nobody Iikes Iavin a ner pointed at
tIem. For many audience members, doin so viII appear too IorceIuI.
VIat iI esturin vitI your ner is a Iabit tIat you've Iormed and
is a naturaI part oI your styIe t Ieast be sure tIat you don't ab your
ner directIy at otIers, but tIat you point up, dovn, or to tIe side.
Limit closed-hsted gestures. TIe 'puncIin' esture, Iike tIe ner-
pointin esture, appears a tad too bIunt Ior many peopIe. Some speak-
ers see it as a vay to sIov strentI and conviction. UnIortunateIy, it
aIso makes you seem more tense and riid, in contrast to tIe more
expressive and IiveIy imae you may vant to present.
Do a '360' to expand your range. Most speakers restrict estures to
a very narrov rane oI motion. TIeir eIbovs stay riIt aainst tIeir
body, and tIeir estures are aIvays in Iront oI tIem or beside tIem.
TIe best vay to add variety to your estures is to use tIe compIete
'360 deree' rane oI motion. In particuIar, you can empIasize your
most important points vitI stron estures above your sIouIders.
Use a variety of gestures. Ve aII Iave particuIar types oI estures tIat
ve use more oIten tIan otIers. TIey're part oI our ovn naturaI styIe.
UnIortunateIy, it can aIso become very repetitive and staIe in tIe eyes
49
oI an audience member. II you Iave a cIance to videotape yourseII
speakin, pIay your speecI in Iast-Iorvard, and you'II notice tIis prob-
Iem very quickIy iI it's tIe case vitI you. Do your best to use diIIerent
estures, so tIat your speecI Ias more coIor and cIaracter.
Most importantly, be natural. Sounds contradictory, riIt You've
ust Ieard severaI 'ruIes' Ior eIIective Iand estures, and nov you're
bein toId to be 'naturaI'. UndoubtedIy, it's a
touI baIancin act. Your estures are most
expressive and eIIective vIen tIey come
naturaIIy, especiaIIy vIen your body is Iree
oI tension and stress. Try vorkin vitIin
tIe Iramevork oI your naturaI styIe, but
aim to enIance your perIormance on tIe
dimensions mentioned previousIy.
DYNAMC DE8ATE DELVERY
II you Iook at a debate score sIeet, it's IikeIy tIat no more tIan a
quarter oI tIe totaI marks are Ior deIivery. NaturaIIy, tIose vIo make
exceIIent aruments but vIo are Iess comIortabIe vitI tIeir deIivery
concIude tIat tIeir speakin skiIIs can't cost tIem any more tIan a
Iraction oI tIe totaI score.
TIey're vron. In an ideaI vorId, tIis vouIdn't be tIe case. Ve
vouId ude debaters primariIy by vIat tIey Iave to say. But eacI oI
us naturaIIy makes subective udments. TIe impression you make as
a speaker oes a Ion vay in raisin your score in aII areas. PeopIe say
to tIemseIves, "TIat debater seems condent, and sIe reaIIy appears
to Iave Ier Iead on Ier sIouIders. So I uess Ier aruments are aIso
quite stron, udin Irom Iov condentIy sIe presents tIem."
In addition to tIe appearance oI condence, tIe rane oI speakin
tecIniques discussed in tIis cIapter appIies to debate deIivery. Sev-
eraI areas are particuIarIy important:
Your use of variety and expressiveness. Even to tIe most interested
Iistener, a debate can become dry iI speecI aIter speecI is devoid oI
any passion. Make sure your styIe keeps tIe udes interested.
How clearly you present ideas. }udes Iave to rasp many distinct
points, some oI vIicI may be ratIer sopIisticated. It's important tIat
watch 00t!
Don't 'pIan' hand
gestures Into your
speech.

50
you expIain ideas very cIearIy and preciseIy, incIudin ood articuIa-
tion and, iI necessary, sIovin dovn your pace.
The way that you write down your speech. debate speecI vritten
out vord Ior vord makes udes IeeI Iike tIey're at a pubIic speakin
competition. Use an outIine to sIov tIat you're condent enouI in
your ideas to be abIe to expIain tIem vitIout readin Irom text.
MASKNC MSTAKES
Nobody speaks perIectIy-not even seasoned proIessionaIs. Ve aII
make errors, as speecI and debate is more oI an art tIan an exact sci-
ence. UnIortunateIy, ve oIten Iet tIe audience knov tIat ve've made
a mistake tIrouI our vords, expression, or body Ianuae. VitIout
doin so, most peopIe vouIdn't Iave even noticed! TIere are a Iev
tooIs oI tIe trade tIat make it easy to mask mistakes:
Don't apologizeI Sayin, "OI, sorry, vIat I meant to say vas ." not
onIy sIovs uncertainty, but it's aIso compIeteIy unnecessary. VIy
sIouId you apoIoize, vIen you're tIe one
makin tIe eIIort to deIiver a speecI Your
credibiIity as a speaker depends on your
abiIity to proect condence. Never ive tIe
audience a reason to beIieve tIat you're
stumbIin. Most oI tIe time, your mistake
viII be so minor, tIat it Ias no sinicant
impact on your overaII messae.
Pause. Sometimes, tIe most eIIective recovery tooI tIat a speaker can
use is not to speak. Too oIten, ve II memory Iapses or mistakes vitI
"um's" and "aI's," reveaIin tIat ve've made an error. VIy not ust
pause Ior a spIit second and coIIect your tIouIts
Recall what you just said. II you're struIin to nd vIere you sIouId
be oin next, use diIIerent Ianuae to summarize tIe tIouIt tIat
you've ust nisIed. For exampIe, you couId say, "Nov tIat I Iave
estabIisIed vIy pIysicaI tness is enoyabIe, I vant to move on to ."
TIis tecInique not onIy ives you a moment to coIIect yourseII, it aIso
serves as a reat transition to a nev point.
S0ccess T|p!
Pretend that the error
never even happened.
51
Smile. Ium, dustered Iook is a bIatant iveavay tIat you're stru-
Iin. II you're smiIin and proectin a positive imae, you'II be oin
a Ion vay in Iidin any mistakes.
THE ART OF ADAPTNC
s a speaker, you're a 'servant' to tIe audi-
ence. TIereIore, you must be dexibIe enouI
to adapt to tIe audience's reaction. TIe best
speakers viII pay careIuI attention to tIe
non-verbaI sinaIs tIat audience members
send to tIem and viII adapt tIeir speakin
styIe or content accordinIy. Here are a Iev
situations vitI suested responses:
Problem #1: Countering confusion. Say your Iisteners' IaciaI expres-
sions suest tIat tIey don't cIearIy understand your point. TIey've
stopped vritin anytIin dovn, aimin to understand you rst.
Solution. Enguging cxplunutions. TIere's notIin vorse tIan continu-
in as pIanned vIen your audience doesn't et vIat you ust said. In
tIis situation, you sIouId repeat or summarize your point, expIainin
vIy it matters to tIe issue at Iand. VIen you do so, maintain ena-
in eye contact vitI tIe audience members vIo appear uncertain.
Iso, movin Iorvard sIiItIy suests tIat you're tryin your best to
IeIp tIem understand vIat you're sayin.
Problem #2: They're bored. Let's Iace it, not everyone viII be interest-
ed in vIat you're sayin. Some peopIe viII Iave a ratIer disinterested
expression, otIers viII sit back and cross tIeir arms, and yet otIers
viII start Iookin dovn, to tIe side, or even at tIeir vatcIes!
Solution. Cct dynumic! TIe main reason vIy tIey aren't interested
is probabIy because you don't seem interested. Vary your pitcI, tone,
expression, speed, movement, and estures to create some interest.
Don't ust keep your eye contact vitI tIose vIo are Iistenin. To tIe
contrary, aim to make eye contact particuIarIy vitI tIose vIo seem
bored. Make tIem IeeI Iike tIey snould be Iistenin.
Problem #3: Opposite opinion. Not everyone viII aree vitI your
points. Everyone, oI course, Ias opinions, and sometimes you can teII
tIat some audience members don't sIare your vievs. TIey may turn
S0ccess T|p!
NotIce the audIence
members' IacIaI
expressIons.

52
or sIake tIeir Ieads, or tIey may sIiIt tIeir posture. TIese sinaIs
reveaI aitation or disareement, and you must respond accordinIy.
Solution. Dccisivc dircction. You Iave tvo cIoices: deIend your point
assertiveIy or Iocus primariIy on otIer points. II you IeeI you Iave
sometIin more to say about your point tIat may convince tIe audi-
ence, don't stop vitI vIat you've pIanned. Be decisive in standin up
Ior your arument, as tIose opposin you viII eitIer be convinced or
at Ieast acknovIede tIat you Iave sound basis Ior vIat you're say-
in. notIer stratey is to pIay up otIer points and make tIem tIe
main Iocus oI your concIusion. In otIer vords, iI it seems Iike tIey
don't aree vitI part oI vIat you're sayin, dovnpIay tIese areas.
II you vant to ensure tIat your speecI content is deIivered in an eIIec-
tive, IiI-impact vay, be sure to practice tIe metIods expIained in
tIis cIapter. Great deIivery Ieaves your audience vitI a IavorabIe
impression oI botI you and your speecI.
53
Use an outline to deliver a speech. Vritin your speecI dovn
vord Ior vord makes it touI to Iave stron eye contact and
enaement vitI tIe audience. Memorizin your speecI makes
your deIivery seem unnaturaI, not to mention tIe extraordinary
amount oI time tIat you'II Iave to spend preparin. n outIine
vitI your key ideas provides IeIpIuI reminders as you o aIon,
vIiIe aIIovin you to speak IreeIy and naturaIIy.
Practice effective speaking techniques. moderate pace
vitI veII-pIaced pauses makes it easy Ior tIe audience to IoIIov
your speecI. Your expression, tone, and voIume sIouId redect
tIe purpose oI tIe speecI. Ivays make sure tIat your Iisteners
can Iear and understand vIat you're sayin and tIat tIey et
tIe desired meanin Irom tIe vay you speak.
Enhance your speech with sound body language. Your es-
tures IeIp convey tIe tone and meanin oI vIat you're tryin
to et across. In addition to makin you jccl more condent, a
soIid posture makes you look more condent. Remember tIat
tIe audience members Iorm mucI oI tIeir impression oI you
Irom vIat tIey see.
Don't make your mistakes obvious. poIoizin sIovs
veakness and uncertainty. Instead, pause briedy or reIer back to
vIat you've ust said to IeIp you recover.
Adapt constantly to your audience. Pay attention to tIe
body Ianuae and expression oI tIe audience members to see
iI tIey're conIused, bored, or in disareement. TIen, adust your
content and styIe accordinIy. Your oaI is to 'serve' your audi-
ence, and understandin your 'customers' is tIe rst step to et-
tin tIe ob done riIt!
55
Coming UpI
Nov tIat you've read vIat it takes to buiId a reat speecI, it's time to
see tIe pieces come toetIer. TIis cIapter viII take you tIrouI a Iev
sampIe speecIes, and tIe commentary viII discuss vIat's oin veII
and vIat couId improve. TIink about tIe styIe and tone you vouId
use to deIiver eacI speecI.
0hAPT8 5
LIteraIIy SpeakIng:
Speeches wIth Commentary

56
SPACE TOURSM: REALSTC OR RDCULOUSZ
Speech
For most oI us, tIe idea oI a dream vacation
tIat's 'out oI tIis vorId' couId incIude an ad-
venture in DisneyIand, a veek on a Caribbean
beacI, or a Mediterranean cruise. But in 2001,
miIIionaire Dennis Tito took 'out oI tIis vorId'
a bit more IiteraIIy. He became tIe rst person
to take a vacation in space. Some peopIe be-
Iieve tIat space tourism is ust anotIer Iad-a
vaste oI time and money. I couIdn't disaree
more. Space tourism is tIe next Irontier in our
quest to expIore tIe universe. Today, I'm oin
to teII you vIy space tourism is ood Ior our
dream to discover, tIe birtI oI a nev industry,
and a vision oI Iuman civiIization in space.
Human civiIization Ias aIvays dared
to discover vIat ve once tIouIt vouId be
impossibIe. VIo vouId Iave dreamed oI dy-
in untiI tIe VriIt brotIers invented tIe
airpIane in tIe earIy 1900s nd vIo vouId
Iave tIouIt tIat a Iuman bein couId vaIk
on tIe moon beIore astronaut NeiI rmstron
did ust tIat in 1969 TIere's no question tIat
past space missions Iave tauIt us a reat
deaI about tIe universe, as veII as creatin
more tanibIe benets Ior science and tecI-
noIoy. Space tourism is simpIy tIe next step
in our dream to discover tIe vorId around us.
It's time to encourae more peopIe expIore
tIe universe, even iI it's Ior no otIer reason
tIan tIeir ovn personaI enoyment.
So Ior tIose vIo Iave tIis dream, vIat
viII it take to et tIem tIere CertainIy, ve
couId never expect overnments to Iund a
person's desire Ior a very cooI vacation. It's
my viev tIat tIe soIution Iies in tIe birtI oI a
Commentary
Cood pcrsonulizution oj
tnc issuc to opcn
tnc spcccn.
Ejjcctivc purullclism.
Blunt, clcur opinion
stutcmcnt.
A bit too ubstruct
und gcncrul.
Cood usc oj rnctoricul
qucstions.
Wny uould uc curc
nou tncsc pcoplc spcnd
tncir moncy
Smootn trunsition.
:cruy Spcur:rq. Spcccrcs u:r Commcrury
57
space tourism industry, vorkin in coopera-
tion vitI tIe vorId's space aencies. II tIere
are veaItIy peopIe viIIin to spend Iundreds
oI tIousands oI doIIars, iI not miIIions oI doI-
Iars, to make tIeir space traveI dreams a re-
aIity, vIy prevent tIem Irom doin so Let's
aIIov investors and entrepreneurs to dourisI
in tIeir quest to take advantae oI tIis oppor-
tunity. Ve've aIready Ieard tIat companies
Iike Virin irIines and HiIton InternationaI
vant to be part oI tIis dream. Space tourism
couId be tIe birtI oI a nev economic enine.
II ve aIIov tIe dream to discover to come
toetIer vitI tIe potentiaI Ior prot, ve'II
Iave compIeted tIe rst step tovard Iuman
civiIization in space. Ve'II Iave Iaid tIe Ioun-
dation Ior permanent estabIisIments tIat viII
aIIov more and more peopIe to take a IoIiday
on, say, tIe moon, or perIaps a space IoteI
orbitin our pIanet. SureIy, tIis vision may be
decades avay, but a space tourism industry
is tIe rst stae in makin it come true. It
viII pIant seeds oI opportunity tIat viII in-
spire a mission reacIin Iar beyond ust a Iev
veaItIy individuaIs.
My Iriends, ve must aIvays dare to
dream, and ve must aIvays dream to discov-
er. Ve must expIore tIis nev Irontier made
possibIe by advanced, modern tecInoIoy.
nd ve must embark on a mission to take
tourism 'out oI tIis vorId'.
"Working in coopcru-
tion nou cxuctly
Hou do tncy uunt
to bc "purt oj tnis
drcum
Did you cxpluin nou
tncy uould "comc
togctncr
Muking succping
gcncrulizutions.
Cood link buck to tnc
prst point.
Ejjcctivc ou jrom
"durc |to| drcum |to|
discovcr.
Cood conncction to
opcning oj spcccn.

58
COMMENTARY ON "SPACE TOURSM" SPEECH
TIis vas a IairIy creative speecI IikeIy meant Ior a IiIt, inIormaI oc-
casion. TIe oaI vas to present a vievpoint on a concept ratIer tIan
on specic ideas.
What did the speech do wellZ
Usc oj vivid lunguugc. It vas cIear tIat estabIisIin an emotionaI con-
nection vitI tIe audience vas one oI tIe speaker's main oaIs. TIe
use oI ricI, descriptive Ianuae IeIped in tIis reard. PIrases Iike
"dare to dream" and "birtI oI a nev economic enine" iIIustrated some
oI tIe key ideas.
Closing linkcd to opcning. TIe "out oI tIis vorId" expression used tvice
in tIe introduction vas repeated in tIe concIusion. "Dream to discov-
er" and "Irontier" vere aIso used aain. TIe use oI simiIar tIemes and
pIrases, as veII as a personaI connection, made Ior a ood t betveen
tIe introduction and tIe concIusion.
Usc oj rnctoricul qucstions. EspeciaIIy in tIe second pararapI, rIe-
toricaI questions encouraed tIe audience members to imaine tIe
concepts Ior tIemseIves. TIis aided tIe speaker in acIievin Iis oaI,
vIicI vas to make an emotionaI connection.
Trunsitions bctuccn points. TIe rst sentence oI tIe second and tIird
pararapIs incIuded a cIear reIerence to tIe previous point. TIis aI-
Ioved tIe speecI to dov smootIIy and IeIped tIe speaker uide tIe
Iistener aIon a particuIar patI.
What could have improvedZ
Lcngtn oj introduction compurcd to body purugrupns. NormaIIy, an intro-
duction oI tIis IentI vouId be appropriate. But in tIis case, it vas
tIe same IentI, iI not Ioner, tIan eacI oI tIe main points. sIorter
introduction or Ioner body pararapIs vouId Iave made tIe propor-
tions more suitabIe.
Too ubstruct und gcncrul. Granted, makin an emotionaI connection
vas an important oaI oI tIis speecI. Hovever, more concrete, IactuaI
59
inIormation and detaiIs vouId Iave been useIuI. TIe speecI came
across as 'dreamy' more tIan practicaI or reaIistic.
Extcnds tnc cusc too jur. TIe main tIrust oI tIe speecI vas cIearIy
space tourism. Discussin space civilizution as veII appeared ratIer Ian-
ciIuI and unIocused.
MERCK, MECTZAN, AND RVER 8LNDNESS
Speech
UnbearabIe itcIin. Skin disurement. Per-
manent bIindness.
VeIcome to tIe vorId oI one oI tIe 18
miIIion peopIe in tIe poorest oI countries vIo
suIIer Irom river bIindness. VeIcome, aIso, to
one oI tIe most dauntin diIemmas Iaced by
a corporation in modern times. Today, I vant
to teII you about tIe story oI an merican
pIarmaceuticaI rm mandated by its sIare-
IoIders to maximize prots, but motivated
by its Ieart to IeIp Iumanity. I vant to teII
you about tIe story oI Merck, its dru Mccti-
zun, and tIe miIIions oI peopIe vIo needed it
but couIdn't aIIord to pay Ior it. To start, I viII
expIore Merck's diIemma in tIe 1980s. TIen, I
viII teII you about vIat tIey did. nd naIIy,
I viII discuss vIat tIis means Ior tIe Iuture
oI dru deveIopment and distribution.
Merck Iaced a touI diIemma in tIe
1980s, Iavin to decide vIetIer to spend
miIIions oI doIIars on a dru tIat vouId never
earn a dime. TIe disease vas river bIindness,
knovn scienticaIIy as "OncIocerciasis." I'II
spare you tIe pronunciation and caII it "river
bIindness" Irom Iere on in. Spread by an in-
Iected bIackdy's bite, it resuIts in a parasitic
vorm inIestin tIe body. TIe intense itcIin,
skin disurement, and permanent bIindness
tIat vouId occur aIIected miIIions oI peopIe.
Commentary
Ejjcctivc imugcry.
Cood usc oj
purullclism ncrc.
Ovcrvicu oj tncmc.
Is tnis un udvcrtisc-
mcnt jor Mcrck
"Tcll tncm unut yourc
going to tcll tncm
introduction.
Clcur stutcmcnt oj tnc
kcy point.
Wusnt it cullcd "rivcr
blindncss ulrcudy
Rcinjorccmcnt oj
imugcry.

60
Merck, tIouI, Iad stumbIed upon researcI
tIat couId cure tIis terribIe disease. TIe prob-
Iem vas tIat nobody vas viIIin to pay Ior it.
TIere vas IittIe commitment Irom overn-
ments, and tIe end users certainIy veren't
in any position to aIIord it. To make matters
vorse, tIere vas no distribution system, as
tIe peopIe aIdicted by river bIindness Iived
primariIy in isoIated ruraI areas tIrouIout
many Irican countries. SIouId Merck spend
miIIions oI doIIars to deveIop its dru Mccti-
zun II so, sIouId it ive it avay Ior Iree nd
iI it ives it avay Ior Iree, sIouId it take care
oI distributin tIe dru nd iI it did aII oI
tIese tIins, vouId it set a danerous prec-
edent Ior Iuture dru deveIopment Merck
Iaced aII oI tIese dauntin cIaIIenes, and it
vas a 'o' or 'no o' decision. TIere vas no
IaIIvay soIution. TIey vouId eitIer o IuII
steam aIead, or abandon tIe proect.
So Iov did Merck resoIve tIis diIemma
SimpIy put, it decided tIat it vouId do avay
vitI prots and sink miIIions oI doIIars into
soIvin tIis probIem, even tIouI it knev tIe
company vouId never recover more tIan a
Iraction oI its investment. In 1987, Merck an-
nounced tIat it vouId ive avay Mcctizun Ior
Iree to aII tIose vIo vere aIdicted by river
bIindness. Merck's campain, particuIarIy tIe
Merck Mcctizun Donation Proram, eventuaIIy
enaed many otIer roups. TIese incIuded
pIarmaceuticaI companies, overnments,
non-prot oranizations, and tIe VorId Bank.
In 1994, tIe VorId Bank approved a speciaI
proram to raise $130 miIIion tovard treatin
river bIindness in deveIopin countries. MiI-
Iions oI doses Iater, tIe Iives oI so many Iad
been cIaned Ior tIe better. VIat started as an
uncertain venture by one company turned into
Stutcmcnt oj tnc
ovcrull cnullcngc.
Cood usc oj qucs-
tions to dcscribc tnc
dilcmmu.
Tnrcc qucstions is
okuy, jour pusncs it.
Rcpctition oj tnc sumc
point tnrcc timcs,
pcrnups too muny.
Cood link buck to prst
point oj tnc spcccn.
A clcur dcscription oj
unut uctuully cndcd
up nuppcning.
Hou muny
doscs cxuctly
61
a IobaI operation enain partners and aI-
Iected communities aIike.
TIe case oI Merck's success raises inter-
estin issues Ior tIe Iuture oI dru deveIop-
ment and distribution to tIose vIo can't
aIIord to pay Ior medicine. Today, tIis issue
comes up repeatedIy in tIe mission to treat
HIV/IDS tIrouIout tIe deveIopin vorId,
because tIe drus are too expensive Ior most
peopIe to aIIord. It's my viev tIat tIe modeI
deveIoped by Merck is a useIuI one Ior otIer
IeaItI prorams. TIe key is tIat tIe bur-
den not be pIaced squareIy on tIe sIouIders
oI one company. Merck took tIe risk tIat it
vouIdn't Iave sinicant support, but tIe
support eventuaIIy came. OtIer dru com-
panies need to be assured tIat tIey'II Iave
viIIin partners to sIouIder part oI tIe re-
sponsibiIity sIouId tIey vant to enae in
sucI a Iumanitarian eIIort. I certainIy Iope
tIat tIis probIem can be soIved. SureIy, Mcc-
tizun did set a precedent. But I vouId arue
tIat it vas a ood precedent to set.
Today, I've sIared vitI you Merck's di-
Iemma, vIat it did to resoIve tIis diIemma in
Iavor oI Iuman IeaItI, and vIat tIis means
Ior Iuture medicaI endeavors in deveIopin
countries. In 1987, a roup oI peopIe decided
tIat unbearabIe itcIin, skin disurement,
and permanent bIindness didn't Iave to be a
reaIity. TIe vorId didn't Iave to accept tIat
notIin couId be done about it. SometIin
vas done about it, and it sent a ray oI Iope to
miIIions oI peopIe around tIe vorId.
No dctuil oj "ujjcctcd
communitics link.
"Intcrcsting Usc u
dijjcrcnt uord.
Wny its rclcvunt
toduy.
Wno spccipcully
snould curry tnc bur-
dcn Covcrnmcnts
Otncr compunics
Cood opinion
stutcmcnt.
Nicc lcud into tnc
conclusion.
Oncc uguin, rcinjorcc-
mcnt oj opcning
imugcry.
Isnt tnc muin point
unut it mcuns jor tnc
juturc

62
COMMENTARY ON "MERCK AND MECTZAN" SPEECH
ItIouI tIe speaker spent tvo points describin vIat Iappened in
tIe past, tIe purpose vas cIearIy to sIov tIat vIat Merck did sIouId
be a modeI Ior present and Iuture situations. It vas botI a speecI to
inIorm and a speecI to persuade, vitI tIe inIormative parts Iayin
tIe Ioundation Ior tIe persuasive remarks.
What did the speech do wellZ
Usc oj imugcry. It vas important Ior tIe audience to picture tIe eI-
Iects oI river bIindness. TIe openin pIrase, "UnbearabIe itcIin. Skin
disurement. Permanent bIindness," vas one instance vIere ima-
ery vas used eIIectiveIy.
Insignt into tnc primury uctor. TIe speaker vas eIIective at expIain-
in Merck's diIemma, discussin its condictin obectives and specic
cIaIIenes concernin Mcctizun. TIis aIIoved an audience member to
tIink, "VIat vouId I do iI I Iad to make tIat decision"
Providing rclcvuncc to tnc issuc. VitIout describin tIe Iuture impIica-
tions oI Merck's endeavor, many audience members vouId Iave been
IeIt askin, "So vIat It's aII ne and veII to knou about tIis diIemma,
but vIy does it muttcr" TIe discussion oI reIated situations provided
present-day context to tIe speecI.
Rclcvunt juctuul injormution. TIe speaker ave tIe audience members
key Iacts about tIe disease, tIe diIemma, and tIe soIution to IeIp
tIem understand tIe situation. II more Iacts Iad been stated, it vouId
Iave been Iarder Ior tIe Iisteners to rasp tIe most important ones.
What could have improvedZ
Lcss promotion oj Mcrck. TIere's no question tIat tIe speaker intended
to paint Merck in a positive IiIt Ior its roIe in tIis situation. t times,
tIouI, tIe tone seemed overIy usIin in its praise oI Merck, aImost
makin it seem Iike tIe speaker vas tryin to impress someone vIo
vorked at tIe company.
63
Dijjcrcnt jocus in tnc conclusion. II a key obective oI tIe speecI vas to
expIain to tIe Iisteners Iov Merck's modeI sIouId appIy to present
and Iuture disease outbreaks, tIe concIusion sIouIdn't Iave Iocused
so mucI on vIat Iappened in tIe past. Sayin, Ior exampIe, "Let's
extend tIis ray oI Iope to miIIions more," couId Iave been one Iine oI
a more eIIective cIosin.
Morc discussion oj tnc prcscnt-duy solution. Granted, it vouIdn't be vise
to overburden tIe audience vitI too mucI IactuaI inIormation. TIat
bein said, it vouId Iave been IeIpIuI to cIaracterize in more deptI
vIat a modeI Ior soIvin current situations vouId Iook Iike.

64
Notice the importance of having a clear objective. You couId
be Ioriven Ior vonderin vIat tIe key oaI vas in tIe "Space
Tourism" speecI, as tIe speecI seemed to Iack Iocus. TIe "Merck
and Mectizan" speecI did a more eIIective ob oI movin tovard
a reIevant, important, and practicaI messae.
Pay attention to the type of language. TIe "Space Tourism"
speecI used vivid, coIorIuI Ianuae in order to make an emo-
tionaI connection. TIe "Merck and Mectizan" speecI combined
ricIIy descriptive and IactuaI Ianuae, redectin botI tIe
Iuman dimension oI tIe situation and tIe practicaI aspect oI
tIe diIemma, respectiveIy.
0|S00V8 08AT:
HOW TO WN AN ARCUMENT
Part
67
Coming UpI
Nov tIat you've seen vIat it takes to make a reat speecI, it's time to
discover Iov to debate. TIis cIapter viII teII you about tIe nature and
process oI a debate. You'II Iearn Iov to dene resoIutions, pIay your
roIe, use a dov sIeet, and vork vitI your partner. Roundin out tIe
cIapter are tips to enIance your perIormance in a number oI areas.
0hAPT8 6
Nuts and 8oIts:
8uIIdIng 8Iocks oI Debate

68
DVNC NTO DE8ATE
SimpIy stated, a debate is a cIasI oI opposin vievs, tIouIt to Iie
somevIere in betveen a IormaI discussion and a IormaI arument.
(Most debaters viII teII you tIat it's Iar cIos-
er to an arument.} ItIouI paneI debates
may invoIve a number oI diIIerent perspec-
tives, aImost aII competitive debates Iocus
on a specic topic. TIis topic is knovn as
a resoIution or proposition. TIere are tvo
sides in a competitive debate: tIe Ajprmu-
tivc and tIe Ncgutivc.
TIe Irmative side arues in Iavor oI tIe debate's resoIution. It
oes rst in tIe debate, aIIovin it to set tIe tone Ior tIe round. TIe
team supportin tIe resoIution may aIso be knovn as tIe Proposition
or, in parIiamentary debate, as tIe Government.
TIe Neative side speaks aainst tIe resoIution, pIacin it in
direct opposition to tIe Irmative. It must respond accordin to Iov
tIe Irmative Ias dened tIe terms oI tIe resoIution and set out
its case. In parIiamentary debate, tIe team opposin tIe resoIution is
knovn as tIe Opposition.
n odd number oI udes, most commonIy tIree, decides tIe vin-
nin team. In most styIes oI debate, tIe paneI members vote inde-
pendentIy Ior tIe team tIey IeeI von tIe debate. Sometimes, tIouI,
tIe udes Iave a discussion IoIIovin tIe debate-a 'debate on tIe
debate'-in an eIIort to arrive at a consensus decision.
8ULD T UP, 8URN T DOWN
Debate can sometimes seem dauntin and compIex. VitI so many
peopIe dauntin tIeir mastery oI bi vords, tecInicaI terms, veiIty-
soundin pIrases, and intricate aruments, it's no vonder tIat many
students nd debate conIusin. In reaIity, it's mucI simpIer tIan tIat.
Great debatin reaIIy boiIs dovn to tvo simpIe obectives:
1. Build a case with strong arguments and supporting details. DeveIop
a series oI points tIat are compeIIin enouI to convince your udes
and touI enouI to vitIstand criticism Irom your opponents. Sup-
port your points vitI sound expIanations and evidence. ruments
0|d Yo0 koow?
The worId's Iongest
debate Iasted Ior 503
hours and 45 mInutes.
us uru 5os. 5u:u:rq 5ocrs oj cluc
69
are pIanned beIore tIe debate beins, except Ior tIe Neative team in
an impromptu debate. TIey are tIe core ideas tIat Iorm a case. EacI
team viII typicaIIy make betveen Iour and six constructive points,
vIicI are aIso knovn as contentions.
2. Counter the other team's arguments with refutation. TeII your
udes in pIain Ianuae vIy your opponent's points are vron. Dem-
onstrate tIat tIe otIer team Iasn't buiIt a case stron enouI to prove
its side oI tIe debate. ReIutation, vIicI is aIso caIIed cIasI, is vitaI
to any debate. It invoIves tIe point by point opposition oI tIe otIer
team's points. VIiIe veII-deveIoped constructive aruments and evi-
dence are necessary Ior a soIid case, tIe debate round is oIten von or
Iost in tIe reIutation.
THE ARRAY OF RESOLUTONS
Debate resoIutions come in a variety oI Iorms. TIe same topic may be
stated in diIIerent vays, and tIe distinctions may seem triviaI. But tIe
vay it's stated can cIane tIe dynamics oI tIe debate. BeIore Iookin
at tIe types oI resoIutions, Iet's Iook at tIe tvo vays to vrite tIem:
A debate topic may be written as a question. For exampIe, "SIouId
tIe Government consider drivin vIiIe taIkin on a ceII pIone to be
impaired drivin" or "SIouId assisted suicide be aIIoved" In eacI
case, tIe Irmative is ansverin "yes" and tIe Neative is ansverin
"no" to tIe question.
A resolution may be stated as a phrase. In tIis Iorm, a debate resoIu-
tion usuaIIy beins vitI a standard pIrase, sucI as "ResoIved:" or "Be
it resoIved tIat," and it continues vitI a statement. For exampIe, "Be
it resoIved tIat a nationaI identity card sIouId be impIemented" or
"ResoIved: entrepreneurs and bankers are more essentiaI to society
tIan artists and vriters."
True vs. False: Propositions of Fact
Propositions oI Fact are debates over tIe trutI or reaIity oI a state-
ment, oIten oI a IistoricaI or tecInicaI nature. Since tIey tend to be
IairIy academic, tIey aren't commonIy used Ior competitive debatin.
Not aII Propositions oI Fact invoIve ansvers tIat are deniteIy true or

70
deniteIy IaIse. You may come across a 'true vs. IaIse' resoIution oI
a specuIative nature. OI course, tIis makes it touI to decide vIicI
team von tIe debate. Here are a Iev exampIes oI tIis kind oI topic:
ResoIved: TIe vorId is not prepared Ior a IobaI du pandemic.
ResoIved: Debt payments are tIe primary cause oI Irican poverty.
ResoIved: Privatizin tIe vater system vouId save money.
Good vs. Bad: Propositions of Value
Propositions oI VaIue are debated on rounds oI moraIity or vortI.
TIey don't invoIve a pIan, Iocusin instead on tIe strentIs oI an idea
or principIe. TIe vaIues up Ior debate may concern moraI, sociaI, eco-
nomic, poIiticaI, or cuIturaI issues. Debates on vaIues resoIutions are
tIe most subective, because tIey invoIve an arument on competin
beIieIs, not on issues oI absoIute trutI or tIe IeasibiIity oI a pIan. Here
are some exampIes oI Propositions oI VaIue:
Be it resoIved tIat cIiIdren do not Iave a riIt to privacy.
Be it resoIved tIat internationaI sport Ias a pIace in poIitics.
Be it resoIved tIat muItiIateraIism is preIerabIe to uniIateraIism.
Be it resoIved tIat IoIIovin orders is no excuse Ior var crimes.
Change vs. No Change: Propositions of Policy
PoIicy resoIutions invoIve a debate over vIetIer a system needs to
cIane and, iI so, vIetIer tIe pIan proposed is eIIective and vork-
abIe. TIe Irmative team must estabIisI botI oI tIese eIements to
prove its case. TIe Neative team viII attack tIe needs as invaIid and
tIe pIan as unvorkabIe. In rare cases, tIe Neative team viII propose
a counter pIan, vIereby it arees vitI tIe needs Ior cIane but pro-
poses a sinicantIy diIIerent and more eIIective pIan to soIve tIe
probIem. Here are some exampIes oI Propositions oI PoIicy:
TIis House vouId deveIop a mandatory recycIin proram.
TIis House vouId create an aency to censor tIe Internet.
TIis House vouId strentIen reuIations on enetics.
TIis House vouId impIement a mandatory vaccination system.
71
DEFNNC THE DE8ATE
TIe rst responsibiIity oI tIe Irmative team is to dene tIe terms
oI tIe resoIution. TIis process sIouId take no Ioner tIan 20 to 30
seconds and sIouId provide a cIear Iramevork Ior tIe debate. Many
students dene every vord, vIicI is aImost aIvays unnecessary.
For exampIe, iI tIe resoIution is "Be it resoIved tIat teIevision
Ias a neative induence on teenaers," Iere's a possibIe denition:
"Ve dene 'teIevision' as tIe teIevision entertainment media, and ve
dene 'neative induence' as encourain IarmIuI beIavior in soci-
ety." Notice tIat "teenaers" vas IeIt undened. TIe term impIies a
certain ae roup, and tIe exact ae isn't centraI to tIe debate.
TIe Irmative team does Iave a certain deree oI dexibiIity in
Iov it denes tIe resoIution, and tIe Neative team must debate on
tIese rounds. II you're tIe Neative team, don't cIaIIene tIe de-
nition unIess absoIuteIy necessary. Contestin tIe denition Iovers
tIe quaIity oI tIe debate and tIe impression you make on tIe udes.
Even so, tIe Irmative's denitions must be reasonabIe.
For exampIe, iI tIe resoIution is "Be it
resoIved tIat tIe United Nations sIouId be
uded a IaiIure," Iere's an exampIe oI a
Iair denition: "TIe Irmative denes 'tIe
United Nations' as tIe UN Security Coun-
ciI and 'uded a IaiIure' as not meetin its
Ioundin oaI oI maintainin internationaI
peace and security." Notice tIat tIe Ir-
mative IeIt out otIer Iunctions oI tIe United
Nations, sucI as Iumanitarian reIieI. TIis is Iair, because tIe Security
CounciI is a centraI part oI tIe United Nations and provides suIcient
basis Ior debate. TIe Neative team sIouIdn't brin up Iumanitarian
aid as part oI tIe case, unIess it can reIate its aruments directIy to tIe
issue oI internationaI peace and security.
debate comes dovn to vIo, on baIance, presented a stroner
case. Since tIe debate is subective, neitIer oI tIe teams can prove its
case denitiveIy. debate is 'sIades oI rey' ratIer tIan 'bIack and
vIite'. In tIe above exampIe, it vouId be impossibIe to say tIat tIe
United Nations Security CounciI is a compIete success or a compIete
IaiIure. TIe reaIity Iies somevIere in betveen, and it's up to tIe debat-
ers to arue vIicI perspective is more correct.
watch 00t!
Don't protest a denI
tIon sImpIy because It
was unexpected.

72
FOR A TRUE DE8ATE, AVOD TRUSMS
resoIution is not aIIoved to be dened sucI tIat it's IiteraIIy impos-
sibIe to debate. For exampIe, iI tIe resoIution is "Be it resoIved tIat
vomen are better tIan men," tIe Irmative can't dene "better" as
"tIe abiIity to Iave cIiIdren." II it did, tIe Neative vouIdn't Iave a
Iair opportunity to present a case. denition oI tIis nature is caIIed
a truism and is rounds Ior tIe Irmative to Iose tIe round. You're
not aIIoved to make tIe resoIution true by denition, since doin so
makes tIe contest one-sided.
ReasonabIe (and smart} debaters viII aIvays avoid truisms. UnIor-
tunateIy, eitIer unintentionaIIy or as an iII-advised trick, your oppo-
nent may present one. Hov do you respond iI tIe Irmative brins
up a truism TIe best approacI is to spend no more tIan 20 to 30 sec-
onds expIainin vIy it's impossibIe to debate vitIin tIe prescribed
denition. Iter cIaIIenin tIe denition, nd an aspect oI tIe case
cIoseIy reIated to tIe resoIution tIat can be debated.
In tIe case discussed above, you couId make tIe debate about
vIetIer vomen are more eIIective at raisin cIiIdren. ItIouI
you sIouId tecInicaIIy vin tIe round on tIe unIair denition aIone,
tIere's no use Iavin an entire debate about denitions. 'deni-
tionaI debate' viII Ieave a bad impression vitI tIe udes and aImost
certainIy Iover your speakin scores as veII, even iI tIey aree vitI
your interpretation oI tIe resoIution.
SET THE SCENE: TMEPLACESET CASES
UsuaIIy, a debate takes pIace in tIe present on a circumstance tIat's
actuaIIy Iappenin. Is a particuIar practice ood or bad Do ve need
to cIane tIe present system II oI tIe important Iacts are knovn to
tIe debaters, and tIey can aII be used to buiId cases. Hovever, some
oI most excitin debates take pIace on matters oI Iistory or on reaI or
ctionaI scenarios. Enter tIe time-pIace-set case, vIere you et to set
tIe scene oI tIe debate.
Point in History
In tIis type oI time-pIace-set debate, tIe Irmative Ias to say uncn
tIe debate is takin pIace, unut tIe decision is, and uncrc it's occur-
73
rin. Once tIe Irmative Ias dened tIe terms on tIese dimensions,
neitIer side can brin in any inIormation tIat vouId not Iave been
knovn at tIe specic time and pIace. So, even iI everyone knovs tIe
eventuaI resuIt, tIe debate takes pIace assumin tIat tIis isn't tIe
case. It's common to ask tIe CIairperson to assume tIe roIe oI tIe
person makin tIe decision. Here are tvo exampIes:
Ronald Reagan at the Berlin Wall: "Mr. CIairperson, you are RonaId
Reaan, President oI tIe United States oI merica. TIe date is }une
12tI, 1987. You're about to deIiver a speecI on tIe Vestern side oI tIe
BerIin VaII. TeII tIe Soviet Union to tear dovn tIis vaII."
Merck and River Blindness: "TIe year is 1987, and you're tIe Iead oI
Merck, one oI tIe vorId's Iarest pIarmaceuticaI companies. You've
deveIoped a dru caIIed Mcctizun, vIicI IeIps treat and cure tIe river
bIindness disease tIat Ias impacted Iundreds oI tIousands oI peopIe
in many countries, primariIy in Irica. TIey can't aIIord to pay Ior tIe
dru. Give it avay Ior Iree."
Scenario
Great debates can take pIace on scenarios tIat actuaIIy Iappened,
vere seen in a movie or teIevision sIov, or are compIeteIy made up.
In tIis type oI case, tIe debate is about tIe principIes invoIved in tIe
scene. It's especiaIIy important tIat tIe Irmative is very cIear in
presentin aII oI tIe Iacts in tIe case, because any cause Ior conIu-
sion viII make it touI Ior a ood debate to take pIace. Here are some
exampIes oI scenarios used as time-pIace-set cases:
Hockey Suspension: "You're tIe Iead oI tIe discipIinary committee
Ior tIe NationaI Hockey Leaue. One oI tIe pIayers inured a pIayer
vitI Iis stick, in retaIiation Ior an earIier Iit. NormaIIy, tIis oIIence
vouId resuIt in a suspension Ior at Ieast tIree ames. Hovever, tIis
pIayer is knovn as one oI tIe most etIicaI pIayers in tIe Ieaue-a
true roIe modeI. He Ias apoIoized, and you consider tIis to be an
isoIated incident. Make an exception, and don't suspend Iim."
Car Accident Lawsuit: "Madame CIairperson, your cIiId vas inured
by a careIess driver vIiIe sIe vas ridin Ier bike. SIe viII eventuaIIy
make a IuII recovery. You can sue tIe careIess driver and are very con-

74
dent tIat you'II be avarded compensation, vIicI you beIieve you
riItIy deserve. Hovever, tIe careIess driver is a sinIe motIer vitI
tvo sons, and tIe udment vouId Iorce Ier to tIe vere oI bank-
ruptcy. Don't sue Ier."
THE DEFNTON OF 'CROSSNC THE LNE'
Ve've aIready discussed truisms, vIicI
are proIibited because tIey're tecInicaIIy
impossibIe Ior tIe Neative team to debate.
But vIat about denitions tIat are tecI-
nicaIIy debatabIe, but unIair nonetIeIess
You may be tIinkin to yourseII, "Virtu-
aIIy everytIin is debatabIe, so Iov can
any denition oI tIe resoIution possibIy be
unIair" In tIeory, tIis beIieI is vaIid. So Ion as you don't present a
truism, tIere isn't an automatic basis Ior you to Iose tIe round.
VIat about in practice Debates are uded by peopIe vIo expect
you to be reasonabIe. More specicaIIy, tIis means tIat you can't
dene tIe topic in sucI a vay tIat anotIer debater can't reasonabIy be
expected to arue aainst it. sk yourseII tIis question: "II I vas Iacin
anotIer team vIo did vIat I am pIannin to do, vouId I consider it to
be Iair" II you ansvered "no," tIen your udes vouId probabIy tIink
it's unIair as veII. TIe numerous instances oI unIair denitions, aII oI
vIicI sIouId be avoided, are discussed beIov:
Morally reprehensible opposition. It's expected tIat debaters viII
Iave to deIend positions tIat tIey don't aree vitI or tIat are con-
troversiaI. TIere is a Iimit, Iovever, to Iov Iar you can o. You aren't
aIIoved to dene a topic in sucI a vay tIat it caIIs Ior a Neative case
so moraIIy repreIensibIe tIat virtuaIIy nobody in society vouId aree
vitI tIe position. For exampIe, you can't expect tIe Neative team to
deIend racism, sIavery, murder, or terrorism.
Specihc knowledge. ccordin to tIe uideIines oI most debate tourna-
ments, your denition must be sucI tIat an inIormed, veII-educated
person vouId be abIe to debate it. Specic knovIede cases arise vIen
you dene a resoIution so tIat tIe debate to IoIIov requires tecInicaI
expertise on tIe subect. For exampIe, you can't expect tIe Neative
watch 00t!
Don't try to wIn
debates by usIng
cIever denItIons.
75
team to Iave detaiIed knovIede about moIecuIar bioIoy, a IittIe-
knovn court case, or an isoIated IistoricaI event.
Hovever, you can brin up cases tIat couId conceivabIy be made
compIicated, so Ion as you stick to principIe-based aruments tIat
everyone can understand. Take a debate on tIe use oI in vitro Ier-
tiIization Ior Iuman reproduction. II you dened tIe resoIution and
introduced tIe case in a vay tIat aIIoved Ior a debate on competin
principIes, it vouId be acceptabIe. II, Iovever, you brouIt up IiIIy
tecInicaI and scientic issues, it vouId be considered unIair. (It couId
be Iair iI you knov tIat your opponents Iearned about it in bioIoy
cIass and tIat your ude is a science expert.}
Violates the resolution's intent. TIe tvo points above reIate primariIy
to impromptu resoIutions. TIis point Iocuses on debates on resoIu-
tions tIat are expIicitIy stated. In tIese types oI debates, tIe Neative
sIouId Iave a reasonabIe opportunity to prepare a case, even iI it Ias
to adapt it to a reasonabIe, but unexpected, Irmative denition. II
you're tIe Irmative, you aren't aIIoved to present a denition tIat
cIearIy vioIates tIe intent oI tIe resoIution.
Say tIe topic is, "ResoIved: tIe US sIouId tone dovn its inter-
nationaI rIetoric." It's videIy accepted tIat tIe debate is about tIe
United States oI merica. It vouId be unIair to dene "US" as tIe
"Undervater Scientists ssociation" (iI one actuaIIy exists, tIat is}. No
reasonabIe person couId Iave expected sucI a denition, so it vouId
redect very poorIy on your team.
THE ARCHTECTURE OF A DE8ATE
VIiIe tIere's no universaI standard Ior tIe
structure oI a debate, most rounds IoIIov
a simiIar basic Iramevork. TIe rst part
oI a debate round consists oI constructive
speecIes. Durin tIis pIase, debaters Irom
botI teams Iave an opportunity to present
nev aruments, to deIend tIeir team's pre-
vious points aainst attack, and to criticize
tIeir opponent's aruments. TIe second part oI a debate is tIe rebuttaI
pIase. TIis sement is eacI team's opportunity to anaIyze tIe debate
as a vIoIe and to make a naI pitcI Ior vIy it Ias von tIe arument.
On tIe IoIIovin pae is a simpIe structure Ior student debatin:
0|d Yo0 koow?
The earIIest poIItIcaI
debates took pIace
In Athens.

76
1st Irmative Constructive (1C}: 7 minutes
1st Neative Constructive (1NC}: 7 minutes
2nd Irmative Constructive (2C}: 7 minutes
2nd Neative Constructive (2NC}: 7 minutes
1st Neative RebuttaI (1NR}: 4 minutes
1st Irmative RebuttaI (1R}: 4 minutes
OI course, tIe Iormat oI debate varies
dependin on vIere you're debatin and
at vIat IeveI. ItIouI tIe eneraI skiIIs
are reIativeIy simiIar, you'II Iave to adapt
to tIe specic circumstances. TIis stan-
dard Iormat is oIten caIIed academic styIe
debate. ItIouI tIe Iimitations oI a sinIe
book make it impossibIe to expIore in detaiI
tIe intricacies oI eacI styIe, Iere are a Iev areas in vIicI you may see
a departure Irom tIe academic debate Iormat outIined previousIy:
Speakers per team. UsuaIIy, tIere are tvo debaters representin eacI
team. But in some styIes, eacI side is represented by a sinIe debater
vIo pIays botI constructive and rebuttaI roIes. OtIer times, you'II see
tIree debaters per team, vitI one member per team Iocusin excIu-
siveIy on tIe rebuttaI speecI.
Questions and answers. TIe discussion styIe oI debate Ieatures a
question and ansver period up to 10 minutes Ion betveen tIe end
oI tIe constructive section and tIe beinnin oI tIe rebuttaI section.
Debaters o back and IortI askin questions to tIe otIer side and
ansverin questions posed by tIeir opponents. TIis styIe is oIten
seen at youner ae IeveIs.
more diIcuIt type oI question and ansver Iormat is tIe cross-
examination styIe. Iter eacI oI tIe Iour constructive speecIes, a
member oI tIe opposin team Ias tIree to Iour minutes to question
tIe speaker, Iopin to drav out admissions or to expose davs. Cross-
examination debate is discussed in CIapter 10.
ParIiamentary styIe debate, discussed in CIapter 9, is yet anotIer
Iormat invoIvin questions and ansvers. TIe diIIerence compared
to discussion and cross-examination styIes is tIat tIe questionin
doesn't take pIace in a dened period. RatIer, Points oI InIormation
0|d Yo0 koow?
8III CIInton, Oprah
WInIrey, and 8rad PItt
were once debaters.
77
are questions asked as interections by a seated debater durin an
opponent's constructive speecI.
Breaks. You may encounter a styIe in vIicI tIere is a tIree to ve
minute break beIore tIe rebuttaI part oI tIe debate. TIis ives eacI
team an opportunity to discuss and pIan its rebuttaI stratey.
Number of rebuttals. sinIe rebuttaI speecI Ior eacI team is tIe norm
in most cases. Some styIes, tIouI, aIIov botI members oI tIe team
to present a rebuttaI. In totaI, tIere vouId tIen be Iour rebuttaIs. SucI
circumstances usuaIIy invoIve sIorter rebuttaI speecIes. TIe partners
Iave to vork toetIer to divide rebuttaI responsibiIities eIIectiveIy.
Order of rebuttal. SimiIar to Iov tIe prosecution usuaIIy oes Iast in a
court triaI, tIe Irmative normaIIy deIivers tIe naI rebuttaI speecI.
Some styIes svitcI it up, aIIovin tIe Neative team to Iave tIe Iast
say. TIis cIanes tIe dynamics oI tIe rebuttaI, ivin tIe Neative a
sIiIt advantae over tIe Irmative.
Time per speech. TIe amount oI time aIIotted to eacI speaker varies
sinicantIy betveen diIIerent debate styIes and Iormats. Construc-
tive speecIes are rareIy Iess tIan ve minutes Ion or more tIan 10
minutes Ion. RebuttaI speecIes are eneraIIy betveen tIree and ve
minutes in IentI. In totaI, tIe time Ior tIe vIoIe debate is usuaIIy
betveen 3S and S0 minutes.
PLAY YOUR ROLE
EacI speaker in tIe debate Ias diIIerent responsibiIities. ItIouI
Iov veII you debate viII Iave a Iare impact on your perIormance, it's
aIso important to be debatin veII in tIe riIt areas. It's essentiaI tIat
you understand tIe roIe you Iave to pIay in your speecI. TIese roIes
vary betveen debate styIes. Usin tIe basic debate Iormat outIined
previousIy, tIe IoIIovin paes discuss eacI speaker's responsibiIi-
ties. TIe diaram on tIe next pae summarizes tIese Iunctions.
1st Afhrmative Constructive [1AC}
TIe rst speaker's roIe is tIe most straiItIorvard, yet it's criticaIIy
important to tIe debate. Your speecI sets tIe tone Ior tIe round and

78
79
Iays out tIe key issues. TIere are tIree Iunctions tIat tIe rst Ir-
mative speaker sIouId perIorm:
1. Dehne the resolution. Spend rouIIy 20 to 30 seconds makin it
crystaI cIear vIat tIe debate is about. VitIout rst presentin a de-
nition, none oI your aruments or any oI your opponent's aruments
viII Iave a veII-described context.
2. Introduce the Afhrmative's case. Presentin your core tIemes isn't
a requirement, but it's IiIIy recommended. Like tIe denition, a
brieI description oI vIat you pIan to accompIisI IeIps set tIe tone
Ior tIe debate. Make it cIear vIat your tIemes viII be and vIat, in a
eneraI sense, tIe udes can expect Irom you. Some debaters opt to
state vIat tIeir partner's Iocus viII be. TIis presents a cIearer picture
to your udes, but be careIuI not to steaI your partner's tIunder.
3. Present constructive arguments. Once you've toId tIe udes vIere
you're oin vitI your case, at Ieast tvo and not more tIan Iour con-
structive aruments are necessary. TIese points viII Iorm tIe maority
oI your speecI. Be sure to deveIop eacI oI your aruments compIeteIy.
VitIout a stron set oI initiaI aruments, tIe rst Neative speaker
viII be abIe to tear dovn your case and present a stron Neative case
beIore you've been abIe to construct a soIid case.

