The Development of Newton's Theory of Color

Author(s): Richard S. Westfall

Source: Isis, Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp. 339-358
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society
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T h e De ve lopme ntof Ne wton's
T h e or y of C olor
By
Rich ar d S.
We stf all
*
" T O pe r f or mmy
late
pr omise
to
y ou,
I sh all with out f ur th e r
ce r e mony
acquaint y ou,
th at in th e
be ginning
of th e Ye ar 1666
(at
wh ich time
I
apply e d my
se lf to th e
gr inding
of
Optick glasse s
of oth e r
f igur e s
th an
Sph e r ical,)
I
pr ocur e d
me a
T r iangular glass-Pr isme ,
to
tr y
th e r e with th e
ce le br ate d Ph ae nome na of C olour s." 1 T h us Isaac
Ne wton,
intr oducing
h is
f ir st
pape r
on
ligh t,
intr oduce d h imse lf to th e scie ntif ic wor ld of h is
day .
If th e
wor ds,
as
intr oduction,
le ad us to look
f or war d,
not
only
to h is wor k
in
optics,
but toth e e ntir e car e e r wh ich would se e h iminth e e nd e nth r one d
as
r e igning
monar ch ove r Br itish
scie nce ,
soalso
th e y
look backwar d towar d
a
long
tr adition of
optical
r e se ar ch and
spe culation.
T h e
ph e nome na
of
color s
we r e ,
as Ne wton
said,
ce le br ate d. Wh e n h e dar ke ne d h is ch ambe r
to
play
a
spe ctr umagainst
th e wall
opposite
th e
window, h owe ve r ,
h e was
not,
as th e wor ds
migh t
be take n to
imply , r e pe ating
an
e xpe r ime nt
e stab-
lish e d in
optical
tr adition. Ne wton's
e xpe r ime nt
dif f e r e d,
de libe r ate ly ,
in
cr ucial f actor s f r om
any
th at th e tr adition
pr e se nte d
to h im. Inde e d it was
de signe d
to ove r th r ow th e r e ce ive d doctr ine of color s wh ich th e
tr adition,
tr acing
its de sce nt back some two th ousand
y e ar s,
h ad de live r e d to h im.
T h e
planning
of th e
e xpe r ime nt,
not its obse r ve d
r e sults,
constitute d th e
r e volution in th e
th e or y
of color s.
T h e me ch anistic
ph ilosoph y
e stablish e d as th e f oundation of se ve nte e nth
ce ntur y
scie nce
by
De scar te s se t th e conte xt of Ne wton's
inve stigation
and
pr ovide d
th e imme diate
comple x
of ide as th at h is wor k in
optics
ove r tur ne d.
T h e
ph e nome na
of
ligh t
and color s h ad
acquir e d
ne w
signif icance
in th e
e y e s
of De scar te s and of th ose
f ollowing
h im wh o saw in th e me ch anical
ph ilosoph y
th e
ke y
to th e r iddle s of natur e . Wh e n De scar te s
ar gue d
th at
ligh t distinguish e s
th e th r e e basic e le me nts or or de r s of
cor puscle s
f r om
wh ich r e s e xte nsae ar e
compose d,
so th at bodie s ar e e ith e r
luminous,
tr ans-
par e nt,
or
opaque ,
h e could not f ail to be inte r e ste d in
optics.2
T h e
ph e -
nome na of
color s, mor e ove r ,
took on
major impor tance
in h is attack on
Ar istote lian r e al
qualitie s.
If we
say
th at we se e color in a
body ,
De scar te s
asse r te d,
it is th e same as
say ing
th at we se e
some th ing
but ar e
absolute ly
ignor ant
as to its natur e . We ar e
utte r ly
unable to conce ive wh at it could
Gr inne ll
C olle ge .
Ph ilosoph y ,
e d. I. Be r nar d C oh e n
(C ambr idge ,
1
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
6
Fe br uar y 1671/2;
Mass.,
1958), p.
47.
Isaac Ne wton's
Pape r s
&
Le tte r s on Natur al
2
Pr inciple s of Ph ilosoph y ,
Par t
III,
53.
339
ISIS, 1962, VOL. 53, PART
3, No. 173.
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
be as a
r e ality e xisting
outside our minds. We can h ave cle ar and distinct
knowle dge
of color s
only
wh e n we conside r th e mas se nsations. If we th ink
th at we
pe r ce ive
color in an
obje ct,
we e r r in
e quating
th e se nsation we
e xpe r ie nce
with
some th ing
we
suppose
to be in th e
obje ct.3
Se nsations of
color ,
like oth e r se nsations,
ar e
me r e ly
local motions inour ne r ve s
pr oduce d
by
local motions in th e wor ld outside . De scar te s
obje cte d
to a distinction
made
by
some Sch olastic
ph ilosoph e r s
be twe e n th e " r e al " color s of bodie s
and th e "
appar e nt
" color s of th e r ainbow. Since it is th e natur e of color s
to
appe ar ,
no valid distinctions can be dr awn be twe e n th e sour ce s of color
se nsations. Of th e local motions th at e xcite se nsations and of th e size s and
sh ape s
of th e bodie s move d we can f or mcle ar and distinct ide as. We can
in no wise
compr e h e nd
h ow r e al
qualitie s
such as
color ,
suppose d
to e xist
in
bodie s,
can cause local motions in our ne r ve s. C olor be came
vir tually
th e te st case of C ar te sian
me taph y sics
as it
applie d
to
qualitie s.