1st Negative Constructive [1NC}
TIe rst Irmative speaker viII Iave set tIe tone in a vay tIat Iavors
its side oI tIe resoIution. t tIis point, tIe baII is in tIe Irmative's
court. Your cIaIIene is to IeveI tIe pIayin eId or, IopeIuIIy, to ain
tIe advantae. In urative terms, you're tryin to tear dovn tIeir
Iortress and buiId up your ovn. Here are tIe recommended responsi-
biIities oI tIe rst Neative speaker:
1. If necessary, contest the Afhrmative's dehnitions. TIe vords, "iI
necessary" sIouId be taken seriousIy. SIouId tIe rst Irmative
speaker present rossIy unreasonabIe denitions, you can onIy cIaI-
Iene tIem at tIe beinnin oI tIis speecI. Iter tIat, it's too Iate-
you've IorIeited tIe riIt to stake your cIaim. II you decide to contest
tIem, do so quickIy and move on.

80
2. Introduce the Negative's themes. CIaim your round. TeII your
udes exactIy vIere you pIan to o vitI your case, nameIy vIat your
tIemes viII be. SimiIar to Iov tIe Irmative Ias described vIat it
sees as tIe main issues, you sIouId try to seize tIe aenda and expIain
vIat you beIieve are tIe core issues and vIy. ItIouI you don't Iave
to perIorm tIis roIe, doin so viII be invaIuabIe in IeIpin you o Iead
to Iead vitI tIe Irmative, vIicI Ias tIe advantae oI settin tIe
aenda Irom tIe outset.
3. Present constructive arguments. TecInicaIIy, you usuaIIy don't Iave
to make constructive aruments iI you're tIe Neative team. VIiIe
you couId stick to reIutation, your case viII be mucI stroner iI you
buiId a set oI stron constructive points. Dependin on tIe time Iimits
and Iov mucI time you vant to spend on reIutation, you'II probabIy
onIy be abIe to present tvo, or at tIe most tIree, main aruments.
4. Clash with the hrst Afhrmative's arguments. TIis roIe is absoIuteIy
centraI to your speecI. VitIout it, you'II Ieave tIe impression tIat
you've conceded tIe Irmative's key aruments. Spend time on point
by point reIutation oI tIe rst Irmative speaker's aruments. Gener-
aIIy, you vant to spend approximateIy IaII oI your speecI on cIasI,
eitIer beIore or aIter your constructive aruments.
2nd Afhrmative Constructive [2AC}
TIe denitions Iave been settIed, tIe main tIemes Iave been Iaid
out, and tIe initiaI aruments Iave been presented. Nov tIe debate
ets messy. TIe second constructive speecIes are vIen tIe rueIin
process oI ockeyin Ior position takes pIace. TIe rst speakers Iave
Iit tIe tee sIots, and nov it's your ob to pIay tIe Iairvays in order
to setup a stron nisI. Here are some oI tIe areas tIat tIe second
Irmative speaker sIouId cover:
1. Develop new constructive arguments. TIere's no vay tIat your
team can present a tIorouI and eIIective case in your rst speecI
aIone. You sIouId aim to buiId tvo or tIree more aruments Ior your
side, vIicI viII IeIp strentIen your case. Make sure tIat your aru-
ments are distinct Irom your partner's points. To stake out your pIace
in tIe debate, center your aruments around a distinct tIeme.
81
2. Clash with the hrst Negative's points. No second Irmative speecI
is compIete vitIout a compreIensive, point by point cIasI oI tIe rst
Neative speaker's aruments. Even tIouI tIe burden IaIIs on you to
prove your case, Neative aruments to tIe contrary must be proven
inadequate, irreIevant, or incorrect.
3. Defend the hrst Afhrmative's points. Iter tIe rst Neative Ias
cIasIed vitI your partner's points, tIere are tvo vays to buiId tIem
up aain. TIe rst vay is to reinIorce tIem vitI IurtIer detaiIs and
expIanation. VIiIe tIis can be IeIpIuI, it may aIso suest tIat your
partner vasn't tIorouI. TIe second and usuaIIy advantaeous metI-
od is to 'cIasI vitI cIasI', expIainin vIy tIe rst Neative speaker's
reIutation vas vron. TIis approacI IoIIovs tIe IoicaI dov oI debate
more cIoseIy tIan addin supportin materiaI.

2nd Negative Constructive [2NC}
TIe second Neative speecI is tIe naI opportunity to brin nev
constructive matter into tIe debate-tIe cIoser oI tIe 'meaty' part oI
tIe round. UnIortunateIy, it can seem even touIer tIan tIe second
Irmative speecI, since tIere are so many previous aruments to
anaIyze and discuss. Your main task in tIis speecI is to setup your
team Ior a poverIuI rebuttaI. Here are tIe key roIes Ior tIis pivotaI
position in tIe debate:
1. Present new constructive points. Remember, tIe onIy sinicant
opportunity Ior your opponents to cIasI vitI your nev points is in
tIe rebuttaI. Since tIey vouId ratIer be spendin tIeir rebuttaI time
summarizin tIe debate, a number oI soIid aruments in tIis speecI
can reaIIy tIrov tIem oII.
2. Challenge the second Afhrmative's points. CIasI vitI tIe Irma-
tive's naI constructive aruments so tIat tIe rebuttaI is Iree Ior you
to brin tIe debate dovn to core tIemes.
3. Defend your partner's points. Usin simiIar tecIniques as tIe sec-
ond Irmative speaker, reinIorce tIe rst Neative speaker's points.
ExpIain vIy tIe second Neative speaker's reIutation didn't actuaIIy
deIeat your aruments.

82
II a debate is supposed to be a continuous back and IortI dov, Iaven't
ve IeIt sometIin out VIat about cIaIIenin tIe second Irma-
tive speaker's deIense oI tIe rst Irmative speaker's points TIis
vouId essentiaIIy be 'cIasI oI cIasI oI cIasI', and iI it sounds conIus-
in, it's because it is. TIat's vIy it's best to avoid doin tIis in your
speecI. ddin a IourtI obective vouId Ieave you IittIe time Ior eacI
one, IikeIy makin your anaIysis ratIer sIaIIov.
1st Negative Rebuttal [1NR}
TIe rebuttaI speecIes are very distinct Irom tIe constructive speecI-
es. So Iar, ve've Iad a back and IortI dov oI aruments and reIuta-
tion. By tIis point in tIe debate, aII oI tIe main points Iave been Iaid
out, and most oI tIe Iines oI attack Iave been expIored. TIink oI tIe
Neative rebuttaI as a cIosin arument in a court triaI. It's your naI
'saIes pitcI' Ior vIy tIe resoIution sIouId be deIeated. ItIouI tIe
Iormat oI a rebuttaI speecI is tIe most dexibIe, Iere are some oI tIe
Neative rebuttaI speaker's responsibiIities:
1. Provide an overall refutation of the Afhrmative's case. Notice tIe
vord "overaII." TIat is, it sIouIdn't be a continuation oI tIe point by
point cIasI Ieard earIier. Your oaI is to IiIIiIt key aspects oI your
reIutation, expIainin vIy tIe Irmative's eneraI tIemes are incor-
rect or Iaven't been proven.
2. Compare and contrast key themes. Provide your interpretation
oI tIe Irmative's tIemes and Iov tIey reIate to your tIemes. In
essence, you're sayin, "Ve taIked about tIis, and tIey taIked about
tIat. Here's vIy our tIemes vere superior." EspeciaIIy in a compIex
and conIusin debate, tIis tactic can cIariIy tIe round Ior your udes
and make tIeir decision easier. TIey're usuaIIy appreciative-and
revardin-vIen a rebuttaI speaker cIaries tIe round Ior tIem.
3. Present a hnal summary of your case. Remind tIe udes oI your
case and its key points. Yes, you've presented tIe points, summarized
tIem at tIe end oI eacI speecI, and Ieard tIem reIuted in your oppo-
nent's speecIes. Isn't tIat enouI ProbabIy not. Make absoIuteIy cer-
tain tIat your udes knov exactIy vIat piIIars your case stands on,
particuIarIy tIe overaII case tIemes.
83
1st Afhrmative Rebuttal [1AR}
TIe obectives oI tIe Irmative's rebuttaI speecI are simiIar to tIose
oI tIe Neative's rebuttaI speecI. It's a cIosin arument-tIe naI
vord in tIe debate. Use your 'cIoser' position to your advantae by
sayin IrankIy and convincinIy vIat tIe debate is about, and vIy you
von. TIese are tIe key roIes oI tIe Irmative's rebuttaI:
1. If necessary, refute the second Negative's new points. TIe Nea-
tive rebuttaI speaker Iaces a paradox. rebuttaI is supposed to Iocus
primariIy on eneraI tIemes, and onIy secondariIy on specic aru-
ments. On tIe otIer Iand, you don't vant to Ieave your opponent's
nev points uncontested. II you can vrap your cIasI into your overaII
reIutation, it's best to do so. Hovever, you may vant to cIasI briedy
vitI tIe second Neative speaker's nev aruments. SIouId you decide
to take tIis route, Iocus on tIe key eIements onIy.
2. Refute the Negative's case as a whole. Like tIe Neative's rebut-
taI, you need to expIain cIearIy and persuasiveIy vIy your opponent's
case is vron. II you've cIasIed vitI tIe Neative's nev constructive
points in tIe openin oI your rebuttaI, make sure tIat tIis part oI your
speecI is a cIear departure Irom point by point cIasI.
3. Draw a contrast between the two sides. Interpret tIe tIemes and
areas oI contention tIe vay you see tIem. II tIe Neative rebuttaI
speaker Ias done sometIin simiIar, be sure to expIain vIy your anaI-
ysis oI tIe key issues is more correct. TIat is, make it cIear vIy your
issues sIouId be tIe decidin issues oI tIe debate.
4. Summarize your case. You may be constrained by time at tIis point,
so it's best to pIan a sIort and to tIe point summary. ReinIorce tIe key
reasons vIy tIe udes sIouId support tIe resoIution. Remember, tIe
burden eneraIIy IaIIs on you to prove your case, so your core aru-
ments must stand stron at tIe end oI tIe debate.
CET NTO THE CAME: FLOOR SPEECHES
Vere you itcIin to be part oI tIat memorabIe naI round, but tIe
decisions didn't quite o your vay Despair not, Ior you Iave a oIden
opportunity-at Ieast ujtcr tIe oIciaI debate is over. In most tourna-

84
ments, tIere are 'speecIes Irom tIe door' at tIe end oI a naI round.
VIiIe tIe udes Iave IeIt tIe room to make tIeir decision, it's tIe
audience's turn to Iave tIe naI say.
door speecI is sIort, usuaIIy 60 to 90 seconds Ion. You can
support tIe Government, support tIe Opposition, or speak Ior 'cross-
bencIes'. TIe Iast option means tIat you don't vant to backup eitIer
side, but tIat you vant to provide compIiments, criticisms, or com-
mentary on botI sides oI tIe debate. (PerIaps you don't vant to ive
eitIer oI tIe teams any credit, since oj coursc you vouId done Iar better
Iad you been in tIe round.}
CO WTH THE FLOW (SHEET)
Debates et very IiveIy and dynamic, vitI muItipIe aruments and
counter-aruments made by eacI speaker. }udes are oIten IeIt con-
Iused, vitIout a cIear picture oI vIere tIe debate is oin. EquaIIy
important, debaters may nd it diIcuIt to pIan tIeir Iine oI attack
vitIout an oranized 'picture' to IeIp tIem understand tIe debate.
dov sIeet tIat keeps track oI tIe back and IortI dov oI tIe debate is
one oI your most important tooIs in Iormin your stratey. Hov spe-
cicaIIy viII a dov sIeet be useIuI to you
Planning your clash. Vritin dovn your opponent's points in a cIear
and oranized manner makes it Iar easier and quicker Ior you to ure
out Iov to respond. You'II be abIe to make sure tIat you've covered aII
oI tIe key parts oI your opponent's case.
Defending your points. Notin Iov your opponent Ias cIasIed vitI
your aruments Iets you knov vIat you need to come back to and
deIend. EspeciaIIy iI your opponent's cIasI vas disoranized, a dov
sIeet makes it cIear vIicI oI your points vere attacked and veakened
and vIicI ones Iave been IeIt undamaed.
Checking for consistency. notIer use oI tIe dov sIeet is to cIeck
tIe Ioic and consistency oI tIe aruments. By Iayin out your oppo-
nent's case in an ordered, point by point vay, you can determine more
easiIy vIetIer tIere are aps in Ioic or contradictions betveen tIe
points. Likevise, you can make certain tIat your aruments and coun-
ter-aruments do not contradict eacI otIer and tIat tIey dov in a
cIear and IoicaI vay.
85
Preparing the rebuttal. PIannin an eIIective rebuttaI requires you to
Iave a cIear sense oI tIe debate as a vIoIe. dov sIeet ives you a
snapsIot-a 'road map' oI sorts-oI Iov tIe constructive part oI tIe
debate pIayed out. TIis aIIovs you to identiIy vIat your team sIouId
Iocus on in tIe rebuttaI speecI.
Taking notes for your speech. You don't vant to be turnin and read-
in scores oI paes vIen you take tIe door. quick Iance at your
dov sIeet teIIs you exactIy vIere you are and vIere you need to o.
HopeIuIIy, you're nov convinced tIat a dov sIeet viII be useIuI to you
in muItipIe vays. So, Iov do you o about makin one
Step #1: Divide your page into columns.
TIe most basic system invoIves dividin
tIe pae into tvo coIumns, one Ior tIe Ir-
mative team and tIe otIer Ior tIe Neative
team. TIis IeIps you keep your pae neat
and tidy. UnIortunateIy, tIis metIod makes
it touI to see Iov tIe aruments and
counter-aruments are dovin Irom speecI
to speecI. You may nd it more useIuI to divide your pae into one
coIumn Ior eacI speaker-First Irmative, First Neative, and so on.
II you empIoy tIis approacI, consider usin a sIeet oI paper tIat's
Iarer tIan tIe standard size.
Step #2: Write down and number each point. s a member oI tIe
opposin team makes points, vrite tIem dovn in tIe order tIey're
presented. It's absoIuteIy essentiaI tIat you
number tIe points, even iI your opponent
didn't do so. OtIervise, you'II Iose track as
tIe debate oes on. Under eacI point, you
couId Iave a Iev supportin detaiIs iI you
IeeI tIey're an important part oI you coun-
ter-attack. Don't Ioret to vrite dovn your
points as veII so tIat you can keep track oI
your opponent's reIutation.
Step #3: Draw arrows in order to gauge the ow. s a debater
reIutes one oI tIe otIer team's aruments, vIetIer it's your partner
S0ccess T|p!
Store your ow sheets
Ior Iuture anaIysIs.
watch 00t!
AvoId wrItIng down
mInor detaIIs on your
ow sheet.

86
or your opponent, drav an arrov Irom eacI point to tIe correspond-
in cIasI. TIis viII IeIp you determine quickIy vIicI points Iave been
reIuted and, iI necessary, vIetIer you need to provide IurtIer deIense
oI your previous aruments.
WNNNC WTH A DYNAMC DUO
You may be tIinkin, "OI reat, Iere comes tIe section about musIy,
usIy teamvork stuII." VeII, tIese "musIy, usIy" concepts are oIten
vIat make or break a debate team. Debate is a team sport. Your team's
success von't depend onIy on tIe individuaI strentIs oI botI debat-
ers. It viII aIso depend in Iare part on Iov veII you and your partner
vork toetIer. VIy is a stron team centraI to success in debate
You look unihed in front of judges. ItIouI udes Iave to assin
speaker scores to eacI individuaI, mucI oI tIeir evaIuation is based
on tIeir overaII impression oI tIe team's perIormance. TIey vant
to see you and your partner operatin in a unied, compIementary
vay. VIat tIey don't vant to see is tvo peopIe battIin eacI otIer Ior
tIe spotIiIt. nd tIey'II aIso be Iar more impressed iI your debatin
styIes appear compatibIe.
Your speeches reinforce each other. debate isn't a set oI independent
speecIes. Your team's speecIes are part oI an overaII case approacI.
TIey must dov naturaIIy and compIement one anotIer. VIen a team
vorks veII toetIer, debaters are more IikeIy to deIend and reIer back
to a partner's points.
You can adapt on the go more easily. You'II never knov exactIy vIat
tIe otIer team viII say in its speecIes. VIiIe your opponent Ias tIe
door, vIisperin or passin notes can IeIp botI oI you nd a stratey
to deaI vitI its aruments. In many cases, you von't knov Iov to
cIasI vitI a particuIar arument, but your partner viII Iave a tip to
pass on to you.
Debate becomes much more enjoyable. BotI beIore and durin a
tournament, you'II probabIy spend many Iours vitI your partner.
TIere's notIin vorse tIan Iavin a team vIose members don't et
aIon, but mereIy toIerate eacI otIer Ior tIe sake oI debate. Debate is
aIso a sociaI activity, so tIe IriendsIip betveen you and your partner
87
S0ccess T|p!
Use practIce rounds
to see II a debate
partnershIp wIII work.
is important. II you're enoyin tIe experience, it viII redect positiveIy
in your speakin styIe. You'II IikeIy be Iess tense vIen you speak, and
you'II seem more IiveIy and dynamic.
MAKNC A SMART SELECTON
Nov tIat you knov vIy eIIective teamvork is important in debatin,
tIe next step is to tIink about Iov to seIect a partner. TIis viII be one
oI tIe most important decisions you make in debate. UnIortunateIy, it
can aIso et very personaI and poIiticaI. (Debaters, Ior tIe most part,
are naturaIIy competitive peopIe.} Here are some tips to keep in mind
vIen seIectin a partner:
Try to hnd someone who is at a similar level. TIere's no sense in
Iavin a team vitI one very seasoned debater and anotIer vIo's ust
startin out. TIe stroner debater viII IeeI
tIat Iis or Ier partner is drain tIe team
dovn. TIe Iess experienced member viII
IeeI Iike an underperIormer. VIat's vorse is
tIat tIe team viII appear unbaIanced in tIe
eyes oI tIe udes. PartnersIips vork best
vIen botI members Iearn Irom eacI otIer
and proress toetIer.
Don't select a partner purely on personal friendship. Granted,
bein Iriends vitI your partner is important Ior some oI tIe reasons
described previousIy, sucI as vorkin veII toetIer. But a vord oI cau-
tion: a stron IriendsIip doesn't aIvays make Ior a soIid debate team.
Be certain tIat you can ustiIy your seIection to yourseII on dimen-
sions otIer tIan tIe person bein your best Iriend.
Aim for complementary styles. Tvo debaters vitI very simiIar
styIes-botI very aressive, or botI very passive-can pose cIaI-
Ienes. TIe udes may Iorm unIavorabIe eneraIizations, sucI as
'too IostiIe' or 'too sIy'. t tIe same time, you don't vant to be poIar
opposites vitI your partner. It probabIy isn't tIe reatest idea to Iave
an extremeIy aressive debater paired vitI a very sIy debater. TIe
team simpIy von't Iook coIerent. TIe trick is to strike tIe riIt baI-
ance. For exampIe, one debater may be sIiItIy more anaIyticaI, tIe
otIer sIiItIy more passionate.

88
Consider commitment level to debate. It's not uncommon Ior debat-
ers to be invoIved in many extracurricuIar and IeadersIip activities.
Make sure tIat your scIeduIes mesI, botI Ior preparation and tour-
naments. II you're someone vIo considers debate your top priority
but your partner vouIdn't Iesitate to miss a tournament Ior a dance
practice, tIink tvice about tIe prospect oI debatin toetIer.
WORKNC TO WN
You Iave a reat partner. You're ready to vork toetIer. BotI oI you
are committed to doin vIatever it takes to improve and vin. Nov is
vIen tIe reaI vork beins. VIat are some oI tIe tips to remember
vIen debatin toetIer
What gets said between partners, stays between partners. TIere's
notIin vron vitI discussin a debate issue vitI many peopIe. In
Iact, brainstormin vitI a Iarer roup is a reat idea. But don't ive
avay your ame pIan. It can be temptin Ior Iriends to discuss tIeir
respective strateies beIore a tournament. You vouId be surprised
at Iov quickIy vord ets around. Many debaters are mystied vIen
tIey Iear one oI tIeir very unique and key aruments used aainst
tIem by an opposin team.
Work interdependently on the case. Some teams preIer to prepare a
case independentIy. TIey decide vIo's pIayin eacI speaker roIe and
assin compIete responsibiIity Ior tIe speecI to tIat individuaI. TIis
makes as mucI sense as a Iockey team's Iorvards trainin toetIer
and its deIensemen trainin toetIer, vitIout tIe tvo roups ever
vorkin aIonside eacI otIer to Iorm a common stratey. SpeecIes
Iave to t toetIer. VIiIe naI preparation Ior a speecI outIine can be
IeIt to eacI debater, it's best to Iorm a case ointIy. BotI partners need
to Iave a sound rasp oI aII oI tIe team's points, and tIat's most IikeIy
to Iappen iI tIe team vorks on tIe case interdependentIy.
Bounce ideas off each other. Have one partner propose an idea, vIiIe
tIe otIer member arues aainst it. TIis approacI viII accompIisI
tvo oaIs. FirstIy, you'II be abIe to test tIe strentI oI tIe arument
and see iI it can vitIstand criticism. SecondIy, iI you nd tIat tIe
point is stron enouI, you'II at Ieast Iave anticipated some IikeIy
points oI reIutation aainst tIe arument.
89
Evaluate your performance constructively. EIIective teams Iearn Irom
tIeir mistakes and buiId on tIeir strentIs. TaIk to your partner aIter
eacI round and at tIe end oI a tournament to identiIy Iov botn oI you
can improve in tIe Iuture.
Share credit and blame equally. Creditin a vin to tIe supposedIy
'stroner' debater or bIamin a Ioss on tIe aIIeedIy 'veaker' debater
is a sure vay to damae tIe team's Iuture perIormance. You compete
as a team, you vin as a team, and you Iose as a team. Period.
LESS COULD 8E MORE: PREPARNC TO DE8ATE
ConventionaI visdom is tIat tIe more you prepare Ior a debate, tIe
stroner you perIorm. Isn't it common sense tIat tIe top debaters are
tIe ones vIo spend many veekends and Iate niIts preparin scripts
Ior every speecI and every possibIe arument Not necessariIy.
OI course, tIis doesn't mean tIat you don't Iave to vorry about
preparation at aII. VIat it means is tIat you Iave to prepare tIe rignt
inIormation, not everytIin tIat may come up. TIe IeveI oI prepara-
tion necessary viII depend on Iov experienced you are and on your
personaI preIerences. BeIov are discussions oI pre-debate strateies
Ior prepared and impromptu debates.
Prepared Debates: Get a Grip, But Not Too Tight
II you knov tIe resoIution Iar in advance oI
tIe tournament, you sIouId be very com-
IortabIe debatin it beIoreIand. TIis means
understandin tIe issue veII enouI tIat
you can moId and adapt your team's case to
eacI debate. But it doesn't mean spendin
a dozen Iours vritin dovn text Ior every
possibIe circumstance tIat couId come up.
Here are some tips to IoIIov:
Avoid fully prepared speeches. II anytIin, onIy your rst Irmative
speecI sIouId be IuIIy prepared. Iter tIat, you sIouIdn't Iave vord
Ior vord speecIes ready to o. VIy not It's a debatin tournament,
not a pubIic speakin tournament. II you've vritten out your speecI,
watch 00t!
Don't read poInts
Irom prepared text.

90
it viII be obvious to your udes tIat you've done so. TIey'II be askin
tIemseIves, "Is tIis person debatin, or ust readin out a prepared
speecI" More importantIy, you von't be Iocused on respondin to
tIe specics oI vIat's Iappenin in tIe debate.
VIat iI you're ust startin out and onIy IeeI comIortabIe vitI
prepared text FirstIy, you may need to step out oI your comIort zone
and experiment vitI a Iess riid structure. SecondIy, iI you absoIuteIy
need to Iave sometIin ready, keep it to a minimum IeveI. PerIaps
you can prepare some text Ior part oI your nev constructive aru-
ments. But vrite out no more tIan tIat.
Have ready a few more arguments than you need. II you're tIe Nea-
tive team, you'II vant to Iave ready more tIan your primary, pre-
Ierred case. VIy TIe Irmative's denition and case may Iead you
in anotIer direction. TIis doesn't mean Iavin every point prepared
in extreme detaiI. But vrite a sentence or tvo to describe a IandIuI oI
points otIer tIan your key ideas. Even iI you're tIe Irmative team,
your second speaker may need to use diIIerent aruments iI tIe Nea-
tive team takes an unexpected approacI to its case.
Think of some possible ways to clash. TIe key vord Iere is, "tIink."
TIat means not preparin detaiIed, scripted reIutation Ior dozens oI
possibIe aruments. SureIy, you sIouId Iave an idea oI Iov you vouId
o about respondin to numerous opposin aruments. nd it's prob-
abIy IeIpIuI to ot dovn a Iev notes. Hovever, tIere sIouId be mucI
more tIinkin tIan vritin takin pIace.
Impromptu Debates: It's All in the Name
TIey're caIIed 'impromptu' debates Ior a reason: your pIannin sIouId
be IeId to a minimum. You'II receive tIe topic rouIIy 1S minutes in
advance. ny preparation sIouId be Iimited to tIe IoIIovin:
Afhrmative cases. Most impromptu tournaments Ieature at Ieast some
open-ended resoIutions (see ppendix Ior exampIes}, vIicI means
you can dene tIem Iovever you vant. It's a ood idea to come into a
tournament vitI at Ieast IaII a dozen cases ready. You don't need to
be as prepared as you vouId Ior a tournament in vIicI tIe topic Ias
been announced veII in advance. TIe extent oI preparation sIouId
be eneraI knovIede about tIe issue and a set oI points to Iorm tIe
91
0|d Yo0 koow?
The NegatIve team
wIns most Impromptu
debate rounds.
Irmative case. II you come into tIe round too prepared, your udes
von't be too impressed by your Iack oI impromptu debatin.
Negative processes. Since tIere are tIou-
sands oI possibIe debate issues, you can't
possibIy prepare to o up aainst even a Irac-
tion oI tIem. You'II deniteIy et to knov
about many issues as you debate more oIten
and stay on top oI current aIIairs. Preparin
aruments Ior and aainst diIIerent possibIe
resoIutions may be ood practice. But you
sIouId Iocus your tIinkin on processes. Hov viII you vork as a team
to react quickIy to tIe Irmative's case VIo viII speak in eacI posi-
tion VIat eneraI Iormat couId you use to present your case TIis
von't take mucI time, and it sIouIdn't. Go into tIe round comIortabIe
in knovin Iov you'II vork toetIer, but be ready to adapt your styIe
to vIat tIe Irmative team presents.
THE "KSS" PRNCPLE
"Keep It Sveet and SimpIe!"
Many debaters beIieve tIat compIex aruments and bi vords
viII IeIp tIem vin. TIey may make you Iook smart, but tIat doesn't
aIvays transIate into eIIective persuasion. Your case is as ood as it's
understood by tIe udes. You don't score any bonus points Ior com-
pIicatin it. Here are some vays to simpIiIy tIe debate:
Use 'us vs. them' distinctions. By statin pairs oI opposites, you can
actuaIIy use your opponent's case to make your case more cIear. "Pre-
vention vs. bandae soIution," "innovation vs. oId vays," and "decisive
action vs. compIacency" are exampIes oI sucI pairs. TIis tooI IeIps
tIe udes understand vIat exactIy you're tryin to et across. It can
aIso paint your opponent's case in a neative IiIt. II you're aruin
aainst ivin prisoners tIe riIt to vote, you couId summarize an
arument by sayin, "TIis point aIrms tIat criminaIs must be tem-
porariIy removed Irom society, vIereas tIe Irmative vouId ratIer
Iet criminaIs participate activeIy in society's democratic system."
Include analogies, metaphors, and examples. Sometimes tIe most
eIIective vay to IeIp peopIe understand a compIex idea is to compare

92
it to sometIin simpIe. For exampIe, "}ust Iike CIurcIiII vanted to
take tIe battIe to tIe enemy's turI durin tIe Second VorId Var ."
or "Our case is akin to xin tIe IoIe in tIe sIip so tIat ve don't Iave
to continue baiIin out tIe vater." But be careIuI vIen usin tIese
tooIs. You don't vant to triviaIize tIe debate and appear to be makin
sveepin eneraIizations. Iso, you vant to make sure tIat your ud-
es can identiIy vitI your comparison. Brinin up an actress vIose
name your udes Iave never Ieard beIore or a scientic discovery
tIat isn't veII knovn may be more conIusin tIan cIariIyin.
Use clear, direct language. II your quest is to demonstrate your mas-
tery oI tIe EnIisI Ianuae and aII oI its intricacies, you may end up
Iosin your udes. Suppose you vant to taIk about tIe "IundamentaI
IaIIacy inIerent in tIe pIiIosopIicaI premise oI tIe Neative's sec-
ond constructive arument." Try tIis instead: "TIe Neative's second
point is IaIse because ." It's ood to use inteIIient Ianuae, but don't
make vIat you say needIessIy and excessiveIy compIicated.
Avoid unknown acronyms and 'inside' language. Ve oIten tIink
tIat iI ve knov a particuIar acronym or commonIy used aron, so viII
everyone eIse. II you're taIkin about tIe "U.S.," tIe "E.U.," or anotIer
videIy knovn acronym, it von't be a probIem. But don't assume every-
one knovs tIat "O..S." stands Ior "Oranization oI merican States"
or tIat "T.R.C." stands Ior "TrutI and ReconciIiation Commission."
WATCH THE CLOCK
VouIdn't it be nice iI ve couId simpIy o on and on untiI ve've nisIed
vIat ve Iave to say UnIortunateIy, tIis vouId make debates dra Ior
Ioner tIan tIe audience vouId Iike. Debaters Iave to compIy vitI
strict time controIs. TIere's notIin vorse tIan bein in tIe middIe oI
your naI constructive point vIen tIe timekeeper cuts you oII. Bud-
etin your time careIuIIy viII improve your perIormance.
t eacI minute, tIe timekeeper viII sinaI to you Iov mucI time
you Iave IeIt. TIere viII aIso be time sinaIs vIen you Iave 30 seconds
IeIt, vIen your time Ias expired, and vIen your race period-usuaIIy
1S seconds-Ias nisIed. t tIe end oI tIis race period, you must sit
dovn. No exceptions!
Hov do you pace yourseII accordinIy To start, you must knov iI
you're on track to nisI on time. (UsuaIIy, debaters Iave a reat deaI
93
to say, so nisIin earIy is Iess oI a probIem.} Say you're tIe rst Nea-
tive speaker, and you Iave to cIasI vitI tIree Irmative points and
present tIree oI your ovn. II you Iave seven minutes to speak, it's a
ood idea to aIIov approximateIy 1S seconds Ior your introduction,
4S seconds Ior your concIusion, tIree minutes Ior cIasI, and tIree
minutes to present aruments. GeneraIIy, tIis 'minute per point' ruIe
Ior botI reIutation and construction serves as a useIuI uide. sinaI
tIat you Iave tvo minutes IeIt vIen you've ust nisIed your cIasI
and are startin your rst constructive arument is a sin tIat you're
beIind. TIis vouId Ieave you rouIIy IaII a minute Ior eacI aru-
ment, vIicI isn't enouI time Ior tIorouI deveIopment.
VIat iI you can teII you're beIind FirstIy, catcI up sooner ratIer
tIan Iater. You'II nd it mucI easier to adust vIen you Iave more
time to vork vitI. By tIe time you Iave onIy one or tvo minutes IeIt,
your task becomes Iar more cIaIIenin. SecondIy, you can use one or
more oI tIe IoIIovin strateies to make sure you nisI on time:
Cut out an argument. II you Iave at Ieast tIree aruments and one
oI tIem isn't pivotaI to your case, you couId decide to eIiminate it. OI
course, tIis Ieaves your case veaker, but it can be more eIIective tIan
mereIy skimmin over a reater number oI aruments.
Condense each argument. s mentioned previousIy, it's important not
to skim over aruments ust to et tIem in. Hovever, iI you can cut
out nonessentiaI, embeIIisIin detaiIs, you can stiII be IairIy tIorouI
vIiIe makin sure tIat you compIete eacI point.
Sacrihce some refutation. You couId eitIer reIute eacI oI your oppo-
nent's points more quickIy or not cIasI vitI one or more points at
aII. TIe rst tactic is usuaIIy superior, because it's important tIat you
cIaIIene every important point made by your opponent. In most cas-
es, tIouI, sIrinkin tIe reIutation sIiItIy is preIerabIe to sacricin
constructive matter tIat's criticaI to your case.
Go light on the conclusion. UndoubtedIy, tyin up your speecI and
providin reminders to your udes are useIuI Iunctions oI your con-
cIusion. But tIey're aIso not criticaI to tIe case itseII. II you onIy Iave
to cut out a Iev seconds Irom your speecI, keep your concIusion to a
sentence or tvo so tIat you don't Iave to Ieave out vaIuabIe construc-
tive or reIutation matter.

94
THE NTRCACES OF ETQUETTE
Bein respectIuI and poIite von't score you any extra points vitI your
udes. RatIer, it's a basic expectation. On tIe otIer Iand, IaiIure to
IoIIov proper debate etiquette can Ieave a bad impression and cost
you dearIy. TIe ruIes oI etiquette are simpIe, but important. Here are
some oI tIe basics:
Before the Debate
Acknoulcdgc tnc judgcs uncn you cntcr tnc room (or uncn tncy cntcrj.
Make eye contact and smiIe, but don't sIake Iands. Doin so seems
tacky, as iI you're trying to impress tIem.
Wisn your opponcnts "good luck or snukc nunds. s vitI tIe udes, it's a
ood idea to acknovIede tIe otIer side in a respectIuI manner. Even
tIouI you're about to o Iead to Iead vitI tIem, you vant to sIov
tIat you're bein a ood sport.
Avoid prc-dcbutc cnit-cnut. Vrite your names, your speaker positions,
and your team code on tIe board, and tIen take your seat. Even iI
you're Iriends vitI tIe debaters on tIe team opposite, don't start mak-
in conversation vitI tIem about tIe previous round or Iast niIt's
party in Iront oI tIe udes.
During the Debate
Dont tulk to your purtncr too loudly. II you need to communicate, do
so in vritin or by vIisperin very quietIy. TaIkin audibIy vIiIe your
opponent is speakin appears rude and distractin.
Avoid rudc body lunguugc. You'II Iear many tIins tIat you disaree
vitI, or tIat you consider to be pIain vron. It's usuaIIy best to keep
your reaction to yourseII. Sometimes, subtIe body Ianuae can be
appropriate, sucI as a sIiIt sIake oI tIe Iead or a puzzIed Iook. But
siIin IoudIy or tIrovin up your Iands in disareement are some oI
tIe reactions tIat appear inappropriate.
Addrcss your opponcnts rcspcctjully. s mucI as possibIe, address your
opponents by titIe, sucI as "tIe rst Irmative speaker" or "tIe Lead-
95
er oI tIe Opposition." Sayin "tIose uys" or "tIe speaker over tIere"
seems overIy inIormaI, iI not impoIite. Iso, vIen you're attackin
your opponent's points, don't make it personaI. void pIrases sucI as,
"I can't empIasize enouI Iov ridicuIous }im's rst arument sound-
ed." Usin Ianuae Iike "Here's vIat's vron vitI tIe Neative's rst
point" is tIe best approacI.
After the Debate
Avoid projound rcuctions to tnc judgcs dccision or commcnts. In many
tournaments, tIe vinnin team is announced immediateIy aIter tIe
round is nisIed. VIetIer tIis is tIe case, or even iI tIe udes are
onIy providin constructive comments, don't sIov any boastIuI ceIe-
bration or rudin disapprovaI. Be respectIuI botI to your udes and
to your opponents.
Snukc nunds uitn your opponcnts und tnc judgcs. It's poor taste to dasI
IastiIy out oI tIe room. Be sure to tIank tIe udes Ior tIeir time and
to conratuIate your opponents Ior a ood debate.
Stuy rcspcctjul in tnc nulluuys und ccntrul mccting urcus. }ust because a
debate round is over, it isn't a Iicense to criticize your opponents or
udes. Competitive debatin is usuaIIy a tiIt-knit community, and
vord does et around. Vorse yet, you may be overIeard. You couId
end up vitI tIe same udes in tIe Iuture, and you couId Iace your
opponents once aain. PerIaps one day you'II even end up as partners
vitI one oI tIem.
WORKNC THE ROOM
s discussed in CIapter 4, your visuaI impression is a vitaI part oI Iov
eIIective you are at communicatin. In debate, vIere you stand and
Iov you use movement viII Iave an impact on your perIormance.
You'II oIten be constrained by tIe setup oI tIe room, so it's important
to knov Iov to adapt to a variety oI arranements. On tIe IoIIovin
pae, you'II see an exampIe oI Iov a debate room may be setup, as
veII as tIe 'pover positions' Ior stance and movement.

96
97
Taking a Stand
VIere you stand-your pIysicaI pIacement-makes a diIIerence to
your deIivery. }udes 'Iisten' not onIy vitI tIeir ears, but aIso vitI
tIeir eyes. VIen you Iave tIe door, you vant everyone's attention to
Iocus on you. Here are some tips to improve your stae presence:
Step out from behind the table. ItIouI some debaters preIer stand-
in beIind tIe tabIe, tIis approacI doesn't aIIov you to sIov com-
mandin stae presence. In order to be most eIIective, you need to be
in Iront oI tIe otIer debaters so tIat you stand out Irom tIe roup.
Capture the middle. Our eyes naturaIIy Iocus on tIe center oI tIe
room. Standin in tIe middIe aIso brins you cIosest to tIe most num-
ber oI udes. OI course, you don't vant to veer onto your opponent's
side, so it's usuaIIy best to pIace yourseII sIiItIy oII center tovard
your side oI tIe room.
Not too close, not too far. Standin too Iar back veakens your stae
presence. It aImost makes you seem sIy, and it becomes touIer Ior
you to proect your voice to tIe entire audience. But standin too cIose
to tIe audience isn't tIe best oI ideas eitIer. }udes Iike tIeir personaI
space, and pIacin yourseII too cIose to tIem makes you seem overIy
inIrinin and IorceIuI. Be sure to strike a ood baIance.
Don't 'hide' behind the stand. You can deniteIy use your stand to
pIace your notes, but it sIouId never be used as a 'cIutcI' Ior your
Iands. II you're constantIy rabbin and detin vitI tIe stand,
cIances are tIat you'II become stiII and appear to be taIkin into your
stand more tIan to your audience.
Prancing Around the Podium
Podiums and stands are necessary eviIs. You need tIem to pIace your
notes, but tIey present a pIysicaI barrier betveen you and tIe audi-
ence. TIis Ieaves many debaters vonderin iI tIey sIouId even botIer
usin one. UnIortunateIy, tIe aIternatives are usuaIIy Iess desirabIe:
Avoid placing the papers on a desk or table. ItIouI tIis metIod
may seem preIerabIe to tIe obstruction oI a podium, tIe probIem vitI

98
it is tIat you Iave to Iook too Iar dovn to see your papers. VIen you
reIer to your notes, your posture viII be veakened because you'II Iave
to Iean over sIiItIy, and your eye contact viII aIso suIIer.
Try not to have cue cards in your hands. TIis oIten used and mis-
used metIod is ratIer temptin. Iter aII, it eIiminates tIe movement
restriction imposed by a stand. UnIortunateIy, it can be very distract-
in vIen a speaker estures vitI cue cards in Iis or Ier Iands. II
you're vedded to tIis option, use smaII size cards. II not, you're better
oII keepin your Iands Iree to esture more expressiveIy.
Hov do you o about usin a stand One oI tIe most eIIective metIods
is to pIace a diaonaIIy-sIanted stand a Iev Ieet tovard tIe side oI tIe
room. TIis aIIovs you to stand in tIe center, vitI notIin in Iront oI
you actin as an obstruction. TIe stand viII stiII be visibIe to you, but
it viII not et in tIe vay. Iso, tIis metIod makes it Iar Iess temptin
to rab and Iean on tIe stand.
podium is eneraIIy immovabIe, as it's pIaced rmIy in tIe cen-
tre oI tIe room. In tIis case, it's usuaIIy best to use it. Make sure tIat
you stand sIiItIy back Irom tIe podium so tIat you can move and
esture IreeIy vitIout bein tempted to Iean over or IoId onto it.
DRESS FOR DE8ATE SUCCESS
TIis comment isn't intended to teII you Iov to be tIe most IasIion-
abIe person in tIe room. (TIere are pIenty oI maazines devoted to
tIe subect.} RatIer, it's meant to ive you a Iev tips on Iov to dress
appropriateIy Ior a debate tournament. Your dress is an important
part oI tIe impression you ive to your udes. Dressin eitIer too
inIormaIIy or too eIaborateIy takes avay Irom your perIormance.
Ladies sIouId be careIuI not to seem too Iancy. Sure, briIt pink
may vork iI you're tryin to stand out at your raduation. But it's prob-
abIy too boId Ior debate. ny combination tIat Iooks neat, simpIe, and
proIessionaI viII vork veII.
Gents Iook best vitI a suit and tie, especiaIIy Ior a cIampionsIip
tournament. II you preIer to dress dovn a bit, Iose tIe acket or tIe tie.
But avoid vearin kIakis, eans, or anytIin tIat viII make you seem
too inIormaI. Make sure you vear dress sIoes. (Even iI you aree tIat
debate is a sport, runners von't do tIe part.}
99
DON'T PROP YOURSELF UP
TIe use oI visuaI aids is usuaIIy veIcome in pubIic speakin. Speak-
ers use dip cIarts, reIer to tIe board to expIain tIeir points, or IoId
obects in tIeir Iands to IeIp iIIustrate an idea.
Hovever, props aren't veIcome in a debate. FirstIy, tIey Iook tacky.
Your abiIity to persuade and expIain sIouId rest soIeIy in tIe pover
oI your voice and pIysicaI expression. SecondIy, most debate styIes
consider it aainst tIe ruIes to use props. n astute ude viII deduct
points iI you use tIem. In sIort, avoid props Iike tIe pIaue.
STAND UP COMEDY: HUMOR N DE8ATE
TIe use oI Iumor is ripe vitI revards but IrauIt vitI pitIaIIs. You'II
eitIer strike a Iome run by makin your udes IauI or strike out by
Ieavin everyone vonderin vIy you're tryin to be Iunny. It's IairIy
touI to Iearn Iov to be Iunny, as it Ias to come naturaIIy Irom vitIin
you. Here are some eneraI tips to keep tIe oke Irom bein on you:
Don't force humor into your speech. Humor
isn't necessary. You von't Iose any points iI
you aren't Iunny. Too many debaters tIink
to tIemseIves, "I've noticed debaters vIo
are Iunny and Iov mucI udes seem to
Iike tIem. So, perIaps I sIouId try to do tIe
same tIin." It von't vork.
Keep the jokes clean. Most udes von't be receptive to inappropri-
ate or oIIensive Iumor. crude remark viII stand out in your udes'
minds-Ior tIe vron reason.
Make sure the humor applies to the debate. Your Iumor viII be more
varmIy accepted iI it iIIustrates an idea tIat's part oI tIe round. vit-
ty anaIoy, Ior instance, can be a very useIuI reIutation tooI. IsoIated
okes meant pureIy Ior tIe sake oI bein Iunny von't IeIp you mucI.
TIe inIormation in tIis cIapter, particuIarIy denin tIe resoIution
and pIayin your roIe, sIouId serve as a Ioundation Ior you as ve move
into tIe sections on makin aruments and counter-aruments.
watch 00t!
I you're not sure that
your joke Is Iunny,
don't say It.

100
The hrst objective in a debate is to prove that you're right.
You accompIisI tIis oaI by deveIopin constructive aruments.
VIen tIe otIer side cIasIes vitI your constructive aruments,
your task is to deIend tIem.
The second objective in a debate is to prove that the other
team is wrong. You accompIisI tIis oaI tIrouI reIutation oI
its aruments. SpecicaIIy, your task is to cIasI vitI every reIe-
vant point made by your opponent and to expIain vIy its overaII
case is incorrect.
Start the debate round with a clear and fair dehnition. De-
nitions sIouId be used to Iocus tIe debate on a particuIar area
or to cIariIy ambiuous terms. void unIair denitions tIat Ieave
tIe Neative team vitI Iimited room to debate. s tIe Neative
side, onIy contest a denition in tIe rarest oI cases.
Play your role in the debate. It's important to knov vIen you
sIouId be constructin your team's case and vIen you sIouId
be reIutin tIe otIer team's case. Iso be avare oI tIe vays in
vIicI a rebuttaI speaker Ias diIIerent responsibiIities tIan a
constructive speaker.
Use a ow sheet to keep track of arguments. Vrite dovn, in
coIumns, tIe aruments and counter-aruments made by eacI
speaker. TIen, use tIis visuaIization oI tIe debate to pIan your
team's stratey and to IeIp you vIen it's your turn to speak.
Practice sound teamwork skills. TIink very careIuIIy about
vIom you vant as a partner, as stron teamvork and veII-
matcIed styIes are important. Treat debate competition as a
team exercise tIat requires you to vork vitI your partner.
"Keep it Sweet and SimpleI" FoIIovin tIe "KISS" principIe
viII increase your eIIectiveness as a debater. void unnecessary
compIexity, so tIat it's easier Ior your udes to rasp tIe points
tIat you're tryin to communicate.
101
Practice good etiquette. VIetIer beIore, durin, or aIter a
debate, it's essentiaI tIat you're respectIuI to your competitors
and to your udes.
Stand where you can be most engaging. II tIe room setup
aIIovs, capture tIe center, ive yourseII enouI room to move
around, and don't Iet tIe stand be a barrier.
103
Coming UpI
TIe Ieart oI top-notcI debate is a reat case by botI teams. In tIis
section, you'II Iearn Iov to enineer stron, inteIIient aruments
centered around compeIIin tIemes. You'II aIso see Iov to present
your points in a vay tIat Ieaves your udes impressed and your rivaIs
Iacin an upIiII battIe.
0hAPT8 7
Pros and Cons:
SoIId PoInts and PowerIuI Cases

104
8ULDNC A CASE FROM THE CROUND UP
TIe Ioundation oI a rst-rate perIormance is a stron case. case is a
coIIection oI individuaI aruments tIat pusI Ior or aainst tIe resoIu-
tion. Your team is responsibIe Ior presentin a case tIat articuIates
your side oI tIe issue cIearIy and eIIectiveIy. VIat are tIe inredients
oI a case tIat's touI enouI to vitIstand attack
Consistent. TIe aruments you present must t veII vitI one anotI-
er. TIe need Ior consistency appIies botI vitIin your speecI and
betveen you and your partner. VitIout tIis coIerency, your case viII
be easy to reIute and Iard to deIend.
II tIe aruments are indcpcndcnt-eacI one, standin aIone, IeIps
buiId your case-tIey must never be contradictory. Say tIat your part-
ner arues, "Economic IobaIization is ood because oI tIe benets
associated vitI reater internationaI trade." TIen, you stand up and
present tIe arument, "InIormation IobaIization is ood because tIe
spread oI knovIede aIIovs countries to produce more IocaIIy, mak-
in tIem Iess dependent on Iorein imports." TIese tvo independent
aruments are inconsistent.
II, Iovever, tIe aruments are intcrdcpcndcnt-tIey're Iinked and
support eacI otIer-tIe reIationsIip must make sense. For exampIe,
iI you taIk about tIe "sIortae oI doctors in deveIopin countries" and
proceed to caII Ior "sendin more medicaI equipment to soIve tIis
probIem," you Iave a consistency probIem. VIat ood is more medicaI
equipment iI tIere aren't enouI doctors to use tIe equipment
Explained. It isn't enouI simpIy to state stron, Iocused points. You
Iave to expIain compIeteIy uny tIey're correct. Say you're tIe Irma-
tive team and you're debatin on tIe resoIution, "Be it resoIved tIat
tIe entertainment media Ias a neative induence." One oI your aru-
ments is, "Many cIiIdren commit vioIent acts because oI vIat tIey
see on teIevision." Don't stop tIere. VIy is teIevision tIe cause Hov
severe is tIe probIem Is tIe probIem videspread, or are ve taIkin
about a smaII number oI sIovs Do tIe IarmIuI sIovs oversIadov
tIe positive ones Ivays Ieave your audience vitI a compIete sense
oI vIat eacI arument means.
Supported. II your expIanation isn't enouI to make an arument
convincin, you may need to drav on evidence to support your cIaim.
Fros uru Cors. So:u Fo:rs uru Foucrju Cuscs
105
Say tIat in aruin post-secondary education sIouId be Iree, you taIk
about Iov "many peopIe can't access it because tIey don't Iave enouI
money." ReaIIy Hov many peopIe are you reIerrin to VIat prooI do
you Iave tIat makin it Iree Ior everyone is even necessary, vIen tIe
overnment couId simpIy increase rants and Ioans s discussed in
CIapter 3, be sure to use credibIe sources and stron exampIes.
Organized. Hov you Iay out your case is extremeIy important. Don't
ust randomIy state arument aIter arument. TIink about Iov to
spIit tIe aruments bctuccn speecIes and Iov to oranize tIem uitnin
a speecI. veII-oranized case is easy to IoIIov, vIicI aIso makes it
easier to secure tIe areement oI your udes.
TIere are many diIIerent vays to oranize your points, and tIe
metIod you sIouId seIect depends on tIe resoIution. ReIer back to
CIapter 3 Ior a discussion oI tIe more common structures. One pos-
sibIe vay is to start vitI tIe need and tIen to describe tIe soIution.
For exampIe, you couId start by expIainin vIy environmentaI poI-
Iution is a rovin probIem, and you couId continue by presentin a
number oI initiatives. Or, perIaps it makes sense to oranize your case
by tIemes. For exampIe, you couId taIk about tIe security reasons Ior
enain in a var, and your partner couId taIk about tIe Iuman riIts
reasons. VIiIe tIere's no 'riIt' vay to oranize a debate case, tIink
careIuIIy about Iov to make it IoicaI and easy to IoIIov.
Complete. Make sure tIat you cover tIe key anIes oI an issue to tIe
extent tIat tIe denition requires. II you're aruin tIat tIe overn-
ment sIouId subsidize community Ieaue sports, you couId arue tIat
tIe primary reason is to improve IeaItI and veIIness. But vIat about
tIe positive impact on tIe community VIiIe you couId make a reat
case on tIe IeaItIy IiIestyIe issue aIone, your case vouId be stroner
iI you covered severaI key advantaes. Hovever, a vord oI caution:
don't cover every anIe at tIe expense oI deptI. Make sure tIat you
Iave enouI time to cover every key area oI your case vitI suIcient
Ioic and sound expIanations.
Relevant. Seems common sense, riIt You vouId be surprised at Iov
oIten inteIIient peopIe make inteIIient aruments tIat don't et to
tIe Ieart oI tIe issue. Say you're aruin tIat Supreme Court udes
sIouId be eIected. One oI your points couId be tIat tIe court is deepIy
divided on severaI key issues and tIat a sIakeup oI tIe system is in

106
order. But vouId eIectin tIe udes actuaIIy cIane tIat Is it even
reIevant to tIe competin principIes tIat are at tIe core oI tIe debate
Make sure tIat aII oI your points support your case directIy.
THE RCHT ANCLES: ANALYZNC THE SSUE
Ve'II soon et into tIe specic types oI aruments tIat you can use to
support your case. First, it's important to understand Iov to o about
anaIyzin an issue. VIiIe tIere's no 'one size ts aII' Iramevork Ior
tIis endeavor, tIere are ve key areas to Iook at vIen Iearnin about
a topic: Politicul, Economic, Sociul, Culturul, and Morul.
Political. TIink about issues in terms oI Iov tIey pIay out in tIe pubIic
arena. VIat are tIe impIications Ior dipIomatic or security reIations
betveen states VIat does tIe state oI tIe nationaI poIiticaI dynamic
mean Ior society
Economic. TIis anIe oI anaIysis deaIs vitI materiaI veII-bein. Some
oI tIe reIevant issues incIude trade, unempIoyment, standard oI Iivin,
taxes, investment, and subsidies.
Social. Examine tIe impact oI tIe issue on reIations betveen peopIe
in society. SpecicaIIy, vIat are tIe main impIications Ior IamiIies,
scIooIs, vorkpIaces, and communities
Cultural. TIis area oI anaIysis reIates to a society's sense oI identity
and cIaracter. Some oI tIe key areas incIude tIe arts, media, Ianua-
es, and muIticuIturaIism.
Moral. n anaIysis oI tIe issue's moraI dimensions invoIves 'riIt vs.
vron' questions. For exampIe, is it etIicaI to Iie about a medicaI con-
dition in order to prevent Iear Or vouId it be moraIIy acceptabIe Ior a
doctor to remove a dyin patient's IiIe support system
A THEME TO SET THE SCENE
Debates vitI scattered, disorderIy aruments Iack a sense oI direc-
tion. Granted, tIe denition sIouId do a IairIy ood ob oI makin tIe
scope oI tIe debate cIear. But you need to o a step IurtIer in order to
107
Iave a veII-Iocused round. Your team needs to Iave an overaII tIeme
tIat unies tIe entire case. Sometimes, it may make sense to Iave
tvo tIemes, as Ion as it's necessary and tIey t veII toetIer.
What is a themeZ
tIeme, simpIy put, is an 'umbreIIa' state-
ment oI vIat your case is about-unut
you're settin out to accompIisI and uny it
matters. Good tIemes are sIort and easy to
remember. Even iI tIe udes Ioret some
oI your more specic aruments, expIana-
tions, and evidence, tIey sIouId aIvays
remember your tIeme.
How do you use itZ
Used eIIectiveIy, a tIeme can be a poverIuI communication tooI tIat
makes your case seem connected and Iocused. TIe reaI vaIue comes
not in statin tIe tIeme over and over aain, but in appIyin tIe tIeme
to distinct parts oI your case. Here are some oI tIe times vIen usin
your tIeme may be IeIpIuI:
Near the beginning of the hrst speech. Don't make your tIeme a mys-
tery to be discovered as tIe debate proresses. ood pIace to intro-
duce your tIeme as tIe Irmative is riIt aIter you've dened tIe
terms or, iI you're tIe Neative, at tIe start oI your rst speecI. State
it cIearIy and compIeteIy at tIis point, Iettin everyone knov exactIy
vIere you'II be oin vitI your case. For exampIe, you couId say, "TIe
centraI tIeme oI tIe Irmative's case is tIat, on baIance, teIevision
advertisements obscure our abiIity to make sound, rationaI decisions
about tIe pIarmaceuticaI products ve buy."
At the end of a constructive point. ConcIudin eacI point by repeatin
tIe main arument isn't very interestin. nd restatin your tIeme
repeatedIy viII bore tIe audience aIter a vIiIe. VIat you sIouId con-
sider doin is expIainin briedy Iov tIe point ties back to and sup-
ports your centraI tIeme. TIis vay, you've reminded everyone oI tIe
tIeme in tIe context oI a specic point. For exampIe, you couId arue,
"TIis second point about tIe tooIs tIat companies use to appeaI to
S0ccess T|p!
Focus your arguments
around core themes.

108
our instincts sIovs Iov advertisin makes it Iarder Ior us to make
sensibIe medicaI decisions."
At the end of a constructive speech. Tyin your speecI toetIer by
addressin Iov you've proven your tIeme can be an eIIective strat-
ey. But make sure you do so conciseIy, especiaIIy iI you've used your
tIeme at tIe end oI eacI constructive point. For exampIe, you couId
concIude your speecI by sayin, "My rst arument about Iuman
psycIoIoy and my second arument about advertisin tecIniques
coIIectiveIy prove tIat teIevision advertisin oI drus Ias a neative
induence on consumer buyin Iabits."
As a central focus of the rebuttal. Since tIe rebuttaI is supposed to
Iocus on tIe competin tIemes oI tIe debate, it onIy makes sense to
say Iov you've arued your tIeme eIIectiveIy and Iov tIat makes
your case superior to your opponent's case. You couId expIain, Ior
instance, "Today, ve've demonstrated tIat our tIeme, nameIy tIat
advertisin ets in tIe vay oI makin sound, rationaI dru purcIas-
in decisions, Ias prevaiIed over our opponent's tIeme oI inIormin
consumers on avaiIabIe treatment options."
ENCNEERNC HCHPERFORMANCE PONTS
II a tIeme is tIe Ioundation and Irame oI a
debate, aruments are tIe bricks and mor-
tar. TIe strentI oI your team's aruments
viII make or break your case. VitIout
stron aruments, you can't support your
tIeme eIIectiveIy. II your contentions are
veak, it's touI to expIain tIe Ioic beIind
tIem and tIe evidence supportin tIem.
TIere are many anIes tIat you can take vIen deveIopin aruments.
Discussed in tIis section are some oI tIe areas to consider, rouped
into Iour cateories: justipcution, Systcms, Pcrccption, and Bcnuvior.
Arguments on justihcation
Legitimacy. n arument can be based on vIetIer one practice Ieiti-
mizes anotIer practice. UsuaIIy, a paraIIeI can be dravn betveen diI-
Ierent circumstances. In a debate on tIe vIetIer parents Iave a riIt
watch 00t!
AvoId arguments that
are wIdeIy accepted or
uncontestabIe.
109
to spank tIeir cIiIdren, you couId arue, "IIovin spankin provides
a sense oI Ieitimacy to otIer Iorms oI vioIence tIat couId aIso be used
to discipIine youn cIiIdren."
Morality. Issues oI moraIity consider vIetIer a practice is 'riIt' or
'vron' Irom a vaIues perspective. Since sucI udments are personaI
in nature, makin an arument on moraI rounds can be cIaIIenin.
But appeaIin successIuIIy to a common beIieI and expIainin vIy it's
a vortIvIiIe vaIue may strentIen your case. On tIe issue oI Iorein
aid, you couId arue, "Increasin our monetary commitment to inter-
nationaI deveIopment is tIe riIt tIin to do, because it advances our
society's concept oI universaI Iuman dinity."
Consistency. II a practice reIated to tIe issue Ias been rmIy estab-
IisIed, you can arue tIat tIat your viev is a ustied extension oI tIis
circumstance. Say you're aruin tIat merican citizens born abroad
sIouId be aIIoved to run Ior President. You couId arue, "Our demo-
cratic system trusts Iorein-born mericans vitI important, IiI-
responsibiIity positions, sucI as Governor oI CaIiIornia, and sensitive
nationaI security roIes, sucI as Secretary oI State. IIovin tIem to
run Ior President vouId be consistent vitI tIese principIes."
Remedies. II an inustice Ias occurred in tIe past, you can arue tIat
tIe victims are ustied in demandin compensation or anotIer rem-
edy. For exampIe, you couId say, "Reservin a set number oI pIaces in
medicaI scIooIs Ior students oI aboriinaI ancestry is ustied, because
aboriinaI peopIes vere denied a Iair opportunity in tIe past."
Rights. You can ustiIy a principIe on tIe rounds tIat it's a Iundamen-
taI riIt or Ireedom. TIe crux oI sucI an arument is tIat tIe riIt at
stake is too important to be taken avay simpIy because oI a particuIar
circumstance. It's IeIpIuI to expIain vIy Iimitin tIe Ireedom is Iarm-
IuI. In a debate on restrictin Iate speecI, you couId say, "TIe riIt
to speak IreeIy is undeniabIe, even iI it's used in a vay tIat's moraIIy
obectionabIe. Ve sIouIdn't be tryin to drav an arbitrary 'Iine in tIe
sand' vIen it comes to tIis cornerstone principIe oI a Iree society."
Norms. Your point can appeaI to one's sense oI vIat's considered
normaI or commonpIace. But don't Ioret tIat a norm to one person
may not be a norm to anotIer. OnIy use tIis tooI iI virtuaIIy every-

110
one in society accepts tIe norm tIat you're tIinkin oI evokin. For
exampIe, you couId cIaim, "TIis practice inIrines on tIe parent-cIiId
bond, vIicI is tIe most IundamentaI reIationsIip in our society."
Historical. Citin IistoricaI reasons can IeIp you ustiIy eitIer upIoId-
in or reectin a current practice. Usin Iistory as an arument to
maintain a current practice can be risky, as it bes tIe reaction, "TIat
vas in tIe pust. TIis debate is about vIat's ustied in tIe prcscnt."
More oIten, a team viII arue tIat a IistoricaI reason is no Ioner
suIcient ustication. For exampIe, you couId arue, "Many oI tIe
IistoricaI reasons Ior protectin a citizen's unrestricted riIt to bear
arms don't exist today. Ve nov Iave veII-estabIisIed poIice Iorces to
protect everyone in society, so it's no Ioner appropriate Ior citizens to
take tIe Iav into tIeir ovn Iands."
Precedent. You can arue tIat a certain practice sets a precedent Ior
Iuture actions. ItIouI sometimes tIere is a positive precedent, a
danerous, 'sIippery sIope' precedent is tIe type most oIten cited in
debates. For exampIe, one couId arue, "Censorin scIooI Iibrary books
sets a danerous precedent Ior academic and Iiterary Ireedom. TIe
Ioic used to ustiIy censorin Iibrary books can aIso be used to us-
tiIy censorin nevspapers, textbooks, and otIer inIormation sources
readiIy avaiIabIe vitIin tIe vaIIs oI a scIooI."
Arguments on Systems
Enforceability. It's aII ne and veII tIat a system is briIIiant in tIeo-
ry. But iI it can't be enIorced IairIy and eIIectiveIy, you can make an
arument reIatin to tIis probIem. Say tIe debate is on vIetIer tIere
sIouId be a Iav aainst parents smokin at Iome in tIe presence oI
tIeir cIiIdren. You couId arue, "TIe sIeer diIcuIty oI enIorcin sucI
a Iav makes it unvorkabIe and veak."
Effectiveness. Even iI a system Ias vortIy oaIs, it may not be eIIective
at meetin its oaIs. You can arue Ior or aainst a system based on
Iov veII it carries out its stated mandate. Say you're makin tIe case
Ior trade sanctions aainst a dictatorsIip tIat's abusin tIe Iuman
riIts oI its citizens. One oI your aruments couId be, "DipIomatic
sanctions and United Nations resoIutions Iave proven ineIIective,
so ve need to take a Iarder Iine." On tIe otIer Iand, your opponent
111
couId arue, "Imposin trade sanctions vouIdn't be an eIIective soIu-
tion, because it vouIdn't veaken tIe rip oI tIe country's IeadersIip
on tIe miIitary and poIice Iorces."
Feasibility. proposaI is vortIy oI praise onIy to tIe extent tIat it's
practicaI to impIement. You can make an arument supportin or
opposin a system on tIe basis oI its IeasibiIity. II you're debatin tIe
issue oI Internet reuIation, you couId say, "TIe probIem vitI tryin
to Iorm a IobaI Internet 'vatcIdo' is tIat its excessive costs and
bureaucratic IurdIes vouId oversIadov any potentiaI benets."
Abuses. Even iI a system Ias vortIy oaIs and is easy to operate, you
can arue aainst it on tIe rounds tIat it's prone to abuses. Take a
debate on tIe riIt oI prisoners to communicate privateIy vitI tIe
outside vorId. possibIe arument is, "Grantin tIis riIt Ieaves tIe
door open to abuses, sucI as prisoners conductin criminaI activities
tIrouI unIettered communication vitI tIeir associates."
Results. One oI tIe most common vays to ude a system is to evaIu-
ate its outcomes, eitIer positive or neative. TIese benets or Iarms
can reIate to one or more oI a variety oI roups, sucI as IamiIies, com-
munities, companies, countries, or tIe vorId. For exampIe, you couId
arue, "s a resuIt oI insuIcient environmentaI reuIations on Iacto-
ries, tIe unacceptabIy IiI IeveI oI urban smo poIIution is neativeIy
impactin Iuman IeaItI."
Arguments on Perception
Image. You can make an arument reIatin to tIe reputation oI a per-
son or roup. To strentIen tIis type oI point, expIain uny Iavin a
ood imae actuaIIy matters. In a debate on scIooI discipIine poIicy,
one couId arue, " zero-toIerance poIicy vouId improve tIe reputa-
tion oI tIe city's pubIic scIooIs in tIe eyes oI parents. TIis vouId Iead
to reater trust and a more cooperative reIationsIip betveen parents
and scIooI administrators."
Signals. n arument can be based on tIe sinaI tIat an activity or
circumstance sends to otIer peopIe. It's IeIpIuI to take tIis type oI
point a step IurtIer, expIainin nou tIe sinaI Ias eitIer a positive or a
neative impact on society. n exampIe oI tIis tecInique is, "IIovin

112
prisoners to vote in nationaI eIections sends tIe messae tIat tIey're
a IuII part oI our democratic system, vIicI vouId Iead many peopIe
to question tIe interity oI tIe eIectoraI system."
Attitudes. poIicy or situation can impact Iov peopIe tnink about an
issue, and vIat peopIe tIink can impact vIat tIey do. Say tIe debate
is on tIe merits oI raduated, muIti-stae driver Iicensin. One side
couId arue, "ddin steps to tIe process vouId IeIp dispeI tIe care-
Iree attitude tIat many teenaers Iave tovard drivin. It vouId cause
more youn peopIe to reconize tIat drivin is a danerous activity
requirin responsibIe beIavior."
Culture. n arument on cuIture is simiIar to one on attitudes, except
tIat it deaIs vitI tIe overaII mood ratIer tIan vIat a sement oI tIe
popuIation tninks about an issue. For exampIe, you couId say, "Modern
maazines paint a IarmIuI stereotype oI tIe 'perIect' body imae. TIis
creates an unIavorabIe cuIture in vIicI teenaers are uded by tIeir
peers accordin to tIis standard."
Arguments on Behavior
Inuence. You can arue tIat a circumstance Ias a positive or nea-
tive impact on Iuman actions. TIe oaI Iere is to estabIisI a cause
and eIIect Iink. One couId arue, "TIe teIevision entertainment media
Ias a neative induence on cIiIdren because mucI oI its proram-
min encouraes vioIence in scIooIyards and neiIborIoods."
Intent. point can be based on tIe intent oI a person or roup as it
beIaves in a certain vay. TIis intent may eitIer be positive or nea-
tive. It's important to expIain tIe Iink betveen intcnt and rcsult. For
exampIe, you couId make tIe point, "Tobacco manuIacturers intended
to taret a youn audience so tIat tIey couId estabIisI an earIy base
oI IoyaI consumers. TIis ended up increasin tIe percent oI teenaers
vIo smoked ciarettes."
Role. Points based on roIe consider uno is carryin out an action.
You can arue tIat tIe person or roup pIayin tIe roIe sIouId or
sIouIdn't be doin so. II Iookin at an individuaI's roIe, one couId
make tIe point, "It's tIe roIe oI parents, not teacIers, to encourae
students to eat IeaItIy Ioods." II anaIyzin a roIe Irom a non-personaI
113
standpoint, you couId arue, "ctin as a 'IobaI poIice Iorce' and stop-
pin Iumanitarian crises is a necessary roIe Ior tIe United States oI
merica, vIicI is tIe vorId's onIy superpover."
WEAK AND WO88LY ARCUMENTS
EacI arument sIouId be a cIear, direct reason Ior tIe udes to aree
vitI your side. UnIortunateIy, many debaters use inappropriate tooIs
to buiId a case, meritin a discussion oI tIe most common pitIaIIs:
Claiming that public opinion is on your side. debate isn't about
vIetIer a viev is populur or unpopulur. It's about vIetIer a viev is
rignt or urong. OI course, a maority oI tIe pubIic viII aree vitI one
side or tIe otIer. II popuIarity couId be used to make a point, debates
vouId be decided beIore tIey even started. For exampIe, don't say, "In
a nationaI poII, 68% oI tIe pubIic areed vitI our perspective" or "TIe
re-eIection oI tIe present overnment sIovs tIat most peopIe areed
vitI tIe var." SucI statements do notIin to advance your case.
Using evidence as an argument. VIiIe evidence sIouId be used to
support aruments, it sIouIdn't be used to jorm aruments. ExampIes
and statistics provide backup Ior key points, but tIey aren't conten-
tious points tIemseIves. II vIat you're sayin is a Iact, tIen it isn't
debatabIe. nd iI it isn't debatabIe, tIen it isn't an arument. Statin,
"TIe Irmative's rst arument is tIat tIere vere 1,2S0 murders in
tIe city Iast year, vIicI is up 11% Irom tIe year beIore" is a piece oI
evidence, not an arument.
Evoking a famous person's views. CertainIy, tIe vievs oI a statesman
or a ceIebrity may be acceptabIe iI tIey add reasoned, substantive sup-
port to an arument. UnIortunateIy, tIis tecInique is oIten misused.
For exampIe, some debaters viII make a statement Iike, "TIe Nea-
tive's case is correct because in 2004, our perspective vas endorsed
by ." So vIat For tIe same reason tIat pubIic opinion sIouIdn't
be empIoyed, endorsements don't Iave a pIace eitIer. Remember, a
debate is about Iov you arue Ior or aainst tIe resoIution, not vIat
someone eIse Iappens to tIink about tIe issue.
Basing a point on legality. Some debaters viII use Iavs, particuIarIy
constitutions, to arue tIe vaIidity oI tIe principlc beIind an aru-

114
ment. Hovever, ruIes and reuIations aren't substitutes Ior reasoned
aruments. Except iI cIearIy stated in tIe resoIution, a debate isn't
about tIe IeaIity oI a particuIar practice. Even iI a practice is iIIeaI,
tIe debate couId Iocus on vIetIer it snould be iIIeaI. It's possibIe to
make principIed aruments Ior botI sides oI a Iav. For exampIe, you
sIouIdn't say, "TIe Neative's second arument is tIat Section 9.3a oI
tIe nationaI constitution impIies tIat media censorsIip is vron."
Supporting a practice because it's a choice. }ust because a practice
is an option, it doesn't make it more riIt or more vron. Say you're
debatin tIat overnments sIouId aIIov pubIic-private partnersIips
Ior nationaI parks manaement. It vouId be poor Iorm to arue, "TIe
overnment ets to cIoose on a case by case basis vIetIer a partner-
sIip is a ood idea. II it's ood, tIere viII be a partnersIip. II it isn't,
tIere von't be a partnersIip. Since it's a cIoice, our opponent's Iarms
can't possibIy exist." You sIouId Iave arued tIat, on baIance, tIese
partnersIips urc a ood idea, not tIat tIey muy be a ood idea.
Building a chain of arguments. DeveIopin points as a series oI pro-
ressive reasons, eacI arument buiIdin on tIe previous arument,
is a temptin tactic. It aIIovs you to sIov tIe IoicaI deveIopment oI
your perspective. UnIortunateIy, it's oIten very risky. II you construct
a cIain oI aruments and your opponent is abIe to break a sinIe
Iink in tIe cIain, your entire case may IaII apart. Don't IeeI tIat you
sIouIdn't ever use dependent aruments, but tIink careIuIIy about
tIis risk beIore you do so.
PONTS ARE 8RANDS, AND 8RANDS HAVE LA8ELS
Hov does a company take a product vitI
many Ieatures and benets and present it
in a vay tIat's easy to Ior consumers to
rasp It creates a brand, and tIen it IabeIs
tIe product so tIat it instantIy catcIes your
eye. Debatin points sIouId be treated in a
simiIar vay. You may Iave spent severaI
minutes taIkin about tIe reasons, support,
and impIications concernin a point. Hov is a ude to recaII exactIy
vIat arument it vas or vIat it meant SimpIe: IabeI it.
S0ccess T|p!
When you 'brand' your
poInts, make the IabeIs
easy to remember.
115
Suppose tIat your second constructive point expIains Iov creatin
a nev education aency vouId Iead to maor staIn probIems, vast-
ed resources, and countIess deIays. TIis is your "messy bureaucracy"
point. Or, say your arument is tIat teIevision sIovs and maazines
Iave created unIeaItIy and sociaIIy IarmIuI vievs oI Iov a youn irI
sIouId Iook, Ieadin many teenaers to Iave poor eatin Iabits and
Iov seII-esteem. TIis is your "imae stereotype" point. Not onIy does
tIis stratey make it easier Ior otIers to diest and remember vIat
you've said, it aIso makes it easier Ior you to reIer back to your points
Iater on in tIe debate.
THE POLCY PROCESS
II you're tIe Irmative team in a poIicy debate, you Iave to estab-
IisI uny tIere needs to be cIane and unut you pIan to do about it. II
you're tIe Neative team, your case viII usuaIIy incIude aruments in
Iavor oI tIe current system.
In practice, a pIan is a tIorouI set oI procedures and rationaIes
tIat takes many Iours or Iundreds oI paes to expIain. UnIortunateIy,
you're considerabIy Iimited in a debate. Your cIaIIene is to present a
pIan conciseIy, vIiIe communicatin tIe key aspects eIIectiveIy. Here
are some strateies Ior buiIdin stron pIans:
Stick to a few steps. }ust as it's touI Ior udes to diest more tIan
a Iev aruments, it's equaIIy diIcuIt to compreIend a pIan vitI too
many steps. UsuaIIy, Iavin tIree parts in your pIan is a ood ruIe oI
tIumb, perIaps one more or one Iess iI tIe situation varrants. II your
pIan Ias ve or six points, you're IikeIy to conIuse tIe udes. Statin
onIy one step makes your pIan seem incompIete.
Strike a good balance between general and specihc. Granted, tIis is
tricky. You don't vant to speak in sucI eneraIities tIat nobody knovs
vIat exactIy you vant to do. t tIe same time, it's not necessary to et
into smaII detaiIs. Say you're caIIin Ior raduated, muIti-stae driver
Iicensin. Here's a comparison to iIIustrate tIe concept oI baIance:
Too gcncrul: "Ve vouId Iave tests Ior eacI stae oI Iicensin."
Too spccipc: "t Stae 1, ve vouId impIement a 2S question muItipIe
cIoice knovIede test and a 30 minute road test Iocusin on ve key

116
areas oI drivin prociency. In addition, tIe IoIIovin six conditions
vouId be pIaced on Stae 1 drivers under tIe ae oI 18 ."
Cood buluncc: "t Stae 1, tIere vouId be a vritten knovIede test
and a practicaI road test. t Stae 2, tIere vouId onIy be a road test,
but it vouId be more cIaIIenin and more compreIensive tIan tIe
previous road test."
Fit the plan with the needs for change. Your
pIan sIouId be an extension oI your needs
Ior cIane, soIvin directIy and eIIectiveIy
tIe probIems tIat you brouIt up. Many
debaters present pIans tIat are very soIid
in tIeir ovn riIt, but vitI advantaes and
rationaIes tIat are sinicantIy diIIerent
tIan tIe needs Ior cIane discussed previ-
ousIy. VIen you state your pIan, it's IeIpIuI to expIain exactIy Iov
your proposaI soIves tIe probIems in tIe present system.
Use language that's easy to comprehend. Presentin a pIan sIouIdn't
be akin to pIayin tIe roIe oI a Iavyer. You sIouId avoid usin compIex,
IeaIistic Ianuae tIat sounds Iike IormaI IeisIation. Make sure tIat
your udes viII be abIe to understand your pIan easiIy and quickIy.
Don't spend too much time on it. ItIouI a pIan is an important
part oI poIicy debate, it sIouId rareIy become tIe centraI Iocus. OverIy
tecInicaI debates centerin on impIementation issues et very dry.
TIe primary Iocus sIouId be on vIy tIe system needs to cIane, and
tIe pIan sIouId IareIy cIariIy Iov, in a broad sense, you vouId o
about carryin out tIe cIanes in an eIIective and eIcient vay.
CRTERA TO LAY DOWN THE YARDSTCKS
In most instances, tIe denition does a reasonabIy ood ob oI cIear-
in up vIat tIe debate is about. By denin tIe terms Iov it cIooses,
tIe Irmative team is expIainin vIat it Ias to prove and teIIin tIe
Neative team tIat it Ias to sIov tIe opposite.
Hovever, a team can setup criteria to examine more specicaIIy
vIat eacI side needs to prove in order to vin. TIere are tvo main
oaIs tIat a team may vant to acIieve by usin criteria:
S0ccess T|p!
Keep your pIan sImpIe
and easy to IoIIow.
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Goal #1: To provide a 'litmus test' for the judges. In many vaIues
debates, tvo teams may arue very persuasiveIy vIy a resoIution is
true or IaIse, but botI Iave entireIy diIIerent interpretations oI vIat
needs to be proven. One or botI teams may nd it IeIpIuI to Iay out tIe
criteria by vIicI tIe udes sIouId decide vIo von.
Suppose tIat tIe debate is on tIe resoIution, "ResoIved: tIe United
Nations is a IaiIure." TIe Irmative denes tIe topic as "tIe Security
CounciI IaiIin to deIiver internationaI peace and security." Hov do ve
knov vIat's considered a "IaiIure." VIat do ve mean by "peace and
security" TIe Irmative couId set tvo criteria: solving crises it couId
Iave soIved, and discouruging vars and civiI condicts.
Goal #2: As a high-risk strategy to stake out the core issues. IdeaIIy,
tIe debate viII center around your preIerred issues. Most teams viII
say Irom tIe outset vIat tIey tIink tIe debate is about, and tIey'II
pIead tIeir case aain in tIe rebuttaI speecI. Layin out criteria is tIe
most expIicit vay to mark your territory. Hovever, it aIso paints a bi
taret on your back. II tIe otIer team can sIov tIe udes tIat you
Iaven't met aII oI tIe criteria tIat you created, it's Iar Iess IikeIy tIat
you'II vin tIe debate.
Say you're tIe Irmative team Ior tIe resoIution, "Be it resoIved
tIat tIe Iav society sIouId seIect IederaI udes." You couId cIaim tIat
tIere are tvo criteria Ior decidin tIe issue: tIe process must be objcc-
tivc, and tIe seIection must be based soIeIy on IeaI mcrit. CIearIy, you
IeeI tIat your team Ias tIe upper Iand on botI accounts. Hovever,
iI tIe Neative team can raise enouI doubt about tIe Iav society's
obectivity, tIe udes may decide tIat you Iost tIe debate even iI your
overaII case vas stron.
Your decision on vIetIer to use criteria sIouId be based on Iov con-
dent you are tIat you can meet tIem. TIere's notIin vorse tIan
proposin a set oI criteria, onIy to see your opponent use your ovn
vords aainst you. Here are some strateies to IoIIov iI you decide to
o vitI tIis case stratey:
Present them at the beginning of your hrst speech. It's onIy Iair tIat
your opponent knovs your version oI tIe criteria at tIe outset. TIis
aIIovs its speakers to cIasI vitI your case accordinIy or to arue Ior
a diIIerent set oI criteria.

118
Don't confuse criteria with arguments. set oI criteria is a tooI vitI
vIicI to cvuluutc your aruments, but tIey aren't actuaIIy aruments
tIemseIves. Usin tIe ude seIection exampIe discussed previousIy,
it vouId be veak to say, "Our rst point is tIat tIe Iav society is more
obective, vIicI addresses our rst criterion." TIere's no distinction
Iere betveen tIe criterion and tIe arument. On tIe otIer Iand, you
couId say, "TIe Irmative's rst arument is tIat tIe Iav society
vouId not receive any direct benet as a resuIt oI its cIoices, vIicI
meets our criteria oI objcctivity and mcrit."
Use only a few criteria. Statin tvo criteria is typicaI, and tIree cri-
teria sIouId be tIe maximum. TIe more criteria you use, tIe more
anIes oI attack you ive to your opponents and tIe more you Iave to
prove. II you use reater tIan tIree, you'II be compIicatin tIe debate
and makin it diIcuIt Ior you to sIov Iov your points coIIectiveIy
meet aII oI tIe criteria. Imaine askin your udes to understand Iov
ve constructive points eacI meet Iour criteria! You vouId conIuse
even tIe most experienced ude.
Link your arguments back to the criteria. Many teams viII boIdIy
state a set oI criteria, and tIen viII never reIer back to tIem durin
tIe remainder oI tIe debate. TIe criteria viII become Iess and Iess reI-
evant as tIe debate continues. Vorse yet, tIe udes couId remember
tIe criteria (tIey probabIy vrote tIem dovn}, but be IeIt vonderin
iI you actuaIIy met tIem. s you deIiver aruments and present your
rebuttaI, it's important you sIov tIat vIat you're sayin is directIy
meetin tIe criteria you put IortI initiaIIy.
Prove each condition in each speech. It's usuaIIy not a ood idea to
divide your case based on criteria. For instance, you sIouIdn't Iave
tIe rst speaker address tIe rst measure and tIe second speaker
prove tIe second one. TIe criteria are markers by vIicI your cntirc
case viII be uded. TIereIore, botI speakers sIouId reIer to tIe IuII
set oI criteria in tIeir respective speecIes.
COUNTERNC WTH A COUNTER PLAN
In a poIicy debate, it seems common sense tIat tIe Neative sIouId
reIute every point brouIt IortI by tIe Irmative. NameIy, it sIouId
cIasI vitI tIe proIessed needs Ior cIanin tIe system and tIe Ir-
119
mative's pIan Ior carryin out tIe cIanes. Some teams, tIouI, preIer
to use one oI tIe most risky tactics avaiIabIe: tIe counter pIan.
VIat exactIy is a counter pIan It's case stratey in vIicI tIe
Neative team arees vitI tIe Irmative's needs Ior cIane, but
arues Ior a diIIerent pIan to act on tIe deciencies in tIe present
system. TIe debate Iocuses not on tIe principIed aruments Ior or
aainst cIane. It Iocuses instead on vIicI team Ias a more eIIective
pIan to deaI vitI tIe situation.
Not aII udes Iike counter pIans. RatIer tIan creatin debates
on competin principIes, counter pIan cases oIten become tecIni-
caI, specuIative cases on vIicI proposaI vouId be more suitabIe.
For tIis reason, counter pIans are tIe most misused type oI Neative
case stratey. II you're tIinkin oI usin a counter pIan, tIere are tvo
requirements tIat it must meet:
Requirement #1: The counter plan must be signihcantly different
from the Afhrmative's plan. debate is supposed to be betveen tvo
opposites. II you've aIready conceded tIat tIe Irmative's needs Ior
cIane are correct, tIe ap betveen tIe tvo teams Ias been narroved
considerabIy. counter pIan tIat mereIy enIances or presents minor
diIIerences to tIe Irmative's proposaI is inappropriate. It must be
IundamentaIIy distinct Irom tIe Irmative's pIan so tIat tIere's a
cIear uII betveen tIe tvo sides.
For exampIe, Iet's take a case on vIetIer tIe United Nations
sIouId impose sanctions on a country tIat's abusin Iuman riIts.
TIe Irmative team discusses tIe severity oI tIe crimes committed
and recommends a series oI economic sanctions. Here's a poor coun-
ter pIan stratey: "Ve aree tIat tIe United Nations must deaI vitI
tIese Iuman riIts abuses, but ve beIieve tIat poIiticaI sanctions in
addition to economic sanctions vouId be a more eIIective pIan." TIis
counter pIan isn't aII tIat distinct Irom tIe Irmative's case.
more eIIective Neative stratey couId be tIe IoIIovin: "Ve viII
sIov you vIy economic sanctions are insuIcient. Ve viII instead
propose tIe tIreat oI miIitary Iorce iI tIe abuses are not stopped
immediateIy." Is tIis risky CertainIy. But it vouId be vaIid counter
pIan because you nov Iave a contentious debate betveen economic
and miIitary soIutions.
Requirement #2: It must be signihcantly more practical or effective.
Sounds obvious, riIt UnIortunateIy, many Neative teams present

120
a counter pIan tIat may be very diIIerent Irom tIe Irmative's pIan,
but tIat reacIes a reIativeIy simiIar outcome. It's not enouI to say
tIat your pIan "viII et us sIiItIy cIoser to tIe desired resuIts" or "is
Iess risky and Iess prone to abuses tIan tIe Irmative's pIan." You
must be abIe to prove tIat your pIan is tIe only one tIat viII vork
eIIectiveIy and tIat tIe Irmative's pIan viII IaiI outriIt.
counter pIan Ias maor impIications Ior tIe Neative's responsibiIity
in tIe debate. In a typicaI debate, tIe burden oI prooI Iies IareIy vitI
tIe Irmative. TIe Irmative must prove tIat its needs Ior cIane
are vaIid and tIat its pIan is eIIective, vIereas tIe Neative can tecI-
nicaIIy vin iI it raises suIcient doubts concernin tIe Irmative's
case. II a counter pIan is empIoyed, botI teams are on an even Iootin
vIen it comes to burden. TIe Neative is nov required to prove tIe
eIIectiveness oI its proposaIs. In Iact, even tIouI botI teams carry
tIis burden, most udes viII expect more Irom tIe Neative, because
it cIose to take tIe unortIodox stratey oI presentin a counter pIan.
TIe decision to use a counter pIan sIouId be considered very care-
IuIIy. It's IiIIy recommended tIat onIy experienced debaters try tIis
approacI. TIere are simpIy too many pitIaIIs Ior a beinner to venture
into tIis uncIarted territory.
II you IeeI tIat you're ready to take up tIe counter pIan, make sure
tIat tIe situation is ripe Ior tIis risky stratey. TIe best instance to
use a counter pIan is vIen tIe Irmative's needs Ior cIane are so
stron tIat you vouId be at a disadvantae tryin to debate tIem. By
concedin tIat tIe stated needs are common sense, you're essentiaIIy
teIIin your udes tIat tIe Irmative Iasn't presented anytIin boId
or insiItIuI in its rst speecI.
counter pIan can be eIIective at tIrovin oII your opponent.
TIe second Irmative speaker usuaIIy Ias to discard most oI Iis or
Ier speecI and come up vitI a nev one on tIe dy. Used eIIectiveIy,
a counter pIan can add a dimension oI surprise and sopIistication to
tIe debate. Used poorIy, it can Ieave tIe udes sIakin tIeir Ieads at
your IaiIure to Iit tIe core issues oI tIe round.
HAVNC A COOD (CASE) 8REAKUP
You've deveIoped Iour to six poverIuI, veII-deveIoped aruments.
Nov tIe cIaIIene is to divide tIe points betveen tIe tvo construc-
tive speecIes. TIe vay tIat you 'spIit' your aruments is an important
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decision Irom an oranizationaI and a strateic perspective. sound
division enIances tIe structure and coIerency oI your case. It aIso
Ias impIications Ior Iov tIe debate unIoIds.
Hasty and Hazardous Splits
Let's start vitI vIat not to do vIen dividin your points betveen
speecIes (tIey've been done Iar too oIten to inore}:
First speaker outlines, second speaker expands. VouIdn't it be easier
simpIy to Iet tIe rst debater present tIe entire case, so tIat tIe udes
Iave a cIear picture riIt Irom tIe beinnin Sure, iI you vant to Iet
tIe otIer team stab avay at poorIy supported aruments. VIiIe it's a
ood idea Ior tIe second speaker to deIend aainst reIutation oI your
team's IuIIy deveIoped points, it's a taII order to depend on your part-
ner to deIend or expand on an poorIy supported point tIat's aIready
been torn apart.
Arguments are divided randomly. Your stratey sIouId be deIiber-
ate and tIouItIuI. random spIit betveen partners Ieaves your case
Iookin scattered. It makes as mucI sense as a sports team randomIy
decidin vIo sIouId pIay eacI position.
Each person delivers his or her favorite points. It's certainIy tempt-
in to Iet eacI team member deIiver tIe points tIat Ie or sIe Iikes
tIe most. LoicaIIy, you may be more eIIective iI you're passionate
about tIe points. VIiIe it may IeIp you make exceIIent urgumcnts, it
viII probabIy aIso Iead to a poor cusc. Like a random spIit, iI tIere's no
IoicaI basis Ior tIe type oI division seIected, tIe risk is tIat your case
viII appear disoranized.
The 'meat' is left to the second speaker. Even tIouI botI team mem-
bers sIouId vork toetIer to buiId a case, eacI speecI sIouId indcpcn-
dcntly support your side oI tIe resoIution. Say you're aruin tIat tIe
OIympics are too commerciaIized. TIe rst speaker taIks about tIe
extent to vIicI tIey are commerciaIized, and tIe second speaker says
vIy tIis IeveI oI commerciaIization is bad-tIe Ieart oI tIe case. TIis
is caIIed a 'Iun case' because tIe rst speaker Ias not said anytIin
expIainin vIy tIe OIympics are "too commerciaIized."

122
The Best Breakups
Nov tIat you knov Iov not to spIit your case, vIat is tIe best spIit
stratey UsuaIIy, it invoIves dividin your case into tIemes or cat-
eories oI your centraI tIeme. Since every case is diIIerent, eacI one
requires a unique, taiIored approacI. Here are a Iev ood options:
National and international. Many cases Iave impIications botI at
Iome and abroad, sucI as internationaI economic, miIitary, and IeaI
issues. Say you're debatin vIetIer your country sIouId sin a par-
ticuIar environmentaI treaty. One speaker couId Iocus on tIe impact
vitIin your nation's borders, and tIe otIer speaker couId empIasize
tIe internationaI benets or vIy sinin tIe areement ts vitI your
nation's pIace in tIe vorId.
Short-term and long-term. II tIe debate is on a vaIues topic, you couId
spIit your points betveen tIe immediate and Iuture Iarms oI tIe cir-
cumstance. For exampIe, tIe rst speaker couId discuss Iov spankin
a cIiId causes sIort-term Iarm, and tIe second speaker couId describe
tIe Ion-term impact on a cIiId's deveIopment.
II tIe debate is on a poIicy topic, it may make sense to spIit tIe
aruments based on sIort-term and Ion-term outcomes. II you're
debatin vIetIer a particuIar country sIouId be attacked, tIe sIort-
term tIeme couId be tIe 'peace and security' impact, and tIe Ion-
term tIeme couId be tIe 'democracy and Iuman riIts' impact.
Society and individual. TIis type oI spIit is particuIarIy useIuI vIen a
situation or poIicy impacts botI an individuaI's IiIe and tIe vay soci-
ety operates. II tIe debate is about bannin tIe use oI ceII pIones
vIiIe drivin, one speaker couId discuss tIe positive impact on an
individuaI's abiIity to drive careIuIIy, and tIe otIer speaker couId
Iocus on Iov everyone vouId be saIer as a resuIt.
Economic and social. VIiIe tIe 'society and individuaI' spIit is based
on uno is aIIected, tIis spIit tecInique Iocuses IareIy on vIat aspect
oI society is impacted. TIis same concept vorks Ior miIitary and poIit-
icaI, cuIturaI and economic, and a variety oI sucI combinations. Let's
take a case in Iavor oI overnment subsidies Ior tIe arts. TIe rst
speaker couId Iocus on sociaI benets, sucI as increasin community
enoyment oI museums and tIeatres. TIe second speaker couId Iocus
123
on economic benets, sucI as keepin struIin industries aIive and
savin tIousands oI vitaI obs.
s mentioned previousIy, don't reIy soIeIy on tIese common spIits.
TIey're noted primariIy to spark some ideas. TIe best spIits are case-
specic. TIese are a Iev exampIes oI more narrov spIits tIat appIy to
particuIar debate cases:
Violence on television: youn cIiIdren and scIooI environment
Mandatory minimum sentences: criminaIs and victims
Media concentration: editoriaI sIant and inIormation diversity
Televised trials: riIt to knov and abiIity to scrutinize
Required vaccinations: pubIic IeaItI and personaI IeaItI
Once you've decided on tIe spIit, vIicI one comes rst VIiIe tIere's
no denitive ruIe, tIink about vIicI tIeme Iorms tIe Ioundation oI
your case. II tIe main tIrust oI your case is tIe impact on individuaIs,
and tIe impact on society is an cxtcnsion oI tIe induence on peopIe,
you sIouId probabIy put tIe 'individuaI' tIeme rst. It's temptin to
Ieave your key points to tIe end, aIIovin Iess time Ior your opponent
to reIute tIem. Hovever, tIere are tIree reasons vIy presentin tIem
earIier is usuaIIy tIe best option:
Set the tone for the debate. By presentin your most important aru-
ments rst, you're sinaIin to tIe udes tIat tIey are tIe core, decid-
in issues oI tIe debate.
Maintain attention throughout. VIen you present an arument earIy,
it's more IikeIy to be reIuted and deIended severaI times. TIis creates a
IoicaI extension into tIe rebuttaI, vIen you can sIov Iov your core
aruments Iave von tIe round.
Be seen as hitting the key issues. On any topic, most udes viII Iave
at Ieast some expectation oI vIat tIe most important issues are. You
don't vant it to seem tIat you've missed tIe crux oI tIe debate.
ORDERLY ORCANZATON
TIouItIuI oranization is essentiaI to tIe success oI your case. VitI-
out a stron structure, your case is simpIy an assortment oI points

124
tIat Iacks a cIear sense oI direction. You'II be more eIIective iI you
present tIe points vitI a careIuIIy desined arranement.
VitIin eacI point, tIe "CIaim, Comment, Cite, ConcIude" ruIe dis-
cussed in CIapter 4 is a ood ruIe oI tIumb to IoIIov. It aIIovs you to
address, in order, tIe Iour eIements tIat a ude vants to Iear: a brieI
stutcmcnt oI vIat tIe arument is, an cxplunution oI vIy it's correct,
some cvidcncc to backup tIe expIanation, and a closing tIat reinIorces
tIe impact oI tIe arument.
s Ior tIe overaII speecI, it's IeIpIuI to IoIIov tIe ruIe aIso
expIained in CIapter 4: "TeII tIem vIat you're oin to teII tIem, tIen
teII tIem, tIen teII tIem vIat you toId tIem." TIe "teII tIem" part is
simpIy your aruments, and tIe "teII tIem vIat you toId tIem" part
is a brieI vrap up oI your aruments and a tie back to your tIeme at
tIe end oI your speecI. VIen you "teII tIem vIat you're oin to teII
tIem," make sure tIat you're not too eneraI. TIe more cIearIy you
state vIere you pIan to o vitI your speecI, tIe more your udes viII
understand and Iook Iorvard to vIat you Iave to say. TIen aain, you
don't vant to ive avay your entire case beIore you've deIved IuIIy
into tIe aruments. Here's a comparison:
Too gcncrul: "First, I'm oin to reIute vIat tIe rst Irmative
speaker said. Second, I'm oin to present tIe Neative's case." You
Iaven't toId tIe udes anytIin tanibIe. RatIer, you've toId tIem in
tIe most eneraI sense Iov you'II be oranizin your speecI.
Too spccipc: "First, I'm oin to reIute tIe Irmative's case by citin
a 2003 report vIicI invaIidates its rst point, tIen I'm oin to expIain
tIe IauIty cause and eIIect reIationsIip in tIe exampIe used to support
its second point ." You'II et to aII oI tIese detaiIs vIen you actuaIIy
reIute tIe points. TIis is Iar too specic Ior tIe udes to diest at tIe
openin oI your speecI. Your oaI sIouId be to provide an ovcrvicu oI
vIat you're oin to say.
Cood buluncc: "First, I'm oin to reIute tIe Irmative's case by
expIainin Iov its proposaI to eIect udes vouId veaken tIe impar-
tiaIity oI tIe IeaI system. Second, I'm oin to introduce tIe Neative's
case by teIIin you vIy appointed udes are Iess beIoIden to any
poIiticaI or interest roup." TIis IeveI oI detaiI paints a cIear picture oI
vIere you're oin, vitIout compIeteIy reveaIin tIe specics.
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CHANCNC ON THE FLY
It's every debater's vorst niItmare. TIe topic Ias been announced
montIs beIore tIe tournament. You've prepared extensiveIy Ior botI
sides oI tIe debate. TIen unexpectedIy, as tIe debate beins, tIe rst
Irmative speaker presents a perIectIy reasonabIe denition tIat
makes your case irreIevant.
VIat sIouId you do Many debaters viII decide to arue aainst
tIe denition. TIey do so not because it's unIair, but so tIat tIey can
t tIeir Ion-prepared case into tIe round. TIere's a sense-a IaIse
sense-tIat as Ion as tIey present exceptionaI aruments, tIey can
et avay vitI tIeir ovn denition oI tIe resoIution. s discussed in
CIapter 6, tIis tactic sIouId be avoided at aII costs. II tIe Irmative's
denition is reasonabIe, you Iave to IoIIov it.
OtIer debaters viII ust inore tIe denition aItoetIer and con-
tinue vitI tIeir case anyvays. TIis onIy marinaIizes tIe Neative
team, as tIe udes viII be perpIexed tIat it's debatin a sinicantIy
diIIerent issue. TIere viII essentiaIIy be tvo separate debates oin
on, and an astute ude viII assin bIame to tIe Neative team Ior try-
in to bypass tIe denition.
TIe best teams viII svaIIov tIeir pride
and Ioret tIeir Ion niIts oI preparation.
TIey'II take comIort in reaIizin tIat tIeir
preparation vas a reat Iearnin experi-
ence, and tIat it made tIem IamiIiar vitI
tIe issue. nd tIen tIey'II abandon mucI
or aII oI tIeir case. Yes, tIe most eIIective
teams viII ubundon tIeir case onIy minutes
beIore tIeir rst speaker is due to present. daptin your case on tIe
dy is a usty, cIaIIenin move, but doin it veII can pay oII. Sure,
your aruments von't be as poIisIed, but it's superior to makin poI-
isIed aruments tIat don't matter to tIe round.
II you've made tIe decision to cIane your case on tIe dy, you
Iave to act quickIy and decisiveIy. VitIin tIe span oI a Iev minutes,
you need not onIy to Iisten careIuIIy to your opponent's speecI, but
aIso to come up vitI nev constructive aruments. Hov can you adapt
condentIy and eIIectiveIy
Don't panic. Many debaters spend vaIuabIe time Irettin about tIe
seeminIy dauntin task tIat Iies aIead. TIey say to tIeir partner,
S0ccess T|p!
I your case doesn't
t, x It or nIx It.