Wh e n
Robe r t
Boy le
-
not a C ar te sian
r e ally
but
ve r y
much one in th is
r e spe ct
-
be gan
to
publish
th e h istor ie s of
qualitie s by
wh ich h e inte nde d to
suppor t
th e me ch anical
ph ilosoph y ,
h is
Histor y
of
C olour s was one of th e f ir st in
th e se r ie s. So also to Robe r t Hooke color s
appe ar e d
to be of
pr imar y
impor tance
f or th e me ch anical
ph ilosoph y .
An inve te r ate ar tisan of ve r bal me ch anical
mode ls,
De scar te s
e mploy e d
th r e e me ch anical
analogie s
in h is tr e atme nt of
ligh t.
T h e th r e e
agr e e
little
e nough e xce pt
in th e ir me ch anical natur e . He
e xplaine d ligh t
f ir st as a
pr e ssur e
tr ansmitte d
instantane ously th r ough
matte r . Like th e stick
by
wh ich a blind man " se e s " obstacle s in h is
path ,
th e matte r of
tr anspar e nt
bodie s tr ansmits an
impulse
wh ich
pr oduce s
a se nsation in th e
e y e .
Se cond,
th e
impulse
we call
ligh t
is like th e
te nde ncy
of th e
juice
in a bar r e l of
gr ape s
(our
me ch anic
ph ilosoph e r
savour s a
dr op
of th e
or ganic
h e r e )
to
f low out of a h ole in th e bottomwh ile th e
gr ape s
r e main
stationar y .
In th e
th ir d
e xample pr e ssur e give s way e ntir e ly
to
motion,
and
ligh t
is
compar e d
toa
moving
ball.4 T o
e xplain
th e laws of r e f le ction and
r e f r action,
De scar te s
r e lie d on h is th ir d
analogy ;
f r omit h e was able to de r ive f or th e f ir st time
(in
pr int)
th e law of sine s f or r e f r action. C olor like wise was
e xplaine d by
th e th ir d
f igur e .
Some sur f ace s de ade n th e motion of th e
par ticle s
of
ligh t,
as sand
de str oy s
th e motion of a ball
f alling
into it. Such sur f ace s
appe ar
black.
Oth e r s,
wh ich r e f le ct th e mwith out
alte r ing any th ing
but
dir e ction,
appe ar
wh ite . Still oth e r s
give
th e
par ticle s
a
spinning
motion like th at of a
te nnis ball h it with a
ch opping
str oke ;
such
spinning
motions
pr oduce
th e
se nsations of color .
In th e
Dioptr ique
De scar te s did not
atte mpt
to
e xplain
color mor e
f ully ;
th e
th e or y
of th e r ainbow in th e Me te or e s
r e quir e d
th at h e do so. If h is
e xplanation
of th e r ainbow we r e
valid,
color s must be
pr oduce d by
r e f r ac-
tion
-
by
a
single
r e f r action wh ich is not r e ve r se d
by
a se cond one . Wh e n
a be am th at h as
unde r gone
a
single
r e f r action is limite d
by
dar kne ss or
sh adow,
color s ar e
pr oduce d.
T h e
cor puscle s
at th e
e dge
of th e be amf ind
3
Ibid.,
Par t
I,
68-70.
car te s,
e d. C h ar le s Adamand Paul
T anne r y ,
12
4Dioptr ique ,
Discour s
1;
Oe uvr e s de De s- vols.
(Par is, 1897-1910), 6,
83-93.