126
"OI my, vIat on eartI are ve oin to do about tIis" You sIouId be
tIinkin, "Ve cun do tIis, nov Iet's ure out nou."
Start with refutation. Don't stop Iistenin to vIat's bein said. Keep
on usin your dov sIeet and tIinkin about Iov you'II reIute tIe
Irmative's points. II you bIank out compIeteIy and can't tIink oI
constructive points, at Ieast you can cIasI vitI your opponent's points
Ior tIe maority or aII oI your speakin time.
Turn refutation into construction. II you can't tIink oI oriinaI aru-
ments, try basin tIem on your reIutation. VIen you're cIasIin vitI
a point, you're takin a stand sayin tIat a principIe is urong. LoicaIIy,
tIen, you beIieve tIat sometIin eIse-IikeIy tIe opposite perspec-
tive-is rignt. nd aruin Ior vIat you tIink is riIt is tIe startin
point Ior constructive matter. Use tIis tIouIt process iI you nd
yourseII stuck at tIe Iast minute.
Divide responsibilities. TIe second Neative speaker doesn't Iave to
vorry about cIasI riIt avay, so Ie or sIe can Iocus on comin up
vitI constructive aruments. TIis aIIovs tIe rst Neative speaker
to Iisten careIuIIy to tIe rst Irmative speaker and to pIan eIIective
reIutation. Late in tIe rst Irmative speecI, tIe second Neative
speaker can 'pass on' tIe proposed aruments to Iis or Ier partner.
"SWOT" YOUR CASE
Once you've deveIoped a case, it's a ood
idea to take a step back and tIink about
Iov you can improve it. VIen you vere
buiIdin tIe case, your perspective vas
tIat oI a constructor. Iter you've done so,
anaIyze your case vitI an eye oI a rcnovutor.
Your task is to take vIat's aIready prepared
and to enIance it. TIe most eIIective vay
to strentIen your case and to pIu any apin IoIes is to do a "SVOT"
anaIysis: Strcngtns, Wcukncsscs, Opportunitics, and Tnrcuts.
Strengths. VIat aruments Iave you deveIoped veII EvaIuate your
points and tIink about vIicI ones are tIe most convincin, eIIective-
Iy expIained, and appropriateIy supported. TIese are your strentIs-
S0ccess T|p!
Strengthen your case
by askIng a IrIend
to crItIcIze It.
127
tIe piIIars oI your case. You sIouId empIasize tIem in your speecIes
and ensure tIat tIey become tIe decidin issues oI tIe round.
Weaknesses. Do you Iave any aruments tIat aren't particuIarIy
convincin or tIat Iave insuIcient expIanation and support II so,
one possibIe response is to et rid oI tIe points entireIy, especiaIIy iI
tIe arument itseII is veak. II tIe arument Iappens to be stron but
tIe detaiI surroundin it is veak, spend some time expandin on tIe
point and cIariIyin its rationaIes.
Opportunities. VIat Iaven't you said tIat couId be eIIective TIink
about tIe case Irom diIIerent anIes. Brainstorm more ideas. II you've
missed an opportunity tIat vouId boost your case, make tIe neces-
sary additions or modications.
Threats. re tIere aruments tIat Iave obvious and potentiaIIy dam-
ain counter-aruments OI course, no constructive point is beyond
criticism. But iI in tIe process oI critiquin your points, you nd your-
seII struIin to deIend tIem aainst possibIe counter-aruments,
you need to take action. TIink about vIat you vouId say in response
to reIutation, and don't Iesitate to discard an arument compIeteIy iI
you can't nd a soIid deIense.
'CASE' STUDY: WAR CRMES TR8UNALS VS. TRUTH
AND RECONCLATON COMMSSONS
In tIis section, ve're oin to take a Iook at botI an Irmative case
and a Neative case on tIe resoIution, "Be it resoIved tIat TrutI and
ReconciIiation Commissions sIouId be Iavored over Var Crimes Tri-
bunaIs." Var Crimes TribunaI aims to brin tIe perpetrators oI var
crimes to ustice IoIIovin a civiI or internationaI condict. ExampIes
incIude tIe InternationaI CriminaI Court (ICC} and tIe InternationaI
CriminaI TribunaI Ior Rvanda (ICTR}. TrutI and ReconciIiation Com-
mission strives to IeIp society IeaI, vitIout exactin punisIment on
tIe oIIenders. ExampIes incIude tIe 199S SoutI Irica commission
and tIe 2002 East Timor commission.
Let's start by takin a Iook at Iov tIe Irmative couId buiId a
case. To start tIe case deveIopment process, it's a ood idea to identiIy
tIe core tIemes. TIe rst tIeme couId be tIe pructicul cjjcctivcncss oI

128
a TrutI and ReconciIiation Commission in uncoverin tIe trutI. TIe
second tIeme couId be tIe positive impuct on pcoplc, incIudin indi-
viduaIs and IamiIies aIIected directIy by tIe condict and society as a
vIoIe. TIese piIIars aIso serve as an appropriate vay to spIit aru-
ments betveen tIe tvo speakers. Here's a possibIe structure and
series oI aruments, incIudin IabeIs, Ior tIe Irmative's case:
Afhrmative Speaker #1
TIeme: "PracticaI EIIectiveness"
1. Uncovcring jucts. TrutI and ReconciIiation Commissions are more
eIIective at deveIopin a IactuaI account oI tIe trutI, because victims
and perpetrators aIike Iave incentives and opportunities to teII tIeir
stories. In Var Crimes TribunaIs, deIendants oIten seek to Iide inIor-
mation and to distort tIe trutI.
2. Crcutcr jcusibility. TrutI and ReconciIiation Commissions are more
IeasibIe to impIement tIan Var Crimes TribunaIs. Nations ravisIed by
var usuaIIy don't Iave a stron, independent udiciary and IeaI sys-
tem Ior tIe purpose oI prosecutin vartime oIIenders.
3. Uscjul rccommcndutions. TIe commissions are eIIective at producin
useIuI recommendations to ensure tIat sucI situations don't occur in
tIe Iuture. Var Crimes TribunaIs are concerned primariIy vitI punisI-
ment, not vitI education and improvement.
Afhrmative Speaker #2
TIeme: "Impact on PeopIe"

1. Emotionul nculing. ReveaIin tIe trutI is essentiaI to tIe psycIoIoi-
caI IeaIin process. PeopIe need to knov vIat Iappened and vIo vas
responsibIe, so tIat tIey can reacI a IeeIin oI cIosure. Var Crimes
TribunaIs can be adversariaI to tIe point oI sparkin aner.
2. Sociul unity. TrutI and ReconciIiation Commissions aim to uniIy
society, vIereas Var Crimes TribunaIs may be seen as instruments oI
revene. TIis unity aIso aids in tIe estabIisIment oI a nev, democratic
overnment vitI tIe Ieitimacy and credibiIity necessary to represent
everyone in society.
129
Nov tIat ve've mapped out a possibIe Irmative case, Iet's turn our
attention to tIe Neative side. Like tIe Irmative, it's best to start
vitI tIe core tIemes oI tIe case. TIe rst tIeme couId Iocus on tIe
immcdiutc benets oI a Var Crimes TribunaI. TIe second tIeme couId
empIasize tIe ovcrull impact. BeIov are some oI tIe aruments tIat
couId be brouIt IortI as part oI tIe Neative's case:
Negative Speaker #1
TIeme: "Immediate Impact"
1. Disbund uggrcssors. Var Crimes TribunaIs serve to disband and dimin-
isI tIe pover oI tIe miIitant roups tIat committed tIe vioIent acts.
TIis makes it Iar more diIcuIt Ior tIem to resume or continue tIeir
vartime atrocities.
2. Scnsc oj rcsolution. Victims oI vartime atrocities viII onIy IeeI a sense
oI resoIution vIen tIose responsibIe Ior tIe var crimes are Iound
uiIty and punisIed. It's important Ior victims to knov tIat bIame Ias
been assined to specic individuaIs.
Negative Speaker #2
TIeme: "OveraII Messae"
1. Dctcrs juturc ubuscs. Var Crimes TribunaIs send an overaII messae
to potentiaI Iuture oIIenders tIat sucI acts viII not be toIerated. VitI-
out sucI tribunaIs, tIere von't be suIcient disincentive aainst tIese
types oI criminaI actions.
2. Intcrnutionul stundurds. Var Crimes TribunaIs are a move tovard
internationaIIy reconized standards oI Iuman riIts, sucI as tIe
InternationaI CriminaI Court. TIereIore, tIey send an overaII sinaI
tIat tIose vIo commit vartime atrocities viII be punisIed irrespec-
tive oI nationaI boundaries or diIIerin IeaI standards.
3. Morul obligution. In eneraI, tIere is a moraI obIiation to punisI var
criminaIs, in accordance vitI basic principIes oI Iumanity. IIovin
amnesty vioIates IundamentaI Iuman vaIues, essentiaIIy condonin
or inorin sucI crimes.

130
You probabIy noticed tIat tIere's a partiaI matcI betveen tIe tIemes
oI eacI team's rst speaker. TIey Iocused IareIy on tIe practicaI
impact and eIIectiveness oI tIe respective systems. Hovever, tIe
second speakers Iad IairIy diIIerent tIemes, vIicI is quite normaI.
EacI team is tryin to Iocus its aruments and tIe spIit oI tIese points
betveen partners in a vay tIat it IeeIs serves its interests.
TIis cIapter discussed Iov to deveIop stron, convincin aruments
around cIear and IoicaI tIemes, reardIess oI tIe type oI resoIution
you're debatin. It aIso mentioned important tips to remember vIen
you're dividin points betveen partners. II you IoIIov tIese uide-
Iines, your debate cases viII be sinicantIy stroner.
131
Build your case around strong themes. case sIouIdn't
seem Iike a scatterin oI points, even iI tIe points are indepen-
dentIy stron. Your aruments sIouId center around one or more
tIemes, vIicI are tIe core ideas oI your case.
Make strong, distinct points. convincin arument starts
vitI a boId statement Iocusin on a sinIe issue. TIink about
tIe diIIerent types oI aruments you can make, sucI as points
reIatin to ustication, systems, perception, or beIavior.
Label your arguments. Once you've presented tIe arument,
everyone eIse Ias to be abIe to remember it. LabeIin or 'brand-
in' eacI oI your aruments is a reat vay to make your points
stand out and be remembered, and it aIIovs you to reIer back to
tIem more easiIy.
Divide points between speeches in a sensible way. Once
you've identied your team's aruments, tIere sIouId be si-
nicant tIouIt put into Iov to oranize tIem. Consider tIe
core tIemes oI your case, and spIit tIe points betveen tIe tvo
speakers accordinIy.
If necessary, change on the y. II you're tIe Neative team
and you et Iit vitI an unexpected denition or case, come up
vitI nev aruments durin tIe rst Irmative speecI. Don't
try to t an irreIevant or veak case into tIe debate ust because
you've prepared it aIready.
Evaluate your case carefully. Do a "SVOT" anaIysis, Iookin
at tIe StrentIs, Veaknesses, Opportunities, and TIreats. Use
tIe anaIysis to tIink about Iov you can strentIen your case.
133
Coming UpI
Once you've buiIt a soIid case, tIe next step is urin out Iov to
cIaIIene your opponent's case. In tIis cIapter, you'II Iearn about tIe
muItipIe vays to cIasI vitI tIe otIer team's points durin construc-
tive speecIes, and Iov to compIete an overaII attack in tIe rebuttaI.
0hAPT8 8
CIash wIth mpact:
MasterIng the Art oI the Attack

134
TAKNC THE LEAP: THE CHALLENCE OF REFUTATON
VitIout cIasI betveen tIe tvo teams, a debate vouId simpIy be a
coIIection oI speecIes. Competitors vouId be abIe to pIan and prac-
tice tIe entire debate beIoreIand, and tIere vouIdn't be any back and
IortI dov oI aruments. TIe Iocus vouId be on makin a reat spcccn,
ratIer tIan contributin to a reat dcbutc. Remember, tIouI, tIat
debate isn't onIy about provin tIat you're riIt. It's aIso about prov-
in tIat tIe otIer team is vron.
CIasI, or reIutation, is tIe process oI counterin point by point tIe
aruments brouIt IortI by tIe otIer team. Your purpose is to be crit-
icaI and to raise doubts in tIe minds oI tIe udes. EIIective cIasI viII
Iorce your opponent to o on tIe deIensive and to rebuiId its case.
Many debaters, especiaIIy beinners, nd reIutation particuIarIy
diIcuIt. VIy Quite simpIy, it's tIe part oI a debate tIat you can't
pIan in advance. But vIat iI you make mistakes Isn't it more eIIec-
tive to use prepared, practiced text and to deIiver it davIessIy TIe
reaIity is actuaIIy tIe opposite. You'II be in a superior position iI you
devote sinicant eIIort to cIasI, even iI your cIasI Ias mistakes and
veaknesses. Since you're unabIe to pIan your reIutation, you're not
expected to be as duent as vIen you present your ovn team's case.
Even tIouI you can't pIan your cIasI preciseIy, you can make
yourseII IamiIiar vitI tIe eneraI tooIs oI reIutation. TIat is, you can
Iearn about tIe variety oI anIes Irom vIicI to cIasI vitI an oppo-
nent's case. TIis viII prepare you to spot sucI opportunities quickIy
vIen tIey come up in a round. You can aIso anticipate some oI tIe
ideas tIat tIe otIer team may brin up and consider Iov you vouId
o about cIaIIenin tIem.
TO REFUTE OR NOT TO REFUTEZ
BeIore divin into nou to reIute, it's impor-
tant to knov unut to reIute. TIe sIort expIa-
nation is tIat you sIouId reIute any part oI
your opponent's case tIat's important in
provin its side oI tIe resoIution. VIiIe tIis
advice may seem seII-evident, mucI oI any
team's case is extra inIormation tIat 'pads'
tIe most important eIements. You von't be
S0ccess T|p!
CIash wIth every
reIevant poInt made
by your opponent.
Cusr u:r mpuc. Muscr:rq rc /r oj rc /ucr
135
abIe to reIute everytIin, so knovin vIat's essentiaI and vIat isn't
can make your cIasI sinicantIy stroner.
UsuaIIy, you sIouId stick to tIe core oI eacI oI your opponent's
points-tIe sinIe sentence tIat outIines tIe arument-and tIe Ioi-
caI anaIysis and expIanation tIat IoIIovs. It's important to do tIis
Ior every arument, as you don't vant to Ieave any important points
untoucIed. Hovever, tIere are some areas tIat you sIouId eneraIIy
aim to avoid in your cIasI:
Process and technique. ReIutation sIouId Iocus excIusiveIy on sub-
stantive matter. For instance, iI a speaker oes over time, don't take up
any oI your time teIIin tIe udes about it. You may aIso come across
debaters vIo present poorIy structured speecIes, but you sIouIdn't
try to convince tIe udes oI tIis veakness. FinaIIy, you sIouId avoid
comments on Iov eIIectiveIy tIe otIer team debated, sucI as sayin,
"TIe rst Neative speaker sIoved poor skiII in expIainin Ier second
point." It's up to tIe udes to decide Iov veII eacI person debated.
Case theme. SureIy, tIe purpose oI your speecI is to sIov vIy your
opponent's tIeme is incorrect. But you sIouIdn't try to do so by debat-
in tIat tIe tIeme itseII is vron, as it's too broad to be reIuted directIy.
tIeme is a roupin and summary oI a series oI aruments, eacI oI
vIicI addresses a specic issue. Your oaI in reIutation is to veaken
tIe tIeme by taretin tIe individuaI aruments. It may aIso be useIuI
to expIain Iov your critique oI a particuIar point Ias damaed your
opponent's case tIeme.
Sources and statistics. ddressin tIe useIuIness oI your opponent's
evidence or pointin out a IactuaI inaccuracy can add some vaIue
to your cIasI. TIat bein said, a common mistake is tryin to arue
aainst sources and statistics directIy, ratIer tIan tIe points tIem-
seIves. "Our source is better tIan your source" or "Ve Iave better sta-
tistics" types oI counter-aruments do IittIe to reIute tIe aruments
tIat Iorm tIe basis oI tIe otIer team's case. Evidence illustrutcs an
arument but doesn't make or break an arument.
THE TOOLS OF TERRFC CLASH
TIere are countIess anIes Irom vIicI to cIasI vitI your opponent's
case. TIis section presents a Iev oI tIe more common ones, vIicI

136
viII ive you a eneraI idea oI Iov to approacI tIe attack. You can
certainIy deIve into tIe many books and articIes devoted to more
tecInicaI reIutation concepts. SucI concepts o by names Iike "post
Ioc IaIIacy" and "non sequitur." II you don't Iave any cIue vIat tIese
pIrases mean, don't vorry. Most debaters don't. VIiIe it may be use-
IuI to knov about tIem as you become an advanced debater, you can
et quite Iar by understandin tIe tooIs discussed in tIis section.
Issue Challenges
Said correctIy, a cIaIIene viII doubIe as
cIasI by impIyin vIat's vron vitI tIe
arument. It takes Iess time to issue a cIaI-
Iene tIat to counter a point directIy. By
spendin a Iev seconds teIIin tIe otIer
team vIat specicaIIy it Ias to prove, you're
Iorcin it to spend vaIuabIe time respond-
in to tIe cIaIIene. It's eIcient Ior you
and ineIcient Ior your opponent.
VIen makin a cIaIIene, be condent and decisive in Iov you
present it. For exampIe, start vitI, "TIe Irmative must prove ." or
" IundamentaI assumption tIat tIe Opposition Ias to expIain is ."
In doin so, you'II simuItaneousIy sinaI to your udes tIat a particu-
Iar issue must be addressed and to your opponents tIat tIey Iave to
deaI vitI it. TIese are some exampIes oI Iov to issue a cIaIIene:
Media inuence: "TIere's a IundamentaI question tIat tIe Irma-
tive must ansver in order to ustiIy its case tIat tIe nevs media Ias
a neative induence on society. Hov eIse vouId ve receive vitaI inIor-
mation about emerencies, sucI as Iurricanes and eartIquakes"
Environmental standards: "TIe 'bIack IoIe' in tIe Irmative's
pIan must be addressed in tIe second speaker's speecI. Hov viII tIe
overnment convince peopIe to practice tIe proposed environmentaI
standards, iI tIere's no reasonabIe vay to monitor vioIations"
Attack Assumptions

Most aruments rest on one or more assumptions. OIten, tIese assump-
tions appear normaI, so it's unIikeIy a team viII spend sinicant time
S0ccess T|p!
When IssuIng a
chaIIenge, expIaIn
why It's Important.
137
ustiIyin tIem. One vay oI cIasIin is to
attack tIese assumptions, veakenin tIe
Ioundation Ior tIe point. It's aIso important
tIat you expIain vIy tIe assumption in
question is centraI to tIe rest oI tIe team's
case. Here are tvo exampIes oI taretin a
team's assumptions:
ID cards: "TIe Irmative's suestion tIat ve sIouId ask everyone
Ior ID to prove tIey're over ae 18 assumes tIat tIe ID presented is
enuine. It's easy Ior youn peopIe to et a Iake ID, vIicI damaes tIe
viabiIity oI its pIan."
Post-secondary funding: "TIe Neative's arument tIat ve need
to pay Ior more oI students' post-secondary education assumes tIat
some student debt is necessariIy a bad tIin. It actuaIIy Iorces stu-
dents to budet and spend careIuIIy, and it makes tIem vork Iard
aIter raduation to estabIisI a soIid nanciaI base."
Break Links
Imaine a Iriend said to you, "Inexpensive air traveI means more time
spent outside cities, vIicI means Iess smo aIIectin cities, vIicI
means Iover IeaItI care costs, vIicI means Iover taxes, vIicI means
a stroner economy, vIicI means Iess property crime. So, iI tIe ov-
ernment vas serious about makin us IeeI saIer, it vouId subsidize
airIine tickets." You can probabIy tIink oI a IandIuI oI pIaces vIere
your Iriend made veak Iinks to arrive at tIis ridicuIous concIusion.
Granted, you probabIy von't see a cIain tIis IraiIe in a debate.
But you may see a team present a series oI tvo or tIree aruments
tIat are cIoseIy reIated or tIat depend on eacI otIer. Sometimes tIis
stratey creates a cause and eIIect Iink. One point is tIe reason, and
anotIer point is tIe impIication. You can cIasI vitI Iinked aruments
toetIer by attackin tIe stated or impIied connection betveen points,
cIaimin tIat it's veak or tIat it doesn't exist. Here are tvo exampIes
oI cIasIin vitI aruments by breakin Iinks:
Student performance: "Our opponent's second point cIaimed tIat
Iover perIormance in our district's scIooIs is a resuIt oI tIe rst point,
nameIy students spendin too mucI time on video ames and Inter-
S0ccess T|p!
ExpIaIn how a IaIse
assumptIon damages
the entIre case.

138
net cIat. In reaIity, a variety oI Iactors impact student perIormance,
sucI as economic trends, poIiticaI decisions, and scIooI manaement.
More time spent on tIese non-academic distractions may actuaIIy be
a symptom oI tIese otIer induences."
Income taxes: "TIe Irmative started by aruin tIat eIiminatin
patents Ior medicines vouId aIIov more rms to manuIacture drus.
In its second point, it IaIseIy impIied tIat tIis vouId increase dru
discovery. II ve reduce tIe prot motive by disaIIovin patents, tIen
in Iact Iever rms vouId take part in dru discovery."
Indicate Irrelevance
It may not be necessary to spend sinicant time sayin vIy a point
is vron iI you can sIov vIy it doesn't matter even iI it's riIt. In
some cases, an arument may Iit at an issue tIat's veII outside tIe
scope oI tIe denition, and at otIer times, it may be insinicant to
your opponent's case tIeme. Your oaI is to 'take tIe point out oI tIe
round' by makin it seem Iike your opponent vas vastin its time by
even brinin up tIe arument. Here are some exampIes:
Standardized tests: "TIe Neative's tIird constructive point arued
tIat too mucI testin in gcncrul adverseIy impacts youn students.
TIe point is irreIevant, as tIe issue Iere is vIetIer tIe stundurdizution
oI tIe tests across scIooIs is IarmIuI. For most students, tIe absence
oI a standardized test vouId simpIy mean Iavin to vrite a scIooI-
deveIoped exam in its pIace."
Media funding: "In makin its case tIat our pubIicIy-Iunded broad-
caster sIouId be privatized, tIe Irmative's second arument vas
tIat maximum cIoice is in tIe pubIic interest. TIis is an irreIevant
point, because privatization vouId onIy cIane tIe structure and
nature oI tIis one oranization, not tIe numbcr oI broadcasters."
UnIortunateIy, many debaters misuse tIis tooI oI reIutation. In eacI
oI tIe cases beIov, tIe uise oI cIaimin irreIevance is bein used in
order to avoid Iittin tIe issue directIy:
"It's simply unrelated." Supportin an arument vitI inIormation
Irom anotIer time period or anotIer pIace is a common and poten-
139
tiaIIy useIuI tactic. OI course, it may very veII be tIe case tIat tIe
anaIoy is a poor one. UnIortunateIy, ratIer tIan cIaimin irreIevance
onIy Ior veak comparisons, some debaters viII try to excIude a point
simpIy because it's Irom a situation outside tIe core debate. Suppose
tIe Irmative says, "TIe success oI tIe SvedisI modeI oI pubIic
IeaItI care sIovs vIy ve sIouId adopt it in tIis country." One couId
tIink oI many reasons vIy tIis anaIoy doesn't reaIIy prove tIe point
oI tIe debate. veak response, tIouI, vouId be to say, "VeII, tIat's
ust Sveden, and ve're not taIkin about Sveden."

"It's just an exception." SimpIy sayin tIat an arument or exampIe
is "an exception to tIe usuaI circumstance" or tIat "it's reaIIy ust an
isoIated point" doesn't et to tIe Ieart oI uny it isn't reIevant to tIe
round. Say tIat on a debate about tIe entertainment media's indu-
ence, tIe Irmative arues tIat "IouI Ianuae on many teIevision
sIovs Ieads to more svearin at scIooI." TIe Neative can't ust say
tIat "tIe Irmative's point is an exception, because not aII cIiIdren's
sIovs are Iike tIat." TIe Irmative isn't tryin to prove tIat aII enter-
tainment media Ias a neative induence, but onIy tIat on buluncc a
neative induence cxists.
Catch Contradictions
Since a sound case is consistent, demonstratin inconsistencies eitIer
vitIin a speecI or betveen partners can do serious damae to your
opponent's aruments. You'II usuaIIy notice a contradiction IairIy
quickIy, and tIe inconsistency viII be apparent to everyone concerned.
So vIiIe it's a ood idea to point it out, don't take up too mucI time
dveIIin on it. You can actuaIIy Iorce tIe otIer team to take up some
oI its time in tIe next speecI by askin tIat it expIain vIat its 'reaI'
position is. BeIov are tvo exampIes oI catcIin contradictions:
School locker searches: "TIe Irmative's rst speaker said tIat
searcIes by scIooI oIciaIs or poIice oIcers are ustied because
scIooI Iockers are scIooI property, but tIe second speaker said tIat
searcIes are a reasonabIe intrusion into an area tIat sIe cIearIy stated
vas a student's private property. VIicI one is it, pubIic or private"
Health care privatization: "My opponent's rst point vas tIat a pub-
IicIy-Iunded system aIIovs equaI, timeIy access to every member oI

140
society. TIen, in Ier second point, sIe arued tIat onIy in a system
tIat's pubIicIy-Iunded couId patients receive quicker treatment or be
asked to vait on medicaI rounds aIone. II tIis is tIe case, tIen it's
cIearIy not 'equaI' and 'timeIy' Ior everyone, but ust Ior tIose peopIe
tIe autIorities decide sIouId o rst."
Counter Correlations
TIe Iact tIat tvo circumstances Iappened toetIer or in sequence
doesn't necessariIy mean tIat one cuuscd tIe otIer. Debaters some-
times use correIation cIaims to suest incorrectIy tIe impact oI a
particuIar action or circumstance. II cIasIin on tIe rounds tIat one
item didn't create tIe resuIt mentioned, it may be IeIpIuI to state vIat
otIer Iactors may Iave caused tIe outcome. Here are some exampIes
oI cIaIIenes to correIations:
Free trade: "TIe rst Neative speaker cIaimed tIat tIe sIovdovn
in economic rovtI is evidence tIat Iree trade areements Iave been
IarmIuI to our country. TIis statement is cIearIy unIounded, as ve
don't knov tIat Iree trade Ias caused tIese touI times. Government
poIicies, oiI prices, currency voIatiIity, and a variety oI otIer Iactors
aIso sIape economic perIormance. In Iact, tIe dovnturn couId Iave
been vorse iI not Ior tIe expansion oI trade areements."
School dropout rate: "Ve vant to cIaIIene tIe Irmative's aru-
ment tIat decreased Iundin Ior pubIic scIooIs moved Iock-step vitI
increased IiI scIooI dropout rates. TIe reaIity is tIat tIere are many
sociaI and economic Iactors at pIay Iere. TIe IardsIip Iaced by Iov
income IamiIies may actuaIIy be vIat's encourain students to nd
IuII-time empIoyment earIy. It's not necessariIy a Iundin probIem."
Make Careful Concessions
Sometimes a point is very cIearIy true and it makes IittIe sense to
reIute it. GeneraIIy, tIe Iact tIat it's videIy seen as correct makes it
a IairIy unsopIisticated point. Be careIuI, tIouI, vitI Iov you use
concessions. OnIy use tIem vIen you're absoIuteIy sure tIat tIe point
doesn't strentIen your opponent's case. TIey sIouId never be used
because you don't Iave time to expIain your counter-arument more
IuIIy or vant to Iocus on otIer issues. II you concede a point tIat may
141
not seem vitaI at tIe time, your opponent couId try to make it more
important as tIe debate oes on. You'II Iave sIut yourseII out on any
point tIat you've aIready conceded. BeIov is anaIysis oI tvo instances
oI makin concessions, one eIIective and one ineIIective:
School uniforms: Say a team arues tIat uniIorms "eIiminate cIoice
reardin Iov students express tIemseIves tIrouI IasIion." VeII,
oI course a stundurd uniIorm eIiminates cIoice. But is tIat reaIIy tIe
essence oI a debate on vIetIer tIe overaII outcome is ood or bad
Concede tIe point and indicate tIat you vant to move on to more
important and contentious issues. Don't try to expIain tIe intricacies
oI Iov "tIere are diIIerent types oI uniIorms" or tIat "tIe vay some-
one 'vears' tIe cIotIes is itseII a Iorm oI expression."
Political term limits: Say your opponent contends tIat term Iimits
vouId uarantee "more constant cIane in our poIiticaI IeadersIip
and in our IeisIative system." You concede, "OI course tIere vouId be
more cIane iI you impose term Iimits, so Iet's move on to tIe points
tIat are actuaIIy in dispute." TIis may aIIov your opponent to make a
tIeme oI Iosterin "IresI, innovate poIicies" a centraI part oI its case.
Your team may Iave been better oII aruin vIy rotatin tIe peopIe in
cIare doesn't necessariIy resuIt in diIIerent decisions, or tIat cIane
isn't aIvays desirabIe.
Face the Facts
You've read previousIy tIat it's normaIIy not eIIective to cIasI vitI
tIe evidence itseII. VIat can be eIIective is cIasIin aainst tIe usc
oI tIe evidence. common vay to attack evidence is aruin tIat it
doesn't prove tIe cIaim. team may Iave overstretcIed an isoIated
exampIe to represent a vider trend, or cited a statistic vitI a veak
connection to tIe cIaim it vas meant to support. TIe IoIIovin exam-
pIes iIIustrate tIis type oI reIutation:
Arts funding: "TIe rst Neative speaker cited tIe bankruptcy and
cIosin oI onc tIeatre as prooI tIat overnment subsidies are needed
to keep sucI institutions adoat. TIis certainIy doesn't sIov a broader
probIem. It couId actuaIIy Iave been eitIer mismanaement or unap-
peaIin pIays tIat Iorced tIis IaiIure."

142
Private schools: "Citin tIeir IiIer pIacement in scIooI rankins
vas a veak vay Ior tIe Irmative team to sIov vIy private scIooIs
deserve pubIic Iundin. TIe rst speaker vas tryin to make a point
reIatin to vortIy principlcs by brinin up a poorIy connected exampIe
concernin practicaI rcsults."
Attach an [Ugly} Label
Your opponent Ias obviousIy tried to make eacI point seem as briI-
Iiant as possibIe, and your task is to suest tIe opposite. II your rivaI
IabeIed a point in one vay to IeIp tIe udes remember it, vIy not
caII it by anotIer name so tIat tIey see it Iov you vant tIem to see
it LabeIin a point unIavorabIy is eIIective and acceptabIe, but doin
so oIIensiveIy makes you Iook unreasonabIe. For exampIe, you couId
IabeI part oI tIe otIer team's case as tIe
"overnment knovs best" point iI you're
tryin to criticize Iov deepIy tIe bureau-
cracy vouId be invoIved in a IamiIy decision.
Hovever, caIIin it tIe "ve tIink tIat ordi-
nary peopIe are uninteIIient, uninIormed,
and incapabIe" point is probabIy pusIin it
too Iar. Here are some compIete exampIes
oI IabeIin an opponent's point unIavorabIy
as a useIuI reIutation tooI:
Genetic engineering: "Iter tIe rst Irmative speaker taIked about
Iis rationaIe Ior Iimits on eneticaIIy-modied Iarm seed, sIe vent on
to describe an eIaborate process oI consuItation aIter consuItation vitI
stakeIoIders to decide vIat tIe reuIations sIouId actuaIIy be. TIis
vas essentiaIIy tIe 'strike a committee' point. RatIer tIan expIainin
tIe Irmative's pIan, sIe simpIy said, 'Let's strike a committee and
tIe probIem viII take care oI itseII.'"
Global poverty: "TIe second Irmative speaker's rst point vas tIat
ve sIouId immediateIy Iorive tIe debts oved by every poor nation.
TIis point couId actuaIIy be caIIed tIe 'vrite a bIank cIeck' point. No
conditions to ensure overnment reIorm, no uarantee tIat tIe money
saved viII be spent veII, and no process to determine Iov mucI debt
reIieI is a Iair amount in eacI circumstance."
S0ccess T|p!
8e concIse when
IabeIIng an opponent's
argument.
143
ORCANZNC EACH PONT OF THE 8ATTLE
Very oIten, debaters viII be IiIIy oranized vIen makin tIeir ovn
points, but quite disoranized vIen cIasIin vitI tIeir opponent's
points. It is, aIter aII, more cIaIIenin to structure an unprepared reI-
utation oI a point tIan to structure a point you've prepared in advance.
VIiIe tIere are a number oI vays to oranize a counter-arument,
Iere's one common metIod tIat Ias proven particuIarIy eIIective:
1. What they argued. Start by makin it cIear exactIy vIat point you're
reIutin. It may seem obvious to you, but it's probabIy not as obvious
to everyone eIse. TIis step, vIiIe vitaI, can be compIeted in a brieI
sentence. Sayin, "TIe Neative's second point vas ." or "I vouId
nov Iike to cIasI vitI tIe Government's tIird arument, vIicI vas
tIat ." are exampIes oI Iov you can bein tIis part.
2. Why they're wrong. TIis part is tIe 'meat'
oI tIe cIasI, so it sIouId take up tIe most
time. Your oaI is to expIain compIeteIy
and eIIectiveIy vIy your opponent's point
is incorrect. Some oI tIe vays you can start
tIis eIement incIude, "TIis point is incor-
rect because ." or "TIe probIem vitI tIis
arument Iies in its assumption tIat ."
3. Why it matters. Once you've sIovn vIy tIe otIer team's point is
IaIse, you sIouId put your cIasI into context-tIe 'so vIat' oI your
reIutation. reat vay to accompIisI tIis obective is to tie tIe cIasI
back to your opponent's case tIeme. TIis vay, you're makin it cIear
not onIy tIat you've deIeated a sinIe point, but tIat you've veakened
a key piIIar oI your opponent's case. For exampIe, you couId say, "TIe
davs in tIis arument o to tIe Ieart oI tIe Irmative's tIeme oI
diversity, because tIey reveaI tIat ."
TIis type oI structure makes it easy Ior your udes to 'cIeck oII' tIat
you've cIasIed vitI eacI oI your opponent's points. It aIso ives you
a rouI tempIate to IoIIov so tIat as you Iisten to your opponent's
speecI, you can simpIy 'II in' tIe tIree parts oI your cIasI Ior eacI
point. Even iI you don't et a cIance to vrite dovn notes Ior every
reIutation point, Iavin tIe vords "vIat tIey arued, vIy tIey're
watch 00t!
Don't just say It's
wrong wIthout expIaIn
Ing why It's wrong.

144
vron, and vIy it matters" on your pae serves as a vaIuabIe remind-
er oI vIat you need to cover.
ENCNEERNC THE OVERALL ATTACK
In addition to Iavin a stron structure Ior eacI point oI your cIasI,
it's aIso essentiaI tIat your overaII reIutation is oranized sensibIy.
TIis provides a sense oI compIeteness to tIe reIutation and improves
tIe dov oI your speecI. TIere are severaI key questions tIat you need
to consider vIen desinin your reIutation stratey:
Where does the refutation ht into the speechZ
Like your constructive points, your cIasI sIouId stay toetIer as a sec-
tion oI your speecI. Some debaters preIer to start vitI cIasI, vIiIe
otIers preIer to buiId constructive matter rst. BotI vays are appro-
priate, and vIicI one you seIect comes dovn to personaI preIerence.
EacI metIod Ias unique benets:
Clusning bcjorc constructing. TIe key benet oI startin vitI reIutation
is tIat your opponent's points are IresI in your mind and in tIe minds
oI your udes. notIer advantae is tIat it Ieaves your opponent's
case sinicantIy veakened beIore you construct your case. You're
essentiaIIy teIIin tIe udes, "Ve've aIready sIovn you vIy tIe otIer
team's case Ias IaiIed to meet its burden, but Iere are some construc-
tive aruments to prove denitiveIy vIy ve're correct."
Clusning ujtcr constructing. Many debaters are more comIortabIe start-
in vitI vIat tIey've aIready prepared. TIis metIod ives you con-
dence earIy on in your speecI. Once you Iave momentum, it's easier to
transition into your reIutation. Iso, startin vitI constructive matter
immediateIy sIiIts tIe debate back into your court, seizin tIe aenda
Irom your opponent riIt at tIe outset. In addition, iI you're sIort on
time and need to make adustments, it's easier to be seIective in your
reIutation tIan in your constructive matter.
In what order should you clashZ
TIe easiest, most common sense vay to order your cIasI is to o in tIe
same order as your opponent presented tIe aruments. TIis metIod
145
is Iess compIicated Ior you, as you can simpIy o dovn your dov sIeet
and re back at tIe aruments in tIe order tIat tIey're Iisted. TIis is
aIso easy Ior your udes to IoIIov, because tIey'II Iave remembered
or recorded tIem in tIe same sequence.
Hovever, tIere are seIect circumstances vIen it miIt make sense
to take a diIIerent route. FirstIy, iI a particuIar point is criticaI to your
opponent's case and damain it vouId sinicantIy undermine its
core tIeme, you couId consider startin vitI tIat arument. Sayin,
Ior exampIe, "I vant to bein vitI my opponent's second constructive
point. It's tIe Ioundation oI tIe Irmative's case because ." makes
it cIear vIy you're takin tIis route. (Notice tIe vord "because." You
sIouId aIvays say vIy tIe point is vitaI to tIe debate.} SecondIy, iI
you're concerned tIat you may run out time, it's preIerabIe to Iave
covered at Ieast tIe key points.
How do you allocate time to each pointZ
VIiIe it's important to cIasI vitI every point, it's not necessary to
spend an equaI amount oI time on eacI one. II tIere's a simpIe, easy
to state reason vIy you IeeI tIat a point is vron, et it across in a Iev
sentences and move on. Leave a reater amount oI time Ior aruments
tIat are more criticaI or tIat require more detaiIed reIutation.
II you've aIready presented additionaI constructive points, you
couId decide to sIorten a reIutation point by statin Iov you've
aIready covered tIe crux oI your opponent's arument tIrouI your
ovn point. For exampIe, iI one oI your nev points is tIat "Iorivin tIe
debts oved by poor countries viII speed up overnment reIorm," you
couId reIer back to tIis point vIen reIutin your opponent's arument
tIat "debt reIieI excuses and does notIin to reduce corruption."
What if your opponent's speech was disorganizedZ
Ve've discussed Iov to oranize reIutation on tIe assumption tIat
your opponent's points vere veII-oranized. UnIortunateIy, not every-
one's speecI viII Iave a cIear structure. Sometimes you von't be abIe
to teII vIen one point ends and anotIer beins. II so, cIances are tIat
your udes are Iavin tIe same probIem. TIis type oI situation makes
it more cIaIIenin to oranize your cIasI eIIectiveIy.
ItIouI you couId simpIy conduct your reIutation in an equaI-
Iy scattered vay, you vouId onIy be drain yourseII dovn in tIe

146
process. Hov do you deaI vitI a disoranized speecI Oranize it
yourseII! s odd as tIis tecInique may sound, it viII make you more
oranized and viII make it easier Ior tIe udes to IoIIov tIe round.
You aren't reaIIy assistin your opponent,
as you vouId et credit Ior improvin tIe
quaIity oI tIe debate. TIe vay to accom-
pIisI tIis task is to read tIrouI your notes,
nd IoicaI breaks, and number tIe points
yourseII. For exampIe, you couId say, "TIe
rst area tIat our opponent Iocused on vas
. tIen, tIe second issue sIe moved to vas
. naIIy, sIe discussed a tIird point ."
CLASH NSURANCE: THE 'SNOW8ALL' SYSTEM
UsuaIIy, a sinIe arument is met vitI a sinIe point oI reIutation. TIis
tactic is typicaIIy cIear-cut, as it creates a veII-matcIed 'point and
counter-point' structure to your reIutation. It aIIovs you to be tIor-
ouI, because you can zero-in on a particuIar probIem and expIain
your point oI contention IuIIy.
UnIortunateIy, your vIoIe cIasI aainst tIe arument in question
reIies on tIis one Iine oI attack. II a ude doesn't buy into your cIaim,
tIe point viII stand. Hov do you 'insure' yourseII aainst tIis pos-
sibiIity You couId use muItipIe anIes oI attack in sequence, creatin
a 'snovbaII' tIat atIers strentI as it moves tIrouI an arument.
You're creatin more reasons to reect tIe point, even iI tIe udes
don't aree IuIIy vitI every one oI tIem.
Let's take a debate over environmentaI Iavs. TIe Irmative
makes a passionate pIea to curb IobaI varmin usin a combination
oI reuIation and enIorcement, aimin to curb carbon dioxide emis-
sions. To iIIustrate Iov tIe Neative couId use cumuIative, 'snovbaII'
reIutation, Iere's an exaerated exampIe:
"FirstIy, despite vIat's oIten stated in tIe media, tIere's no denitive
prooI tIat tIere even is a Ion-term IobaI varmin trend. Scientists
around tIe vorId are divided on tIis question-tIere's no cIear con-
sensus. For exampIe, ve knov tIat ."
"SecondIy, cvcn ij you beIieve tIat IobaI varmin exists, it can't be
rmIy estabIisIed tIat carbon dioxide is tIe primary cause. SoIar activ-
S0ccess T|p!
I your opponent's
speech Is dIsorganIzed,
organIze It yourseII.
147
ity-tIe sun burnin Iotter in some years tIan in otIers-is anotIer
possibIe cause, supported by researcI Irom ."
"TIirdIy, cvcn ij carbon dioxide is a probIem, many scientists beIieve
tIat Iess tIan S% oI it is caused by Iuman activity. TIe rest is naturaIIy
occurrin, vIicI means tIat ."
"FourtIIy, cvcn ij ve assume tIat Iuman activity is a Ieadin cause oI
carbon dioxide in tIe atmospIere, are tIe potentiaI consequences so
severe tIat drastic action is needed Despite tIe doomsday scenarios
presented by tIe Irmative, tIere's ood reason to beIieve tIat ."
"FinaIIy, cvcn ij sinicant consequences viII resuIt, tIe Irmative's
proposaIs aren't tIe best vays to deaI vitI tIem because tIe costs
cIearIy outveiI tIe benets. s vitI IistoricaI cIimate cIanes,
Iumankind may actuaIIy need to adapt to tIe situation by ."
THE CLNCHER: PLAY TO WN N THE RE8UTTAL
Over tIe Iour constructive speecIes, many aruments and counter-
aruments Iave been IurIed back and IortI. In a typicaI debate, tIis
couId add up to 10 aruments betveen tIe tvo teams, pIus reIutation
oI tIese points. TIat's a vIoppin 20 parceIs oI inIormation tIat tIe
udes Iave to process!
Can you bIame tIe udes iI tIey're
Iavin troubIe decidin vIo's up and
vIo's dovn For tIis reason, cIose debates
are von and Iost in tIe rebuttaI. It's your
Iast cIance to make an impression on tIe
udes, vIicI is vIy your rebuttaI stratey
is criticaI to Iov your side is evaIuated. Like
cIosin aruments in a court triaI, tIe rebut-
taI makes it cIear Ior everyone concerned vIat Ias Iappened in tIe
debate and vIy your side Ias prevaiIed. Let's bein by revisitin tIe
tIree key roIes discussed in CIapter 6:
Refute tIe otIer team's case as a vIoIe.
Compare and contrast tIe competin tIemes.
Summarize your team's case.
S0ccess T|p!
ReIer back to
prevIous speeches
In the rebuttaI.

148
VIiIe you couId order your rebuttaI based on tIese tIree sections, IeeI
Iree to experiment vitI vIat vorks best Ior you. TIe oranization
oI a rebuttaI speecI is Iess riid tIan tIat oI a constructive speecI.
You may decide to Iocus on contrastin tIe tvo perspectives, incor-
poratin overaII reIutation and overaII summary into tIis comparison.
IternativeIy, you may vant to start by anaIyzin and evaIuatin tIe
debate cIronoIoicaIIy and IiIIiItin tIe key points made by botI
sides. It aII depends on your personaI styIe and on vIat you're tryin
to accompIisI vitI your rebuttaI.
It's criticaI tIat you understand tIe
diIIerence betveen cIasI in a constructive
speecI and reIutation in a rebuttaI speecI.
In rst part oI tIe debate, you sIouId Iave
cIasIed vitI every important point made
by your rivaI, tryin to veaken its case one
piece at a time. In a rebuttaI speecI, your
oaI is to reIute tIe otIer team's overaII
case. rebuttaI speaker sIouIdn't put mucI empIasis on detaiIed
anaIysis oI evidence or on takin apart individuaI aruments.
TIe onIy possibIe exception to tIese uideIines is iI tIe second
Neative speaker Ias presented nev points, and tIe rebuttaI speecI
is your team's rst cIance to respond. II you decide to cIasI vitI
tIese aruments individuaIIy ratIer tIan roIIin tIem into tIe overaII
attack, keep tIe cIasI brieI and put it at tIe beinnin oI your rebuttaI.
Leave tIe buIk oI your rebuttaI Ior overaII reIutation and summary.
TIe top rebuttaIs accompIisI one task
extremeIy veII: Iramin tIe debate. TIis
means puttin IortI your version oI vIat
tIe debate is actuaIIy about-vIat tIe
udes sIouId consider vIen makin a
decision. TIere are tIree steps invoIved in
Iramin tIe debate, vIicI can aIso be used
as a structure Ior your rebuttaI:
Step #1: Tell the judges what the key issues are. TeII tIem bIuntIy
and conciseIy-don't skate around tIem in a roundabout vay. You're
best oII Iistin and numberin your version oI tIe decidin issues Ior
your udes. TIis IeIps tIem remember your interpretation oI tIe key
issues and encouraes tIem to vrite tIem dovn. s vitI aruments
in a constructive speecI, you're veII-advised not to identiIy more tIan
S0ccess T|p!
Use the rebuttaI to
Irame the decIsIon
crIterIa.
watch 00t!
AvoId poInt by poInt
cIash In the rebuttaI.
149
tvo or tIree issues. ny more viII be too mucI Ior you to taIk about
and Ior your udes to diest in sucI a sIort speecI.
Step #2: Explain why they're the key issues. ude can be Ioriv-
en Ior tIinkin, "On vIat basis Iave you seIected tnosc issues as tIe
dcciding issues" II you're oin to condense tIe debate dovn to core
tIemes or zero-in on seIected aruments, it's your responsibiIity to
ustiIy your decision. TeII tIe udes vIy tIe entire debate rests on tIe
piIIars you've identied.
Step #3: Argue how you've come out ahead on these issues. OI
course, it onIy makes sense to cIoose issues tIat you IeeI IaII cIearIy
on your side oI tIe resoIution. Drive Iome tIese advantaes in your
rebuttaI. ExpIain Iov you've prevaiIed on tIese dimensions and vIy
tIat means you've von tIe debate.
II you're deIiverin tIe Neative rebuttaI, one eIIective vay to Irame
tIe debate around your key issues is to teII tIe Irmative vIat exact-
Iy it must do in its rebuttaI. TIis tactic can tIrov oII your opponent's
rebuttaI, as veII as encourae your udes to pay attention to Iov
veII your rivaI responds to your cIaIIenes. But onIy incIude tIose
issues tIat you're very condent IaII cIearIy on your side oI tIe debate.
TIere's notIin vorse tIan Iayin out vIat you IeeI sIouId be tIe key
decision criteria, onIy to Iave tIe Irmative team prove itseII riIt
on eacI oI tIe points.
For exampIe, you couId say, "So vIat are tIe tvo core issues oI
tIis debate VIat must tIe rst Irmative speaker prove to you in
Ier rebuttaI FirstIy, sIe must sIov you vIy a tax dedicated to roads
von't end up in tIe overnment's eneraI coIIers and in otIer depart-
ments. Ve've reveaIed Iov easy it is Ior tIis to Iappen. SecondIy, sIe
must sIov you tIat ."
Hov sIouId you respond iI you're tIe Irmative rebuttaI speaker
and tIis tactic is used aainst you TIere are tvo options: tackIe tIe
issues directIy, or inore tIem aItoetIer. TIe rst option is risky,
because you're aIIovin tIe Neative to controI your speecI. II you're
very condent tIat you can expIain vIy you von on tIe criteria pre-
sented, by aII means o aIead and do so. But iI you IaII sIort, you're
bound to Iose tIe debate. TIe second option aIIovs you to carry out
tIe rebuttaI as you see t. II you're oin to inore tIe Neative's cri-
teria, you Iave to expIain cIearIy vIy tIey're not tIe key issues oI tIe

150
debate. LoicaIIy, it tIen IaIIs on you to provide a diIIerent version oI
tIe key issues and to ustiIy vIy your interpretation is riIt.
TIis cIapter is perIaps one oI tIe most important in tIe book, because
it toId you about a key aspect oI a vibrant debate: tIe point by point
and overaII reIutation oI tIe otIer team's aruments. II you vant to
exceI at debate, it's essentiaI tIat you understand tIe diIIerent vays
to make counter-aruments and Iov to deIiver a rebuttaI speecI.
151
Clash with every argument. Leavin a point uncIaIIened
suests tIat you aree vitI it and makes your opponent's case
stroner. ReIutation may be a cIaIIenin, 'on tIe spot' skiII, but
it's essentiaI to tIe debate.
Think about the different ways to refute a point. naIyze
vIetIer tIe arument is IoicaI and rests on sound assump-
tions. Look Ior contradictory, irreIevant, or poorIy Iinked points.
Simplify your refutation with labels. LabeI eacI oI your
opponent's points in a vay tIat communicates vIat you tIink is
vron vitI tIem. TIis tactic makes is easier to discuss tIe core
tIemes, ratIer tIan Iavin to describe eacI point in detaiI.
Be organized when you clash. For eacI point, say vIat you're
reIutin, reIute it, and expIain vIy it matters. Usin your dov
sIeet as an aid, vork metIodicaIIy (usuaIIy in order} tIrouI
your opponent's points. PIace reater empIasis on tIe most
important aruments.
In the rebuttal, focus on 'big picture' ideas. Frame tIe debate
in a vay tIat Iavors your side oI tIe resoIution. TeII tIe udes
vIat tIe key issues are, vIy tIey're tIe key issues, and Iov
you've von on tIese issues. RatIer tIan enain in point by
point cIasI, Iocus on tIe debate's key tIemes.
153
Coming UpI
In tIis section, you'II Iearn about tIe procedures and tecIniques oI
parIiamentary debate. You'II discover Iov to use questions, or Points
oI InIormation, to damae an opponent's case, and Iov to react vIen
questions are red at you.
0hAPT8 9
On That PoInt:
NavIgatIng ParIIamentary Debate

154
THE PARLAMENTARY TRADTON
ParIiamentary debate Ias a Ion Iistory in
IeisIatures around tIe vorId. TIe United
States Conress, tIe BritisI House oI Com-
mons, and tIe German Bundesta are aII
exampIes oI nationaI IeisIatures. In tIese
cIambers, tIe reat debates oI society take
pIace. EIected representatives Irom various
reions atIer to debate Iavs on economic,
sociaI, and Iorein aIIairs. TIe debates tend to be IiveIy and viorous,
even becomin pubIic spectacIes at tIeir most Ieated moments.
Many oI tIe Ieatures seen in nationaI parIiaments Iave vorked
tIeir vay into student parIiamentary debatin, sucI as tIe titIes oI
tIe participants and otIer IormaIities. TIe student version sIrinks
tIe number oI debaters Irom severaI Iundred to Iour, in most styIes.
s vitI reaI parIiaments, tIere is a Government and an Opposition.
TIe key Ieature oI tIis styIe is your abiIity to ask questions, knovn
as Points oI InIormation, vIiIe your opponent is speakin. You can aIso
IeckIe vIen someone eIse Ias tIe door, makin Ior some Iumorous
and spontaneous moments. (It's Iess raucous, tIouI, tIan tIe bar-
rae oI simuItaneous IeckIes commonIy seen in actuaI IeisIatures.}
OtIer tIan tIese eIements, tIe skiIIs discussed in previous cIapters
appIy to parIiamentary styIe as veII.
LEARNNC THE LNCO
One oI tIe rst Ieatures you'II notice about parIiamentary debate is
tIe diIIerence in Ianuae compared to otIer Iorms oI debate. Like
Iunctionin IeisIatures, parIiamentary styIe Ias its ovn Iino. Makin
mistakes reIatin to appropriate Ianuae von't veaken your case.
But it's important to use tIe riIt terms, because doin so sIovs tIat
you're IamiIiar vitI Iov tIe styIe vorks. Here are some oI tIe basic
parIiamentary debate terms tIat you sIouId et to knov:
The Speaker is to parIiamentary debate vIat tIe CIairperson is to
otIer styIes oI competition. TIe proper vay to reIer to tIis person is
"Mr. Speaker" or "Madame Speaker." s in reaI IeisIatures, tIe Speak-
er Ias tIe naI autIority over ruIes and procedures. EverytIin you
0|d Yo0 koow?
Modern parIIamen
tary debate started In
EngIand.
Or ru Fo:r. u.:qu:rq Fur:umcrury cluc
155
say dovs tIrouI tIe Speaker. For exampIe, "Madame Speaker, today
ve viII sIov you vIy ambIin sIouId be banned."
The Government is essentiaIIy tIe Irmative team-tIe side tIat
supports tIe motion. RatIer tIan a rst Irmative speaker and a sec-
ond Irmative speaker, tIere is a Prime Minister (P.M.} and a Minister
oI tIe Crovn (M.C.}, respectiveIy. TIese positions don't impIy rank or
autIority vitIin a team. TIey're used simpIy to identiIy roIes.
The Opposition, sometimes caIIed Her Maesty's LoyaI Opposition, is
Iike tIe Neative team in tIat it arues aainst tIe motion. UnIike
tIe titIes rst speaker and second speaker used in otIer styIes, tIe
team members are caIIed tIe Member oI tIe Opposition (M.O.} and tIe
Leader oI tIe Opposition (L.O.}.
The Bill is anotIer term Ior tIe resoIution. In addition to resoIutions
and motions, parIiaments aIso pass BiIIs. BiII usuaIIy reIers to a poI-
icy. Hovever, tIe term used to describe tIe topic viII vary vitI diIIer-
ent versions oI parIiamentary styIe.
The House is tIe cIamber in vIicI tIe debate takes pIace. You'II Iear
pIrases Iike, "TIis House is nov adourned" or "Ve've made tIree
points beIore tIis House today."
The Honorable Members are tIe debaters aruin Ior or aainst tIe
issue. TIis pIrase is commonIy used as a respectIuI vay to address
tIe opposin team's debaters. II addressin everyone in tIe room, it's
a more ttin aIternative to tIe Iess IormaI "Iadies and entIemen."
To provide you vitI a cIear understandin oI vIat parIiamentary Ian-
uae seems Iike, Iere's an exampIe oI a passae Irom academic styIe
debate 'transIated' into tIe parIiamentary Iexicon:
Acudcmic stylc dcbutc: "Mr. CIairperson, tIe Neative toId tIis round
oI debate tIat tIe resoIution must IaII because oI vIat it cIaims is an
inconsistency in tIe rst Irmative speaker's aruments."
Purliumcntury stylc dcbutc: "Mr. Speaker, tIe Opposition toId tIis House
to vote aainst tIis BiII because oI vIat tIe HonorabIe Member cIaims
is an inconsistency in tIe Prime Minister's aruments."

156
PARLAMENTARY SHAPE AND STRUCTURE
Like tIe styIe oI debate discussed in previous cIapters, tIere's no
common sIape and structure Ior parIiamentary debate. Dependin
on vIere you are, vIat IeveI you're at, and vIat tournament you're
debatin in, tIe times and roIes viII vary. Here's a basic structure tIat
appIies, in a eneraI sense, to most parIiamentary styIes oI debate:
Prime Minister (P.M.} S minutes
Member oI tIe Opposition (M.O.} 8 minutes
Minister oI tIe Crovn (M.C.} 8 minutes
Leader oI tIe Opposition (L.O.} 8 minutes
Prime Minister (P.M.} 3 minutes
ItIouI everyone Ias tIe same amount oI speakin time, you'II
notice tIat tIe Prime Minister's time is spIit. TIe rst speecI is a con-
structive speecI, and tIe second speecI is a rebuttaI speecI. Iso, tIe
rst ve minutes oI tIe Leader oI tIe Opposition's speecI is tIe con-
structive portion, and tIe Iast tIree minutes is tIe rebuttaI portion.
TIere's no cIear break, tIouI, betveen tIese tvo parts. TIe roIes oI
eacI speaker are eneraIIy comparabIe to tIe Irmative and Nea-
tive roIes outIined in CIapter 6:
Prime Minister
Dcpnc tIe terms oI tIe resoIution.
Prcscnt tIe Government's case, incIudin specic aruments.
Member of the Opposition
Clusn vitI tIe Prime Minister's aruments.
Prcscnt tIe Opposition's case, incIudin specic aruments.
Minister of the Crown
Clusn vitI tIe Member oI tIe Opposition's aruments.
Continuc tIe Government's case vitI nev aruments.
Dcjcnd tIe Prime Minister's aruments, iI necessary.
Leader of the Opposition
Clusn vitI tIe Minister oI tIe Crovn's aruments.
Continuc tIe Opposition's case vitI nev aruments.
Dcjcnd tIe Member oI tIe Opposition's aruments, iI necessary.
157
Rcjutc tIe Government's case as a vIoIe.
Summurizc tIe Opposition's case as a vIoIe.
Prime Minister
Clusn vitI tIe Leader oI tIe Opposition's aruments, iI necessary.
Rcjutc tIe Opposition's case as a vIoIe.
Summurizc tIe Government's case as vIoIe.
WHAT'S THE PONT OF A PONTZ
SimpIy put, Points oI InIormation are your opportunity to ask touI
question to your opponent durin Iis or Ier constructive speecI
(tIey're not aIIoved in rebuttaIs}. Points oI InIormation take your com-
petitors oII tIeir ame pIan, Iorcin tIem to respond to your cIaIIene.
To ask a question, stand up durin your rivaI's speecI and say, "Point oI
InIormation" or "On tIat point." Your opponent may eitIer aIIov you
to ask your question or sinaI you to sit dovn. sk questions vitI one
or more oI tIe IoIIovin oaIs in mind:
Dispute the member's argument. TIis purpose is tIe most common
use oI a Point oI InIormation. II you beIieve tIat your opponent's point
is eitIer daved or iIIoicaI, ask a question tIat Iorces tIe issue. For
exampIe, "II a ude is supposed to interpret tIe Iav vitIout reard
to vIat's popuIar, vouIdn't eIectin udes essentiaIIy Iorce tIem to
cater to tIe vIims oI pubIic opinion" Even iI tIe debater nds a vay
to deIend tIe point, at minimum you've pIanted seeds oI doubt into
tIe minds oI your udes.
Contest the evidence presented. vord oI caution: don't vaste your
Point oI InIormation on an evidence dispute unIess it viII indict serious
damae to your opponent's case. II used careIuIIy, disputin evidence
can veaken a key Ioundation oI tIe otIer team's case or Iurt its cred-
ibiIity on tIe issue. For exampIe, "Hov can you use tIe 2000 economic
data to arue tIat 11% unempIoyment is a serious probIem, vIen tIe
200S report Irom tIe same source indicated tIat tIe rate Iad dropped
to 7%" You vouId certainIy Iave tIem on tIe ropes vitI tIat one.
Suggest the point's irrelevance. reat vay to oppose a point vitI-
out counterin it directIy is to cIaIIene Iov cIoseIy it ts vitI tIe
issue at Iand. II asked at tIe end oI an arument, your question can

158
tIrov oII your opponent. For exampIe, "Okay, so you've toId us Iov
an merican dru company can distribute tIis medicine in Irica, but
Iov is tIat even reIevant iI you've specied tIat tIe case is about
Iundin arranements bctuccn govcrnmcnts" VeII, tIere oes tIe past
minute oI your opponent's speecI.
Introduce an upcoming argument. It's aIvays nice iI you can com-
bine a question on an arument tIat tIe member Ias ust made vitI
a Iint oI vIat's to come in your speecI. Doin so aIerts tIe udes
to vIat you're oin to say, sIiItin tIe Iocus oI tIe debate cIoser to
your team. For exampIe, "II ve vere to IoIIov your pIan and end tIe
space sIuttIe proram, vouIdn't ve aIso be cuttin oII tIe scientic
and medicaI experiments tIat Iave proven so vaIuabIe in tIe recent
years" II deIivered durin tIe Prime Minister's speecI, tIis point
vouId et you into tIe debate earIy.
Provide a reminder of a past argument. It's easy Ior your points to be
Iorotten, especiaIIy iI tIey're introduced earIy in tIe debate. Brinin
up one oI your previous points in a question on your opponent's aru-
ment reinIorces your case. For exampIe, "But ve've aIready sIovn
tIat standardized exams encourae scIooIs to improve tIeir perIor-
mance compared to otIers scIooIs. II, as you nov suest, ve simpIy
stop makin tIe resuIts pubIic, vouIdn't it deIeat tIis very vaIuabIe
motivationaI purpose" TIis question counters your opponent's nev
arument vIiIe reintroducin a past arument.
Clarify a confusing dehnition. OnIy ask Ior an expIanation iI vIat
your opponent said is botI uncIear to everyone and is criticaI to tIe
debate. OtIervise, save your opportunity Ior a more sinicant ques-
tion. II, Iovever, you use tIis type oI Point oI InIormation viseIy, it
can vin you points by cIariIyin tIe debate Ior your team and Ior tIe
udes. For exampIe, "}ust to be cIear, vIen you taIk about bannin
'tIe vioIent sport oI boxin', are you reIerrin onIy to proIessionaI com-
petition or aIso to OIympic competition, vIicI invoIves IeImets and
soIter Ioves" TIis vay, everyone viII be debatin tIe same issue.
Point out a contradiction. CatcIin an inconsistency on tIe spot can
be a reat vay to discredit an arument. TIis is true botI Ior con-
sistency vitIin a speecI and betveen partners. For exampIe, "Okay,
so you're sayin tIat tIe overnment sIouId Iund tIeatres because
159
tIey're so popuIar, but your partner said tIat tIe case Ior subsidies
is tIat most tIeatres don't seII enouI tickets to stay adoat on tIeir
ovn. VIicI one is it" PIacin a 'vede' betveen partners can steaI
your opponent's tIunder in tIe middIe oI its speecIes.
RSE AT THE RCHT TME
You've ot a question tIat you're itcIin
to ask. VIen do you ump oII your cIair
to ask it TIere are tvo Iactors you sIouId
consider. FirstIy, vIen it viII Iave tIe most
impact, and secondIy, vIen tIe speaker
is most IikeIy to accept it. Timin is more
important tIan most debaters viII appreci-
ate. veII-timed question IeIps you seize
tIe aenda and take controI tIe debate. On tIe otIer Iand, poor timin
makes your question seem out oI pIace-a distraction to tIe debate.
TIe IoIIovin are ood pIaces to ask a Point oI InIormation:
After a key part of a constructive point. EacI main arument usuaIIy
consists oI a number oI expIanations tIat IeIp Iorm tIe point. Ris-
in aIter one oI tIese expIanations may be to your advantae, since a
touI question can tIrov oII tIe dov oI tIe arument. II tIe speaker
reects your point, you may Iave an opportunity to persist at Ieast one
more time beIore Ie or sIe moves to an entireIy nev arument.
At the end of a complete argument. Risin at tIe end oI an arument
aIIovs you to damae tIe entire point at once. It ives you time to
take in aII oI expIanations and evidence used to support tIe arument.
Listen very careIuIIy Ior vIat appears to be tIe speaker's concIudin
sentence to tIe point in question. TIe speaker is most IikeIy to accept
your Point oI InIormation vIen tIe arument is compIete, since Ie or
sIe viII IeeI condent tIat tIe arument Ias been ustied IuIIy.
In response to damaging refutation. Let's Iace it, sometimes your
opponent viII make a reat counter-arument to vIat you tIouIt
vas a buIIet-prooI point. RatIer tIan acceptin it Iyin dovn, sIov
tIat you're condent by risin on a Point oI InIormation. TIis viII ive
you an opportunity to cIaIIene reIutation tIat vouId otIervise indict
serious damae to your case. Even iI your question isn't accepted, at
S0ccess T|p!
ThInk careIuIIy about
the tImIng oI your
questIons.

160
Ieast you'II be makin it cIear to your udes tIat you Iave sometIin
to say about your opponent's reIutation.
WHEN TO STAY PUT
UnIortunateIy, even seasoned debaters are tempted to ask questions
vIen tIe timin isn't riIt. TIe question may be briIIiant, but tIe
eIIect is seriousIy veakened because oI poor timin. It's important to
understand vIy askin questions at otIer times isn't a ood idea:
During the introduction. In most parIiamentary debates, tIe rst min-
ute oI a speecI is 'protected time'. TIis means tIat it's aainst tIe
ruIes to rise on a Point oI InIormation. Even iI it's aIIoved, you accom-
pIisI IittIe by risin on a Point oI InIormation vIen your opponent Ias
ust introduced tIe case tIeme. Hov can you cIaIIene a case tIat
Iasn't yet been deveIoped
During the conclusion. Since a Point oI InIormation is meant as a tar-
eted cIaIIene oI a particuIar arument, askin a question vIen tIe
debater is taIkin about broader tIemes is poor timin. Note tIat tIe
Iast minute oI someone's speecI, Iike tIe rst minute, is protected
time in most parIiamentary debates.
Immediately after an argument is introduced. It's best to vait untiI
your opponent Ias deveIoped at Ieast part oI an arument beIore you
ump aII over it. TIe ansver viII probabIy be some variation oI "VeII,
tIank you Ior tIe question. I vas ust about to et into tIat."
In the middle of a sentence. It may be temptin to tIrov oII tIe mem-
ber in tIe middIe oI a statement, but doin so makes it seem tIat
you're intentionaIIy interruptin your opponent. Iso, you couId miss
an important part oI tIe arument iI you rise prematureIy.
When the debate has moved on. Sure, you may Iave a burnin ques-
tion to ask concernin your opponent's previous point. But once tIe
debate Ias moved to tIe next arument, it's too Iate. Your question
viII seem out oI pIace.
If you've been rejected several times. TIere's notIin vron vitI
persistin a coupIe oI times vIen you Iave sometIin important to
161
ask. But iI you're toId to sit dovn repeatedIy over a sIort period oI
time, tIe member is makin it very cIear tIat your point viII not be
accepted. Continuin to rise viII make it seem Iike you're needIessIy
interruptin your opponent's speecI.
STANDNC UP TO STAND OUT
VIen you stand up Iopin to ask a Point
oI InIormation, tIe Iocus oI tIe debate
momentariIy turns to you. It's important
tIat you Iave a ood 'stae presence' vIen
you do so. BeIov are some tips tIat viII
IeIp you make a stron impression vIen
you rise to ask a question:
State your request in a simple way. Some debaters preIer to Iore-
sIadov questions vIicI pIrases Iike "On democracy" or "On rationaI-
ity." VIiIe appropriate iI used occasionaIIy, it certainIy isn't necessary.
TIe best vays to request an opportunity to ask a question are sayin
"Point oI InIormation" or "On tIat point." Tryin to make a IuII aru-
ment is pusIin it too Iar. For exampIe, sayin "On tIe need to punisI
peopIe vIo pose no Iarm to society" makes it Iook Iike you're tryin to
deIiver part oI your speecI durin your opponent's speecI.
Stand up quickly and conhdently. II you're oin to rise on a Point oI
InIormation, be decisive about it. Risin sIovIy or in a Iesitant vay
conveys uncertainty to your udes.
Address the member by name. Ve're naturaIIy more receptive to otI-
er peopIe vIen ve're caIIed by our names. Sayin "On tIat point, Gre"
or "Point oI InIormation, Ms. }ones" can be a subtIe vay to increase tIe
cIances oI your Point oI InIormation bein accepted.
Stand up one person at a time. TIere's no use in standin up vitI
your partner, as it's needIessIy distractin. It may even Iook Iike you're
tryin to compete vitI your partner Ior attention.
S0ccess T|p!
Make sure that both
you and your partner
ask questIons.

162
FELDNC THE 8ARRACE OF QUESTONS
VIiIe you may preIer to speak vitIout interruption, it's inevitabIe tIat
your opponents viII rise to ask Points oI InIormation. ItIouI it's
important to sIov tIat you're capabIe oI deIendin your aruments,
you don't vant to Iet tIe questions et you oII track eitIer. Here are
some tips to IeIp you manae Points oI InIormation:
Accept two Points of Information. II you
accept one question, you're at Ieast sIov-
in a viIIinness to Iace criticism. But espe-
ciaIIy durin an eiIt minute constructive
speecI, it couId stiII seem Iike you're try-
in to minimize cIaIIenes. cceptin tvo
points is tIe norm. IIovin more tIan tvo
questions ives your opponents too mucI
controI over your speecI.
Allow reasonable time for the question. II you've accepted a point,
it's usuaIIy inappropriate to cut oII your opponent beIore tIe question
Ias been asked IuIIy. TIe exception is iI tIe questioner is rambIin
excessiveIy, takin up more tIan 10 to 1S seconds oI your vaIuabIe
time. In tIis scenario, be poIite but rm in order to reain controI oI
your speecI. For exampIe, you couId say, "TIank you, I understand
vIat you're ettin at."
Answer the question completely. Some debaters viII sIru oII a
question as irreIevant or veak, vitIout actuaIIy ansverin it. TIis
may suest tIat you're unviIIin or unabIe to deIend your arument.
Ivays provide a cIear and decisive ansver to a Point oI InIormation.
Transition back to your speech quickly. It
sIouIdn't take you more tIan a coupIe oI
sentences to ansver a question. Goin on
Ior Ioner aIIovs tIe question to dictate
your speecI. Once you've ansvered tIe
question, make a smootI transition to stay
on track. For exampIe, you couId say, "Com-
in back to my second point ." or "I'd nov
Iike to move on to my tIird arument."
S0ccess T|p!
Keep your answers
short and move on.
watch 00t!
Don't Iet PoInts oI
nIormatIon controI
your speech.
163
DON'T HECKLE FOR THE HECK OF T
HeckIin can be an interestin, spontaneous, and Iumorous part oI
parIiamentary debate. UnIortunateIy, it's aIso tIe most misused.
IeckIe is a sIort and vitty comment tIat ets to tIe point in a Iev
vords, usuaIIy ve or Iess. It's not your opportunity to Iear yourseII
taIk. It's not your opportunity to continue your speecI durin your
opponent's speecI. Since IeckIin is more oIten used poorIy tIan
veII, perIaps it's appropriate to Iocus on veak vays to IeckIe:
Shouting "shame, shame" or "that's wrong." You'II Iave your cIance
to pIead your case vIen you speak. TIis type oI IeckIin is a rude
interruption, as temptin as it miIt seem.
Demanding "proof" or "source." It's up to tIe member to present tIe
evidence Iov Ie or sIe sees t. TIe udes viII decide vIetIer tIe
opposin team Ias supported its aruments veII. HeckIin in tIis vay
makes you seem petty.
Asking questions. II your Point oI InIormation is reected, it doesn't
ive you a Iicense to et it tIrouI tIe 'back door' by IeckIin. IeckIe
isn't meant to start a back and IortI diaIoue.
Making arguments. ReIutation sIouId o in your speecI, not your
opponent's speecI. Tryin to arue over tIe voice oI your rivaI is ineI-
Iective at best, and disrespectIuI at vorst.
Heckling repeatedly. UndoubtedIy, tIe occasionaI ood IeckIe can
IiIten up tIe debate. Doin so over and over aain, tIouI, interrupts
tIe dov oI debate excessiveIy and may cause tIe udes to deduct
points Irom your individuaI score.
HOW TO HANDLE HECKLNC
TIere is one, simpIe ruIe Ior respondin to IeckIin: don't respond
to IeckIin. Never start a 'side debate' vitI your opponent durin
your vaIuabIe speakin time. Respondin to IeckIin serves to Ieiti-
mize or ive undue attention to your rivaI. SimpIy inore it, and move

164
on as you normaIIy vouId Iave. Even Iookin at your opponent vIiIe
Ie or sIe is IeckIin diverts attention avay Irom you.
RULNCS ON THE RULES: PONTS OF ORDER
ParIiamentary debate Ias countIess ruIes tIat participants are sup-
posed to IoIIov. In reaI parIiaments, tIere are tIick books describin
aII oI tIese ruIes in detaiI. You're not supposed to put your Iands in
your pockets (you couId be Iidin a veapon}, nor are you aIIoved to
Iave a pen in your Iand (tIat couId be vieved as a veapon}. Debaters
aren't supposed to cross onto tIe otIer team's side oI tIe door, and
standin in a pIace tIat obstructs tIe Speaker's viev oI any oI tIe
parIiamentarians is a bi taboo. nd tIe Iist oes on.
II you vant to accuse your opponent oI a ruIe vioIation, you vouId
rise and say, "Mr. Speaker, I rise on a Point oI Order" or, more simpIy,
"Point oI Order." t tIis uncture, tIe person vIo Ias tIe door must
sit dovn vIiIe tIe Speaker decides "Point veII taken" iI in areement
or "Point not veII taken" iI in disareement.
SIouId you IoIIov aII oI tIe time-Ionored ruIes oI parIiamentary
procedure Yes. But sIouId you demand enIorcement iI anotIer debat-
er doesn't ProbabIy not. You may tIink tIat
doin so makes you seem sopIisticated and
inteIIient. But at tIe same, you'II be inter-
ruptin tIe dov oI debate Ior IrivoIous rea-
sons. Most udes von't be impressed. OnIy
raise a Point oI Order Ior tIe most serious oI
vioIations. TIis viII probabIy never Iappen,
but it's IeIpIuI to knov about tIis Ieature oI
parIiamentary debate in case it comes up.
NO OFFENSE: PONTS OF PERSONAL PRVLECE
In addition to IoIIovin parIiamentary ruIes, debaters are expected to
speak IonestIy and respectIuIIy. One reason to raise a Point oI PersonaI
PriviIee is iI a member oI tIe opposin team makes a personaIIy oIIen-
sive remark. notIer cause is iI your opponent seriousIy misquotes
you. TIe process is simiIar to a Point oI Order. You say, "Mr. Speaker, I
rise on a Point oI PersonaI PriviIee" and tIe Speaker ruIes, "Point veII
taken" or "Point not veII taken."
watch 00t!
Don't raIse IrIvoIous
PoInts oI Order or
PersonaI PrIvIIege.
165
VIiIe it's useIuI to be avare oI tIis Ieature, you sIouId rareIy, iI
ever, Iave to use it. SureIy, iI you're about to break into tears because
your opponent made a vuIar remark, you couId decide to raise an
obection. bIatant misquotation tIat couId seriousIy Iarm your case
miIt be anotIer exception. HopeIuIIy, none oI tIese instances viII
come up. In any case, it viII probabIy be quite cIear to tIe udes iI
someone is bein rude or is misrepresentin your case. Let your oppo-
nent's beIavior speak Ior itseII.
By IoIIovin tIe basic uideIines presented in tIis cIapter, you'II be
veII on your vay to naviatin a parIiamentary debate. TIis styIe can
be IiveIy and interestin, and Iov you use tIese tecIniques viII pIay
a sinicant roIe in Iov veII you do.

166

Ask challenging, well-timed Points of Information. stron
question on an arument made immediateIy beIoreIand is a
reat vay to counter your opponent's case. You'II aIso Iorce your
opponent to o on tIe deIensive.
Answer Points of Information directly and move on. Don't
Iet a question et you oII track. Be concise in your response and
transition back to your speecI quickIy. It's essentiaI tIat you
maintain controI over your speecI.
Keep heckles short, witty, and to the point. HeckIes aren't
meant Ior you to make aruments or to ask questions. TIey're
usuaIIy Iumorous, spur oI tIe moment ibes. II you aren't sure
you can do it veII, remember tIat IeckIin isn't a requirement.
Follow the conventions of parliamentary debate. In particu-
Iar, make sure to address tIe Speaker and your opponents cor-
rectIy. You sIouId aIso IoIIov specic ruIes, sucI as not IoIdin
a pen in your Iand (it's poor Iorm in any styIe}. Hovever, don't
rise on a Point oI Order Ior tIis type oI petty ruIe vioIation.
167
Coming UpI
In a cross-examination debate, a period oI questionin by a member
oI tIe opposin team IoIIovs eacI constructive speecI. TIis cIapter
viII sIov you Iov to ask a series oI touI questions vIen you're tIe
cross-examiner. It viII aIso sIov you Iov to stand your round vIen
you're tIe one under re.
0hAPT8 10
Yes or No:
CommandIng the CrossExamInatIon

168
SAVVY ON THE SPOT
cross-examination is a IiveIy, 'Ieat oI tIe moment' opportunity Ior
you to sIov your command oI tIe debate. Iter eacI oI tIe rst Iour
speecIes, a member oI tIe otIer team Ias a Iev minutes to cross-
examine tIe speaker. Put anotIer vay, it's your opportunity to pepper
your opponent vitI a barrae oI questions intended to veaken Iis
or Ier aruments. II you're tIe one bein cross-examined, it's your
cIance to sIov tIat you're condent in your aruments and tIat you
can vitIstand sustained criticism.
t tIe end oI a constructive speecI, tIe speaker viII make a
statement Iike, "I nov stand open Ior cross-examination." TIe cross-
examiner tIen rises and beins tIe questionin. DiIIerent versions oI
cross-examination debate Iave sIiItIy diIIerent structures. Here's a
typicaI exampIe oI a speaker and cross-examiner conuration:
1st Irmative Constructive (1C}: 6 minutes
Cross-examination by 2nd Neative: 4 minutes
1st Neative Constructive (1NC}: 6 minutes
Cross-examination by 1st Irmative: 4 minutes
2nd Irmative Constructive (2C}: 6 minutes
Cross-examination by 1st Neative: 4 minutes
2nd Neative Constructive (2NC}: 6 minutes
Cross-examination by 2nd Irmative: 4 minutes
1st Neative RebuttaI (1NR}: 4 minutes
1st Irmative RebuttaI (1R}: 4 minutes
CHPPNC AWAY: CROSSEXAMNER COALS
II you're tIe one askin tIe questions, you sIouId o into tIe cross-
examination vitI specic obectives in mind. It's your oIden oppor-
tunity to cIip avay at your opponent's case. But iI you don't knov
vIat you're tryin to accompIisI, you'II be stuck rin oII unIocused,
unreIated questions tIat don't sinicantIy damae your opponent's
case. VIat are some oI tIe oaIs you sIouId be tryin to accompIisI
Ycs or o. Commuru:rq rc Crossrxum:ru:or
169
Expose Errors. II your opponent Ias made statements tIat are eitIer
contradictory or inaccurate, tIe cross-examination period is a reat
pIace to point tIem out. It can be even more eIIective tIan doin so
in your ovn speecI, because tIe udes viII see your opponent stru-
Iin to deIend tIe errors.
Attain Admissions. Forcin your opponent to admit a Iact or point
tIat you beIieve is important to tIe issue at Iand can Ieave you a step
aIead at tIe end oI tIe cross-examination period. TIe speaker viII
appear to be retreatin as you drav out admissions tIat are IeIpIuI to
your side oI tIe debate.
Attack Arguments. s vitI reIutation, a cross-examination is an
opportunity to cIaIIene tIe Ioic beIind tIe otIer team's points.
TIe advantae oI a cross-examination is tIat you can craIt a Iine oI
questionin in a vay tIat raduaIIy and systematicaIIy veakens your
opponent's arument. TIis Ieaves it 'exposed' Ior IurtIer reIutation
Iater on in tIe debate.
Setup Points. cross-examination isn't intended Ior you to present
nev aruments. Hovever, you may nd it useIuI to estabIisI tIe joun-
dution Ior a Iuture point vitIout compIeteIy ivin it avay. One sucI
use is estabIisIin tIe vaIidity oI an assumption necessary Ior one oI
your upcomin aruments.
Clear Up Confusion. II your opponent Ias presented denitions or
aruments tIat are conIusin, spendin a sIort period oI time to brin
cIarity may be vaIuabIe. You'II et tIe credit not onIy Ior sIovin tIat
your opponent vas uncIear, but aIso Ior makin it easier Ior tIe udes
to understand vIat's Iappenin in tIe debate.
TOUCH AND TCHT QUESTONS
TIe type oI question you ask Ias a sinicant induence on tIe type
oI ansver you'II receive, even iI tIe intent is exactIy tIe same. It's
important tIat you to understand Iov to pIrase a question in order to
acIieve your obective. Questions can be rouped into tIree cateories:
open-ended, semi-directed, and Ieadin.

170
Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended questions invite and encourae tIe responder to provide
IentIy, dravn out ansvers. VIen used in a cross-examination, tIey
aIIov tIe speaker to take up time eIaboratin and expIainin, vIicI
isn't to your advantae as a cross-examiner. RatIer tIan enabIin you
to drive tovard a specic obective, tIey aIIov your opponent to con-
troI tIe cross-examination. For exampIe, "Hov severe do you tIink
tIe probIem oI speedin is in tIis city"
Semi-Directed Questions
Semi-directed questions suest vIat tIe response sIouId incIude.
TIey sometimes caII Ior a particuIar Iact to be stated. ItIouI more
eIIective tIan open-ended questions, tIey don't drive at your point
quickIy enouI, especiaIIy iI tIe speaker doesn't knov tIe ansver or
tries to maneuver into a reIated area. For exampIe, "re you avare oI
vIat tIe Iatest poIice report said concernin tIe number oI peopIe
kiIIed in tIis city Iast year because oI speedin drivers" (TIis question
onIy encouraes an ansver sucI as, "No, pIease enIiIten me."}
Leading Questions
Leadin questions impIy an ansver to vIicI you vant tIe responder
to aree. TIereIore, tIey serve to make an arument vIiIe pusIin
Ior an admission. TIese are tIe types oI
questions you vant to be askin most oIten
in a cross-examination, because tIey aIIov
you to controI tIe process and drive tovard
an end oaI. For exampIe, "VouId you not
aree tIat tIe 1,442 deatIs and 10,662 inu-
ries caused in tIis city Iast year by speed-
in drivers sIov very cIearIy tIat tIis is a
severe pubIic saIety probIem"
CVNC YOUR RVAL A CRLLNC
Ve've seen vIy knovin your obective IeIps you Iocus your cross-
examination, and ve've covered tIe diIIerent types oI questions. It's
nov time to discuss Iov specicaIIy to o about reacIin your oaIs.
S0ccess T|p!
Keep your questIons
short, sImpIe, and
to the poInt.
171
TIe key to successIuI cross-examinin is askin direct, tareted ques-
tions in a series. Firin oII random questions on a vide variety oI
issues viII Ieave you vitIout any key takeavays at tIe end. Here are
some smart strateies Ior successIuI cross-examinin:
Ask one question at a time. MuItipart questions sIov a Iack oI dov
and Iocus. You're aIso required to aIIov tIe speaker enouI time to
ansver aII oI your questions, vIicI makes it Iarder Ior you to reain
controI vIen you vant to move on. sinIe question is more Iocused,
as it IeIps you driII dovn a specic point. It's best to IoIIov up vitI
anotIer question once you've received an ansver.
Avoid sarcasm or mockery. TIere's notIin vorse tIan Iookin Iike
you're tryin to 'beat up' on your opponent. Stick to inteIIient, pur-
poseIuI questions tIat sIov condence and command oI tIe debate.
II you Iave your opponent on tIe deIensive, soundin arroant about
it paints you in a neative IiIt.
Ask leading, "yes or no" questions. Your oaI in a cross-examination
is to Iorce a quick, anticipated response Irom tIe speaker. IdeaIIy, you
vant your opponent to say "yes" or "no" vitIout Ieavin mucI room
Ior a IentIy expIanation.
Permit a brief qualihcation. Even iI you ask a "yes or no" question,
tIe speaker Ias a riIt to quaIiIy Iis or Ier ansver. II, Iovever, your
opponent starts rambIin, you're veII vitIin your riIts to cut oII tIe
ansver promptIy and respectIuIIy.
Keep your questions brief and to the point.
LentIy introductory expIanations make
it Iook more Iike a speecI and Iess Iike a
cross-examination. Granted, you're tryin
to arue your perspective in a cross-exami-
nation. But Iet your questions suest your
Iine oI arumentation, ratIer tIan tryin to
make aruments directIy.
Plan a series of questions. On a iven issue, prepare to ask at Ieast six
to eiIt questions to et to tIe point or admission tIat you're seek-
in. TIis tactic viII provide key areas oI Iocus Ior tIe cross-examina-
watch 00t!
Don't start 'speech
makIng' In your
crossexamInatIon.

172
tion, Ieavin tIe udes vitI tIe sense tIat you've indicted damae to
specic aruments. SimpIy scratcIin tIe surIace oI many aruments
Ieaves everyone vonderin vIat, iI anytIin, vas accompIisIed.
Persist in response to indecisiveness. II tIe speaker tries to avoid a
question deIiberateIy, ask it aain in diIIerent vords and vitI a rmer
tone. Don't Iet your opponent et avay vitI bein inconcIusive. In
most case, evasiveness suests tIere's sometIin to Iide. Be deter-
mined to et a direct ansver to your question.
Know when to move on. VIen you et to tIe end oI a questionin
sequence, your opponent viII be very reIuctant to admit vIat you
vant in order to avoid makin a damain remark. Once tIe cross-
examination is at a deadIock, move on to anotIer Iine oI questionin
or concIude. TIere's notIin vorse tIan oin IopeIessIy back and
IortI on tIe same question vIen botI sides Iave cIearIy staked out
tIeir respective positions.
Maintain control of the questioning. Sometimes tIe speaker viII try
to turn around tIe cross-examination by askin questions back to you.
TIis is a trick aimed at sIiItin tIe pover avay Irom you. Don't Iet it
Iappen. II your opponent starts askin questions, remind Iim or Ier
tIat it's your cross-examination.
FAULTY TO FANTASTC: SAMPLE QUESTONS
Nov tIat you knov tIe tooIs oI tIe trade Ior askin poverIuI cross-
examination questions, Iet's take a Iook at a Iev exampIes oI ques-
tions to see vIat makes (and breaks} a cross-examination. Notice
Iov eacI question proresses Irom a poor vordin to a ood vord-
in. Knovin tIe diIIerence betveen veak and stron questions viII
reatIy improve your cross-examination.
Internet Censorship [Open-Ended to Leading}
Poor Qucstion: "VIat do you tIink about Iov easy or diIcuIt it is to
veriIy tIe ae oI eacI person vIo vants to enter an aduIt vebsite"
Okuy Qucstion: "Isn't it cIaIIenin to cIeck tIe ae oI someone en-
terin an Internet site, since tIere's no Iace to Iace contact"
173
Cood Qucstion: "VouId you not aree tIat tIe unrestricted nature oI
Internet searcI makes it aImost impossibIe to veriIy tIe ae oI some-
one enterin a site"
Food Labeling [Speechmaking to Brief}
Poor Qucstion: "TIere are many peopIe vIo don't vant to eat e-
neticaIIy-modied Ioods. Ve beIieve tIey deserve tIe riIt to knov
iI a particuIar item at tIe rocery store Ias been eneticaIIy-modied
in any vay. Required IabeIin oI eneticaIIy-modied products vouId
IeIp tIem make tIe cIoices tIey desire. Don't you aree"
Okuy Qucstion: "Considerin tIat many peopIe don't vant to buy any
eneticaIIy-modied Ioods and tIat IabeIin is tIe onIy vay to aIIov
tIem to make inIormed cIoices, do you aree tIat mandatory IabeIin
vouId protect a consumer's riIt to knov vIat's in a Iood product"
Cood Qucstion: "VouId you acknovIede tIat many consumers preIer
not to eat eneticaIIy-modied Ioods"
Commercialization of Sport [Multipart to Single}
Poor Qucstion: "VouIdn't you aree tIat corporate sponsorsIip inects
more money into sport prorams, vIicI IeIps train atIIetes and Ieads
to stroner perIormance at tIe OIympics and otIer competitions"
Okuy Qucstion: "Do you acknovIede tIat sports IaciIities use spon-
sorsIip money to stay adoat and to train atIIetes"
Cood Qucstion: "Do you aree tIat many trainin IaciIities receive a
sinicant portion oI tIeir revenues Irom corporate sponsorsIips"
joint Peacekeeping [Mocking to Intelligent}
Poor Qucstion: "VouIdn't you aree tIat your randiose pIan to Iave
rivaIs vork toetIer is a bit Iike askin kids to be part oI tIe same
roup proect aIter tIey've Iad a bi It"
Okuy Qucstion: "Do you aree tIat askin enemies to be Iriends aII oI
a sudden is reaIIy a teamvork disaster vaitin to Iappen"

174
Cood Qucstion: "Do you aree tIat countries vork toetIer more eI-
IectiveIy iI tIey Iave a Ion Iistory oI IriendIy reIations"
PLANNNC THE PROCESS
Like any speecI, a cross-examination must Iave structure in order to
be eIIective. UsuaIIy, you Iave tIree to Iour minutes to cross-examine
tIe speaker. TIis IentI oI time aIIovs you to cover more tIan one
issue. One eIIective tecInique is 'sinpostin' your cross-examination.
For exampIe, you couId say, "TIe rst area I
vant to ask you about is tIe IeaI aspect oI
proIessionaI boxin." Once you've compIet-
ed tIis Iine oI questionin, you couId state,
"Nov tIat I've cIaIIened your points about
IeaIity, Iet's move on to your assumptions
concernin moraI Iazards." TIe advantae
oI breakin dovn tIe cross-examination is
tIat tIe udes viII rasp more easiIy tIe
distinct tIemes tIat you've covered.
STANDNC YOUR CROUND: SPEAKER COALS
OI course, tIe questioner Ias an opportunity to o on tIe oIIensive
durin tIe cross-examination period. But as tIe speaker bein cross-
examined, you can do mucI more tIan simpIy veatIer tIe storm.
Instead, you can strive to come out oI tIe cross-examination appear-
in even stroner tIan beIore it. s tIe speaker, tIere are a number oI
obectives you may vant to accompIisI:
Pre-refute refutation. Your cross-examiner is tryin to expose davs
tIat viII assist Iim or Ier in Iuture cIasI aainst your aruments. II
you can dedect and debunk tIe attacks durin tIe cross-examina-
tion, you're essentiaIIy neatin vIat tIe otIer team pIans to use as
its reIutation. Done eIIectiveIy, tIis tactic can Ieave your opponent
scrambIin to nd anotIer anIe oI attack.
Stie the questioner. Your opponent viII IikeIy Iave a series oI ques-
tions to ask you on a iven issue. In most cases, Ie or sIe Ias antici-
pated vIat you'II say about tIe preIiminary questions in order to
S0ccess T|p!
PIan a IuII IIne oI
questIonIng wIth
an end goaI.
175
setup tIe more damain ones. II you can sidetrack tIe cross-exam-
iner earIy on by presentin Iair but unexpected ansvers, you can Ieave
your opponent struIin to et back on track. In addition, you'II Iorce
your rivaI to take up vaIuabIe cross-examination time scurryin to et
to tIe point oI contention.
Defend your case. II you can stand touI
aainst a stron cross-examiner, you'II Iave
one a Ion vay in sIovin condence in
your case. TIe udes viII viev boId and
inteIIient responses to touI questions
very IavorabIy. TIey sIov tIat you can Iace
criticism on tIe spot, vIicI empIasizes tIe
strentI oI your aruments.
YES, NO, MAY8E SO: ANSWERNC QUESTONS
TIe best cross-examiners viII try to Iorce you into to simpIe, "yes or
no" ansvers. Remember tIat your cross-examiner Ias IikeIy pIanned
out a series oI questions aimed at extractin an admission Irom you.
Here are some oI tIe keys to ansverin questions eIIectiveIy:
Qualify your answers. Your cross-examiner is Iopin you'II ansver
a simpIe "yes" or "no" so tIat Ie or sIe can quickIy move on vitI tIe
Iine oI questionin. Don't Iet your cross-examiner dominate you in
tIis vay. TIere are usuaIIy nuances, exceptions, and detaiIs tIat viII
strentIen your ansver. Providin an expIanation to your ansver viII
IeIp stide tIe cross-examiner and sIov your condence.
Be concise. TIe risk oI quaIiIyin your ansvers is tIat you'II start to
rambIe. Goin too Iar vitI expIanations viII resuIt in you Iosin points.
You don't vant to be seen as kiIIin time by makin speecIes instead
oI providin ansvers. Do quaIiIy your ansvers, but et to tIe point
quickIy and Iet tIe cross-examiner move on.
Refer back to your speech. VIen reIevant to tIe ansver, sayin, Ior
exampIe, "s I discussed in my second point ..." or "Ve've aIready
expIained tIat ..." reminds tIe udes oI vIat you said previousIy. It
aIso makes your ansvers stroner by usin tIe backin oI aruments
tIat Iave aIready been veII-deveIoped.
S0ccess T|p!
AntIcIpate the
crossexamIner's
next questIons.

176
Don't pass it on to your partner. Sayin, Ior exampIe, "My partner
viII address your question in Ier upcomin speecI" makes you seem
unsure. In addition, you've nov made a promise tIat your partner Ias
to keep, tIrovin your team's next speecI oII track. Ivays provide a
compIete ansver yourseII.
Never give in. It doesn't matter iI your cross-examiner Ias you on tIe
ropes vitI a series oI very touI questions. Ivays deIend yourseII,
even iI your opponent Ias done damae to your case. Concedin a
point onIy vorsens tIe damae, makin it next to irreversibIe.
Look at the audience as well. TIere's notIin vron vitI Iookin
excIusiveIy at your questioner. It certainIy makes sense, since Ie or
sIe is tIe one vitI vIom you're conversin. Hovever, aIso makin
eye contact vitI tIe audience makes you seem more enain and
condent in vIat you're sayin.
Don't communicate with your partner. VIisperin or esturin
betveen you and your partner makes it seem Iike you need a 'cIutcI'
in order to ansver tIe question. It's essentiaI tIat you seem indepen-
dentIy condent in your speecI.
Answer questions, don't ask them. Some debaters nd it cIever to
try turnin around tIe cross-examination by askin questions to tIe
cross-examiner. TIis tactic viII be obvious to tIe udes, vIo viII typ-
icaIIy viev it as inappropriate. Stick to your roIe by ansverin ques-
tions asked oI you by your opponent.
Be decisive. It isn't ood practice to be deIiberateIy vaue, as it seems
Iike you're tryin to evade your opponent or tIat you Iack condence.
Make sure your ansvers are cIear and direct. nsvers sucI as, "VeII, it
ust depends" or "It's touI to say, reaIIy" appear very indecisive.
ADEPT ANSWERS
Ve've discussed tIe keys to ansverin cross-examination questions.
Nov Iet's take a Iook at a Iev exampIes. TIe IoIIovin sampIe ansvers
viII Iead you Irom a poor response tIrouI to a ood response:
177
Unqualihed to Explained: "Do you not agree that advertising designed
to appeal to our emotions makes us buy things with little benehtZ"
Poor Ansucr: "No, I don't aree."
Okuy Ansucr: "No, because iI it satises our emotions, tIen it does
indeed Iave a benet."
Cood Ansucr: "Not necessariIy. Ve don't et personaI satisIaction
onIy Irom vIat ve 'need'. Ve aIso Iave nonessentiaI 'vants' tIat
advertisers aim to satisIy, sucI as IeeIin ood about vearin a par-
ticuIar brand oI cIotIin."
Concession to Case Defense: "Is it not true that students would ben-
eht from more music trainingZ"
Poor Ansucr: "Sure, tIey vouId oI course et some benet."
Okuy Ansucr: "TIey may et a benet, but tIere vouId be sinicant
time and money costs."
Cood Ansucr: "Despite tIe enIancement, increasin tIe time spent
on music cIass vouId take avay Irom otIer courses. TIere's Iimited
time, and tIe trade-oII avay Irom core subects vouId be IarmIuI."
Indecisive to Conhdent: "Do you acknowledge that prison amenities
and activities make it easier to go from being a criminal to acting as
a responsible member of societyZ"
Poor Ansucr: "VeII, it depends. Everyone is diIIerent."
Okuy Ansucr: "ItIouI tIey perIaps make Ior an easier transition,
tIey o sIiItIy aainst tIe core oaIs oI prisons, nameIy punisIment
Ior crimes and deterrence aainst Iuture crimes."
Cood Ansucr: "Quite tIe contrary. Prisons are meant to punisI crimi-
naIs and deter crime. Prison Iuxuries send tIe opposite messae."

178
Questioning to Answering: "Isn't it the case that corporate execu-
tives are accountable only to the proht demands of shareholdersZ"
Poor Ansucr: "But do you not tIink tIat tIey consider Iov tIe pub-
Iic viII viev tIeir actions VouIdn't you aree tIat tIey aIso vant to
Iave a ood pubIic imae"
Okuy Ansucr: "For certain, sIareIoIders may be one stakeIoIder, but
you must admit tIat tIey consider pubIic perceptions and tIeir ovn
reputations as veII."
Cood Ansucr: "No, tIey Iave to baIance demands Ior sIort-term proI-
its vitI tIeir oaI oI creatin a positive, Ion-term reIationsIip vitI
tIe pubIic. Executives knov tIat a stron corporate imae viII IeIp
tIe company over time."
HAMMER T HOME: USNC THE CROSSEXAMNATON
Standin aIone, stron perIormance in a cross-examination period
can IeIp your team considerabIy. But can you stretcI tIe eIIects oI a
cross-examination into otIer parts oI tIe debate bsoIuteIy. ppIyin
tIe cross-examination to tIe overaII debate IiIIiIts and reinIorces
moments in tIe cross-examination tIat you
IeeI beneted your case. TIis tooI appIies
botI to cross-examinations tIat invoIved
you and tIose in vIicI your partner vas
a participant. dditionaIIy, aItIouI you'II
usuaIIy nd more materiaI to use Irom
vIen your team asked tIe questions, your
ansvers may aIso be ood materiaI Ior
Iuture speecIes. Here are some vays to use
tIe cross-examination:
Highlight a aw. II your team Ias exposed veakness in one oI your
opponent's aruments, remind tIe udes tIat you've done so. Since
you don't Iave a IuII opportunity to anaIyze and criticize your oppo-
nent's ansvers durin a cross-examination, an uninterrupted speecI
provides you vitI a vaIuabIe cIance to expIain exactIy Iov tIe cross-
examination exposed tIe davs.
S0ccess T|p!
RemInd the judges oI
the crossexamInatIon.
179
Use an admission for refutation. Brinin up concessions made by
your opponents durin cross-examination periods is a vay oI turnin
tIeir ovn vords into reIutation. n admission provided in an ansver
makes your cIasI sinicantIy stroner, since you don't Iave to spend
very mucI oI your vaIuabIe time expIainin and provin a point tIat
tIe otIer side Ias aIready conceded.
Lay the foundation for your argument. ItIouI it's Iess common
tIan usin tIe cross-examination Ior reIutation, you can use an
admission ained durin a cross-examination to support tIe basis oI
a constructive point. TIis tooI can be used to deIend previous points
or to Iay tIe Ioundation Ior nev points. Usin cross-examination con-
cessions in tIis vay makes it touIer Ior tIe otIer side to cIasI, since
your opponent appears to be at Ieast in partiaI areement.
Reinforce your strengths. n opposin team viII try IerventIy to veak-
en your aruments vIiIe cross-examinin you. In many cases, your
rivaI viII o in circIes vitIout indictin any Iarm, IeIpin you sIov
condence in your case. ReIerrin back to tIe cross-examination can
aid in reinIorcin tIat your points Iave passed tIe test oI criticism. It's
a vay oI sayin, "TIey tried to deIeat it, and tIey IaiIed."
Cross-examination debate can be cIaIIenin. But knovin Iov to ask
touI questions, Iov to ansver questions eIIectiveIy, and Iov to use
tIe cross-examination in your speecI viII improve your perIormance
at tIis styIe oI debate.

180

Ask direct, leading questions to get the answers you want.
TIis metIod aIIovs you to controI tIe cross-examination. Open-
ended questions ive your competitor an opportunity to rambIe,
takin up your vaIuabIe cross-examination time.
Have a clear objective for your cross-examination. sk a
series oI questions desined to et at a particuIar point or admis-
sion. Start vitI questions tIat setup tIe Iine oI questionin, and
tIen proceed to questions tIat et to tIe Ieart oI tIe matter.
Answer directly, but be sure to qualify your answers.
simpIe "yes" or "no" ives tIe cross-examiner excessive controI
over tIe questionin period. Providin a brieI expIanation viII
cIariIy your perspective and viII make it more diIcuIt Ior your
opponent to o on tIe attack.
Use the cross-examination. II you've Iorced a damain
admission or deIended your case eIIectiveIy, remind your udes
about it durin tIe speecI tIat IoIIovs.
181
Coming UpI
Debates don't onIy take pIace betveen tvo teams. TIere are oIten
many diIIerent perspectives at pIay. TIis cIapter viII sIov you Iov
to emere as a Ieader in Iorums. You'II nd out Iov to set tIe aenda,
strike a compromise, buiId a coaIition, and speak in an enain vay.
0hAPT8 11
Foray Into Forums:
StandIng Out Irom the Crowd

182
WHEN TWO SDES AREN'T ENOUCH
Havin onIy an Irmative team and a Neative team Ias certain
advantaes. TIe issue is cIear, especiaIIy aIter tIe rst speaker denes
tIe terms. TIere's an obvious IauIt Iine tIat divides tIe opposin
teams. Since eacI side knovs exactIy vIat it Ias to arue, tIis Iormat
certainIy makes Ior ood practice and competition.
But do most debates Iave onIy tvo perspectives II you tIink
about tIe vorId around you, you'II reaIize tIat tIere are usuaIIy many
vievs on tIe same subect. Even on tIe same subect, tIere are many
diIIerent sub-issues, and eacI stakeIoIder viII consider diIIerent sub-
issues to be tIe most important ones. BeIov are descriptions oI some
oI tIe instances vIen tIere are muItipIe perspectives at pIay.
Student Congress and Model Parliament
In democratic systems, tIere are numerous poIiticaI parties. EacI par-
ty Ias eIected members vIo represent its positions in a IeisIature.
In some instances, sucI as tIe United States Conress, tIere are tvo
dominant parties. In otIer pIaces, sucI as Canada and many Europe-
an nations, tIere are tIree or more roups represented in sinicant
numbers. party doesn't onIy represent a sinIe, narrovIy dened
perspective on eacI issue. RatIer, its members represent a rane oI
vievs on vIat's caIIed tIe poIiticaI spectrum. TIey come toetIer as a
unit because tIeir vievs are reasonabIy simiIar, but tIere's stiII pIenty
oI room Ior maneuverin.
In a Student Conress or ModeI ParIiament, tIe core activities
incIude deveIopin, debatin, and votin on BiIIs. MuItipIe perspec-
tives o into tIe draItin oI a BiII. Everyone viII vant to Iave tIeir
issues and vievs incIuded. II tIe party proposin tIe BiII doesn't Iave
a maority in tIe IeisIature, it viII Iave to compromise or Iorm a coaIi-
tion vitI otIer members. ConsequentIy, tIe backroom deaI-makin is
oIten as important as tIe debate itseII.
Model United Nations
In tIis internationaI Iorum, you represent a country on a committee,
sucI as tIe Security CounciI or tIe Commission on Human RiIts.
GeneraIIy, tIere are onIy one or tvo members advocatin Ior your
country on eacI committee. TIereIore, decidin on your country's per-
oruy :ro orums. Suru:rq Ou jrom rc Crouu
183
spective is mucI easier tIan decidin on a party's perspective in a
Student Conress or ModeI ParIiament. TIe cIaIIene Iies in ndin
areas oI mutuaI interest and areement betveen countries. It's vir-
tuaIIy impossibIe Ior one country to pusI tIrouI a riid viev, since
otIer countries are unIikeIy to aree. TIis makes neotiation and com-
promise centraI to tIe debate.
Committee Meetings
VIetIer it's a scIooI cIub, a student counciI, or a community roup,
you're probabIy part oI a committee. VIen a committee meets, its
members Iave oaIs tIat are more videIy IeId amon participants
tIan in tIe types oI Iorums mentioned previousIy. TIere tends not to
be distinct Iactions. RatIer, tIe debates are more civiI and construc-
tive, and tIe purpose is to decide Iov best to carry out tIe roup's
mandate. You sIouIdn't be tryin to deIeat anyone eIse on tIe com-
mittee, as tIe aim is to nd consensus amon aII roup members. Suc-
cess in tIis type oI Iorum debate invoIves IeadersIip and enaement.
SIoutin dovn aruments made by otIer members is bound to isoIate
you and render you Iess eIIective.
Class Discussions
You've certainIy been part oI cIassroom debates on tIe tIeme oI a
noveI or on an internationaI aIIairs issue. PerIaps you've even advo-
cated Iov to o about soIvin a matI probIem or conductin a science
experiment. In tIese discussions, your oaIs sIouId be to contribute to
tIe Iearnin oI everyone in tIe cIass, to increase your ovn understand-
in oI an issue, and to practice your speecI
and debate skiIIs. Since you're debatin
vitI peopIe vIo are your Iriends, tIe styIe
oI debate is more constructive and anaIyti-
caI tIan conIrontationaI. TIere are no 'vin-
ners' and 'Iosers', but seIect peopIe viII be
seen as Ieaders by tIeir teacIer and by tIeir
peers. Your mission sIouId be to make sure
tIat you're one oI tIese peopIe.
S0ccess T|p!
ContrIbute actIveIy
to cIass dIscussIons.