340
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
th e mse lve s conf ine d be twe e n
quie sce nt par ticle s
to one
side ,
and
moving
one s to th e oth e r . T h e combine d
pr e ssur e s ope r ate
to
ch ange
th e ir
spe e d
of
r otation. If th e
quie sce nt par ticle s
ar e on th e side towar d wh ich th e be am
is
r e f r acte d,
th e
par ticle s
of
ligh t
" do not r otate as f ast as
th e y
move r e cti-
line ar ly ,"
and blue r e sults. Onth e
opposite
side of th e be am
contr ar y
str e sse s
cause th e
par ticle s
" to tur n with mor e f or ce th an to move
r e ctiline ar ly ,"
and r e d
appe ar s.5
Wh e n th e
cor puscle s
tur n with a
spe e d e qual
to th e ir
f or war d
ve locity (by
wh ich De scar te s se e ms to h ave me ant th e motion of a
r olling ball) ligh t pr oduce s
th e se nsation of wh ite . As th e
spe e d
of r otation
incr e ase s,
color s towar d th e r e d e nd of th e
spe ctr umappe ar ;
as it
de cr e ase s,
color s towar d th e blue e nd. All color se nsations canbe r e f e r r e d toa common
sour ce ;
a
simple r otating
motion. Since De scar te s h e ld th at sur f ace s r e -
f le cting ligh t
can
impar t
similar
r otations,
h e conside r e d
r e f r action,
not as
th e sole cause of
color s,
but as th e
simplif ie d
case
allowing analy sis.6
Ligh t passing th r ough
a
r e f r acting
me dium
nor mally unde r goe s
two r e -
f r actions,
one at e ach of its
sur f ace s;
if th e sur f ace s ar e
par alle l,
as in a
pane
of
glass,
th e se cond
r e f r action,
in De scar te s'
opinion,
r e ve r se s th e f ir st and
de str oy s
its e f f e ct. His
pr oble m
was to isolate a
single
r e f r action,
and th e
pr ism
with one f ace se t
pe r pe ndicular
to th e incide nt
r ay
allowe d th is to be
done .7
Alth ough
th e
appe ar ance
of th e
pr ismatic spe ctr um
h ad be e n known
at le ast since th e
age
of Se ne ca and h ad be e n a common citation inme die val
tr e atise s, De scar te s e stablish e d its r ole in se ve nte e nth
ce ntur y optics
wh e n
h e saw inth e
pr ism
th e ide al instr ume nt toe stablish h is
th e or y .
In
de signing
h is
e xpe r ime nt,
h e h ad one
point
to de monstr ate
-
th at a
single
r e f r action
ge ne r ate s
color s. T h e de tails of th e
e xpe r ime nt natur ally
de r ive d f r omits
pur pose .
T h e
pr ism
would h ave to be move able so th at its f ace could be
se t
pe r pe ndicular
to th e sun's
r ay s.
It would be conve nie nt to h ave th e
scr e e n th at would r e ce ive th e
image
move able with th e
pr ism.
De scar te s
se t th e
pr ism
on a boar d th at was h e ld mor e or le ss h or izontal. A h ole in
th e boar d allowe d a small be am to
pass.
A se cond boar d, attach e d
pe r -
pe ndicular ly
to th e f ir st and th us
r ough ly ve r tical, se r ve d as th e scr e e n to
r e ce ive th e
image .
De scar te s'
spe ctr um
th us h ad a
tr aje ctor y
of
only
a f e w
inch e s in wh ich to
spr e ad.
Since it was
inte r ce pte d by
a scr e e n th at cut it
at
r ough ly
a 45?
angle ,
th e
possibility
of
obse r ving dispe r sion
was obscur e d.
T h e
r e lative ly
small
r e f r acting angle
of th e
pr ism
(30?
to
40?)
-
undoubte dly
ch ose n f or its conve nie nce in th is
ar r ange me nt
-
f ur th e r obscur e d th e
possi-
bility .8
For all
th at, De scar te s'
diagr amcle ar ly
sh ows th e
r ay s
of th e
spe c-
tr um
dive r ging. T h e y dive r ge , h owe ve r , at much th e
angle
of
conve r ge nce
of th e incide nt be am f r om th e sun. T h e
diagr am
sh ows th e
r ay s
at one
side of th e be amincide nt f r omone
e dge
of th e sun, and th ose at th e oth e r
side f r omth e oth e r
e dge .
If h e inte nde d th e
dispe r sion
of th e r e f r acte d
pe ncil
of
r ay s
to dif f e r f r omth e 31' of th e incide nt
pe ncil,
th e man wh o
h ad
just
announce d th e law of sine s h ad anobvious
e xplanation
at h and.
5
Le s
me te or e s, Discour s 8; Ibid., 6, 331-4. me ntum cr ucis; Ne wton
invar iably se t th e
6
Ibid., 6, 335. se cond
pr ism
in a
position opposite
to th e f ir st.
7
Sur e ly
De scar te s' insiste nce on a
single
r e - 8 Ibid., 6, 329-30. De scar te s doe s not
e xplicitly
f r action th at is not
de str oy e d by
a
contr ar y say
th at h e use d boar ds; th e y
ar e
just opaque
one de te r mine d one
aspe ct
of Ne wton's
e xpe r i-
slabs wh ich I h ave assume d to be boar ds.
341
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
In
f or mulating
h is
th e or y
of color s De scar te s
se lf -consciously play e d
th e
r e be l,
casting
out th e
pe r ipate tic
doctr ine of
qualitie s
and color s in or de r
to substitute a me ch anical
e xplanation.
Little did th e r e be l
compr e h e nd
h ow
close ly
th e bonds of tr adition still conf ine d h im. Eve n in
r e je cting
th e
pe r ipate tic
doctr ine ,
h e
acce pte d, unque stione d
and
appar e ntly unpe r -
ce ive d,
basic
assumptions conce r ning
color s.
Employ e d th r ough out
th e Sch o-
lastic
inve stigations
of th e
r ainbow,
th e se
assumptions
tr ace d th e ir
ance str y
be y ond
Ar istotle toe ar lie r
stage s
of Gr e e k
ph ilosoph y .
Ar istotle h ad
adopte d
th e
th e or y
of Anaxime ne s to
e xplain
th e color s of
th e r ainbow. He maintaine d th at th e color s
appe ar
wh e n
sunligh t
is mixe d
with th e blackne ss of a cloud. Ar istotle 's tr e atme nt of th e r ainbow
appe ar s
to stand in some conf lict with h is oth e r discussions of
ligh t
and color .
Wh e r e as,
inDe
Anima,
h e conside r e d
ligh t
tobe th e instantane ous
activity
of
tr anspar e nt
me dia and color s th e
te r minating
sur f ace s of visible
bodie s,
h e tr e ate d
ligh t
in th e
Me te or ologica
as a substance modif ie d into color s
by
th e me dium
th r ough
wh ich it
passe s.9
T h e
se e ming incompatibility
of
th e two
positions gave
r ise to th e discussions
among
th e Sch olastics as to
th e
r e ality
of th e r ainbow's color s. One of th e
pr oble ms
se t f or se ve nte e nth
ce ntur y optics by
De scar te s
-
and
tr iumph antly
solve d
by
Ne wton
-
was to
f ind a
single e xplanation
f or all th e
ph e nome na
of color . Ne ve r th e le ss th is
pr oble m
doe s not
mate r ially
af f e ct Ar istotle 's
conce ption
of
color s,
wh ich
ine ith e r case conside r s th e mtobe mixtur e s or
compounds.10
T h e f unda-
me ntal
assumption
of th is
conce ption
of
color s,
state d f r omth e
point
of
vie w of th e
Me te or ologica,
h olds color s to be modif ications of
pur e ligh t.
A se cond
assumptione quate s str e ngth
with br illiance . T h us r e d is con-
side r e d th e ne ar e st
appr oach
towh ite
-
pr oduce d
wh e n
str ong ligh t
is modi-
f ie d
by
a dar k me diumor r e f le cte d f r oma dar k sur f ace . As th e
str e ngth
of
ligh t
de cline s and th e admixtur e of dar kne ss
incr e ase s,
th e r e
appe ar
f ir st
gr e e n
and
f inally
viole t, dar k, we ak,
and th e last
ste p
be f or e blackne ss.
T h e se th r e e color s Ar istotle h e ld to be
pr imar y ;
th e oth e r color s ar e
pr o-
duce d
by
f ur th e r
compounding
th e th r e e
compounds
of dar kne ss and
ligh t.
Inaccor dance with h is
ge ne r al
tr e atme nt of
qualitie s
Ar istotle 's
conce ption
of color s base s itse lf on a th ir d f undame ntal notion
-
name ly ,
th at all of
th e color s f all ona scale be twe e nth e
contr ar y
e xtr e me s of black and wh ite .,1
Me die val
optics quickly
move d
be y ond
Ar istotle 's
unde r standing
of th e
r ainbow. But if it
compr e h e nde d
th e
pr oduction
of th e bow ina dif f e r e nt
manne r ,
it did not
ch alle nge
h is doctr ine of color s. T h e
se e ming
e mbodi-
me nt of common
se nse ,
it
appe ar e d
ne ith e r to invite
que stioning
nor to
r e quir e
alte r ation.
Gr osse te ste ,
f or
e xample ,
de f ine d color as
ligh t
mixe d
with a
tr anspar e nt
me dium
(lume n
admixtum cum
diaph ano).12
Me dia can
var y
in
pur ity ,
and
ligh t
in br illiance and
de nsity ;
f r omth e var ious com-
binations of th e th r e e var iable s th e dif f e r e ntcolor s ar ise .
Alth ough
Albe r tus
Magnus
did not
acce pt
all of Gr osse te ste 's
th e or y
of th e f or mationof th e
9
De
anima,
Bk.
ii, 7;
Me te or ologica,
Bk.
12
De ir ide se u de ir ide e t
spe culo;
Die Ph i-
iii, 4.
losoph isch e n
We r ke ,
e d.
Ludwig Baur , (Be i-
10
C f .,
De
se nsu,
C h ap.
iii.
tr dge
zur Ge sch ich te de r
Ph ilosoph ie
de s
1
Ibid.,
C h ap.
vi.
Mitte lalte r s, 9,
Miinste r i.
W.,
1912), p.
77.