184
A TRCKY 8ALANCNC ACT
In a debate betveen tvo teams, tIe oaIs are simpIe: buiId your aru-
ments and deIeat your opponent's aruments. One team viII vin, and
tIe otIer viII Iose. TIe onIy person you Iave to vork vitI is your
partner. SimpIy put, it's an 'us vs. tIem' battIe.
Iorum debate is mucI diIIerent. Not onIy are you tryin to pres-
ent your aruments, you're aIso aimin to vork vitIin tIe context oI
a dynamic debate to see vIere your points t in and make tIe most
impact. TIere are more tIan tvo distinct perspectives, makin tIe
areas oI contention Iess cIear.
You Iave to vork vitI otIer peopIe-cngugc ratIer tIan dcjcut-in
order to acIieve your obectives. In Iact, your peers viII Iave sini-
cant svay in Iov you're uded, as opposed to a paneI oI udes vIo
are removed Irom tIe debate itseII.
II oI tIese Iactors require you to perIorm a baIancin act. You
Iave to pusI your perspective, but compromise may be necessary
Ior anytIin to pass. Bein decisive viII IeIp you stand out, but otIer
peopIe viII vant to IeeI tIat you're Iisten-
in to tIeir vievs. You sIouId strive to set
tIe aenda by promotin tIe issues you
IeeI are most important, vIiIe at tIe same
time ensurin tIat your comments t vitI
tIe debate. In sIort, peopIe actuaIIy Iave to
Iike you and vant to stand vitI you on tIe
topics bein debated.
HOMEFELD ADVANTACE: SET THE ACENDA
TIe more invoIved you are in decidin
vIat ets debated, tIe more induentiaI you
viII be in tIe debate itseII. TIere's rareIy
enouI time to discuss every reIevant issue
in detaiI. II tIere are severaI important mat-
ters, an aenda IeIps structure and Iocus
tIe debate. In some cases, tIere is a IormaI
aenda, sucI as a Iist oI BiIIs in a ModeI Par-
Iiament or a Iist oI discussion items in a committee meetin. t otIer
times, tIe aenda is more inIormaI. TIe participants vIo Iead tIe
S0ccess T|p!
8uIId reIatIons beIore
the Iorum even starts.
S0ccess T|p!
StrIve to Inuence
what gets debated.
185
debate essentiaIIy set tIe tone Ior everyone by makin it cIear vIat
tIe key issues are. Here are some strateies tIat viII IeIp you partici-
pate in settin tIe aenda:
jump on an issue quickly. II you're one oI tIe rst peopIe to suest
a reasonabIe aenda Ior tIe debate, your issues are Iar more IikeIy
to be accepted. Once tIe key issues Iave been decided, addin your
items to tIe debate may be seen as compIicatin and sidetrackin tIe
Iorum. TIe most eIIective debaters try to set tIe aenda beIore tIe
Iorum even beins. TIey taIk inIormaIIy vitI otIers beIoreIand to
aue tIe mood and to suest ideas. In a crisis committee invoIvin
rapidIy unIoIdin events, sucI as a United Nations Security CounciI
session, tackIin a nev event quickIy viII IeIp you set tIe tone oI tIe
discussion to IoIIov.
Explain why your issues are the important ones. In a sense, you're
aruin vIy your issues need to be arued. You need to make it cIear to
everyone eIse vIat tIe Iorum stands to ain Irom debatin tIe issues
tIat you're suestin. BeIov are some oI tIe reasons vIy an issue
miIt need to be debated promptIy:
Urgcncy: II a probIem is immediate or IortIcomin, cIaimin uren-
cy can be a compeIIin reason to Iave your issue on tIe aenda. For
exampIe, an imminent civiI var or a tiIt proect deadIine couId be
cause Ior urent debate.
Sculc: By expIainin tIe manitude oI a situation, you can present a
poverIuI case to tIe Iorum Ior debatin tIis issue. TIe enormities oI
a dru traIckin probIem or a rovin IeaItI crisis are instances in
vIicI tIe scaIe oI tIe situation can be used to ustiIy discussion.
Dcpcndcncy: In many cases, a number oI important issues are depen-
dent on tIe outcome oI anotIer debate. Say tIat a Student CounciI is
discussin a year-end party. Debatin Iov mucI sIouId be spent on it
sIouId come beIore pIannin otIer items.
Think about what others will hnd important. Hov successIuI you are
in estabIisIin tIe key issues Ior debate depends on tIe opinions oI
otIer participants. }udin vIat otIer peopIe beIieve is a vaIuabIe tooI
Ior proposin an aenda. One metIod is considerin tIeir roIes and

186
Iov tIey reIate to important issues. II you're in a ModeI ParIiament
and tIe Green Party is IeaviIy represented, it's a Iair bet tIat environ-
mentaI issues viII be oI Ioremost concern. But tIere's a Iess specuIa-
tive metIod oI auin tIe mood: ask tIem. It may seem Iike common
sense, but it's rareIy done. VIen you're taIkin to peopIe beIore tIe
Iorum, ask tIem vIat tIey see as tIe key issues. Listenin is Iar more
eIIective tIan mind-readin.
COMMON CROUND: STRKNC A COMPROMSE
You tIink you're riIt, and you're convinced tIat everyone eIse around
you sIouId take your viev. UnIortunateIy, tIey aII Iave tIeir ovn vievs
and-you uessed it-tIey tIink tIey're riIt as veII. VIat to do
OI course, you couId o on vitI tIe same course, stubbornIy stickin
to your oriinaI position. But consider tIat you probabIy need tIe sup-
port oI peopIe vIo Iave otIer vievs. Good
Iuck tryin to et your IeIIov participants
to back dovn and bov to your demands.
UsuaIIy, you'II Iave to nd common round
and arrive at a compromise. Here are some
strateies Ior comin up vitI a mutuaIIy
areeabIe position:
Come into the negotiation from a position of strength. t rst, stake
out a cIear, decisive position. It's impossibIe to et even part oI vIat
you vant iI you bein vitI a vatered-dovn version oI vIat you reaIIy
tIink. II you start vitI a position tIat's aIready a compromise, you'II
probabIy Iave to concede even more round to tIose vIo are pusIin
Ior a diIIerent perspective.
TIink about vIen you used to neotiate vitI your parents Ior
money to o out. (Or perIaps you stiII do.} You asked Ior $40, tIey
proposed $20, and so you comprised at $30.
VIat iI you decided to start Iov, tIinkin
you vouId be revarded Ior bein reason-
abIe You asked Ior $30, tIey proposed $20,
and so tIey IeIt tIat a $2S compromise
vouId be Iair. Next time, you'II remember
to start tIe neotiation a bit IiIer.
S0ccess T|p!
Understand what
motIvates other
partIcIpants.
watch 00t!
Don't compromIse
or gIve In too quIckIy.
187
Stick hrm to your most important demands. Knov vIat you consider
a top priority and vIat's Iess important. Even iI you appear to take
stron positions on tIe Iover priority demands, you can use tIem as
barainin cIips to protect vIat you consider vitaI. demand tIat's
Iess important to you may be a concession tIat someone vitI anotIer
perspective vaIues reatIy.
STRENCTH N NUM8ERS: 8ULDNC COALTONS
Vorkin aIone, it's ratIer diIcuIt to reacI
your obectives in a Iorum. You may preIer
to 'o it aIone' and et aII oI tIe brain
riIts iI your proposaI is accepted. UnIortu-
nateIy, tryin to be tIe onIy sIinin star viII
rareIy vork. Even iI otIer peopIe aree vitI
you, tIey're Iess IikeIy to vote Ior your ideas
iI tIey tIink you're tryin to dominate.
coaIition can be an eIIective veIicIe Ior advancin your interests.
UnIike compromisin, vIicI empIasizes brinin idcus toetIer, coaIi-
tion-buiIdin pIaces more stress on brinin pcoplc toetIer to promote
a set oI ideas. CoaIitions are usuaIIy created
bcjorc tIe debate, vIereas compromises
Iappen during tIe debate. In tIis sense, a
poIiticaI party is a type oI coaIition. BuiIdin
a coaIition is tricky, but tIe eIIort usuaIIy
pays oII by makin it easier to acIieve your
obectives. Here are some strateies to IeIp
you buiId coaIitions:
Identify people with similar interests. ItIouI it's rare Ior any tvo
participants to Iave exactIy tIe same position on a topic, it's common
Ior numerous peopIe to Iave positions vitI minor diIIerences tIat can
be brided. For exampIe, take a ModeI United Nations debate on Ior-
ein aid. One potentiaI coaIition is a roup oI veaItIy donor nations,
eacI Iavin diIIerent proposaIs, but sIarin tIe perspective tIat aid
sIouId be tied to democratic reIorm.
Make trade-offs to secure passage. Some coaIition scenarios invoIve
sacrices and deaIs. Separate roups aree to back eacI otIer so tIat
eacI one can accompIisI its priorities. For exampIe, tIe Conservative
watch 00t!
Don't Iorm coaIItIons
pureIy on IrIendshIp.
watch 00t!
Don't appear to be
IormIng excIusIve
cIIques.

188
Party in a ModeI ParIiament couId aree to tIe LiberaI Party's bid Ior
reater spendin on IeaItI care. In excIane, it vouId receive a uar-
antee oI tIe LiberaI Party's support Ior its tax cut proposaIs.
Share responsibility and credit with other participants. PIayin a
IeadersIip roIe doesn't mean Ioin tIe initiative. Tryin to domi-
nate a coaIition is a sure vay to see it IaII
apart. Everyone is in tIe coaIition because
tIey IeeI tIere's sometIin Ior tIem to ain.
II tIey see it as a pover rab on your part,
tIey may not vant to vork vitI you. TIe
best Ieaders in a coaIition vork to invoIve
everyone. VIen an initiative succeeds, tIe
entire team takes credit.
ENCACE EVERYONE: STYLE AND DELVERY
Most oI tIe principIes oI stron deIivery discussed in previous cIap-
ters IoId true in Iorums, but tIere are a number oI tecIniques tIat are
particuIarIy important in a roup situation. Here are some tips to IeIp
you appeaI to a vide rane oI peopIe:
Face as many people as possible. Focusin predominantIy on tIe
CIairperson, tIe Iront oI tIe room, or tIe key pIayers is a naturaI
instinct. TIis practice Ieaves everyone eIse IeeIin 'IeIt out' oI your
speecI. Turnin your body and your eyes tovard as vide a spectrum
oI your audience as possibIe is a reat vay to keep aII oI tIe partici-
pants IeeIin enaed.
t a meetin, sittin at certain positions viII IeIp you Iace tIe
maximum number oI peopIe. Sittin at certain positions You're prob-
abIy tIinkin, "It's a tabIe, and you sit dovn anyvIere. It's tIat simpIe."
ctuaIIy, iI you Iook careIuIIy around a typicaI meetin tabIe, you'II nd
tIat certain pIaces are advantaeous. TIese 'pover positions' make it
more IikeIy tIat otIers viII notice you vIen you vant to speak. nd
vIen you do speak, Iever peopIe viII Iave to turn tIeir bodies in order
to Iace you directIy.
Keep you palms open and up. TIe excessive use oI cIosed-sted or
ner-pointin estures paints an imae oI you sayin, "Here's vIy
you're vron." You're essentiaIIy pIacin a 'barrier' betveen you and
S0ccess T|p!
dentIIy your potentIaI
aIIIes Irom the outset.
189
S0ccess T|p!
Stay humbIe to gaIn
respect and support.
everyone eIse. Speakin vitI open paIms tIat Iace up or outvard is a
vay oI communicatin, "I'm invitin you to oin my position." Sounds
subtIe and subconscious VeII, it is. But it's a smaII tooI tIat can add
an extra toucI to your deIivery.
Show that you're listening. In a Iorum,
you're communicatin even vIen you're
not speakin. Since tIere are so many
speakers vitI diIIerent opinions, everyone
is struIin to stand out and to IeeI tIat
tIey're Iavin an impact. Eye contact vitI
tIe speaker and an attentive posture are
tvo vays to sIov tIat you're payin atten-
tion. dditionaIIy, everyone Iikes to knov tIat tIeir contributions are
bein appreciated by tIe otIer participants. Noddin in areement
IeIps convey enaement and interest in tIe speaker's comments. In
a parIiamentary Iorum, appIaudin by banin on your desk or cIant-
in, "Here, Iere!" are otIer vays to sIov your areement.
II you remember tIe tips and tricks outIined in tIis cIapter, you'II
ive yourseII a competitive advantae as you participate in any type oI
competitive or inIormaI debate Iorum.

190
Provide a sense of direction to the discussion. Suest vIat
needs to be discussed or vIat cIaIIenes sIouId be addressed.
II tIe Iorum Iocuses on your issues, it's more IikeIy tIat you'II
pIay a IeadersIip roIe in tIe debate.
Keep your comments in the context of the forum. UnIess
you can sIov vIy a nev direction is necessary, stay Iocused
on tIe issue at Iand. Don't brin up points ust because you've
vanted to say tIem Ior some time.
Seek common ground with other participants. ItIouI
statin your ideas condentIy is important, it's essentiaI tIat
you're abIe to brin toetIer a coaIition oI peopIe or to create
areement around key ideas. PIay a IeadersIip roIe by suest-
in vays to oin Iorces.
Listen to what others are saying and respond accordingly.
Since tIe peopIe you're tryin to convince are part oI tIe debate,
you need to understand aII oI tIe reIevant perspectives. Strive
to understand vIat's motivatin otIer participants and adapt
your tactics and contributions accordinIy.
191
Coming UpI
In tIis section, you'II see tIe tips and tricks discussed in previous cIap-
ters come toetIer as IuII debates. TIe resoIutions viII be debated vi-
orousIy Irom botI sides oI tIe issue so tIat you can see Iov a debate
unIoIds. TIe commentary and dov sIeets viII IeIp you understand
tIe tooIs tIat tIe debaters are usin. Hovever, you're encouraed to
make your ovn dov sIeet as you read eacI debate.
0hAPT8 12
Wars oI Words:
Debates wIth Commentary

192
PARLAMENTARY STYLE DE8ATE: THS HOUSE WOULD
(THW) LOWER THE MNMUM VOTNC ACE.
Debate
Speaker: I caII tIis House to order. TIe BiII
beIore us today is: TIis House vouId (THV}
Iover tIe minimum votin ae. Representin
tIe Government are tIe Prime Minister and
tIe Minister oI tIe Crovn, and representin
Her Maesty's LoyaI Opposition are tIe Mem-
ber oI tIe Opposition and tIe Leader oI tIe
Opposition. I nov caII upon tIe Prime Minis-
ter to dene tIe terms oI tIe BiII and present
tIe Government's case.
Prime Minister: TIank you, Mr. Speaker. Hon-
orabIe members oI tIe House, ve are Iere
today to debate vIetIer tIis House sIouId
Iover tIe minimum votin ae. In order to
Iocus tIe debate on nations vitI Ion-stand-
in democratic traditions, ve are reIerrin
to tIe 30 nations tIat are members oI tIe
Oranization Ior Economic Cooperation and
DeveIopment (OECD}, IareIy NortI merica
and Vestern Europe. Ve dene "Iover tIe
minimum votin ae" as aIIovin citizens to
vote in eIections Ior pubIic oIce beinnin at
tIe ae oI 16, compared to tIe current sys-
tems vIicI typicaIIy Iave a minimum votin
ae oI 18 years.
I viII Iocus on tIe issue oI riIts-vIy it
is tIat citizens as youn as ae 16 dcscrvc to
vote. My partner viII Iocus on tIe benets to
society and to youn peopIe oI Ioverin tIe
votin ae to 16.
TIe rst point oI tIe Government's case
is tIat peopIe as youn as ae 16 Iave aduIt
and democratic responsibiIities vIicI sIouId
Commentary
No nccd jor u plun
bccuusc tnc rcsolu-
tion is u singlc, simplc
dccision.
Snould stutc in propcr
rcsolution jormut.
Appropriutc rutionulc
und cnoicc jor
gcogrupnic scopc.
Cood to bc spccipc in
tnis uuy.
Tclls tnc judgcs
cxuctly uncrc tnc cusc
is going.
point bcing mudc.
Vurs oj Vorus. clucs u:r Commcrury
193
transIate into tIe riIt to vote. TIe concept
oI riIts and responsibiIities are reIated. s
someone's responsibiIities to society increase,
so sIouId tIe constitutionaI riIts tIey Iave
to sIape Iov society is run. For exampIe,
peopIe as youn as 16 pay saIes taxes on tIeir
rapidIy rovin spendin and income taxes
on part-time empIoyment income. TIey are
IeId criminaIIy responsibIe, commonIy as
aduIts, Ior actions tIat vioIate tIe Iav. Soci-
ety expects tIese individuaIs to bein actin
Iike aduIts, vIicI is vIy peopIe as youn
as 16 deserve tIe riIt to induence poIiticaI
decisions concernin, Ior instance, Iov tIeir
tax doIIars are spent and a variety oI otIer
important issues.
Lcudcr oj tnc Opposition: "On tIat point" (Prime
Minister accepts tIe Point oI InIormation}.
"VouId you not aree tIat a basic, easy to
perIorm obIiation sucI as payin taxes or
beIavin IavIuIIy is IundamentaIIy diIIerent
tIan an important, compIex cIoice Iike decid-
in on vIo sIouId overn tIe country"
Primc Ministcr: FirstIy, payin taxes and IavIuI
beIavior are criticaIIy important to tIe Iunc-
tionin oI society. SecondIy, as I viII discuss
Iater, tIe premise oI your question-votin is
too diIcuIt Ior youn peopIe to understand-
is compIeteIy incorrect.
Nov tIat ve Iave estabIisIed tIe issue oI
democratic riIts, ve viII move on to our sec-
ond point, vIicI is Iov sinicantIy poIiticaI
decisions impact youn peopIe. TIe concept
oI a democratic society is tIat tIe peopIe vIo
are impacted by poIiticaI decisions sIouId be
abIe to determine vIo it is tIat makes tIese
decisions. In tIis sense, ve Iave overnment
by consent oI tIe peopIe. For exampIe, poIiti-
Cood conncction
bctuccn rignts und
rcsponsibilitics.
Exumplc nclps to
clurijy tnc point.
Sturtcd uitn u con-
cluding linc, but tncn
movcd nccdlcssly buck
into spccipcs.
Cood timing, us urgu-
mcnt nus just pnisncd.
Strong contrust bc-
tuccn circumstunccs.
Spcukcr jorcsnudous
unuts to comc, ullou-
ing nim to movc on.
Clcur, cjjcctivc trunsi-
tion buck to tnc spcccn
und to tnc ncxt point.
Appcul to u uidcly
ncld bclicj.

194
cians make decisions tIat impact tIe scIooI
system, poIicin oI vioIence by youn peopIe,
and access and aIIordabiIity oI coIIee and
university. Many youtI are aIso impacted by
issues sucI as poverty, IeaItI care, and sociaI
services. In order Ior poIiticians to Iave IuII
Ieitimacy in makin tIese decisions, tIe
youtI vIo are impacted by tIese cIoices
sIouId be part oI tIe votin constituency tIat
Iorms our overnments.
Since ve Iave nov taIked about tIe con-
cept oI responsibiIities and tIe numerous
poIiticaI decisions tIat impact youtI, ve viII
nov move on to tIe tIird and naI area oI
riIts, nameIy vIetIer peopIe as youn as 16
Iave tIe capabiIity to exercise tIis riIt veII.
TIe oIten stated reason Ior Iavin ae 18 as
tIe minimum votin ae is tIat it is at tIis
stae in IiIe tIat peopIe Iave tIe capabiIity
to exercise tIeir democratic riIts appropri-
ateIy. It is, oI course, reasonabIe to Iimit riIts
to peopIe so youn tIat tIey cannot exercise
tIem responsibIy. Hovever, tIis is not tIe
case Ior students vIo are 16 years oId. PeopIe
at tIis ae are Iearnin about society and ov-
ernment at scIooI, aruabIy ivin tIem more
recent knovIede about poIiticaI issues tIan
even many aduIts. In addition, tIey Iave Iad
many years to Iearn about Iov society and
tIe poIiticaI system vork. TIey are beinnin
to tIink about vIat tIey vant to do aIter
raduatin Irom scIooI, sucI as earnin a Iiv-
in or pursuin coIIee or university educa-
tion. TIat is, tIey Iave tIe capabiIity to tIink
rationaIIy and responsibIy about Iov to exer-
cise tIis important riIt.
Mcmbcr oj tnc Opposition: "Point oI InIorma-
tion" (Prime Minister accepts}. "Do you not
tIink tIat peopIe sIouId nisI Iearnin aII
Exumplcs providc
contcxt us to uny tnc
rignts urc importunt.
Links tnc initiul con-
ccpt oj impuct to tnc
conccpt oj lcgitimucy.
Signul tnut tnc spcuk-
cr uunts to dcbunk u
common mytn.
Wny not go rignt into
nou voting ut ugc l6
is okuy
Huvc most youtn bccn
puying uttcntion jor
tncsc "muny ycurs
Is tncrc rcully u
dcpnitc timc uncn
you nuvc 'lcurncd tnc
conccpts oj voting
195
oI tIese important matters beIore tIey vote,
as opposed to ettin IamiIiar vitI poIiticaI
decision unilc tIey are aIIoved to vote"
Primc Ministcr: TIe riIt to vote Ias never
required a sopIisticated IeveI oI poIiticaI
knovIede. RatIer, one must Iave mereIy
enouI inIormation to make tIeir preIerred
cIoice, and tIe Government beIieves tIat
a 16 year oId student's scIooI environment
provides suIcient knovIede Ior a careIuIIy
considered votin decision.
I Iave toId you rstIy tIat tIe riIt to
vote is a IoicaI extension oI tIe responsibiIi-
ties pIaced on peopIe as youn as 16, secondIy
tIat poIiticaI decisions Iave a stron impact
on students oI tIis ae, and naIIy tIat tIey
Iave tIe capabiIity to exercise tIis riIt
appropriateIy. TIereIore, tIe Government Ias
estabIisIed tIe tIeme oI riIts, vIicI is vIy
tIis House sIouId Iover tIe minimum votin
ae to 16. TIank you, Mr. Speaker.
Speaker: I tIank tIe Prime Minister Ior Iis
remarks. I nov caII upon on tIe Member oI
tIe Opposition to deIiver Ier speecI.
Member of the Opposition: TIank you, Mr.
Speaker. Today, tIe Government Ias pre-
sented a case based on tIe assumption tIat
tIere is a democratic riIt to vote at tIe ae
oI 16. Iter reIutin tIe tIree aruments pre-
sented by tIe Prime Minister, I viII taIk about
tIe idea oI tIe abiIity to vote responsibIy. My
partner viII taIk about tIe concept oI vIat
induences a vote, and Iov tIis makes Iover-
in tIe votin ae a bad idea.
TIe rst arument made by tIe Prime
Minister vas tIat youn peopIe Iave aduIt
responsibiIities, vIicI means tIey sIouId
Cood dcscription oj
unut tnc broudcr con-
ccpt oj voting rignts
mcuns (und docsnt
mcunj.
Numbcring tnc points
nclps tnc judgcs to
rcmcmbcr tncm.
Clcur tic-buck to tnc
muin tncmc und cusc
stutcmcnt.
Immcdiutcly stukcs
out un upproucn to
tnc rcjutution.
"Bud is too clcmcn-
tury u tcrm.
Tclls tnc judgcs
unuts bcing rcjutcd.

196
Iave tIe aduIt riIt to vote. In reaIity, Iovev-
er, society sets diIIerent ae Iimits Ior diIIer-
ent activities and responsibiIities, dependin
on tIe circumstances. TIe reason vIy peopIe
pay saIes taxes and income taxes at a youner
ae is tIat tIey Iave tIe abiIity to spend and
earn income beIore tIey are 18 years oId. On
tIe otIer Iand, tIe riIt to purcIase aIcoIoI
or buy ciarettes is restricted to peopIe vIo
are severaI years oIder, because society does
not beIieve tIat youn peopIe Iave enouI
knovIede or experience to make tIese deci-
sions responsibIy. Teenaers are oIten treated
as aduIts by tIe criminaI system because by
tIe ae oI 16 society beIieves tIat tIey knov
tIe diIIerence betveen riIt and vron.
Hovever, it's vron to equate eacI oI tIese
circumstances to tIe riIt to vote in Iov
society at Iare operates. TIe Prime Minister
Ias tried to drav paraIIeIs tIat Iave no direct
reIation to one anotIer, vIicI is vIy tIis rst
arument is invaIid.
TIen, tIe Prime Minister vent on to taIk
about tIe poIiticaI decisions impactin youn
peopIe. II ve extend tIis Ioic, tIen vIy
vouId ve not Iover tIe votin ae to peopIe
mucI youner tIan 16, vIo vere aIso aIIected
by a vide variety oI pubIic poIicy issues TIe
reason is tIat untiI tIe ae oI 18, ve entrust
parents or uardians to act on beIaII oI tIeir
cIiIdren. Parents or uardians take tIe inter-
ests oI tIeir IamiIies into consideration vIen
makin poIiticaI decisions, and are consid-
ered to be representatives oI tIe entire IamiIy
unit. TIis second arument, tIereIore, Iacks
botI IoicaI consistency and necessity.
Primc Ministcr: "On tIat point" (Member oI tIe
Opposition accepts}. "Isn't it true tIat by ae
16, a student Ias reacIed sinicant indepen-
Ejjcctivc cxplunutions
oj tnc distinctions
bctuccn tnc Primc
Ministcrs cxumplcs.
Could nuvc bccn u bit
morc concisc, or cut
out onc cxumplc.
Wny is it urong
Strctcning tnc logic is
u good uuy to snou
tnc points uus.
Do tncy look ut unut
tncir cnildrcn uunt, or
just unut tncy uunt
jor tncmsclvcs
197
dence Irom Iis or Ier parents, particuIarIy
tIeir vievs oI society and tIe vorId"
Mcmbcr oj tnc Opposition: LeaIIy, ve stiII con-
sider a 16 year oId to be under tIe care oI Iis
or Ier parents or uardians. SureIy, tIey are
deveIopin independence, but tIey Iave not
yet reacIed tIe stae oI IuII independence
required in order Ior tIem to make a IuIIy
independent votin cIoice
TIe Prime Minister's tIird point vas tIat
peopIe as youn as 16 Iave tIe capabiIity to
vote responsibIy. Hovever, even Ie IimseII
acknovIeded tIat youn peopIe are in tIe
process oI Iearnin tIe required knovIede
and are onIy bcginning to tIink in tIe Ion-
term about various matters concernin tIeir
Iives. Ve can't equate tIis IeveI oI knovIede
and experience to tIat oI an aduIt.
TIis Ieads me very veII into tIe tIeme
oI tIe constructive part oI my speecI, vIicI
is vIetIer students as youn as ae 16 Iave
tIe abiIity to exercise tIe votin riIt respon-
sibIy. s tIe Government Ias stated, ve can
onIy extend tIe riIt to vote to tIose vIo can
exercise tIis important practice appropriate-
Iy, and reasonabIe Iimits are certainIy in order
iI tIey can't do so.
My rst arument is tIat minors are not
yet IamiIiar vitI tIe compIex decisions tIat
are invoIved in independent Iivin. TIey
Iave not yet Iad to manae a IouseIoId, as
tIey are stiII eneraIIy under tIe care oI tIeir
parents or uardians. TIey don't take care oI
maintainin tIe IamiIy residence, nor Iov
tIe IamiIy spends its income. s a resuIt,
tIey don't Iave tIe experience in indepen-
dent decision-makin necessary to Iave tIe
riIt to make decisions on tIe vide variety oI
issues tIat impact IamiIies.
Indcpcndcnt tnougnt
bcing u ccntrul tcnct oj
tnc rignt to votc.
But is lcgul custody
tnc rcul issuc ncrc
Using tnc Primc
Ministcrs oun uords
to uttuck tnc cusc.
Clusn uitn tnis point
uus snort, but to tnc
point nonctnclcss.
Clcur snijt jrom clusn
to constructivc.
Nccd to cxpluin uny
cxpcricncc living
indcpcndcntly muttcrs
to tnc rignt to votc.
Rumbling scntcncc.

198
In addition to Iavin insuIcient experi-
ence, my second point is tIat tIey Iave insuI-
cient enaement in tIe poIiticaI process to
vote viseIy. Most youtI are more interested
in music, sports, and sociaIizin tIan debat-
in tIe pubIic poIicy issues tIat impact soci-
ety. In Iact, even peopIe severaI years over tIe
ae oI 18 vIo are aIIoved to vote Iave sIovn
substantiaI disenaement, considerin tIat
voter turnout at tIis ae IeveI is sinicantIy
Iover tIan Ior oIder aduIts. It is onIy once
peopIe enter tIe 'reaI vorId' oI vork and post
secondary education tIat tIey become more
enaed in societaI and poIiticaI issues, ratI-
er tIan primariIy entertainment and educa-
tionaI matters.
Ministcr oj tnc Croun: "Point oI InIormation"
(Member oI tIe Opposition accepts}. "So are
you suestin tIat retired seniors vIo are
more concerned vitI reIaxation and vaca-
tions sIouId Iave tIeir riIt to vote taken
avay because tIey are not in vIat you caII
tIe 'reaI vorId' oI vork"
Mcmbcr oj tnc Opposition: TIe Minister oI tIe
Crovn makes a ratIer triviaI comparison tIat
Ias IittIe impact on our arument. Senior citi-
zens Iave aIready Iad extensive IiIe experi-
ence and knov vIat it means to exercise a
democratic riIt to vote. TIe same cannot be
said Ior someone vIo's onIy 16 years oId.
In my speecI, I Iave sIovn you tIat tIe
Prime Minister Ias not suIcientIy proven Iis
points about tIe democratic responsibiIities
and riIts, tIe impact oI poIiticaI decisions,
and tIe capabiIity to exercise tIe votin riIt
responsibIy. I Iave presented a case based on
tIe abiIity to vote, startin vitI tIe Iack oI
IamiIiarity vitI independent decision-mak-
Cood trunsition jrom
lijc cxpcricncc to
cngugcmcnt.
Usc oj rclutcd jucts us
busis jor un urgumcnt.
Druus u purullcl to
un idcu most uould
considcr ridiculous,
tncrcby implying u
uu in logic.
Cood contrust bctuccn
scniors und studcnts
to unsucr tnc Point oj
Injormution.
Ejjcctivc bccuusc it
suys spccipcully unut
nus bccn rcjutcd.
199
in, and continuin vitI Iov peopIe as youn
as 16 years oId Iave insuIcient enaement
in tIe poIiticaI process to make inIormed vot-
in cIoices. For tIese reasons, ve proudIy
oppose tIis BiII.
Speaker: I tIank tIe Member oI tIe Opposi-
tion. I nov caII upon tIe Minister oI tIe Crovn
to continue tIe Government's case.
Minister of the Crown: Mr. Speaker, tIe Oppo-
sition Ias cIaimed tIat students under tIe
ae oI 18 do not Iave tIe abiIity to make an
inIormed decision, vIicI I intend to reIute in
my speecI. Once I Iave proven tIis tIeme to
be incorrect, I viII continue tIe Government's
case by discussin tIree additionaI reasons
Ior cIane centerin on tIe idea oI benets
to society, particuIarIy youn peopIe.
TIe rst point made by tIe Member oI
tIe Opposition vas tIat youn peopIe are
not yet IamiIiar vitI Iivin on tIeir ovn. TIis
arument certainIy doesn't demonstrate tIat
students at Ieast 16 years oId vouId be inca-
pabIe oI makin decisions tIat aIIect Iov
peopIe Iive. One does not necessariIy Iave to
be directIy invoIved in makin every decision
to be abIe to understand decisions and tIeir
impact. In Iact, senior citizens vIo are under
tIe care oI tIeir cIiIdren or a nursin Iome
are certainIy not Iorbidden Irom exercisin
tIeir independent udment. SimiIarIy, ve do
not prevent peopIe vIo are iII or IospitaIized
Irom exercisin tIeir democratic viII. TIe
Government onIy Ias to sIov tIat youner
voters vouId be capabIe oI understandin tIe
cIoices tIat impact society, and tIeir experi-
ence up to tIe ae oI 16 and tIeir education
on civic matters is, in our viev, suIcient to
be abIe to make an inIormed vote.
Muy bc nclpjul to
numbcr tnc points.
Cood 'roud mup jor
tnc spcccn.
Druus clcur distinc-
tion bctuccn muking
und undcrstunding
dccisions.
Exumplc illustrutcs
nou custody or curc
docsnt ncccssurily
impcdc judgmcnt.
Cluripcs tnc Covcrn-
mcnts rcsponsibility.

200
TIe Opposition's second point vas tIat
youn peopIe are insuIcientIy enaed to be
abIe to make a vise cIoice. But perIaps, Mr.
Speaker, tIe reason vIy many youtI are not
enaed is tIat tIeir voices are not consid-
ered in tIe poIiticaI dynamic. OI course, many
aduIts are not enaed in tIe poIiticaI system,
but society certainIy vouId not take avay
tIeir riIt to vote based on a Iitmus test oI
tIeir IeveI oI enaement. In reaIity, tIere are
peopIe at aII ae roups vIo are disinterested
in tIe poIiticaI system, and tIese individu-
aIs are unIikeIy to vote by tIeir ovn cIoice.
TIereIore, tIe Opposition's point makes a
sveepin eneraIization tIat doesn't stand
up to IoicaI examination.
Nov tIat I Iave cIasIed vitI tIe Opposi-
tion's case, I vouId Iike to buiId on tIe Prime
Minister's case by discussin tIe benets oI
aIIovin youner peopIe to vote. My rst point
is tIat aIIovin peopIe to vote once tIey are
16 years oId viII Iorce poIiticians to represent
more activeIy tIe issues tIat aIIect tIis ae
demorapIic. PoIiticians are most responsive
to tIe needs oI tIeir constituents vIen tIese
constituents can determine vIetIer or not
tIey remain in oIce. Parents onIy consider
youtI issues as one oI many issues, and stu-
dents may Iave vievs tIat are indeed diIIer-
ent tIan tIose oI tIeir parents. By Ioverin
tIe votin ae, poIiticians vouId Iave to con-
sider, Ior exampIe, tIe vievs oI students on
Iov to improve tIe education system or Iov
to promote sports and tness amon youn
peopIe. s a resuIt, an underrepresented
sement oI society vouId Iave tIeir issues
advanced by eIected oIciaIs.
Mcmbcr oj tnc Opposition: "On tIat point, sir"
(Minister oI tIe Crovn accepts}. "So, tIen, iI
Suggcsts tnc rcsult
is u symptom rutncr
tnun prooj oj un urgu-
mcnt.
Snous nou tnc Oppo-
sitions logic could, ij
cxtcndcd, lcud to un
untninkublc pructicc.
Clcur stutcmcnt oj
uny tnc urgumcnt
is incorrcct.
Smurt to go into uny
tnc principlc muttcrs.
Links motivutions
to bcnuviors.
Spccipc cxumplc oj
nou tnc cnungc uould
nuvc un impuct.
201
16 year oId voters vant more days oII Irom
scIooI, Iever cIasses eacI day, and Ioner
breaks betveen eacI cIass, sIouId poIiticians
cater to tIis so rossIy underrepresented se-
ment oI our society"
Ministcr oj tnc Croun: I tIink tIat tIe Member
oI tIe Opposition is triviaIizin and exaer-
atin Iov tIe system vorks. PoIiticians Iave
to make reasonabIe decisions aIter Iistenin
careIuIIy to aII stakeIoIder roups, incIudin
students, teacIers, parents, and administra-
tors. TIere is no reason to beIieve tIat tIey
vouId ive in to unreaIistic demands.
In addition to Iavin tIeir issues better
represented, my second point is tIat students
viII become more poIiticaIIy invoIved. Since
students at tIis ae are Iearnin about civic
enaement in tIeir cIasses, tIey viII Iave
an opportunity to put vIat tIey Iave Iearned
in practice as voters. II somebody knovs
tIat tIeir vievs count and tIat tIeir cIoices
can Iave an impact on tIeir Iives, tIey are
Iar more IikeIy to take an interest in, and to
become invoIved in, tIe poIiticaI system tIat
sIapes tIese decisions. Ve contend tIat
youn peopIe viII spend more time debatin
and discussin amon tIemseIves and vitI-
in tIeir IamiIies tIe important issues tIat
aIIect society, vIicI is vIy ve beIieve tIat
Ioverin tIe votin ae viII promote positive
democratic enaement.
FinaIIy, tIe tIird arument under tIis
benets tIeme is tIat aIIovin peopIe to vote
at a youn ae viII create not onIy sIort-term,
but more importantIy, Ion-term participa-
tion in tIe democratic process. Ve aII knov
tIat peopIe tend to Iorm Iabits, Iikes, and dis-
Iikes reIativeIy earIy on in IiIe. II youn peo-
pIe become enaed beIore tIey even nisI
Uscs tnc Ministcr oj
tnc Crouns oun logic
uguinst ncr.
Expluins nou multiplc
stukcnoldcrs urc u
'cncck on onc nuving
unduc inucncc.
Connccts uitn u point
mudc by tnc Primc
Ministcr.
Providcs insignt into
numun motivutions.
Rcminds judgcs oj tnc
tncmc bcing discusscd.
Could politicul purtics
mukc promiscs tnut
cnticc tncm into long-
tcrm loyulty uncn
tncyrc ut un imprcs-
sionublc ugc

202
scIooI, tIey are Iar more IikeIy to participate
in tIe eIectoraI system as voters, voIunteers,
and activists Iater on in IiIe. OveraII, tIis cre-
ates a more poIiticaIIy avare society in vIicI
more citizens are continuaIIy interested in
tIe issues tIat aIIect tIem and are viIIin to
IoId poIiticians to account.
I vant to come back to tIe Member oI tIe
Opposition's reIutation and deIend some oI
tIe aruments tIat tIe Prime Minister made.
To tIe Prime Minister's rst point about
riIts and responsibiIities, tIe Member oI
tIe Opposition admitted tIat students ae
16 or over are expected to knov riIt Irom
vron in terms oI criminaI beIavior, so vIy
vouId tIey be any Iess capabIe oI udin
riIt Irom vron in terms oI decisions tIat
otIers, sucI as poIiticians, make Reard-
in tIe Prime Minister's second point about
poIiticaI decisions directIy impactin youn
peopIe, tIe Opposition stated tIat parents
sIouId Iave excIusive riIt to ude vIat is
best Ior peopIe under 18 years oId. Hovever,
at 16 years oId, in individuaI exercises a si-
nicant deree oI independence in Iis or Ier
daiIy IiIe, as parentaI induence ets veaker
over time. On tIe Prime Minister's naI point
about tIe capabiIity to exercise tIe democrat-
ic riIts appropriateIy, tIe Opposition arued
tIat peopIe are onIy Iearnin about severaI
important decisions at ae 16. Hovever, soci-
ety does not require aduIt voters to be IuIIy
inIormed, and indeed many oI tIem are aIso
Iearnin at tIe same time. In Iact, it is a ood
tIin tIat students vouId be Iearnin about
poIiticaI decisions at tIe same time as Iavin
to make tIe votin cIoice, vIicI makes tIe
decision more enaed and more inIormed.
In my speecI, I Iave taIked to you about
tIe benets oI poIiticians representin youtI
Discussing impuct
on socicty us u unolc
strcngtncns tnc cluim
oj bcncpts.
Druus u purullcl.
Tnis linc oj dcjcnsc
nus ulrcudy bccn dis-
cusscd in tnc dcbutc.
In gcncrul, tncsc
points oj dcjcnsc urc
quitc bricj und dont
udd signipcunt vuluc.
Tnc only rcully 'ncu
cluim mudc in tnis
purugrupn.
203
issues, students becomin more poIiticaIIy
invoIved, and creatin Ion-term Iabits oI
poIiticaI enaement. TIen, I sIoved you
vIy tIe Opposition's points reardin tIe
abiIity to make decisions are incorrect, and
vIy tIe Opposition's reIutation oI tIe Prime
Minister's points concernin tIe riIt to vote
did not veaken tIe case. TIereIore, ve stand
proudIy Ior tIis BiII.
Speaker: I tIank tIe Minister tIe Crovn Ior
Ier remarks, and I nov caII upon tIe Leader
oI tIe Opposition to compIete tIe construc-
tive part oI tIe Opposition's case and to deIiv-
er tIe Opposition's rebuttaI.
Leader of the Opposition: TIank you, Mr.
Speaker. I vant to bein my address by pre-
sentin tIe naI tvo points oI tIe Opposition's
case, aIter vIicI I viII reIute tIe Govern-
ment's nev points and teII you vIy ve Iave
von tIis debate. Our nev constructive aru-
ments Iocus on tIe tIeme oI vIat induences
a youn person's vote, and vIy tIese indu-
ences vouId Iave a neative impact sIouId
peopIe be aIIoved to vote at tIe ae oI 16.
FirstIy, media and poIiticaI pressures, tIat
is, externaI induences, Iave a reater impact
on a minor tIan on an aduIt. TIe youner
ve are, tIe Iess experienced ve are in seein
tIrouI some oI tIe rIetoric tIat is presented
to us by commentators and poIiticians. Stu-
dents are Iess IikeIy to Iave sinicant expe-
rience anaIyzin media stories and decidin
vIat tIey beIieve to be true and vIat is IaIse
or exaerated. TIereIore, a vote by someone
under ae 18 vouId be Iess independent iven
tIese externaI induences.
SecondIy, Mr. Speaker, tIere are aIso per-
sonaI induences tIat can sinicantIy impact
Numbcr tnc points
to mukc it clcurcr
jor tnc judgcs.
Snous nou tnc Lcudcr
oj tnc Opposition is
going to udd vuluc
to tnc cusc.
Cood discussion oj
numun psycnology.
Bucks up tncorcticul
cluims uitn tnc
cxpcricncc juctor.

204
tIe students vote. VIen tIey are under tIe
ae oI 18, individuaIs are uided to a Iare
extent by teacIers and parents. student can
easiIy be svayed by tIe cIass discussion or by a
teacIer's naturaI, unintentionaI biases in Ior-
maI and inIormaI instruction on poIitics and
overnment. dditionaIIy, a parent Ias si-
nicant induence on Iov tIeir cIiIdren tIink
about many issues, sIaped in part by tIeir
discussions at tIe dinner tabIe, Ior exampIe.
For tIese reasons, tIe IuII independence oI
tIe votin decision vouId be compromised by
tIese sinicant personaI induences.
Primc Ministcr: "Point oI InIormation!" (Leader
oI tIe Opposition accepts}. "Since vIen do
16 year oId students simpIy parrot vIatever
tIeir parents do and tIink In Iact, aren't tIey
at an ae vIen tIey activeIy try to be more
independent Irom tIeir parents"
Lcudcr oj tnc Opposition: VIiIe tIey are cer-
tainIy in tIe process oI becomin more inde-
pendent, tIeir parents Iave Iad and continue
to Iave sinicant induence over a cIiId's
vievs, in Iare part because oI Iov mucI
time a IamiIy spends toetIer.
I nov vant to o into tIe nev points
brouIt up by tIe Minister oI tIe Crovn. His
rst point vas tIat poIiticians viII be more
IikeIy to represent youtI issues, but tIat couId
simpIy Iead to poIiticians makin unreaIistic
promises to tIis votin roup. Since minors
are mucI Iess invoIved in tIe broader issues
tIat aIIect society at Iare tIen aduIts, tIey
vouId be makin tIeir decisions on a more
narrov set oI interests.
TIe second point vas tIat students viII
become more poIiticaIIy invoIved. It seems
Iike tIe Government vants to Iave it botI
But urcnt scnools
mcunt to tcucn stu-
dcnts nou to tnink
criticully
Links buck to tnc
ccntrul conccpt oj u
votc nccding to bc
indcpcndcnt.
Citcs u commonly
ncld bclicj, probubly
undcrstood by muny
in tnc room.
Uscs u curcjul conccs-
sion to cxpluin dijjcr-
cncc bctuccn purtiul
und jull indcpcndcncc.
Expluins uny tnis is u
nurrou voting block.
205
vays, sayin on tIe one Iand tIat tIey are
inIormed enouI to make ood decisions,
and sayin on tIe otIer Iand tIat tIey need
to become more invoIved in order to make
ood decisions. ddressin tIis point directIy,
Iovever, a youtI vIo is interested in poIiticaI
issues certainIy Ias an incentive to become
inIormed knovin tIat tIey viII be abIe to
vote in onIy a Iev years. In Iact, many youn
peopIe et invoIved in areas otIer tIan votin,
sucI as voIunteerin on eIection campains,
vritin Ietters to tIe editor, or taIkin to tIeir
IamiIy and Iriends about tIeir vievs on diI-
Ierent issues.
So, Mr. Speaker, vIat Iave ve Ieard in
today's debate, and vIat Ias tIis debate come
dovn to TIe rst competin tIeme oI tIis
debate vas tIe idea oI riIts versus tIe abiI-
ity to exercise tIese riIts responsibIy. TIe
Government based its case on tIe Ioic tIat
ust because peopIe under tIe ae oI 18 Iave
otIer riIts and responsibiIities, tIey sIouId
necessariIy Iave tIe votin riIt, vIereas
ve Iave taIked about vIy tIe riIt to vote
in eIections requires a IeveI oI knovIede and
experience tIat is diIIerent Irom otIer areas.
EIections are about mucI more tIan individ-
uaI beIavior, as tIey sIape our entire econ-
omy, society, and cuIture. TIe Government
Ias staked tIeir cIaim on tIe idea tIat simpIy
bein in tIe process oI Iearnin sometIin is
suIcient to make an inIormed cIoice, vIiIe
ve've arued tIat knovIede and experi-
ence are prerequisites to Iavin tIe riIt to
make tIis important cIoice. TIe Government
vouId Iave you beIieve tIat votin is ust
anotIer part oI a teenaer's Iearnin experi-
ence. Ve beIieve tIat votin is so important
to our society tIat ve cannot simpIy aIIov it
to be ust anotIer Iearnin process.
Points out un uppurcnt
inconsistcncy in tnc
Covcrnmcnts cusc.
Would morc pcoplc
uunt to purticiputc in
tncsc uctivitics ij tncy
could votc
Signuls u trunsition
into tnc rcbuttul por-
tion oj tnc spcccn.
Druus u contrust bc-
tuccn nou tnc tncmc
uus discusscd by tnc
rcspcctivc sidcs.
Continucs to druu
good distinctions
bctuccn upproucncs,
tilting tncm in u pro-
Opposition uuy.

206
TIe Government's case reardin benets
to society is based on tIe notion tIat creat-
in anotIer narrov interest roup makes our
democratic system vork better. TIe Iunda-
mentaI reason vIy parents stiII uide tIeir
kids untiI tIe ae oI 18 is tIat society does not
vant peopIe to be ettin tIeir vay on every
issue beIore tIis ae, but poIiticians vouId
Iave to ive in to tIe viII oI peopIe as youn
as ae 16 iI tIey are iven tIe riIt to vote.
TIis may not serve tIe interests oI IamiIies
and society as a vIoIe, vIicI is vIat aduIts
are better abIe to ude vIo sIouId be in
pover. Ve taIked about Iov induences Irom
tIe media, poIiticians, parents, and teacIers
couId distort votin cIoices tIat are supposed
to be independent. n independent cIoice
is tIe basis oI a truIy democratic society, a
cIoice tIat must be IuIIy inIormed and based
on sound udment.
Mr. Speaker, vIat does tIe Prime Minis-
ter Iave to do in Iis rebuttaI FirstIy, Ie Ias to
sIov you Iov somebody at tIe ae oI 16 vIo
is stiII in scIooI and stiII under tIe uidance oI
Iis or Ier parents someIov Ias tIe indepen-
dent IiIe experience necessary to ude vider
societaI issues. SecondIy, Ie Ias to sIov you
Iov peopIe at sucI a youn ae are possibIy
abIe to knov as mucI about tIe compIex and
vide variety oI poIiticaI issues, sucI as inter-
nationaI trade and taxation poIicy, as aduIts
vIo Iave many more years oI knovIede and
experience reardin tIese matters. TIirdIy,
Ie must be abIe to sIov you Iov exactIy a
teenaer's vote couId be as independent as an
aduIt's vote, considerin tIe rane oI induenc-
es tIat sIape a person's mind and beIavior at
tIis stae in tIeir Iives. Ve are condent tIat
ve Iave sIovn you vIy tIe Government Ias
not suIcientIy proven its case on tIese tIree
Snijt to tnc ncxt
tncmc, but it could bc
mudc clcurcr tnut tnis
is tnc cusc.
But, tncn, uouldnt
politiciuns considcr
tnc vicus oj cvcryonc
clsc uno supposcdly
docsnt uunt minors
to gct tncir uuy on
cvcrytning
Tics tnc rcjutution
buck to tnis kcy prin-
ciplc oj tnc cusc.
Frumcs tnc dcbutc und
possibly tnrous ojj tnc
Primc Ministcr.
Opposition using tnis
critcrion bccuusc it
jccls it nus prcvuilcd
on tnc issuc.
Critcrion implics uny
tnc Primc Ministcr
cunt uin on tnis
dimcnsion.
In gcncrul, un uttcmpt
to plucc tnc burdcn
squurcly on tnc
Covcrnmcnt.
207
core issues, vIicI is vIy ve oppose tIis BiII.
TIank you, Mr. Speaker.
Speaker: I tIank tIe Leader oI Her Maesty's
LoyaI Opposition rst constructed speecI and
rebuttaI, and nov caII upon tIe Prime Minis-
ter to concIude today's debate.
Prime Minister: TIank you, Mr. Speaker. Let
me et riIt to tIe Ieart oI vIat tIis debate
is rcully about. Can a riIt as IundamentaI
and beneciaI as tIe riIt to vote be arbi-
trariIy taken avay on tIe basis tIat some-
one is not compIeteIy seII-suIcient and Ias
not Iearned about tIe compIexities oI every
poIiticaI issue TIe riIt to vote is not based
on tIe idea tIat someone Ias to be perIectIy
inIormed about every issue, and restrictin
tIis riIt is onIy ustied iI rantin it vouId
be IarmIuI or compIeteIy unustied.
VIat tIe Opposition Ias toId us today
is tIat perIaps youn peopIe need a IittIe
bit more Iivin experience, a IittIe bit more
enaement, and a IittIe bit Iess induence by
otIer peopIe. One couId arue tIat tIese very
same desires IoId true Ior so many peopIe in
tIe current votin popuIation. OI course, ve
vouId not take avay tIe centraI riIt to vote
because an aduIt Ias not IuIIy met aII oI tIe
desirabIe criteria oI a compIeteIy inIormed
voter. TIe Ieart oI a democratic system is
tIat tIe voter is aIvays riIt and tIat nobody
eIse can pass udment on a voter's abiIity to
make sound udments.
Ve Iave sIovn you tIat because youn
peopIe Iave many oI tIe same responsibiIi-
ties as aduIts and are aIIected by tIe deci-
sions tIat poIiticians make, rantin tIem
tIe riIt to vote vouId be entireIy appropri-
ate. Ve Iave sIovn you tIat 16 year oIds
Primc Ministcr is try-
ing to scizc buck tnc
ugcndu, not going to
pluy into tnc Opposi-
tions trup.
Cood cnoicc to dcscribc
it us u singlc, ccntrul
issuc, cvcn ij it com-
bincs scvcrul tncmcs.
Dcscribcs nou tnc
Opposition mudc ucuk
distinctions.
Morc cjjcctivc to
rcuork tnc prcvious
scntcncc tnun to bc
dcjcnsivc likc tnis.
Suying "tnc ncurt
suggcst tnut tnis is u
ccntrul juctor.
Cood usc oj purullcl
lunguugc uitn "Wc
nuvc snoun you.

208
Iave suIcient knovIede tIrouI tIeir edu-
cation to be abIe to exercise tIis riIt appro-
priateIy. nd ve Iave sIovn you today tIat
tIe benets oI ivin youner citizens tIis
IundamentaI democratic riIt viII encourae
eIected poIiticians to represent tIeir issues
veII, and tIat it viII encourae youn peopIe
to become more enaed in tIe poIiticaI sys-
tem nov and in tIe Ion-term. TIereIore, ve
stand proudIy Ior tIis BiII.
Speaker: I tIank aII oI tIe debaters Ior tIeir
remarks. TIis House is nov adourned.
Scntcncc is sligntly too
druun out.
COMMENTARY ON "VOTNC ACE" DE8ATE
BotI teams presented veII-oranized cases tIat vere easy to IoIIov.
ExampIes vere used IeaviIy to support cIaims. Hovever, in some pIac-
es, broad eneraIizations vere made vitIout suIcient expIanation or
prooI. TIe Points oI InIormation added cIaracter to tIe debate, as did
tIe direct, point by point cIasI Irom botI sides.
What did the Government do wellZ
Anulysis oj rolcs und rcsponsibilitics. TIe Prime Minister, in particuIar,
vas eIIective in examinin tIe nature oI citizen's pIace in society at
tIe ae oI 16, citin exampIes sucI as criminaI and nanciaI responsi-
biIities. TIe discussion oI capabiIity to exercise tIis democratic riIt
added veiIt to tIe underIyin cIaim.
Discussion oj rcsults und outcomcs. Iter tIe Prime Minister Iad
expIained vIy Ioverin tIe votin ae vas tIe 'riIt' decision, tIe
Minister oI tIe Crovn expIained vIy it matters. TIis discussion oI
impact added deptI by sIovin tIat tIe Government case vas about
more tIan onIy tIeoreticaI, principIes-based aruments. It sIoved
tIat tIere vas a practicaI dimension as veII.
Structurc. Structurc. Structurc. BotI speakers made it absoIuteIy cIear
vIere tIey vere oin and vIat tIey Iad accompIisIed, incIudin
introductions, concIusions, and transitions. TIis IeveI oI oranization
209
took tIe udes on a veII-dened 'patI' and made it easy to rasp aII
oI tIe important concepts.
Scizing buck tnc ugcndu in tnc rcbuttul. TIe Leader oI tIe Opposition
did an eIIective ob at tryin to Irame tIe debate, but tIe Prime Minis-
ter didn't et side-tracked. In tIe Government's rebuttaI, tIere vas a
cIear, to tIe point articuIation oI tIe key tIemes and vIy tIe Govern-
ment Iad come out aIead oI tIese Ironts.
What could the Government have improvedZ
Wny ugc l6 VIy not 17, or 1S Ior tIat matter Granted, tIis is a diI-
cuIt distinction to make, and tIe Government did its best vitI it. But
IurtIer expIanation or evidence as to vIy tIis vas tIe 'maic' number
vouId Iave IeIped.
Dcjcnsc oj prcvious urgumcnts. TIe Minister oI tIe Crovn's attempted
deIense oI tIe Prime Minister's points seemed scattered at times. In
many cases, tIe deIense did not add any sinicant vaIue or deptI to
tIe previous aruments. It vouId Iave been advantaeous to Iocus on
one area vIere sinicant damae vas done and to present a more
tIorouI deIense.
What did the Opposition do wellZ
Discussion oj cxccptions und nuunccs. TIe Government tried to use ex-
ampIes outside oI tIe core issue oI tIe debate as support Ior Ioverin
tIe votin ae, vIicI tIe Opposition deaIt vitI Iead-on. BotI speak-
ers expIained Iov tIese instances vere oIten eneraIizations and did
not sIov specicaIIy vIy aIIovin 16 year oIds to vote vouId be tIe
riIt decision to make.
Exuminution oj ccntrul tcncts oj dcmocrucy. TIe Opposition Iooked at
Iov tIe independence and soIid Ioundation Ior a vote vas imperative
in order Ior tIe democratic system to Iave IuII Ieitimacy. Distinctions
vere dravn to sIov Iov not aII oI tIe key criteria Ior a sound vote are
IuIIIed Ior a 16 year oId.
Fruming tnc dcbutc in tnc rcbuttul. TIe Leader oI tIe Opposition vas
very cIear and decisive in aruin vIat tIe key issues vere. Particu-

210
IarIy at tIe end, teIIin tIe Prime Minister vIat tIe Government's re-
buttaI must do vas a boId, but careIuIIy executed metIod.
What could the Opposition have improvedZ
Rclcvuncc oj ccrtuin dctuils. For exampIe, taIkin about IeaI custody
and its impIications Ior votin decisions, or citin Iov peopIe under
tIe ae oI 18 can et invoIved in otIer vays vere not centraI to tIe
IundamentaI question oI tIe riIt to vote. It's essentiaI tIat every
point ties directIy into tIe case tIeme.
Ccncrulizutions und ussumptions. In particuIar, tIe Leader oI tIe Oppo-
sition's point about parents and teacIers induencin students couId
Iave incIuded more concrete and specic anaIysis. Iso, vIen tIe
Member oI tIe Opposition taIked about tIe neative impact oI a Iack
oI independent Iivin, tIere vasn't suIcient anaIysis to sIov vIy
specicaIIy tIis assumption vas correct in tIe context oI tIe debate
on Ioverin tIe votin ae.
211

212
CROSSEXAMNATON STYLE DE8ATE: 8E T RESOLVED
THAT (8RT) THE CORPORATE SPONSORSHP OF OUR
SCHOOLS S HARMFUL.
Debate
Chairperson: I caII tIis debate to order. TIe
topic oI debate today is: Be it resoIved tIat
(BIRT} tIe corporate sponsorsIip oI our
scIooIs is IarmIuI. I vouId Iike to veIcome
tIe rst Irmative speaker and tIe second
Irmative speaker, vIo viII support tIe
resoIution, and tIe rst Neative speaker and
tIe second Neative speaker, vIo viII op-
pose tIe resoIution. I nov caII upon tIe rst
speaker oI tIe Irmative team to dene tIe
terms oI tIe resoIution and to introduce tIe
Irmative's case.
First Afhrmative: TIank you, Madame CIair-
person. TIe resoIution beIore us today is: Be
it resoIved tIat tIe corporate sponsorsIip oI
our scIooIs is IarmIuI. Ve vouId Iike to bein
by denin tIe terms oI tIis resoIution. Ve
dene "corporate sponsorsIip" as advertis-
in, direct marketin, excIusive areements,
incentive prorams, and event and IaciI-
ity namin riIts. Ve dened "our scIooIs"
as aII oI tIe pubIic scIooIs in tIe Freedonia
scIooI district. FinaIIy, ve dene "IarmIuI" as
neativeIy impactin tIe operation oI scIooIs
and tIe education oI students. I viII teII you
vIy scIooI administration is Iurt by corpo-
rate sponsorsIip, and tIe second Irmative
speaker viII teII you vIy students are Iarmed
by tIis practice.
Our rst contention is tIat corporate
sponsorsIip Iocuses scIooI administrators
Commentary
Clcurly u vulucs,
'rignt or urong typc
oj rcsolution.
Broud but clcur
dcpnition oj corporutc
sponsorsnip.
Rcusonublc limitution,
docs not cnungc tnc
principlcs involvcd.
A sound split bctuccn
scnool impuct und
studcnt impuct.
213
on interests otIer tIan vIat sIouId be tIe
onIy Iocus: tIe best interests oI students.
VitI corporate sponsorsIip, scIooI mana-
ers must consider vIat viII yieId tIe maxi-
mum revenues, even iI tIat means students
may be unIavorabIy aIIected by tIe outcome.
So, iI a soIt drink company is viIIin to pay Ior
tIe excIusive riIt to put vendin macIines
in tIe scIooI, tIe scIooI principaI may be in-
cIined to accept tIe oIIer oI Iundin, even iI
it Iarms student IeaItI. ScIooIs are incIud-
in activities and exercises about a product,
sponsored by tIe producer. TIe "caIcuIate
tIe number oI cIocoIate cIips in a ba oI 1S
cookies" matI activity is reaIIy marketin Ior
a company. TIis practice compromises tIe
obectivity oI tIe scIooI curricuIum, and en-
couraes educators to consider Iactors otIer
tIan vIat makes Ior tIe best Iearnin mate-
riaI. TIereIore, tIe condict oI interest betveen
student Iearnin and corporate interests is
unveIcome and IarmIuI.
In addition to pIacin scIooI administra-
tors in a condict oI interest position, corporate
sponsorsIip aIso impacts tIe reIationsIip
betveen tIe overnment and our scIooI dis-
trict. TIat is, tIe rise in corporate sponsorsIip
oI scIooIs sends a sinaI to tIe overnment
tIat scIooIs Iave anotIer source tIat tIey
can turn to in tIe event tIat pubIic Iundin is
inadequate. s a resuIt, it essentiaIIy Iets ov-
ernments 'oII tIe Iook' vIen it comes to pro-
vidin suIcient Iundin Ior our scIooIs. Last
year, tIe Department oI Education decIined
our district's request to increase Iundin, stat-
in tIat scIooIs Iad to expIore otIer sources
oI revenue. Ve contend tIat pubIic Iundin,
vIicI does not come vitI strins attacIed, is
superior to corporate Iundin, vIicI aIIovs
tIem induence inside tIe scIooI.
Cood stutcmcnt oj
guiding principul jor
scnools.
Hou do uc knou tncy
"must considcr muxi-
mum rcvcnucs
Nccd u trunsition
pnrusc, sucn us "An-
otncr urcu oj conccrn
is tnut .
In tnc prst scntcncc,
suy, in gcncrul, nou it
nus un impuct.
Expluin nou it scnds
sucn u signul to tnc
govcrnmcnt.
Could it just bc tnut
tncy didnt nuvc
cnougn moncy, und
ucrc simply suggcst-
ing u solution
Wus tnis tnc kcy idcu

214
Today, I Iave toId you rstIy tIat corpo-
rate sponsorsIip encouraes administrators
to consider corporate interest even at tIe
expense oI student interest, and I Iave toId
you secondIy tIat it Ias a neative impact
on overnment support Ior pubIic education.
TIereIore, ve stand proudIy in Iavor oI tIe
resoIution tIat corporate sponsorsIip Iarms
our pubIic education system. I nov stand
open Ior cross-examination.
Sccond Ncgutivc: Do you aree tIat a principaI
is responsibIe rst and Ioremost Ior ensurin
tIat students Iearn veII
First Ajprmutivc: Yes, oI course, notIin eIse
sIouId provide a condictin interest.
Sccond Ncgutivc: VouId you aIso aree tIat
parents and scIooI board oIciaI ude a prin-
cipaI's eIIectiveness by Iov stron oI a Iearn-
in environment Ie or sIe creates
First Ajprmutivc: Yes, but a principaI aIso Iaces
pressure to baIance a budet and viII cer-
tainIy pursue vIatever means are avaiIabIe
to increase revenues.
Sccond Ncgutivc: Is it not true tIat a princi-
paI Ias a cIoice to accept or reect corporate
sponsorsIips on a case by case basis
First Ajprmutivc: Yes, aItIouI tIere is aIvays
nanciaI pressure on a scIooI to accept cor-
porate sponsorsIips.
Sccond Ncgutivc: So, iI tIey are responsibIe
primariIy Ior Iearnin, are evaIuated on tIis
basis, and Iave IuII autIority to make spon-
sorsIip areements, vouId principaIs ever
Clcur stutcmcnt oj
unuts bccn discusscd.
Snijting tnc jocus
uuuy jrom budgct
rcsponsibilitics.
Implics corporutc in-
tcrcsts urc conicting.
Rcinjorccs tnc tnrust
oj tnc prst qucstion.
Strong quulipcution,
cvokcs unut uus suid
in spcccn.
Lcuding into kcy cross-
cxuminution goul.
Scnscs tnc uttuck,
clcurly dcjcnds tnc
prcscncc oj u conict.
Tics tnc jull linc oj
qucstioning togctncr to
gct ut tnc muin point.
215
make an areement tIat Ias an overaII nea-
tive impact on tIe scIooI
First Ajprmutivc: VeII, it's cIear tIat tIey nov
Iave to consider muItipIe interests, and
sometimes nanciaI pressures viII undoubt-
edIy Iead to a neative impact on tIe scIooI.
Sccond Ncgutivc: TIank you, our time is up.
Chairperson: TIank you. I nov caII upon tIe
rst speaker oI tIe Neative team to intro-
duce its case and, iI desired, to contest any oI
tIe Irmative's denitions.
First Negative: TIank you, Madame CIairper-
son. Ladies and entIemen, beIore I introduce
our team's case, I vouId Iike to take a Iev
minutes to cIasI vitI tIe tvo points made by
tIe rst speaker oI tIe Irmative team.
TIe Irmative started by taIkin about
Iov administrators viII be pIaced in a con-
dict oI interest position. Hovever, as brouIt
up in tIe cross-examination, administrators
do not Iave a mandate to advance corporate
interests, nor are tIey uded in tIis reard.
TIey are uded by Iov veII students in tIeir
scIooI perIorm and Iov veII tIey manae
tIe operations oI tIe scIooI. Likevise, cur-
ricuIum deveIopers are uded by Iov veII
educationaI materiaIs IeIp students Iearn
important concepts, not by Iov veII tIey pro-
mote corporations. dministrators, oI course,
take into consideration tIe impact oI a vari-
ety oI corporate sponsorsIips may Iave on
student Iearnin. II tIey come to tIe sound
udment tIat tIe benets oI corporate spon-
sorsIip, sucI as Iundin Ior important extra-
curricuIar activities, are sinicant and tIat
tIe corporate advertisin vouId not actuaIIy
Stunding prm.
Is it "somctimcs or
"undoubtcdly
A bit too gcncrul jor
tnc introduction, but
docs gct rignt into tnc
rcjutution.
Rcinjorccs tnc qucs-
tions uskcd in tnc
cross-cxuminution.
Clcurly opposcs tnc
Ajprmutivcs intcrprc-
tutions oj udministru-
tor rcsponsibilitics.
Scts up tnc critcriu
jor dccision-muking
buscd on tnc principlc
mcntioncd ubovc.

216
Iarm students, tIey are perIectIy ustied in
makin tIis cIoice.
TIen, tIe second Irmative point vas
tIat tIe overnment may IeeI tIat it Ias Iess
oI an obIiation to Iund pubIic education. c-
tuaIIy, quite tIe opposite is true. ScIooIs do
not ustiIy corporate sponsorsIips to parents
by sayin Iov it IeIps pay Ior basic education
materiaIs. RatIer, tIey sIov Iov corporate
sponsorsIips IeIp pay Ior some oI tIe en-
Iancements to education, sucI as recreation-
aI activities and eId trips. TIe overnment
is accountabIe to tIe eIectorate to provide
vIat is necessary Ior quaIity student Iearn-
in, especiaIIy Ior tIose scIooIs tIat may not
Iave succeeded in attractin Iare corporate
sponsorsIips. Indeed, as tIe overnment
continues to increase Iundin Ior education,
it uItimateIy comes out oI otIer vaIuabIe pro-
rams or resuIts in IiIer taxes on parents.
Instead, corporate sponsorsIip simpIy means
an additionaI revenue source vitIout ivin
up anotIer proram or reater part oI IamiIy
income, vIicI makes tIe Irmative's aru-
ment irreIevant and incorrect.
Nov tIat I Iave sIovn you vIy tIe vay
tIe Irmative aruments are incorrect, I
vant to introduce tIe Neative case by taIk-
in about tIe benets oI corporate sponsor-
sIip to scIooIs. My rst point, vIicI I Iave
introduced briedy in my cIasI, is tIat corpo-
rate sponsorsIip provides vaIuabIe Iundin
to scIooIs. RatIer tIan bein entireIy depen-
dent on vIat tIe overnment provides on
a year to year basis, corporate sponsorsIip
aIIovs scIooIs to be proactive in ndin tIe
Iundin to meet tIeir specic needs. For ex-
ampIe, iI tIe scIooI vants to Iost a particuIar
event, it can seek a corporate sponsorsIip oI
tIe event to ensure tIat it takes pIace. Or, iI
But unut ij tncrc urc
budgct prcssurcs
Tncy suy its not tnc
rcuson, but docs tnut
mcun it isnt
Could bc urgucd tnut
tncsc urc rcully u corc
purt oj tnc cducution.
So ij u scnool julls
snort, tnc govcrnmcnt
just mukcs up jor
tnc dijjcrcncc Tncn
unuts tnc inccntivc
And isnt tnut nurmjul
bccuusc it ujjccts otncr
progrums und tuxcs
spcccns tncmc.
Snould bc morc
spccipc us to unut
tnc point is, "vuluublc
junding is tnc unolc
point oj tnc cusc.
"Allous Or jorccs
Cood mutcning oj situ-
utions und solution.
217
a scIooI vants to undertake an expansion
oI its Iibrary, it can partner vitI a company
in a sIoppin incentive proram to provide
tIe necessary Iundin. TIereIore, corporate
sponsorsIip can be an important source oI
Iundin Ior enIancements to a scIooI.
SecondIy, corporate sponsorsIip oI
scIooIs aIIovs educators to Iave some in-
duence over corporate activities tIat impact
cIiIdren. II corporations are dependent on
scIooIs Ior some oI tIeir marketin eIIorts,
tIey are Iar more IikeIy to pay attention to
vIat educators vant to see in terms oI tIeir
practices. For instance, many scIooIs in our
district Iave been demandin tIat soIt drink
companies provide IeaItIier aIternatives,
sucI as uice and vater, in tIeir vendin ma-
cIines. In turn, ve Iave seen IeaItIier aIter-
natives in many oI tIe vendin macIines in
tIis district's pubIic scIooIs. In one case, a
scIooI in our district partnered vitI an en-
ery company on an environmentaI initia-
tive, vIicI served tIe desire oI educators to
promote environmentaI avareness and ood
corporate citizensIip. UndoubtedIy, corporate
sponsorsIip can provide a vin-vin situation
tIat aIIovs scIooIs to impact positiveIy tIe
activities oI corporations.
In my speecI, I Iave toId you vIy cor-
porate sponsorsIip does not pIace scIooI
administrators in an unIeaItIy condict oI in-
terest and tIat it does not compromise ov-
ernment Iundin Ior core prorams. I Iave
aIso toId you in our constructive matter tIat
scIooIs benet Irom vaIuabIe corporate Iund-
in and tIeir abiIity to impact tIe actions oI
corporations. For tIese reasons, ve stand
proudIy in opposition to tIis resoIution, and I
am nov ready to be cross-examined.
Or pcrnups cducu-
tors nou nuvc to puy
cvcn morc uttcntion to
corporutions.
Strong cxumplc oj
cnullcngc und rcsult.
First cxumplc scnool-
spccipc, uppropriutc
movc into uidcr
bcncpts to socicty.
Pcrnups suy "prstly
und "sccondly.

218
First Ajprmutivc: Is it Iair to say tIat a teacIer's
main responsibIy is, IoicaIIy, to teacI
First Ncgutivc: Yes, obviousIy.
First Ajprmutivc: nd is it aIso Iair to say tIat a
principaI's main roIe is to run tIe scIooI
First Ncgutivc: Yes, but I reaIIy don't see vIat
tIe point is Iere.
First Ajprmutivc: Okay, so you acknovIede
tIat neitIer teacIers nor principaIs are con-
cerned to a sinicant extent vitI tryin to
cIane corporations
First Ncgutivc: No, no. In addition to tIeir pri-
mary duties, tIey aIso vant to make sure tIe
overaII Iearnin environment is positive.
First Ajprmutivc: But vouId you not aree tIat
iven tIe cIoice betveen Iundin Ior vIat
tIey IeeI tIey need to do Ior tIeir students
and some desire to cIane corporations, tIey
vouId mucI ratIer take care oI vIat tIey
need to do
First Ncgutivc: VeII, I tIink in reaIity tIey con-
sider aII oI tIe Iactors.
First Ajprmutivc: So, vIen considerin aII oI
tIe Iactors, iI principaIs reaIIy vanted to et
money Ior more eId trips, tIey miIt very
veII Ieave tIeir desires to be sociaI activists
Ior otIer occasions
First Ncgutivc: II I am sayin is tIat vitIin a
scIooI environment, at Ieast teacIers and ad-
ministrators Iave a reater abiIity to enerate
a positive impact on corporate activities.
Sccms u toucn too
busic, but luys doun u
kcy ussumption.
Lct tnc cross-cxumincr
suy unut tnc point is.
Sturting to mukc
morc scnsc unut
tnc objcctivc is.
Estublisncs tnut u
tncrc is u rclcvunt scc-
ondury duty us ucll.
Expluin jurtncr.
Exumplc mukcs tnc
point morc concrctc.
Docs ubility trunslutc
into uction
219
First Ajprmutivc: Okay, tIank you.
Chairperson: I tIank tIe rst speaker oI tIe
Neative team Ior Ier remarks, and I nov caII
upon tIe second speaker oI tIe Irmative
team to continue tIe debate.
Second Afhrmative: TIank you. FeIIov debat-
ers, udes, audience members, and cIairper-
son, my partner started tIis debate by taIkin
about tIe neative induence oI corporate
sponsorsIip on scIooI administration. Nov I
vant to extend our case by taIkin about tIe
direct and neative impact oI corporate spon-
sorsIip on students.
TIe tIird arument oI tIe Irmative
case is tIat kids are Iar more vuInerabIe to
tIe eIIects oI advertisin. t a youn ae,
peopIe are Iess abIe to make inIormed, criti-
caI, and rationaI decisions about corporate
cIaims. Kids are more IikeIy to beIieve vIat a
company Ias to say about its product. Corpo-
rate sponsorsIip oI scIooIs aIIovs companies
easy access to tIis vuInerabIe popuIation,
veII out oI tIe protective reacI oI parents. For
exampIe, vIen a textbook contains exampIes
about corporations tIat vere sponsored by
corporations, a student sees tIis inIormation
as true. In addition, tIe Iact tIat tIe inIorma-
tion vas provided in an educationaI settin
makes it Iar Iess IikeIy tIat tIe student is o-
in to question its vaIidity. Iso, vIen stu-
dents see teIevision advertisements as part oI
a sponsored daiIy nevs proram, tIey oIten
viev corporate cIaims as correct, especiaIIy
since it's part oI tIeir scIooI proram. Ve be-
Iieve stronIy tIat advertisin to an impres-
sionabIe student popuIation is IarmIuI.
FinaIIy, our IourtI arument is tIat cor-
porate sponsorsIip distracts attention avay
Clcur tnut point cunt
bc tukcn uny jurtncr.
Snortcn tnc usc
oj titlcs.
Hclpjul link buck to
unut nus bccn uccom-
plisncd ulrcudy.
Pcrsonulizcs tnc issuc
oj dcbutc morc tnun
prst spcccn did.
An cusy to undcrstund
dcscription oj u cnilds
tninking.
Tnc point bcing, pur-
cnts und not scnools
snould bc tnc
'gutckccpcrs.
Explunution oj uny
injormution cun
bc nurmjul.
Would tncy rcully uc-
ccpt it uny morc tnun
un udvcrtiscmcnt tncy
scc ut nomc

220
Irom Iearnin. It oes vitIout sayin tIat
students o to scIooI to Iearn, not to be Iit
vitI corporate messaes. In Iact, a scIooI is
supposed to provide a Iearnin environment
Ior students entireIy diIIerent tIan tIe com-
merciaI vorId around tIem. II every extracur-
ricuIar event is sponsored by a company, and
iI tIey see corporations tryin to seII tIem
products daiIy vitIin tIe scIooI, it aImost
makes scIooIs an extension oI tIe sIoppin
maII as opposed to soIeIy a pIace to Iearn. Ve
arue tIat tIis makes corporate sponsorsIip
a distraction Ior students, vIicI makes tIem
Iocus Iess on tIe Iearnin tIat tIey are sup-
posed to be Iocusin on excIusiveIy.
So vIat about tIe aruments made by tIe
rst speaker oI tIe Neative team Her rst
point vas tIat corporate sponsorsIip pro-
vides vaIuabIe Iundin Ior prorams, vIicI
is obviousIy tIe basic eIement oI a sponsor-
sIip areement. But tIe issue Iere is reaIIy
vIat corporate sponsorsIip costs tIe scIooI
in terms oI its independence and its Iearnin.
Every minute tIat students spend readin
poster advertisements or vievin teIevision
commerciaIs takes avay Irom time spent on
Iearnin. Society pIaces an economic vaIue on
tIis Iearnin time. Iso, sIoppin incentive
prorams encourae students and parents to
buy more, vIicI ends up costin IamiIies si-
nicantIy ust to provide a smaII amount oI
extra Iundin to a scIooI proram. TIe ques-
tion oI tIis debate is vIetIer scIooIs sIouId
be ivin up part oI tIeir core mandate to
provide a stron Iearnin environment in
excIane Ior a Iev nonessentiaI corporate
sponsorsIip doIIars eacI year.
Her second arument vas tIat scIooIs
can someIov induence corporate activities iI
tIere is a sponsorsIip partnersIip. TIis bes
Fits into tncmc oj
nurming studcnts.
Strong distinction
nclps to illustrutc tnc
urgumcnt.
Somcunut oj u strctcn,
but docs illustrutc tnc
point bcing mudc.
Concludcs quickly,
nccd to dcvclop morc.
Clcur trunsition into
rcjutution.
Implying tnc point
uus morc common
scnsc tnun insignt.
Attcmpt to jrumc tnc
point oj contcntion.
Suggcsts tnut cvcry
minutc must bc put to
muximum usc.
Tnis isnt tnc point.
Too curly to go into tnc
gcncrul "qucstion oj
tnis dcbutc.
Arc tncy uluuys
noncsscntiul
221
tIe question, vIo Ias more pover in tIe re-
IationsIip scIooI vIicI is doin vIatever
it takes to et more Iundin, or a Iare, pover-
IuI corporation vIicI is marketin to a vide
variety oI students by danIin nanciaI ben-
ets to scIooIs OI course, it's obvious tIat
corporations Iave Iar more induence on tIe
Iabits and beIaviors oI students in scIooIs
couId possibIy Iave on Iov seII-interested
corporations run. nyvays, sociaI activism is
not vIat teacIers are or necessariIy sIouId
be Iocused on, vIicI counters tIe Neative's
arument tIat teacIers are Iocused on pro-
motin corporate sociaI responsibiIity.
For tIese reasons, ve stand proudIy in Ia-
vor oI tIis important resoIution, and I vouId
be pIeased to ansver any questions or criti-
cism in tIe cross-examination.
First Ncgutivc: Let's taIk about tIe concept oI
proram Iundin. VouId it be Iair to say tIat
tIe more money a scIooI Ias, tIe more abIe
it is to provide enIancin activities, sucI as
eId trips and speciaI events
Sccond Ajprmutivc: VeII, yes, but not iI it nea-
tiveIy impacts tIe scIooI environment.
First Ncgutivc: Is it aIso Iair to say tIat every
scIooI Ias diIIerent needs in tIis reard
Sccond Ajprmutivc: Yes.
First Ncgutivc: So, iI a scIooI vants to pursue
a unique activity, vouId corporate sponsor-
sIips not IeIp tIem acIieve tIis oaI
Sccond Ajprmutivc: PerIaps, but don't Ioret
tIe sinicant Iarm it imposes on tIe scIooI
Iearnin environment.
Rnctoricul qucstions
tnut imply tnc unsucr.
But pcrnups somc
poucr to inucncc is
supcrior to nuving no
poucr ut ull.
Ij tcucncrs uunt to
nclp cnildrcn und soci-
cty bcyond ucudcmics,
unut cxuctly is urong
uitn tnut
Clcur 'signpost oj
tnc cross-cxumincrs
purposc.
Links buck to tnc
'yurdstick to mcusurc
suitubility.
Obvious unsucr to
obvious qucstion.
Spcukcr rcjusing to
pluy into tnc cross-
cxumincrs nunds.

222
First Ncgutivc: I see. So you are admittin, tIen,
tIat vitIout tIe sponsorsIip, tIe scIooI may
not be abIe to pursue tIese vaIue-added ini-
tiatives
Sccond Ajprmutivc: No, not at aII. TIere are
otIer vays to raise Iunds, sucI as invoIvin
parents and students, or seekin rants Irom
tIe overnment or non-prot roups.
First Ajprmutivc: TIank you, it seems tIat our
time Ias expired.
Chairperson: I tIank tIe second speaker oI
tIe Irmative, and nov caII upon tIe sec-
ond speaker oI tIe Neative to concIude tIe
constructive part oI tIe debate.
Second Negative: Ladies and entIemen, Iet
me et riIt into tIe nev constructive aru-
ments brouIt up by tIe second speaker oI
tIe Irmative team. He started by taIkin
about Iov kids are vuInerabIe to advertise-
ments. UItimateIy, tIouI, it is tIe respon-
sibiIity oI parents to teacI tIeir kids about
makin responsibIe cIoices. s I viII teII you
about Iater, corporations viII nd a vay to
reacI kids anyvay. TIis debate is not about
vIetIer corporate advertisin to students
is ood or bad. It is about vIetIer scIooIs
specicaIIy are Iarmed by tIis practice. Cer-
tainIy, tIis point vouId be interestin in tIe
context oI a vider debate about advertisin
to cIiIdren, but it does not sIov you tIat
advertisin in a scIooI environment creates
additionaI Iarms. Ve beIieve tIat a student
certainIy knovs tIe diIIerence betveen an
advertisement and a Iearnin point.
Trying uguin u sccond
timc, good to pcrsist
tnis uuy.
Stunding prm,
und cnnuncing tnc
prcvious unsucr.
Quitc gcncrul, but pcr-
nups tncrcs no timc to
uustc ncrc.
Clcur distinction, but
urc purcnts uround to
nclp during tnc duy
Expluins cjjcctivcly
unut tnc rcul issuc is.
Cun u young studcnt
mukc sucn us distinc-
tion so cusily
223
Next, tIe second Irmative speaker
cIaimed tIat corporate sponsorsIip distracts
avay Irom Iearnin. TIe reaIity, Iovever, is
tIat tIe vast maority oI corporate sponsor-
sIip takes pIace outside oI a cIass. It is touI
to make tIe arument tIat a ymnasium
named aIter a company, a poster on a vaII, or
tIe products in a vendin macIine distracts
Irom vIat students Iearn in tIeir courses.
Even tIouI tIe primary purpose oI a scIooI
is Iearnin, durin breaks, at IuncI, and be-
Iore and aIter scIooI, Iearnin is cIearIy not
tIe Iocus oI attention. s Ior cIassroom activ-
ities, is tIere anytIin essentiaIIy vron vitI
tIe product bein promoted, so Ion as tIe
students are Iearnin an important concept
at tIe same time
t tIis point, ve vouId Iike to introduce
tIe naI tvo points oI tIe Neative case.
TIese aruments Iocus on tIe idea tIat ad-
vertisin vitIin a scIooI is a beneciaI ad-
vantae over tIe advertisin tIat vouId take
pIace outside oI tIe scIooI. Our tIird point is
tIat iI corporations are oin to spend money
advertisin to kids anyvays, at Ieast Iavin
a company sponsorin scIooI provides some
benet to society. In tIe process oI meetin
its commerciaI obectives, a business is aIso
improvin tIe education oI students tIrouI
its Iundin. IternativeIy, it vouId Iave sim-
pIy spent tIese advertisin doIIars by payin,
Ior exampIe, teIevision companies. TIereIore,
tIere is more vaIue created to society tIrouI
tIis vin-vin arranement.
Our IourtI and naI point is tIat adver-
tisin vitIin a scIooI takes pIace vitIin a
Itered, sIeItered environment. TIe Ir-
mative Ias taIked about Iov advertisin in
scIooIs makes it more diIcuIt Ior parents to
raise tIeir kids as tIey visI. In reaIity, stu-
A ucll-stutcd point
tnut most pcoplc
uould ugrcc is truc.
But isnt tnc cnviron-
mcnt still importunt
A risky stutcmcnt,
probubly bcst to
cxpluin jurtncr.
Clcur stutcmcnt oj
ovcrull tncmc.
Spin-ojj bcncpts oj
tnc incvitublc.
Opposcs dircctly tnc
Ajprmutivcs conccpt
oj vuluc.

224
dents see advertisements in many pIaces,
Irom biIIboards and posters to teIevision and
radio commerciaIs, aImost compIeteIy unI-
tered by parents. t Ieast in a scIooI, oIciaIs
Iave tIe abiIity to screen out advertisements
and sponsorsIips tIat tIey beIieve are inap-
propriate. dditionaIIy, it's more IikeIy tIat
tIere viII be a Iair critique and evaIuation
oI advertisements by teacIers and students
vitIin tIe scIooI. CIearIy, a scIooI provides a
Iess IarmIuI environment Ior corporate spon-
sorsIip tIan in tIe vorId outside oI scIooI.
TIese tvo points, combined vitI my
partner's points about Iundin Ior prorams
and tIe induence tIat scIooIs can Iave on
corporate activities, provide a soIid case in
Iavor oI corporate sponsorsIip in scIooIs. I
Iave sIovn you tIat tIe Irmative's tIird
and IourtI points about tIe vuInerabiIity oI
kids and tIe distraction to Iearnin do not
support tIeir side oI tIis round's resoIution.
TIereIore, tIis resoIution must IaII, and I nov
stand open Ior cross-examination.
Sccond Ajprmutivc: I vant to taIk about your
idea oI a scIooI as some type oI Itered en-
vironment. II a company vas IeIpin pay Ior
nev music equipment, do you aree tIat a
scIooI vouId be Iess IikeIy to screen out tIe
sponsor's advertisement
Sccond Ncgutivc: VeII, at Ieast tIe scIooI can
make an inIormed cIoice over vIo sIouId
sponsor tIe purcIases and vIat tIe corpora-
tion is aIIoved to do in excIane.
Sccond Ajprmutivc: But tIis sponsorin com-
pany, couIdn't it simpIy o to anotIer scIooI
iI tIis particuIar scIooI decides to be picky
So uny snould uc
ucccpt cvcn morc
udvcrtising
Ij u compuny is puying
moncy, unut intcr-
cst is tncrc to scrccn
Wno uould critiquc
tncm, und uny uould
tncy botncr
Cood urup-up oj tnc
spcccn und tnc cusc,
luys tnc ground jor tnc
rcbuttul.
Stutcmcnt oj purposc.
Spccipc cxumplc
mukcs tnc conccpt
morc tungiblc.
Wnut docs "injormcd
cnoicc mcun in tcrms
oj outcomcs
Suggcsts nou tnc
compuny nus morc
poucr tnun tnc scnool
225
Sccond Ncgutivc: I suppose so, yes.
Sccond Ajprmutivc: So tIen tIe scIooI vouId
be vitIout any additionaI Iundin support
Ior its music proram
Sccond Ncgutivc: No, it vouId simpIy Iave to
Iook eIsevIere Ior a sponsor tIat did not
compromise tIe Iearnin environment.
Sccond Ajprmutivc: You aIso mentioned cri-
tiquin and evaIuatin sponsorsIips and ad-
vertisements. So, iI a company Ias its name
pIaced over tIe scIooI ymnasium, do you
see students and teacIers vaIkin by and
sayin to eacI otIer, "Let's do an anaIysis oI
tIis company's intent and practices"
Sccond Ncgutivc: I tIink you're triviaIizin
tIe issue. t Ieast vIen a company makes a
questionabIe cIaim, a scIooI is a pIace vIere
debate takes pIace. CertainIy more so tIan
vIen someone is drivin by a biIIboard or
vatcIin teIevision.
Sccond Ajprmutivc: TIank you, our cross-ex-
amination time Ias nisIed.
Chairperson: I tIank tIe second speaker oI
tIe Neative Ior Ier remarks. Ve nov move
into tIe rebuttaI pIase. I vouId Iike to remind
tIe debaters tIat no nev contentions can be
made durin tIis time. I nov caII upon tIe
rst speaker oI tIe Neative team to deIiver
tIe Neative rebuttaI.
First Negative: Today's debate Ias centered
on tvo competin tIemes. TIe rst tIeme
vas tIe impact oI corporate sponsorsIip on
tIe operation oI scIooIs. TIe second tIeme,
Quulijy tnis unsucr.
Stutcmcnt oj nurms.
Cood unsucr, rcjccts
nurms und supports
um importunt pillur oj
tnc Ncgutivcs cusc.
Is tnis u ncu issuc or
u continuution oj tnc
cxisting onc
Tnis sccnurio nclps
to illustrutc.
It uould bc tougn to
unsucr tnc qucstion
dircctly in tnis cusc.

Cood idcu to stutc tnc
ccntrul tncmcs jrom
tnc outsct.

226
discussed mainIy by tIe second speaker oI
eacI team, vas about tIe impact oI corporate
sponsorsIip in scIooIs on students. In my re-
buttaI, I viII sIov you vIy tIe Neative team
Ias prevaiIed on botI oI tIese core tIemes.
TIe Irmative's case on tIe scIooI op-
eration tIeme made a number oI unIounded
assumptions. It assumed tIat corporate
sponsorsIip compromises tIe obective oI
administrators to consider tIe best interest
oI students, vIen in Iact tIe mandate and
evaIuation oI scIooIs is based on tIe overaII
quaIity oI student education. It aIso IaIseIy
assumed tIat corporate sponsorsIip neces-
sariIy meant Iess overnment Iundin, vIen
in Iact tIe accountabiIity oI tIe overnment
to provide quaIity education and basic Iund-
in Ior core prorams demonstrates tIe davs
in tIis arument. Ve sIoved you Iov cor-
porate sponsorsIip actuaIIy benets scIooIs,
botI in terms oI Iundin Ior vaIue added
prorams and tIe abiIity oI scIooIs to indu-
ence corporate activities tIat reIate to tIeir
obectives. TIe Irmative IaiIed to sIov you
vIat vouId make up Ior tIese benets iI not
Ior corporate sponsorsIip.
TIe Irmative case on tIe student im-
pact tIeme aIso rested on severaI unproven
assumptions. It assumed tIat scIooIs can
someIov decrease tIe vuInerabiIity oI stu-
dents to corporate induence, vIen in reaI-
ity students are induenced by advertisin
anyvIere tIey see it and uItimateIy, parents
are responsibIe Ior teacIin tIeir kids Iov
to make ood cIoices. It assumed tIat cor-
porate sponsorsIip distracts attention avay
Irom Iearnin, vIen in reaIity it typicaIIy
takes pIace outside oI tIe cIassroom or does
not take avay Irom tIe Iearnin experience.
Ve sIoved you tIat iI corporations are o-
Hclps tnc judgcs to scc
tnc 'big picturc oj tnc
dcbutc und nou it pts
uitn tnc structurc.
Outlincs tnc uuy in
unicn tnc Ajprmu-
tivcs cusc is uucd.
Rcjutcs unilc ruising u
constructivc point.
A sccond instuncc
oj un ussumption,
strcngtncns tnc cluim.
Druus u contrust, "Wc
snoucd you vs. "Tnc
Ajprmutivc juilcd.
Continucs uitn julsc
ussumptions mctnod.
A juirly long-uindcd
pussugc.
Would bc nclpjul to
clurijy or cxpluin tnis
conccpt jurtncr.
227
in to advertise to kids anyvays, doin so in
a scIooI Ias a positive spin-oII Ior education
and takes pIace in a more Itered environ-
ment. TIe Irmative essentiaIIy Iocused on
corporate advertisin in eneraI, as opposed
to vIy it vouId be any vorse in scIooIs.
Since ve Iave cIearIy demonstrated
Iov tIe Neative Ias von tIe debate on tIe
scIooI operations tIeme and tIe student im-
pact tIeme, ve rest our case.
Chairperson: I vouId nov Iike to caII upon
tIe rst speaker oI tIe Irmative team to
concIude today's debate.
First Afhrmative: In decidin vIicI team von
tIe debate, ve arue tIat tIere are tvo cen-
traI questions: vIat is tIe purpose oI a scIooI,
and does corporate sponsorsIip t vitIin tIis
purpose Today, ve Iave demonstrated tIat
corporate sponsorsIip and tIe obectives oI a
scIooI are IundamentaIIy incompatibIe.
Let me bein by taIkin about tIe pur-
pose oI a scIooI. Ve Iave taIked about Iov
administrators sIouId Iocus soIeIy on tIe
interests oI students. Ve Iave aIso discussed
Iov students sIouId be in scIooI to Iocus on
Iearnin. scIooI, in our viev, it essentiaIIy
diIIerent tIan tIe vorId around it, and tIat it
is supposed to present an environment suit-
abIe Ior student deveIopment.
Nov, Iet me expIore vIetIer corporate
advertisin ts vitIin tIis mandate. Ve Iave
demonstrated Iov administrators Iave to
baIance student interests vitI corporate in-
terests vIen sponsorsIips are takin pIace.
TIe Neative naveIy and incorrectIy arued
tIat scIooIs viII supposedIy induence cor-
porations and eIIectiveIy screen advertise-
ments. TIis, Iovever, is neitIer tIe oaI,
Cluims uny tnc
Ajprmutivcs up-
proucn uus uucd.
Brings buck und rcin-
jorccs tnc tncmcs onc
morc timc.
Pnrusing tnc issucs us
qucstions cncourugcs
tnc judgcs to scc tncm
us tnc kcy critcriu.
Summury oj undcr-
lying points oj tnc
Ajprmutivcs cusc.
But uncrc is tnc
rcjutution
Expluin nou its bccn
dcmonstrutcd.

228
nor tIe core capabiIity oI a scIooI. Ve Iave
sIovn you Iov corporate sponsorsIip in
scIooIs expIoits tIe vuInerabiIity oI kids
and distracts tIem avay Irom Iearnin. TIe
Neative vouId Iave you beIieve tIat tIis is
someIov better tIan in tIe outside vorId.
Ve couId not disaree more. Leave corporate
advertisin, vIicI Ias notIin to do vitI tIe
education oI cIiIdren, to tIe outside vorId.
Ve Iave proven on every dimension oI
tIis debate tIat corporate sponsorsIip is com-
pIeteIy out oI pIace vIen it comes to scIooI
obectives and student Iearnin. TIereIore,
tIe corporate sponsorsIip oI scIooIs does Iar
more Iarm tIan any ood. TIank you.
Chairperson: I nov decIare tIat tIis debate
Ias concIuded. I invite tIe debaters to cross
tIe door and to sIake Iands.
Clcur rcjcction oj tnc
Ncgutivcs cluims.
Druus u contrust.
Concludcs tnc rcbuttul
juirly quickly, morc
dcptn uould nuvc
bccn nclpjul.
COMMENTARY ON "SPONSORSHP" DE8ATE
TIe debate Ias cIear-cut, contentious issues, and botI teams articu-
Iated a number oI reIevant points on tIese issues. In some cases, tIe
expIanations and support Ior tIese points couId Iave one IurtIer.
TIe cross-examination periods vere IiveIy, vitI tIe questioners ask-
in touI, tareted questions.
What did the Afhrmative do wellZ
Pcrspcctivcs on tnc rolc oj u scnool. TIe Irmative made tIe principIe
oI a scIooI bein excIusiveIy Ior Iearnin a centraI part oI its case. TIis
principIe vas used eIIectiveIy to suest Iov corporate sponsorsIips
vioIate tIis principIe.
Discussion oj impuct on dccision-mukcrs. BotI speakers did a ood ob
oI expIainin Iov corporate sponsorsIip pIaces administrators and
teacIers in a condict oI interest situation, Iavin to baIance student
Iearnin vitI nanciaI matters. TIis practicaI anaIysis added to tIe
principIe oI vIat a scIooI sIouId and sIouId not be.
229
Anulysis oj u cnilds vulncrubility. TIe examination oI Iov a cIiId's
mind operates vas important in backin up tIe Irmative's cIaim
tIat tIe advertisin Iad a neative induence. Many debaters couId
Iave compIicated tIis type oI anaIysis, vIereas tIe Irmative team
made it easy to understand.
What could the Afhrmative have improvedZ
Impuct oj lost rcvcnucs on scnools. Since it's videIy accepted tIat Iess
Iundin Ior scIooIs isn't desirabIe, tIe Irmative team sIouId Iave
expIained IurtIer Iov tIe benets oI stoppin corporate sponsor-
sIip cIearIy outveiIed tIe costs. VouId certain proram Iave to be
stopped and, iI so, vas it vortIvIiIe considerin tIe stated improve-
ments to tIe scIooI
Rcbuttul nud insujpcicnt cxplunution und dcptn. VIiIe tIe speaker did
Irame tIe key issues eIIectiveIy, tIe discussion tIat IoIIoved vasn't
tIorouI enouI to demonstrate cIearIy Iov tIe Irmative came
aIead on tIe criteria presented. On a number oI points, tIere vas
no reIutation oI tIe Neative's points, onIy a broad summary oI tIe
Irmative's aruments.
What did the Negative do wellZ
Commcnts on positivc impuct oj corporutc sponsorsnips. VIiIe tIe aru-
ment tIat additionaI Iundin is IeIpIuI may seem Iike an obvious one,
tIe Neative team expIained specicaIIy Iov it benets tIe scIooIs.
TIe discussion on enIancements to scIooIs, sucI as eId trips and
music prorams, iIIustrated vIat tIey stand to Iose iI tIere are no
corporate sponsorsIips.
Opposition to tnc nurms prcscntcd by tnc Ajprmutivc. ItIouI it vas
touI to reIute tIis point in every respect, tIe Neative did expIain
Iov in many cases corporate sponsorsIip doesn't necessariIy Iave a
neative impact. For exampIe, tIe namin oI a scIooI ymnasium vas
cited appropriateIy as a vin-vin arranement.
Attuck oj tnc Ajprmutivcs cusc in tnc rcbuttul. TIe rst Neative speak-
er's rebuttaI vas IiIIy structured around core tIemes, and on eacI
tIeme tIere vas cIear and direct reIutation oI tIe Irmative's aru-

230
ments and assumptions. TIe comparisons made vitI tIe Neative's
case enIanced tIe reIutation.
What could the Negative have improvedZ
Argumcnt on compurutivc udvuntugcs oj scnool udvcrtising. TIe second
Neative speaker vasn't entireIy convincin in aruin tIat scIooIs
couId "Iter" advertisements and tIat tIe supposedIy "sIeItered" en-
vironment made sponsorsIips acceptabIe. It vasn't cIear Iov tIis
vouId Iappen, or vIy tIe scIooI environment vouId make tIe ad-
vertisin any Iess induentiaI on cIiIdren.
Ansucrs to cross-cxuminution qucstions. TIe rst Neative speaker
sIouId Iave been more tIorouI and direct in ansverin tIe cross-
examiner's questions. SeveraI oI tIe ansvers vere more quips aimed
at quickIy rebuIn tIe cross-examiner, ratIer tIan more tIorouI
deIenses oI tIe Neative's case.
231

232
Notice how a speaker identihes specihcally which point he
or she is refuting. TIis makes it mucI easier Ior tIe udes to
keep track oI Iov veII you are cIasIin. EitIer in tIeir minds or
on paper, tIey can 'cIeck oII' eacI point as it is opposed.
Observe how the strongest debaters had a clear overall
speech structure. TIey toId tIe audience exactIy vIere tIey
vere oin, tIey IoIIoved tIis road map, and tIey nisIed by
remindin everyone about vIat tIey Iave said. TIis served to
reinIorce tIe key messaes.
Take note of the importance that persistence plays in a
cross-examination. TIe cross-examiner stuck to a particuIar
Iine oI questionin, ratIer tIan bein side-tracked by tIe re-
sponses. But tIe person ansverin tIe questions vas sure to
expIain tIe ansvers to avoid seemin veakened and to prevent
tIe cross-examiner Irom extractin tIe desired ansvers.
Recognize how the rebuttal speakers brought the debate
down to one or two issues. You didn't see minor aruments or
evidence brouIt up in tIe rebuttaIs. For tIe Neative or Op-
position, it vas IeIpIuI to put tIe opponent on tIe deIensive by
statin cIearIy vIat tIe main questions or tIemes vere.
233
0ooc|0s|oo
The WIII to WIn wIth EthIcs and Respect
It's no accident tIat I've vritten tIis book IareIy in tIe tIird-person.
My primary oaI vasn't to inIuse tIe text vitI my personaI opinions.
RatIer, my intent vas to present useIuI inIormation compiIed Irom
many sources and Iearned Irom many peopIe.
IIov me, tIen, to depart briedy Irom tIis obectivity and to use
tIis space Ior some personaI tIouIts. FirstIy, I vant to discuss vIat
it means to Iave tIe viII to vin at tIe sport oI debate. SecondIy, I Iope
to et across tIe vitaI roIe tIat Ionesty and respect pIay in debate.
FinaIIy, I vant to taIk about tIe vitaI roIe tIat debate pIays in makin
tIe vorId 'tick'.
THE QUEST FOR VCTORY
Debate tournaments can be very competitive. TIey pIace inteIIient,
veII-spoken peopIe vIo beIieve passionateIy tIat tIey're riIt in direct
opposition to one anotIer. Don't viev tIis competition as a barrier.
Instead, you sIouId tIrive on IeaItIy rivaIry and aIIov it to motivate
you to exceI. Never et discouraed iI you don't aIvays pIace as veII
as you Iad Ioped. Never ive up. II you beIieve in yourseII and persist
in acIievin your personaI best, you'II improve your perIormance and
reacI tIe medaI podium.
TIis competitive environment extends veII beyond tournaments.
ny 'reaI vorId' debate invoIves, by its very nature, some IeveI oI rivaI-
ry. Everyone vants to vin tIe arument, botI to acIieve tIeir obec-
tives and to IeeI personaI satisIaction. UnIortunateIy, you'II rareIy et
everytIin you vant, so be prepared to vork vitI otIers. TIe viII
to vin may invoIve sacricin vIat's Ieast important to you but vaI-
ued by otIers, so tIat you can acIieve vIat's most important to you
and nonessentiaI to your peers. In many cases, Iavin tIe viII to vin

234
means IeIpin tIe tcum vin, ratIer tIan aimin Ior a pcrsonul victory
at tIe expense oI otIers participants.
THE ETHCS OF ENCACEMENT
It's criticaIIy important tIat you maintain your etIics in any competi-
tive debate environment. Never make up evidence or misrepresent
yourseII, even iI you may et avay vitI it a Iev times. Not onIy viII you
be cIeatin yourseII, but you'II eventuaIIy et a reputation Ior pIayin
aainst tIe ruIes. ItIouI you're veIcome to be assertive, make sure
tIat you're courteous to your opponents. Respect tIe udes, coacIes,
parents, and voIunteers vIo IeIp run debate vorksIops and tourna-
ments. TIe experience oI competition sIouId be enoyabIe. Don't aIIov
it to become tense and disrespectIuI.
SimiIar principIes appIy vIen you debate in daiIy situations. II
you're etIicaI and respectIuI, your aruments viII Iave mucI more
impact. OtIer peopIe viII vant to Iisten to vIat you Iave to say. TIe
skiIIs oI debatin sIouId IeIp you become more induentiaI vIen deci-
sions are made, but tIey sIouIdn't be used to insuIt or diminisI tIe
contributions made by otIer participants.
DE8ATE AS A DRVER OF DECSONS
It's my conviction tIat debate is a vitaI part oI tIe vorId around us.
I beIieve tIat tIe best ideas emere Irom viorous debate. TIe best
ideas emere in tIe cIassroom vIen students speak IreeIy and con-
dentIy about vIat tIey're Iearnin. TIe best ideas emere in compa-
nies vIen team members debate tIe decisions tIey Iace tIorouIIy
and inteIIientIy. TIe best ideas emere in society vIen tIere's IiveIy
debate vitIin overnment, in tIe media, and amon tIe citizenry.
Debate can and sIouId pIay a centraI roIe in Iov you contribute
to society. More tIan ever beIore, 'tIouIt Ieaders' Iave come to tIe
IoreIront oI Iov tIe vorId operates. You can use tIe pover oI persua-
sion to contribute to tIe democratic IiIe oI your country, or to contrib-
ute to tIe advancement oI a vortIy cause. It's up to you Iov you use
tIe skiIIs oI debate, but knov tIat you possess tIe abiIity to use it to
improve tIe vorId around you.
Corcus:or
235
AND NOW, T'S UP TO YOU!
I Iope tIat tIis book Ias provided you vitI a soIid base oI inIorma-
tion about tIe art oI speecI and debate. Nov, it's up to you to put
tIis inIormation into action. It viII take time and eIIort, and you viII
et Irustrated. But iI you Iave tIe viII to exceI, you viII do so. I Iave
beneted a reat deaI Irom speecI and debate, and it's become part oI
everytIin I do. I Iope tIat Tulk tnc Tulk viII pIay at Ieast a smaII roIe in
IeIpin you do tIe same.
s you embark on your ovn road to victory, you're veIcome and
encouraed to vrite to me vitI your questions, observations, criti-
cisms, suestions, or anytIin eIse tIat's on your mind. VIetIer
you're a competitive debater, a debate coacI, or even a parent vIo
vants eitIer to tIank or scoId me Ior IeIpin turn your dinner tabIe
into a debate Iorum, I Iook Iorvard to readin (and respondin to}
vIat you Iave to say.
Iim MeraIi
aIim@taIktIetaIk.ca
vvv.taIktIetaIk.ca
239
Appeod|x A
Debate ResoIutIons
PreIiminary pIrases sucI as "TIis House vouId" (THV}, "TIis House
beIieves tIat" (THBT}, "Be it resoIved tIat" (BIRT}, or "ResoIved:" come
beIore a debate resoIution. TIe rst tvo are seen mostIy in parIiamen-
tary styIe debate, "THV" impIyin a poIicy debate and "THBT" sinaI-
in a vaIues debate. TIe Iast tvo are Iound in academic, discussion,
and cross-examination styIes.
s you read eacI oI tIe resoIutions, tIink about tIe type oI debate
it suests. Is it a vaIues debate invoIvin competin principIes Or
is it a poIicy debate invoIvin a set oI needs Ior cIane and a pIan oI
action In some cases, you'II nd tIat tIe resoIution can be spun into
eitIer a vaIues debate or a poIicy debate.
TIink aIso about tIe variety oI issues tIat couId IaII under eacI
resoIution. Debatin muItipIe areas is usuaIIy beyond tIe scope oI one
round. You may nd it necessary to narrov tIe resoIution so tIat a
more Iocused debate can take pIace. You're aIso encouraed to modiIy,
dip around, or come up vitI a spin-oII oI tIe resoIution to create tIe
type oI debate you vant.
SPORTS
CommerciaIization Ias improved tIe OIympics.
ProIessionaI boxin sIouId be banned.
Sports teams sIouId be IeId responsibIe Ior miscIieI by tIeir Ians.
Vomen's and men's sports teams sIouId receive equaI support.
InternationaI sport Ias a pIace in internationaI poIitics.
ProIessionaI atIIetes are paid too mucI.
Sports entertainment sIouId not be considered sport.