342
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
r ainbow,
h is
conce ption
of color s
r e pe ate d
th e f undame ntal
Ar istote lian
ide as.13 Once
again
Wite lo alte r e d th e
compone nts
of th e r ainbow's
th e or y
with out
ch anging
th e f undame ntal ide as about color .14 T h e
th e or y
of
color
h e ld
by
T h e odor ic of
Fr e ibe r g
r e ste d on th e same
conce ption,
th at
is,
we ake ning th r ough
r e f r actionwh ich allows th e admixtur e of anamount
of
dar kne ss f r omth e me dium.'5 One of th e late st
r e pe titions
of th e
modif ica-
tion
th e or y appe ar e d
inth e
optical
le ctur e s of Ne wton's own
te ach e r , Isaac
Bar r ow. Wh ite bodie s ar e th ose th at r e f le ct
ligh t copiously
to all
side s,
black th ose th at r e f le ct
vir tually
no
ligh t.
Re d bodie s r e f le ct a little
le ss
th anwh ite
one s, blue a little mor e th anblack. All oth e r color s ar e mixtur e s
of r e d and
blue .l6
Alth ough
Ar istotle h ad maintaine d th e e xiste nce of
th r e e
pr imar y
color s,
and T h e odor ic f our , Bar r ow's state me ntr e ve als most
cle ar ly
th e ine r adicable dualismina
conce ption
wh ich conside r e d th at all
color s
ar e modif ications of
pur e ligh t by
th e admixtur e of dar kne ss. Be cause th e
doctr ine
th ough t
of color s inte r ms of a scale
ar r ange d
be twe e nth e
opposing
e xtr e me s of
ligh t (or wh ite )
and dar kne ss
(or black),
ne ith e r of wh ich could
be me asur e d
obje ctive ly ,
it was
inh e r e ntly incapable
of math e matical tr e at-
me nt.
De scar te s
acce pte d
th e Ar istote lian
conce ption
of color also. T h e notion
of
str ong
and we ak color s tr anslate d itse lf into a "cle ar and distinct"
me ch anical mode l with such f atal e ase th at De scar te s f aile d e ve nto
pe r ce ive
wh at h e was
doing.
T h e
str e ngth
of r e d now h ad a me ch anical
e quivale nt,
it is
tr ue ,
th e
h igh angular ve locity
of th e
par ticle s
of
ligh t,
and th e we akne ss
of blue was r e f e r r e d toa low
angular ve locity .
But th e color s continue d
tobe
r ange d
ona scale be twe e ne xtr e me s as inde te r minate as Ar istote lian
black and wh ite
-
if
any th ing,
mor e inde te r minate since
th e y
we r e
imaginar y
ve locitie s of unobse r vable
par ticle s. Pe r h aps noth ing
r e ve als De scar te s' sub-
mission to th e
pe r ipate tic
tr adition mor e
cle ar ly
th an h is tr e atme nt of
pur ple .
T o h is
e y e pur ple
r e ve ale d a
spar k
of
vivacity
and
r adiance ,
a touch
of
incar nat,
wh ich was
wh olly incompatible
with th e
languid
r otationof th e
blue
cor puscle s. Pur ple appe ar s,
h e
de cide d,
wh e nth e combinationof f or ce s
wor king
toslow downth e
blue -pr oducing par ticle s
cause s some of th e mto
f lip
ove r . As th e h ands of a watch tur ne d onits f ace would
appe ar
to one
looking th r ough
its back tobe
moving counte r -clockwise ,
sonow th e initial
spinning
motionof th e
par ticle
would be
e f f e ctive ly
r e ve r se d inr e lationto
it
ne igh bor s,
and th e f or ce s e ar lie r
wor king
toslow it downwould be come
acce le r ator s. He nce th e
vivacity
of
pur ple
onth e side of th e dullish blue s.'7
De scar te s'
conce ption
of color r e ve ale d its
agr e e me nt
with th e Ar istote lian
e spe cially
inits continue d r e liance onth e ide a of modif ication.
Pe r h aps
it
is not
wh olly
f ancif ul tose e inDe scar te s'
condition,
th at th e r e f r acte d be am
must be te r minate d
by
a dar k
quie sce nt
me dium, anoth e r f ace t of h is
Ar istote lian
h e r itage .
13 A. C .
C r ombie ,
Robe r t Gr osse te ste and th e bow: Fr om
My th
to Math e matics
(Ne w
Yor k
Or igins
of Expe r ime ntal
Scie nce ,
1100-1700 and
London,
1959), p.
113.
(Oxf or d, 1953), p.
199. 16
Le ctione s
Opticae ;
Math e matical
Wor ks,
14
Ibid.,
pp.
229-31.
e d. W. Wh e we ll
(C ambr idge , 1860), pp.
107-8.
15 Ibid.,
p.
246;
cf . C ar l B.
Boy e r ,
T h e Rain 17 Le s
me te or e s,
Discour s
8; Oe uvr e s, 6,
334.
343
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
De scar te s' wor k in
optics
e xe r cise d a
pe culiar
dominionove r th e minds of
inve stigator s
inth e
f ollowing ge ne r ation.
Onth e one
h and,
th e
sh or tcomings
of h is me ch anical mode l we r e obvious. Hooke ne e de d
only
two
page s
to
dismantle it
comple te ly ,
and in f act no
signif icant inve stigator
of
optics
acce pte d
it. Onth e oth e r
h and,
th e visionof a me ch anical
e xplanation
of
color s h ad
only
tobe voice d tobe come th e th e me of
e ve r y impor tant
discus-
sion. T h ose wh osmash e d th e C ar te sianmode l
pr oce e de d
with out
de lay
to
th e constr uctionof th e ir own. And th e basic
conce pt
of modif icationr e -
maine d as
unque stione d
inth e me ch anical
age
as it h ad inth e
pe r ipate tic.
Mar cus
Mar ci,
a wr ite r on
optics
and th e r ainbow in th e middle of th e
se ve nte e nth
ce ntur y
wh owas cite d atone time as a f or e sh adowe r of
Ne wton,
h e ld th atcolor s
or iginate
inth e r e f r actionof
ligh t th r ough
a
pr ism.
"
Ligh t
is not
ch ange d (mutatur )
into color s
e xce pt by
a ce r tainr e f r actionin a
de nse
me dium;
and th e dive r s
spe cie s
of color s ar e th e
pr oducts (par tus)
of r e f r actions."
18
A mor e
impor tant inve stigator ,
Gr imaldi,
launch e d a mor e
f ully
ar ticu-
late d attack onAr istote lian
conce ptions
of
ligh t
and color th anDe scar te s
h ad done .
Ligh t,
h e
maintaine d,
is a substantial f luid
pr opagate d
at im-
me nse ,
th ough
not
inf inite ,
ve locity ;
se nsations of color s ar e e xcite d
by
vibr ations inth e f luid. As De scar te s h ad also
done ,
Gr imaldi
r e je cte d
th e
Ar istote lian doctr ine of r e al
color s,
and one of th e
pr imar y goals
of h is
inve stigation
was to
de str oy any
distinctionbe twe e nr e aland
appar e nt
color s.
C olor s ar e
only
modif ications of
ligh t. By
var ious
e xpe r ime nts
h e
sough t
to
de monstr ate h ow
r e f le ction, r e f r action,
and dif f r action
(wh ich
h e
discove r e d)
can
modif y ligh t
soas to
pr oduce
se nsations of color . Wh e nGr imaldi
pr o-
je cte d
a
pr ismatic spe ctr um,
h e tooh ad de f inite
obje ctive s
inmind. He h ad
de monstr ate d
alr e ady
h ow a
simple
r e f le ctioncan
ge ne r ate
color s. Now h e
would
pr ove
th at a
simple
r e f r actioncandoas much . Inste ad of a boar d
with a h ole in
it,
Gr imaldi blacke ne d one f ace of h is
pr ism
le aving only
a
small
spot
uncove r e d. Ona scr e e nh e r e ce ive d th e color e d
spe ctr um;
cle ar ly
simple
r e f r action
pr oduce s
color s. Gr imaldi f ur th e r saw h ow th e
pr ismatic
e xpe r ime nt
could be
analy ze d
tor e ve al wh at th e natur e of th e modif ication
is. He note d
e xplicitly
th e
dive r ge nce
of th e r e f r acte d be am. As De scar te s'
ske tch h ad
sugge ste d
th e
ph e nome na,
soit h ad
sugge ste d
th e
e xplanation,
and Gr imaldi was toove r se d in
optics
tomiss it. T h e
appar e nt
diame te r of
18
C ite d in L.
Rose nf e ld,
"Mar cus Mar cis
angle
of incide nce is th e
de te r mining
f actor
Unte r such unge n
f ibe r
das Pr isma und ih r in th is
th e or y ,
and th e
spe ctr um
is
possible
Ve r h altnis
zu Ne wtons
Far be nth e or ie ," Isis,
17 be cause of th e inclination of
r ay s
in an in-
(1932),
327. I h ave not be e n able to se e a cide nt
pe ncil
of
ligh t.
"C onde nse d"
ligh t
is
copy
of Mar ci's r ar e
T h aumantias,
Libe r de
appar e ntly
dif f e r e nt f r om inte nse
ligh t.
In-
Ar cu C oe le sti
(Pr ague , 1648). Ine vitably
ac- de e d conde nsation se e ms to me an r ar e f action,
counts of h is wor k ar e
guide d,
at le ast to a and h is
conce ption appe ar s
to
r e pe at
Wite lo's
conside r able
e xte nt,
by que stions
dif f e r e nt f r om ide a of th e
we ake ning
of
ligh t th r ough
r e f r ac-
mine . I h ave not be e n able to f ind a de taile d tion. T h e be st discussion of Mar ci's th e or y
account of h is
pr ismatic pr oje ction. Appar -
of color s th at I h ave se e n is f ound in
Boy e r ,
e ntly ,
as th e
quote d
se nte nce would
indicate , Rainbow,
pp.