240
EDUCATON
ScIooI uniIorms Iimit diversity and creativity.
Standardized tests sIouId be eIiminated.
SinIe-sex scIooIs are preIerabIe to co-ed scIooIs.
Students Iearn more Irom tIeir peers tIan Irom tIeir teacIers.
Private scIooIs sIouId receive overnment Iundin.
TIe scIooI discipIine system needs reIormin.
Year-round scIooIin sIouId be impIemented.
Students sIouId Iave a say in Iov scIooIs are run.
TIere is too mucI empIasis on marks.
Post-secondary education sIouId be pubIicIy-Iunded.
TIe overnment sIouId subsidize Iorein educationaI experiences.
Home-scIooIin is an acceptabIe aIternative to traditionaI scIooIs.
Learnin a second Ianuae sIouId be mandatory.
Parents sIouId pIay a maor roIe in tIe operation oI scIooIs.
CULTURE
Museums and tIeatres sIouId Iund tIemseIves.
HoIIyvood Ias neativeIy induenced our cuIture.
Minority Ianuae riIts are vortI protectin.
Forein cuIturaI induences sIouId be restricted.
TIe overnment sIouId censor tIe arts.
SOCAL
Parentin Iessons sIouId be mandatory.
LiIe Ias become too competitive.
TIe peopIe are not as toIerant as tIey tIink tIey are.
CeIebrities sIouId aIso be roIe modeIs.
TIe advertisin oI aIcoIoI sIouId be banned.
TIe Ieminist movement Ias IaiIed.
Private roups sIouId not Iave tIe riIt to discriminate.
CIiIdren sIouId never be spanked.
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241
MEDA
}ournaIists sIouId not use condentiaI sources.
TIe entertainment media Ias a neative induence.
TIe more Iree tIe press, tIe more Iree tIe peopIe.
II broadcasters sIouId be private oranizations.
TIe media Ias a sociaI responsibiIity.
TIe number oI teIevision advertisin minutes sIouId be Iimited.
Restrictions sIouId be pIaced on video ame vioIence.
TIe overnment sIouId impose domestic content requirements.
TECHNOLOCY
TIe overnment sIouId reuIate Internet content.
TIere sIouId be a Iee Ior eacI e-maiI sent.
Internet 'bIos' are Ieitimate ournaIism.
Internet cIat is Iarmin our youn eneration.
TecInoIoy Ias one too Iar.
Computer tecInoIoy can soIve our probIems.
SCENCE
Space expIoration is a vaste oI time and money.
Scientic researcI sIouId be avaiIabIe Ior pubIic use.
Space tourism is a vortIvIiIe obective.
Genetic enineerin Ias a positive impact.
TIe patentin oI pIarmaceuticaIs sIouId be ended.
TIe overnment sIouId not Iund commerciaI science.
DEMOCRACY
DictatorsIip is preIerabIe to anarcIy.
nobIe dictator is superior to a seIsI democrat.
PoIice and inteIIience povers sIouId be Iimited.
PubIic security is more important tIan individuaI riIts.
Prisoners sIouId Iave tIe riIt to vote.
CIiIdren sIouId not Iave a riIt to privacy.
Hate speecI sIouId not be considered Iree speecI.

242
Citizens sIouId be aIIoved to initiate bindin reIerenda.
MedicaI proIessionaIs sIouId Iave tIe riIt to strike.
CiviI disobedience is a Ieitimate expression oI democratic viII.
IndividuaIs Iave too many riIts and Ireedoms.
TIe minimum votin ae sIouId be Iovered.
POLTCS
PubIicIy-Iunded IeaItIcare is a Iuman riIt.
TIe business oI overnment is business.
nationaI identity card sIouId be impIemented.
Campain Iundin sIouId be more strictIy reuIated.
TIe present overnment sIouId compensate victims oI past abuses.
ECONOMY
Proressive taxes sIouId be repIaced by sinIe-rate taxes.
Farmers and rancIers sIouId receive subsidies.
TIe nationaI debt sIouId be paid oII Iaster.
PubIic corporations sIouId be privatized.
TIe ricI pay too mucI tax.
TIe minimum vae sIouId be aboIisIed.
ENVRONMENT
GIobaI varmin is tIe enemy.
CapitaIism and environmentaIism cannot co-exist.
NationaI parks sIouId be protected aainst tourism.
RecreationaI sIin and Iuntin sIouId be proIibited.
RecycIin sIouId be mandatory.
Endanered species sIouId be protected.
NTERNATONAL
MuItiIateraIism is preIerabIe to uniIateraIism.
TIe tIreat oI Iorce is tIe best vay to create peace.
TIere sIouId be a 'MarsIaII PIan' Ior Irica.
'strike rst' poIicy sIouId be used to conIront enemies.
/ppcru:x /. cluc Kcsou:ors
243
TIe United Nations sIouId Iave a miIitary.
TIe United Nations Ias been a IaiIure.
TIe testin oI nucIear veapons sIouId be banned.
FoIIovin orders is no excuse Ior committin var crimes.
StabIe dictatorsIips are preIerabIe to unstabIe democracies.
UniversaI Iuman riIts do not exist.
PoIiticaI assassinations are ustied acts oI var.
LAW
TIe deatI penaIty is crueI and unusuaI punisIment.
PunisIment is more important tIan reIabiIitation.
CriminaIs Iave too many riIts and Ireedoms.
Torture is never ustied.
Let a Iundred uiIty o Iree iI it saves one innocent.
}ury duty sIouId be optionaI.
CriminaIs sIouId serve tIeir IuII sentences.
Court triaIs sIouId be teIevised.
IIIeaI immirants sIouId receive criminaI treatment.
}udes Iave a roIe to pIay as sociaI activists.
CriminaI triaIs sIouId be decided by a ude aIone.
TIe ustice system is too soIt on criminaI activity.
Drunk drivers sIouId be banned Irom drivin permanentIy.
CriminaIs sIouId not be aIIoved to prot vIiIe in prison.
Youn oIIenders sIouId be tried as aduIts.
n unust Iav sIouId be broken.
TIe Iav sIouId protect peopIe Irom tIemseIves.
Drivin vIiIe taIkin on a ceII pIone sIouId be iIIeaI.
CENERAL
PeopIe sIouId obey ruIes over tIeir consciences.
IndividuaIs Iave no impact on tIe vorId.
TIe entrepreneur is more important tIan tIe artist.
It is preIerabIe to be riIt tIan to be successIuI.
CIance Ias a reater roIe tIan cIoice.
Conviction is more IonorabIe tIan consensus.
utIority sIouId aIvays be questioned.
TIe IamiIy is more important tIan tIe overnment.

244
Leaders are responsibIe Ior tIe actions oI tIeir teams.
KnovIede is ained tIrouI experience.
OPEN
Open debate resoIutions sIouIdn't be taken IiteraIIy. II tIey are, tIey're
bound to be abstract beyond tanibIe debate. TIis type oI resoIution
requires tIe Irmative team to Iink tIe resoIution to a more concrete
issue, vIicI aIIovs it to present virtuaIIy any case tIat it vants. TIe
Neative team must respond based on tIe denition presented, mak-
in it next to impossibIe to prepare Ior tIe debate in advance.
Va tIe do untiI tIe voIves come out.
TIe pen is miItier tIan tIe svord.
TIe e came beIore tIe cIicken.
TIe Yankees deserve respect.
McDonaId's is tIe vay oI tIe Iuture.
TIe cov sIouId be miIked dry.
ppIes sIouId not be compared to oranes.
TIere is no bIack and vIite, onIy sIades oI rey.
SiIver is ood, but oId is reat.
Roses are red, vioIets are bIue.
It's music to tIe ears and Iood to tIe souI.
TIe cIicken Ias to cross tIe road.
TIe riIt to be vron is a riIt.
Good Iences make ood neiIbors.
TIe end is vitIin reacI.
245
Appeod|x 8
]udgIng CrIterIa
TIe set oI criteria used to evaIuate debaters depends on tIe reion,
IeveI, and styIe oI debate. Even iI tIe criteria are simiIar, tIe totaI
number oI points, tIe veiIt pIaced on eacI area, and tIe scorin
uideIines may vary sinicantIy. In eneraI, a ude Ias tvo respon-
sibiIities: assin scores to eacI speaker and decide vIicI team von
tIe debate. TIis section expIores some oI tIe questions udes usuaIIy
ask tIemseIves vIen evaIuatin a debate.
TIese criteria aIso serve as a useIuI summary and reminder oI
many oI tIe book's most important concepts. VIen you prepare to
debate and as you continuaIIy evaIuate your perIormance, tIink about
Iov you're measurin up on tIese dimensions. You vant your udes
to be abIe to put a 'cIeck mark' beside eacI oI tIe questions.
NDVDUAL SCORE
VIen evaIuatin you individuaIIy, udes are tIinkin about Iov veII
you contributed to tIe overaII dynamic oI tIe debate. Did tIe muttcr
you presented-aruments and reIutation-add vaIue to tIe debate
nd did tIe munncr in vIicI you presented it-oranization and deIiv-
ery-make you an eIIective, compeIIin speaker TIere are usuaIIy
ve cateories tIat a ude considers: Contcnt, Rcjutution, Orgunizution,
Dclivcry, and Proccdurc.
Content [5 points}
Themes. Did tIe debater's aruments center around a sinIe tIeme
or a cIoseIy reIated set oI tIemes Vere tIe tIemes seIected appropri-
ate and cIearIy presented TIe vise use oI centraI tIemes provides a
sense oI coIerency to tIe case. It aIIovs tIe debate to come dovn to a
core roup oI key ideas.

246
Arguments. Hov stron vere tIe aruments used to support tIe
overaII tIemes Vas it easy Ior you to understand eacI arument
and to describe it vitI a sIort pIrase CareIuIIy seIected aruments
instantIy provide a sense oI strentI to tIe debater's case.
Explanations. Did tIe speaker use sound expIanations and Ioic to
expand on tIe aruments Hov veII did tIe expIanations cover tIe
key dimensions oI eacI point TIe debater sIouId o beyond statin
an arument and expectin you to aree vitI it. His or Ier expIanation
sIouId strentIen tIe point aainst any possibIe attacks.
Evidence. Vas suIcient evidence and exampIe empIoyed to support
tIe expIanations Vas tIe backup presented eIIective and reIevant
to tIe arument it vas intended to enIance II any oI tIe debater's
cIaims are questionabIe or uncIear, you sIouId expect tIem to be sup-
ported. It sIouId aIso be made very cIear to you Iov tIe evidence
proves tIe arument in question.
Refutation [5 points}
Completeness. Vas tIe cIasI compIete, coverin every reIevant point
oI tIe opposin team's case TIe debater sIouIdn't Ieave any oI tIe
opposin team's key points untoucIed. s you track tIe debate on your
dov sIeet, cIeck oII eacI arument tIat tIe debater Ias reIuted.
Prioritization. Did tIe cIasI Iocus on tIe most important areas oI
tIe otIer team's case TIere's no requirement tIat a debater spend
equaI time reIutin eacI arument. TIe debater sIouId be abIe to dis-
tinuisI betveen tIe otIer team's centraI and Iess important points,
adustin Iis or Ier empIasis accordinIy.
Effectiveness. Vas tIe cIasI successIuI at exposin davs in tIe
opponent's aruments TIe reIutation oI eacI point sIouId be tIor-
ouI enouI to raise serious doubts. It sIouId Iit on tIe key veak-
nesses and expIain persuasiveIy vIy eacI arument is vron.
Organization [5 points}
Introduction. Did tIe introduction eIIectiveIy Iay out tIe core tIemes
and direction oI tIe team's case TIe vay a debater beins sIouId pre-
/ppcru:x 5. |uuq:rq Cr:cr:u
247
pare you Ior vIat's to come. He or sIe sIouId compeI you to Iisten to
tIe IortIcomin materiaI.
Conclusion. Did tIe concIusion brin tIe case toetIer and vrap it
up in a vay tIat made it understandabIe concIusion, vIiIe sIort,
sIouId Iit on tIe key issues and outcomes oI tIe debater's speecI.
Structure. Vas tIere a cIear structure tIat broke tIe case dovn into
cIear and IoicaI parts Did tIe order in vIicI tIe points vere pre-
sented make sense TIe vay a debater structures a case sIouId make
it easy Ior you to IoIIov and take notes.
Flow. VitIin eacI point, did tIe speaker Iave a cIear and IoicaI
dov TIis doesn't mean tIat tIe debater is required to provide obvi-
ous 'sinposts' vitIin eacI point. Hovever, as tIe debater moves
tIrouI tIe point, tIe dov sIouId seem smootI and eIIective.
Transitions. VIen movin betveen points, vere tIere smootI tran-
sitions Did tIey make it cIear vIat tIe speaker Iad ust accompIisIed
and vIere Ie or sIe vas oin next ExceIIent transitions uide you
tIrouI tIe speecI, IeIpin tie toetIer tIe distinct points.
Delivery [5 points}
Eye Contact. Did tIe speaker maintain stron eye contact vitI tIe
entire audience TIe debater's eye contact sIouId convey condence
and enaement. You sIouIdn't see tIe debater spendin most oI Iis
or Ier speakin time readin text Irom a pae.
Pace. Vas tIe speakin speed appropriate Ior tIe audience Did it
aIIov everyone to understand cIearIy tIe points bein made TIis
doesn't mean tIat tIe debater Ias to taIk at tIe same rate tIrouIout
tIe entire speecI, as variety can add cIaracter and IiveIiness.
Posture. Did tIe speaker maintain stron posture and presence Like
soIid eye contact, ood posture and body movement make a debater
appear more condent and enain.
Clarity. Hov cIearIy did tIe speaker articuIate tIe content Vas it
easy to understand vIat Ie or sIe vas sayin VIiIe it certainIy isn't

248
necessary to articuIate every sinIe syIIabIe roboticaIIy, tIe vords and
pIrases sIouIdn't seem mumbIed or sIurred.
Expression. Hov dynamic vas tIe speaker's deIivery Did tIe debat-
er vary Iis or Ier pitcI and voIume appropriateIy TIis reaIIy comes
dovn to your overaII impression. TIink about Iov interested you vere
as tIe debater spoke.
Gestures. Vere Iand estures used eIIectiveIy to add meanin to
tIe deIivery Hand estures sIouId dov naturaIIy accordin to tIe
debater's styIe. It's important tIat tIey don't seem repetitive, but tIey
sIouIdn't be dasIy to tIe point oI distraction.
Procedure [5 points}
Process. Did tIe debater IoIIov tIe correct procedure Ior tIe styIe oI
debate Vere tIe time Iimits observed Vere tIe otIer debaters, tIe
udes, and tIe moderator addressed appropriateIy VIiIe tIese Iac-
tors don't impact tIe substantive part oI tIe debate, tIey do speak to
tIe debater's respect Ior tIe ruIes and traditions oI competition.
Courtesy. Vas tIe debater respectIuI and courteous to everyone in
tIe room Did Ie or sIe avoid makin personaI attacks or deroa-
tory comments TIere's notIin vron vitI a debater bein asser-
tive, even aressive. But above aII, tIe competitor sIouId be makin
a positive contribution to tIe experience oI everyone in tIe room.
Questions. Did tIe debater ask stron, tareted questions to cIaI-
Iene tIe opponent's points Vere tIe questions reIevant to tIe issue
at Iand TIis appIies to Points oI InIormation in parIiamentary debate,
tIe question period in discussion debate, and aIter eacI constructive
speecI in cross-examination debate.
Answers. Hov eIIectiveIy and compIeteIy did tIe debater ansver
tIe otIer team's questions Did Ie or sIe appear condent and du-
ent vIen providin tIe ansvers II tIe ansvers vere in response to a
Point oI InIormation in parIiamentary debate, did tIe debater transi-
tion back to tIe speecI in a smootI vay TIe competitor Ias to strike
a ood baIance betveen ansverin tIe question IuIIy and not appear-
in to be on tIe deIensive.
/ppcru:x 5. |uuq:rq Cr:cr:u
249
Total Score [25 points}
}udes are oIten asked to IoIIov scorin ranes, vIicI are tarets pre-
scribed by tournament directors to ensure consistent evaIuations Irom
room to room. typicaI uide Ior a totaI score out oI 2S points is to
stick vitIin a rane oI 1S to 23 points. TIis vouId resuIt in an averae
score oI 19 points, pIus or minus one point dependin on tIe overaII
strentI oI debate in tIe room. Some udes preIer to use tIe specic
criteria discussed previousIy to arrive at a score, vIereas otIers use
tIem onIy as a uideIines to reacI a totaI score. Here are descriptions
oI tIe diIIerent IeveIs:
<15 points. RareIy sIouId a debater receive a score tIis Iov. score
under 1S points indicates tIat tIe debater didn't IuIII Iis or Ier roIe
in tIe debate. TIe speecI vas incompIete and virtuaIIy impossibIe Ior
any reasonabIe person to IoIIov.
15 to 17 points. Some debaters, particuIarIy beinners, may IaII vitIin
tIis scorin rane. TIere vas cIearIy preparation and tIouIt put into
tIe case. UnIortunateIy, sinicant errors and sIortcomins Iurt tIe
overaII eIIectiveness.
17 to 19 points. score vitIin tIis rane is considered averae. TIe
debater presented aruments reasonabIy veII. He or sIe cIasIed vitI
tIe otIer team's points, but may not Iave been tIorouI enouI in
many pIaces. TIe styIe vas adequate and tIe structure vas IairIy
cIear, but neitIer eIement vas exceptionaI.
20 to 22 points. TIis score indicates an exceIIent perIormance. TIe
debater presented aruments, cIasIed vitI tIe otIer team's points,
and articuIated tIe case in a condent, oranized, and eIIective man-
ner. He or sIe cIearIy stood out in tIe round.
23 points. score tIis IiI sIouId be reserved Ior a top-notcI perIor-
mance. TIere sIouId probabIy be onIy a IandIuI in tIe tournament,
tIe recipients oI vIicI vouId aImost certainIy be contenders Ior tIe
top speaker avards. To earn tIis score, every aspect oI debate Ias to be
done exceptionaIIy veII.
24 points. You're IaIIin oII your cIair because you've been dazzIed

250
beyond your viIdest expectations. You vouId pay money to see tIis
person debate aain, or even Ior an autorapI.
25 points. TIe debater is perIect. SuperIuman, actuaIIy.
TEAM DECSON
UsuaIIy, tIe team vitI tIe IiIer speakin score betveen tIe tvo
debaters vins tIe debate. Doesn't it make sense tIat tIe debaters vitI
stroner aruments and more eIIective reIutation sIouId vin In tIe
vast maority oI cases, tIis is true. But tIere are some debate tourna-
ments tIat aIIov 'Iov point vins'. TIis means tIat a team couId Iave
been Iess procient in its debatin skiIIs, sucI as styIe and procedure,
but stiII Iave von tIe overaII arument. TIere are tvo questions tIat
a ude sIouId ask in decidin vIo von tIe debate, botI oI tIem diI-
Ierent vays oI statin a simiIar measurin stick:
Trial test. II you vere a ude in a triaI on tIis issue and Iad to decide
obectiveIy vIicI team made a stroner case vitI its aruments and
reIutation, vIo vouId you seIect Or, iI you vere randomIy assined to
eitIer side in a courtroom battIe on tIis resoIution, vIicI team vouId
you vant to be your IeaI counseI
Burden test. VIicI team did a more eIIective ob at meetin its bur-
den in tIe debate TIat is, vIicI one vas more successIuI at IuIIIin
its obIiations accordin to tIe denitions presented and your inter-
pretation oI eacI team's responsibiIities
251
6|ossary
You vere promised a book IiIt on tecInicaI aron. HopeIuIIy, tIis
promise Ias been IuIIIed. TIe book did, Iovever, present a number
oI uncompIicated and easy to Iearn terms tIat are part oI tIe speecI
and debate Iexicon. TIis Iossary is desined to ive you a quick reIer-
ence and a sIort reIresIer on many oI tIese expressions.
Academic debate: TIe most basic Iorm oI debate. TIere are normaIIy
Iour constructive speecIes betveen tIe tvo teams, as veII as tvo
rebuttaI speecIes. In tIis styIe, tIere are no opportunities Ior debaters
to ask criticaI questions to one anotIer.
Afhrmative: TIe team tIat arues Ior tIe resoIution in academic, dis-
cussion, and cross-examination styIes oI debate. Opens and usuaIIy
cIoses tIe debate. Sometimes caIIed tIe Proposition team.
Argument: sinIe, specic idea presented to buiId a team's case, en-
eraIIy possibIe to summarize in one sentence. EacI team sIouId Iave
betveen Iour and six individuaI aruments in its case. May aIso be
caIIed a contention or a point.
Bill: n aIternative name Ior tIe resoIution in a parIiamentary debate.
ParIiaments pass Iavs caIIed BiIIs, and tIe use oI tIis term is intended
to matcI tIis practice.
BIRT: SIort Ior tIe pIrase, "Be it resoIved tIat." OIten pIaced beIore tIe
resoIution in academic, discussion, and cross-examination debates.
Body language: TIe vay tIat a speaker uses posture, movement, es-
tures, and expression to proect a stron visuaI impression.
Burden: TIe extent to vIicI eacI team Ias to prove its case Ior or
aainst tIe resoIution. UsuaIIy, tIe Irmative team Ias a sIiItIy

252
reater burden, because it denes tIe terms. TIe deree oI burden
may aIso depend on tIe reIative diIcuIty oI eacI side.
Case: TIe set oI aruments, expIanations, and evidence presented Ior
or aainst a resoIution. UsuaIIy consists oI one or tvo centraI tIemes,
eacI supported by muItipIe points.
Clash: Counterin tIe opponent's case point by point. TIis type oI
specic, tareted reIutation takes pIace mostIy in tIe constructive
speecIes, Ieavin tIe rebuttaI speecIes Ior more eneraI criticism oI
tIe otIer team's aruments.
Constructive speech: speecI tIat invoIves nev constructive aru-
ments, deIense oI previous constructive aruments, and reIutation oI
tIe opponent's case. NormaIIy, tIe rst Iour speecIes oI a debate, or
tvo by eacI team, are tIe constructive speecIes.
Counter plan: Neative team case stratey tIat invoIves areein
vitI tIe needs Ior cIane, but proposin a substantiaIIy diIIerent pIan
to soIve tIe probIem.
Criteria: set oI obectives tIat a system must meet in order to be
uded eIIective or appropriate. Criteria are sometimes used by tIe
Irmative team to Irame tIe debate in a vay it considers IavorabIe.
Cross-examination debate: styIe oI debate tIat invoIves questionin
oI a speaker by someone Irom tIe opposin team to IiIIiIt veak-
nesses or to attain admissions. cross-examination, usuaIIy tIree to
Iour minutes Ion, takes pIace IoIIovin eacI constructive speecI.
Dehnition: CIarication and interpretation oI tIe resoIution's terms
by tIe rst speaker oI tIe Irmative team. Denitions may be used
to narrov a broad debate to a more Iocused subect. BotI teams must
abide by tIe denitions tIrouIout tIe round.
Discussion debate: debate styIe tIat incIudes a discussion period,
up to 10 minutes Ion, betveen tIe constructive part oI tIe debate
and tIe beinnin oI tIe rebuttaI speecIes. Teams take turns askin
criticaI questions to eacI otIer.
Cossury
253
Flow sheet: coIumned sIeet used to keep track oI eacI speaker's
aruments and reIutation. rrovs are oIten dravn betveen eacI
arument and tIe matcIin cIasI to IeIp visuaIize tIe back and IortI
dov oI tIe debate. Used by botI udes and competitors.
Government: TIe team aruin Ior tIe BiII in a parIiamentary debate.
TIe Prime Minister (P.M.} opens tIe debate vitI a constructive speecI
and ends tIe debate vitI a rebuttaI speecI. TIe Minister oI tIe Crovn
(M.C.} speaks in betveen tIe Prime Minister's speecIes.
Heckle: sIort, vitty, and to tIe point interection in parIiamentary
debate. HeckIes, vIicI are usuaIIy Iumorous, sIouId be not be ques-
tions or aruments. TIey are best restricted to no more tIan ve vords,
and tIen so onIy used occasionaIIy, iI at aII.
House: TIe cIamber or room vIere a parIiamentary debate takes
pIace. TIere are specic ruIes and traditions oI tIe House tIat tIe
debaters must IoIIov.
Impromptu speaking: Communicatin vitI Iimited or no notes, eitIer
spontaneousIy or vitI minimaI preparation. Impromptu speakin is
used in a variety oI situations, sucI as debate rounds, questions aIter
a speecI, and cIass or committee discussions.
Informative speech: speecI to expIain or cIariIy an issue or to pro-
vide instruction on a process. n inIormative speecI is based IeaviIy
on IactuaI inIormation and requires, in particuIar, cIear descriptions.
Leading questions: Questions tIat impIy or pusI Ior tIe desired
ansver. TIis is tIe most eIIective type oI question to ask in a cross-
examination. UsuaIIy starts vitI pIrases Iike "VouId you acknovI-
ede tIat ." or "Isn't it true tIat ."
Memorized speaking: Presentin a speecI vord Ior vord vitIout any
notes. VIiIe tIis metIod can be very time-consumin and, Ior most
peopIe, makes it touI to seem naturaI, it may be useIuI to memorize
key parts oI a speecI.
Model Parliament: simuIation oI a poIiticaI debate in vIicI partici-
pants represent diIIerent poIiticaI parties in a IeisIature. TIe members

254
debate and vote on BiIIs to be passed into Iav. In tIe United States, tIis
type oI Iorum is eneraIIy knovn as Student Conress.
Model United Nations: type oI Iorum debate in vIicI participants
eacI represent countries on a United Nations committee, sucI as tIe
Security CounciI or a GeneraI ssembIy. TIe debates take pIace on
resoIutions tIat are put IortI by member states.
Needs-plan-benehts: type oI Irmative team case in a poIicy
debate invoIvin reasons to cIane tIe present system, pIans Ior
impIementin tIe stated cIanes, and anticipated benets oI tIe pro-
posed reIorms. TeIIs tIe udes "vIy, vIat, and so vIat" in support
oI tIe resoIution.
Negative: TIe team tIat arues aainst tIe resoIution in academic,
discussion, and cross-examination styIes oI debate. ItIouI tIe Ne-
ative team Ias some dexibiIity in Iov it makes its case, it's aruments
must t vitI tIe denitions presented by tIe Irmative team.
Opposition: TIe team opposin tIe BiII in a parIiamentary debate. TIe
Member oI tIe Opposition (M.O.} beins tIe Opposition's case. TIe
Leader oI tIe Opposition (L.O.} speaks second and divides Iis or Ier
speecI into constructive time and rebuttaI time.
Outline speaking: SpeecI deIivery usin a sIort Iist oI ideas, aIIovin
Ior maximum enaement vitI tIe audience. TIe most basic Iorm oI
outIine speakin is a Iist oI tIe speecI's main points, but some speak-
ers preIer to incIude sub-points as veII.
Parliamentary debate: styIe based in part on tIe traditions oI Ie-
isIatures around tIe vorId. In addition to IormaI terms and ruIes, it
Ieatures diIIerent types oI interections, sucI as Points oI InIormation,
Points oI Order, Points oI PersonaI PriviIee, and IeckIes.
Persuasive speech: speecI intended to convince tIe audience oI
a perspective or oI tIe need to take action on an issue. ItIouI it's
supported by IactuaI inIormation, persuadin tIe audience members
vitI sound Ioic and botI rationaI and emotionaI appeaIs is centraI to
tIe speaker's approacI.
Cossury
255
Plan: set oI poIicy proposaIs brouIt IortI by tIe Irmative team to
meet its stated needs Ior cIane. pIan outIines tIe numerous steps
tIat tIe aents oI cIane must take in order to address tIe present
system's sIortcomins in an eIIective and IeasibIe vay.
Point of Information: brieI, cIaIIenin question durin an oppo-
nent's constructive speecI in parIiamentary debate. TIe person vIo
Ias tIe door may decide eitIer to accept or reect a Point oI InIorma-
tion request as tIe opposin debater rises.
Point of Order: n accusation tIat a debater Ias broken a ruIe oI par-
Iiamentary debate, uded by tIe Speaker as "veII taken" or "not veII
taken." Not recommended Ior exposin IrivoIous vioIations, sucI as
pIacin Iands in one's pockets or IoIdin a pen.
Policy debate: debate invoIvin a pIan tIat addresses tIe Irma-
tive's stated needs Ior cIane. TIe debate usuaIIy Iocuses on tvo
dimensions, nameIy vIetIer cIane is necessary and, iI so, vIetIer
tIe Irmative's pIan is desirabIe.
Qualihcation: Providin an expIanation vIen ansverin tIe cross-
examiner's "yes or no" question. QuaIiIyin an ansver aIIovs tIe
speaker to deIend Iis or Ier case more eIIectiveIy. Hovever, tIe quaIi-
cation sIouId not be so IentIy tIat it seems Iike a speecI.
Rebuttal: TIe naI speecI oI tIe debate by eacI team. EacI rebuttaI
speaker aims to brin tIe debate dovn to key tIemes and underIyin
principIes, and to suest to tIe udes vIat tIe decidin issues are.
BotI reIutation oI tIe opposin team's overaII case and summary oI
one's ovn case are important.
Refutation: TIe process oI expIainin vIy an opponent's aruments
are incorrect. InvoIves point by point cIasI in tIe constructive speecI-
es and overaII reIutation in tIe rebuttaIs. debater may reIute an
opponent's points on a variety oI rounds, sucI as irreIevant inIorma-
tion, contradictory statements, or IauIty Ioic.
Resolution: TIe topic oI tIe debate, eneraIIy presented as a state-
ment and preceded by a pIrase sucI as "Be it resoIved tIat" (BIRT}
or "TIis House beIieves tIat" (THBT}. Its terms need to be interpreted

256
and cIaried by tIe Irmative team. TIe resoIution is supported by
tIe Irmative team and opposed by tIe Neative team.
Script speaking: DeIivery usin a vord Ior vord text. TIis metIod is
commonIy used by beinners vIo aren't yet comIortabIe vitI Iavin
onIy an outIine. It's aIso used by speakers vIo need to present precise
tIouIts and vords, sucI as scientists and poIiticians.
Speaker: TIe moderator oI a parIiamentary debate. TIe Speaker intro-
duces eacI debater and ruIes on Points oI Order and Points oI PersonaI
PriviIee. Debaters address tIeir aruments tIrouI tIe Speaker, as is
tIe case in Iunctionin IeisIatures.
Specihc knowledge: n impromptu debate situation in vIicI tIe
Irmative team presents a case tIat reIies on Iacts not commonIy
knovn, oIten oI a scientic or IistoricaI nature. specic knovIede
case may pIace tIe Neative team at an unIair disadvantae.
Status quo: Hov tIe current system operates. TIe Irmative team
in a poIicy debate viII propose cIanin tIe status quo, vIereas tIe
Neative team viII usuaIIy deIend tIe present system.
SWOT analysis: TIe process oI Iookin cIoseIy at tIe StrentIs, Veak-
nesses, Opportunities, and TIreats oI a debate case. TIis metIod can
be used to evaIuate and make improvements to a case beIore present-
in it in a debate round.
THBT: n abbreviation Ior "TIis House beIieves tIat" pIaced beIore a
resoIution in parIiamentary debate, eneraIIy oI a vaIues nature.
Theme: eneraI idea tIat's supported by severaI points. In a team's
case, tIere are typicaIIy one or tvo centraI tIemes. Debaters com-
monIy taIk about tIeir tIemes as a vay oI tyin toetIer and provid-
in context to diIIerent aruments.
THW: n abbreviation Ior "TIis House vouId" pIaced beIore a parIia-
mentary debate resoIution, usuaIIy oI a poIicy nature.
Time-place-set: type oI denition in vIicI tIe Irmative team Iays
out a situation Ior debate, eitIer a ctionaI or reaI scenario or a point
Cossury
257
in Iistory. EacI team must debate vitIin tIese parameters, vitIout
brinin in detaiIs tIat vouIdn't be knovn at tIe time or pIace.
Transition: Movin Irom one point to anotIer sucI tIat tIe speecI
dovs smootIIy. UsuaIIy teIIs tIe audience vIat Ias ust been accom-
pIisIed and vIat can be expected next.
Truism: denition oI a resoIution tIat's aIvays true, makin it virtu-
aIIy impossibIe to debate. Truisms are not aIIoved, as tIey pIace tIe
Neative team in an unIair position.
Values debate: debate Iocusin on competin principIes, ratIer tIan
on a pIan oI action. TIe teams arue vIetIer a particuIar circumstance
or idea is riIt or vron.
259
8|b||ography
Many oI tIe veb resources tIat are Iisted beIov Iave been useIuI
reIerences Ior tIis pubIication. Since tIe space Iimitations oI a sinIe
book made it impossibIe to cover IuIIy tIe expansive eId oI speecI
and debate, tIey viII provide useIuI suppIementary inIormation on
tournaments, styIes, and tecIniques.
You may aIso nd vitIin tIese resources perspectives tIat are
diIIerent tIan vIat you've read in tIis book. TIese perspectives are
neitIer riIt nor vron, as speecI and debate is a subective art inter-
preted diIIerentIy by a variety oI peopIe. In tIe true spirit oI debate,
you're encouraed to evaIuate tIese resources Ior yourseII and to
determine vIat vorks best Ior you.
Alberta Debate and Speech Association
Ittp://vvv.compusmart.ab.ca/adebate
Australian Debating Federation
Ittp://vvv.adI.asn.au
Canadian Student Debating Federation
Ittp://vvv.csdI-Icde.ca
Canadian University Society of Intercollegiate Debate
Ittp://vvv.cusid.ca
Cross-Examination Debate Association
Ittp://vvv.cedadebate.or
Debatabase
Ittp://vvv.debatabase.com
Debate Central
Ittp://debate.uvm.edu

260
English-Speaking Union
Ittp://vvv.britisIdebate.com
International Debate Education Association
Ittp://vvv.idebate.or
by Simon Quinn
Ittp://vvv.Iearndebatin.com
Manitoba Speech and Debate Association
Ittp://vvv.sr.mb.ca/debate
National Forensics League
Ittp://vvv.ndonIine.or
National Parliamentary Debate Association
Ittp://vvv.parIidebate.or
Ontario Student Debating Union
Ittp://vvv.osdu.oise.utoronto.ca
On That Point
Ittp://vvv.ontIatpoint.com
Queensland Debating Union
Ittp://vvv.qdu.or.au
World Schools Debating Championships
Ittp://vvv.scIooIsdebate.com
261
Ackoow|edgmeots
To say tIat tIis book is "by Iim MeraIi" aIone vouId be ivin myseII
too mucI credit. I didn't make any nev discoveries, nor did I invent any
noveI metIods. I am not a pioneer in tIe eId, but a beneciary oI it.
My contribution to tIis book vas compiIin inIormation and insiIts
tauIt to me by many peopIe over many years. To tIese individuaIs, I
oIIer my sincere ratitude.
First and Ioremost, I vant to tIank tIe Ieaders vIo made com-
petitive speecI and debate possibIe Ior me. In particuIar, many peopIe
vitIin tIe Iberta Debate and SpeecI ssociation deserve my appre-
ciation. Dozens oI dedicated voIunteers, particuIarIy debate coacIes
and tournament directors, ave up veekend aIter veekend to aIIov
me to take up my passion Ior debatin. Hundreds oI udes provided
priceIess advice and continuaI encouraement.
Over seven years as a competitive debater, I Iad tIe opportunity to
vork vitI dozens oI partners in Iundreds oI tournament and practice
rounds. I vant to tIank my debate partners Irom tIe OId Scona ca-
demic HiI ScIooI Debate Society, tIe University oI Iberta Debate
Society, and tIe University oI Vestern Ontario Debate Society. Ve reI-
isIed our victories toetIer, and ve redected on our deIeats toetIer.
Ve IeIped eacI otIer buiId on vIat ve did riIt and improve on vIat
ve did vron. Since I beIieve tIat tIe reatest source oI knovIede is
experience (tIe topic oI one oI my touIer debate rounds}, it's cIear
to me tIat my experiences in competitive debatin Iave contributed
immenseIy to tIis book.
My competitors provided tIe rivaIry tIat made debate enoyabIe
and cIaIIenin. VIiIe tIey may Iave been more dedicated to deIeat-
in me tIan to IeIpin me, tIey acted as indispensabIe 'soundin
boards' Ior my aruments. TIe spirit oI competition brouIt out tIe
best in eacI oI us, and I knov tIat ve sIared some reat moments
(read: intense, naiI-bitin battIes} over many years.
Some oI my best debate experiences Iave come veII outside tIe
vorId oI competitive debate. I vant to tIank tIe peopIe vIo Iave

262
cIaIIened me as I've put my debate skiIIs into practice. t tIe Univer-
sity oI Vestern Ontario's RicIard Ivey ScIooI oI Business, my IeIIov
students Iave pusIed me to deIend my vievs durin IiteraIIy Iun-
dreds oI cIaIIenin debates on reaI business cases. My associates in
tIe vorId oI poIitics Iave encouraed me to articuIate and deIend my
opinions on tIe issues tIat sIape society. It is Irom tIe inteIIient and
veII-spoken peopIe I am priviIeed to be surrounded by every day tIat
I Iave experienced tIe uItimate test in debate.
FinaIIy, tIank you to tIe Iriends and IamiIy vIo toId me to "keep
pusIin it" vIen I staIIed Ior a vIiIe, unsure oI vIat to vrite next.
ItIouI autIorin tIis book took Ioner tIan I Iad oriinaIIy antici-
pated (and promised}, I Iope tIat you've Iound it vortI tIe vait.
263
|odex
A
cademic styIe debate 76, 1SS
daptation 3, 41, S1-S2
ruments
attitudes 112
on beIavior 112-113
cIain oI aruments 114
cuIture 112
eIIectiveness 110
enIorceabiIity 110
evidence as an arument 113
IeasibiIity 111
IistoricaI 110
imae 111
induence 112
intent 112
on ustication 108-110
IabeIin 114, 142
Ieitimacy 109
moraIity 109
norms 109
on perception 111-112
precedent 110
remedies 109
resuIts 111
sinaIs 111
on systems 110-111
ristotIe 26, 48
rticuIation 6-9, 47, 247-248
B
BiII 76, 1SS, 182, 192, 199, 203, 207-
208, 2S1, 2S3-2S4
Body Ianuae 6, 48, S0, S3, 94
Brainstormin 28, 39, 88
BreatIin 7
C
Case. Scc ruments
CIarity 6, 9, 11, 26, 34, 169
CIasI
attackin assumptions 136
breakin Iinks 137
catcIin contradictions 139
cIasIin aIter constructin 144
cIasIin beIore constructin
144
cIasIin vitI cIasI 81
counterin correIations 140
cumuIative 146
Iacin tIe Iacts 141
indicatin irreIevance 138
issuin cIaIIenes 136
makin careIuI concessions
140
vIat to reIute 134
CIass discussions 183
CoaIitions 182, 187
Committee meetins 183
Compromisin 181-184, 186-187
ConcIusions 6, 28, 33, 37, 42, S2,
S8, 61, 63, 93, 137, 160, 208,
247
Condence 6, 8, 31-32, 48-S0,

264
144, 171, 17S-176, 179, 247
Consistency 84, 104, 109, 1S8, 196
Constructive speecIes 7S, 82, 120,
133, 147, 2S1-2S2, 2SS
Contradictions 84, 139
Counter pIan 70, 119-120
Criteria
as IiI-risk stratey 117
as Iitmus test 117, 200
Cross-bencIes 84
Cross-examination
ansverin questions 4S, 76, 17S,
176
attackin aruments 169
attainin admissions 169
cIearin up conIusion 169
controI oI tIe questionin 172
exposin errors 169
Ieadin questions 170
Iine oI questionin 169, 172, 174-
17S, 180, 214, 232
muItipart questions 171, 173
open-ended questions 170, 180
pre-reIutin reIutation 174
semi-directed questions 170
series oI questions 171, 174-17S,
180
settin up points 169
speecImakin in 171
stidin tIe questioner 174
usin tIe cross-examination 179
Cue cards 98
D
Debate
botI sides 1S, 84, 114, 12S, 172,
191, 208
as IormaI arument 68
as IormaI discussion 68
as sport 3, 4, 9, 70, 86, 94, 98,
1S8, 173, 233, 239
tIe viII to vin 233
Debaters
Irame oI mind 7, 21
as naturaIIy competitive 87
as tIouIt Ieaders 234
vitaI roIe oI 233
Denition 3, 67, 70-7S, 79, 90,
100, 10S-106, 116, 12S, 131,
138, 1S8, 192, 212, 244, 2S7
DeIivery 7, 27, 41-42, 4S-47, 49,
S2-S3, 97, 149, 188-189, 24S,
248, 2S4
DetaiIs 22, 26, 28, 33, 38-39, 42,
68, 81, 8S, 93, 11S, 124, 17S,
210
Discussion styIe debate 76
Dress 98
E
EmpIasis 29, 46, 48
EtIics 233-234
Etiquette 94-9S, 101
Evidence 26, 32, 34-3S, 39, 42,
68-69, 104, 107-108, 113,
124, 13S, 140-141, 148, 1S7,
1S9, 163, 209, 232, 234, 246,
2S2
ExpIanations 1S, 22, 28, 34, 39,
S1, 68, 81, 104-10S, 107, 124,
127, 134-13S, 1S8-1S9, 171,
17S, 180, 196, 208-209, 228-
229, 246, 2S2, 2SS
Expression 8, 11, 49-S1, S3, S8,
99, 141, 242, 2S1
Eye contact 4S, S1, S3, 94, 98,
176, 247
rucx
265
F
FaciaI expression 8
FIov sIeet 67, 84-8S, 100, 126, 14S,
1S1, 191, 246
Forums 181-190
G
Games
Crossprc 14-1S, 17
Dcbutc Ducl 19
On Tnut Point 14-17
Puss tnc Buton 14, 17
Rupid Spcuk 14
Survivor 20-21
Tnc Crcut Rucc 20
Trujpc Lignts 18-19
Gestures 6, 48-49, S1, S3, 188, 248,
2S1
H
Habits 9, 11
HeckIin 163-164, 166
Humor 14, 22, 26-27, 47, 99, 1S4,
163, 166, 2S3
I
Imaery S9, 61-62
Impression 7, 49, S3, 71-72, 80, 86,
94-9S, 98, 147, 161, 248, 2S1
Impromptu debatin 69, 90-91,
2S3, 2S6
Impromptu speakin 42, 4S
InIormative speakin 26, 38, 2S3
Introductions 6, 8, 28, 3S-37, 42,
S8-S9, 93, 160, 208, 21S, 246
Issues
arts Iundin 141
art institutions 18
cIinicaI triaIs 31
commerciaIization oI sport 173
corporate sponsorsIip 212-231
environmentaI standards 136
Iood IabeIin 173
Iree trade 140
eneticaIIy-modied Ioods 31-
32
enetic enineerin 142, 241
IobaI poverty 142
IobaI varmin 146-147
IeaItI care privatization 139
ID cards 137
income taxes 138
Internet censorsIip 172
oint peacekeepin 173
Mcctizun S9-64, 73
media Iundin 138
media induence 136
Merck S9-64, 73
minimum votin ae 192-210
poIiticaI term Iimits 141
post-secondary Iundin 137
private scIooIs 142, 240
recycIin 30, 70
riIt to privacy 16, 70, 241
scIooI dropout rate 140
scIooI Iocker searcIes 139
scIooI uniIorms 27, 141, 240
soIutions to poverty 30
space tourism S6-S7, S9
speedin drivers 170
standardized tests 27, 138, 240
student perIormance 137
TrutI and ReconciIiation Com-
missions 127-130
Var Crimes TribunaIs 127-130
j
}udes
consensus decision 68

266
votin independentIy 68
L
Listenin 17, 36-37, 42, 48, S1,
97, 12S-126, 143, 184, 189,
247
M
Memorization 4S, 2S3
Mind map 28
Mistakes 4, 41, S0-S1, S3, 89, 134,
1S4
ModeI ParIiament 182-184, 186,
188, 2S3
ModeI United Nations 182, 187,
2S4
Movement 48, S1, 9S, 240, 247,
2S1
N
Nervousness 1, S, 11, 7, 8
O
Oranization 28-30, 36, 10S, 123,
131, 138, 143, 14S, 148, 208,
24S
P
ParIiamentary styIe debate 1S,
68, 76, 1S3-166, 189, 239,
248, 2S1, 2S3, 2S4-2S6, 260
Pausin 46, S0, S3
Persuasive speakin 26-27, 32,
34, 38
PitcI 37, 46, S1, 7S, 82, 248
PIan 49, 70, 77, 79-80, 83-84, 88,
100, 11S-116, 119-120, 124,
126, 134, 136-37, 142, 239,
2S2, 2S4-2SS, 2S7
Podium 3, 97-98, 233
Point oI InIormation 76, 1S3-
1S4, 1S7-1S9, 160-163, 166,
193-194, 198, 204, 208, 248,
2S4-2SS
Point oI Order 164, 2SS
Point oI PersonaI PriviIee 164
PoIicy debate 11S-116, 118, 239,
2S6
Posture 8, 48, S2-S3, 98, 189, 247,
2S1
Proposition Scc ResoIutions
Props 99
PubIic opinion 113, 1S7
Q
Quotations 34-3S
R
Rate 46, 104, 140, 1S7, 242, 247
RebuttaI 76-77, 82-83, 148, 1S7,
168, 229, 232, 2SS
ReIutation 18, 19, 69, 80-86, 88, 90,
93, 99-100, 104, 118, 121, 123,
124, 126, 133-1S1, 1S9-160,
169, 174, 178-79, 19S, 199,
202-203, 206, 21S, 220, 227,
229, 230, 24S-246, 2S0, 2S2-
2S3, 2SS
Scc ulso CIasI
ReIevancy 2S-26, 28, 33, 61, 64,
100, 106, 118, 139, 1S8, 17S,
184, 190, 218, 228, 246, 248
ResoIutions
on Iacts 69-70
on poIicies 26, 27, 70, 111-112,
11S-116, 118, 122, 1SS, 196,
198, 206, 239, 242, 2S4, 2S6
on vaIues 27, 70, 109, 117, 122,
129, 187, 212, 239, 2S6
rucx
267
RoIe 73, 76-83, 88, 99, 100, 147,
1SS-1S6, 176, 186, 188, 190,
208, 233-23S, 249
S
Script 42, 2S6
Setup oI tIe room 9S
Sinpostin 31, 221
SimpIication
anaIoies, metapIors, and
exampIes 91
direct Ianuae 92
inside Ianuae 92
unknovn acronyms 92
us vs. tIem distinctions 91
Specic knovIede cases 74, 2S6
SpeecIes Irom tIe door 83-84
SpIit
economic and sociaI 122
Iavorite points 121
rst speaker outIines 121
Iun case 121
nationaI and internationaI 122
sIort-term and Ion-term 122
society and individuaI 122
Stae presence 97, 161
Stance 8, 9S-98
Statistics 34, 39, 113, 13S
Structure betveen points
pIysicaI Iocation 30
probIem and soIution 31
sort, seIect, and summarize 28
time and proression 29
topics and tIemes 29
Structure vitIin points
cite 31-32, 39, 124
cIaim 31, 39, 80, 124
comment 31-32, 39, 124
concIude 31-32, 39, 124
Student Conress 182-183, 2S4
StyIe 3, 27, 42, 4S-46, 48, 49, S1,
S3, 76-77, 87, 91, 148, 1S4-
1S6, 16S-166, 179, 183, 239,
24S, 248-249, 2S0-2S2, 2S4
SVOT anaIysis
opportunities 126-127, 131, 2S6
strentIs 126, 131, 2S6
tIreats 126-127, 131, 2S6
veaknesses 126-127, 131, 2S6
T
Teamvork 86-88, 100
Tension 6, 9, 49
TIeme 28-29, 32-33, 36-39, S8-
S9, 79-83, 103, 10S, 107-108,
122-124, 127-131, 13S, 138,
141, 143, 14S, 147, 149, 1S1,
160, 174, 183, 19S, 197, 199,
201, 203, 20S-207, 209-210,
216, 220, 223, 22S-227, 230,
232, 24S-246, 2S2, 2SS-2S6
Time-pIace-set cases 72-73
Tone 27, 29, 47, S1, S3, 62, 68, 7S,
77, 79, 123, 172, 18S
Tonue tvisters 7
Tournament 1S, 86, 88-91, 98,
12S, 1S6, 249, 261
Transitions 14, 33, 38-39, S0, S6,
144, 162, 166, 177, 193, 198,
20S, 208, 213, 220, 247-248
Truisms 72, 74
V
Voice 3-6, 9, 10-11, 46-47, 97, 99
VoIume 9, 47, S3, 248
W
Varmin up 6, 13, 22
VorId's Iastest taIker 46
269
Abo0t the A0thor
Iim MeraIi is a past Canadian Student Debatin Federation NationaI
CIampion. He deveIoped tIe debate trainin proram at TIe SpeecI
Studio Inc., a speecI communication academy. Iim Ias coacIed
speecI and debate at IiI scIooIs and Ias directed tIe Iberta Debate
CIampionsIips and tIe Iberta ModeI LeisIature. He serves on tIe
Iberta Debate and SpeecI ssociation's Board oI Directors.
LookIng Ior short, to the poInt debate resourcesZ
Want a quIck reIresher on Z
I so, vIsIt us on the web ...
taIkthetaIk.ca

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