220-1. C f . Rose nf e ld's ar ticle
h e
e quate d
th e
pr oduction
of e ach color with cite d above and Edmund
Hoppe ,
"
Mar cus
a de f inite
angle
of
r e f r action,
in wh ich th e Mar ci de
Kr onland," Ar ch iv
f ur
Ge sch ich te
ligh t
is
"
conde nse d
"
a ce r tain
de gr e e .
T h e de r
Math e matik,
10
(1927),
282-90.
344
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
th e sunme ans th at th e
r ay s
of th e incide nt be amar e not
par alle l,
and th e
law of sine s
e xplains
th e
dive r ge nce
of th e r e f r acte d be am. T h e
ph e nome na
is, inde e d,
ne ce ssar y . C e r tainly
Gr imaldi did not conside r th at it
r e quir e d
car e f ulme asur e me nt
by
h imf or conf ir mation. But th e law of sine s
sugge ste d
a f ur th e r
conse que nce . C onside r ing
th r e e
r ay s
in th e incide nt
be am,
th e
r ay
at e ith e r
e dge
and th e bise ctor of th e include d
angle ,
Gr imaldi calcu-
late d th e ir r e f r actions and conclude d th at th e middle
r ay
no
longe r
bise cts
inth e r e f r acte d be am. It
e me r ge s
close r toone
e dge .
Since th e
r ay s
incide nt
toone side of th e middle
r ay
ar e still include d be twe e nth at
r ay
and th e
e dge ,
th e r e f r acte d be amis mor e conce ntr ate d at one side th anat th e oth e r . T h e
une ve n
de nsitie s,
h e
ar gue d,
intr oduce te nsions as it we r e with in th e be am
of
ligh t, modif y ing
th e vibr ations th at
pr oduce
se nsations of color . As to
wh ich side of th e be am
appe ar s
r e d,
tr aditionof f e r e d anobvious
e xplana-
tion: "
T h e r e f or e ,
th e color r e d
appe ar s
in th at
place
wh e r e th e
ligh t
is
mor e inte nse or
de nse ,
blue in th at wh e r e th e
ligh t
is mor e dif f use and
e xte nde d;
nor canit be doubte d th at r e d is mor e lucid and ch e e r f ul th an
blue . ."
19
Mor e
cle ar ly
th anGr imaldi's
wor k,
Robe r t
Boy le 's inve stigation
of colol
r e ve als th e
impor tance
of
optical th e or y
f or th e me ch anical
ph ilosoph y .
His
Expe r ime ntal Histor y
of
C olour s
f air ly
r adiate s C ar te sianinf lue nce .20 Em-
ploy ing
De scar te s' th ir d
f igur e
and
r e f le cting
h is discussionof
color ,
Boy le
spe aks
of "th e
unimaginably
subtile
cor puscle s
th at make
up
th e be ams
of
ligh t
.." 21 T h e wor k abounds inr e f e r e nce to
"
inte lligible
and me ch ani-
cal
pr inciple s," by
wh ich h e inte nds to
e xplain
color s,
" not as th e sch ools
by air y qualitie s,
but
by
r e al,
th ough e xtr e me ly
minute bodie s . ." 22
Ne ce ssar ily
h is
ar gume nt e xplicitly
de nie s a distinction be twe e n r e al and
appar e nt
color s. C olor s ar e
me r e ly
se nsations stimulate d inth e
optical
ne r ve s
by
ce r tainlocal motions.
By
r e f r actionas we ll as
by
r e f le ctionf r om
opaque
sur f ace s
ligh t may
be "
tr ouble d,"
th at
is, modif ie d,
insuch a
way
th at it
ar ouse s a
give n
se nsation. T o
say
th at a
body
is color e d is
only
to
say
th at
th e me ch anical
ar r ange me nt
of
par ticle s
onits sur f ace is such th atit modif ie s
ligh t,
in
r e f le cting
it,
ina ce r tain
way .
As th e r e st of h is
ge ne r ation, Boy le
r e f use d to
acce pt
th e C ar te sianme ch anical mode l. Incontr astto
some ,
h e
r e f r aine d f r om
constr ucting
anoth e r ,
r e se r ving
f inal
judgme nt
until all th e
e vide nce was in.23 Onone
point,
h owe ve r ,
th e r e was not
appar e ntly any
r e ason to
h e sitate ;
wh e n h e r e f e r r e d to " modif ie d
ligh t,
calle d colour .. ,"
a
ph r ase
wh ich
r e pe ats
th e outlook of th e e ntir e
wor k,
h e was
acce pting
with out
que stion
th e tr aditionof commonse nse h ande d down
th r ough
th e
Ar istote liansch ool.24
T h e
ph ilosoph ical le gacy
of De scar te s h ad be come th e common
pr ope r ty
of all th ose conce r ne d with
optics
and color s.
Boy le 's pe culiar
inte r e sts and
19
Fr ancisco Mar ia
Gr imaldi,
Ph y sico-
ne w e d. 6 vols.
(London, 1772), I,
662-788.
math e sis de
lumine , color ibus,
e t ir ide
(Bono- 21Ibid., I,
689.
niae , 1665), pp.
254-62.
22
Ibid., 1, 696,
746.
20
Its f ull title is Expe r ime nts and C onside r -
23
Ibid., I,
695-6.
ations
T ouch ing
C olour s;
T h e Wor ks
of
th e
24Ibid., I,
670.
Honour able Robe r t
Boy le ,
e d. T h omas
Bir ch ,
345
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
h is nor mal Baconian
de ligh t
in
ph e nome na
as such
h e lpe d
to de te r mine
th e line s
along
wh ich h e
e xploite d
h is inh e r itance . As a ch e mist h e was
inte r e ste d
pr imar ily
in
ch ange s
in th e
composition
of substance s. Most of
th e
Expe r ime ntal Histor y
of
C olour s is de vote d to obse r vations
r e lating
ch ange s
of color to
ch ange s
in th e me ch anical
ar r ange me nt
of
par ts.
Wh e n
h e de alt with "
e mph atical"
color s
pr oduce d by
a
pr ism,
h e was not con-
sciously simplif y ing
th e
ph e nome na
of color to th e ir cle ar e st
e xample ;
h e
was
me r e ly adding,
ant-like ,
anoth e r
gr ain
to th e
gr owing h e ap
of
e xpe r i-
me ntal e vide nce .
Boy le
was inte r e ste d in
color s,
any
color s. He
place d
th e
pr ism
so th at th e incide nt be amf e ll
dir e ctly
on one
angle
and was th us as
it we r e
split
in
two,
with e ach h alf r e f r acte d
by
a dif f e r e nt f ace of th e
pr ism.
By
a combination of r e f r actions and inte r nal r e f le ctions f our ir ise s and f our
uncolor e d
image s e me r ge d. Boy le 's e y e s
se e mto sh ine with
de ligh t
-
h e r e
we r e color s inde e d! Far f r om
wish ing
to
simplif y
th e
e xpe r ime nt
to de al
with a
single spe ctr um,
h e was mor e
apt
to de sir e a ve r sion
pr oducing e igh t
ir ise s. It is tr ue th at
Boy le
modif ie d th e
e xpe r ime nt
in one instance
by
cove r ing
th e f ace of th e
pr ism e xce pt
f or a
tiny
h ole ,
th us
r e ducing
th e
"
pr ismatical
ir is into a
ve r y
nar r ow
compass
..." T h e
tiny
ir is th us f or me d
h e e xamine d with a
micr oscope
-
toannounce th at th e color s we r e
appar e nt
e ve n on th e
micr oscopic
scale .
Boy le 's pur pose
in th e
pr ismatic e xpe r ime nt
was to de monstr ate th at
"e mph atical"
color s ar e no le ss r e al
th an,
and
inde e d no dif f e r e nt
f r om,
oth e r color s. Fur th e r
r e f le cting
and
r e f r acting
th e
image ,
h e
r e cor de d,
did not cause th e ir is to lose its color s. One time h e
r e f le cte d th e ir is toa f ocus with a concave mir r or . Anoth e r time h e r e f r acte d
it with a
lar ge
double -conve x
bur ning glass
so th at " one
par t
of th e ir is
migh t
be made to
appe ar
e ith e r
be y ond,
or on th is side of th e oth e r
par ts
of th e same
ir is;
but
y e t
th e same vivid colour s would
appe ar
in th e dis-
place d par t (if
I
may
so te r m
it)
as in th e oth e r ."
25
How
ne ar ly
th e se
e xpe r ime nts appr oach
tosome of Ne wton's. How
ne ar ly
-
and
y e t
h ow
de e p
th e ch asmstill to be cr osse d.
Pe r h aps
it was me r e ch ance th at h e f aile d in
e ith e r
e xpe r ime nt
to
br ing
th e ir is to a tr ue
f ocus,
but it was
h ar dly
an
accide nt th at h e f aile d to
appr e ciate
th e f act of dif f e r e ntial r e f r action
spr e ad
dir e ctly
be f or e h im.
Boy le 's e xpe r ime nts
we r e
pe r f or me d
with in a f r ame -
wor k of ide as wh ich
gove r ne d
th e e vide nce h e
sough t.
His use of th e wor d
" ir is
"
to indicate th e color e d
image
is indicative of h is
conce ptions.
He
did not me ntion
dive r ge nce
of th e r e f r acte d
be am,
and th e
appar e nt
sh or t
tr aje ctor y
(h e
me ntions
using
th e f loor to r e ce ive th e
image )
did not allow
it
space
to be come manif e st.
Boy le
was inte r e ste d
only
in
de monstr ating
th e
r e ality
of
pr ismatic
color s - "
r e ality " me aning vir tually
"
dur ability
"
in th is case
-
and h is
e xpe r ime ntation
was
planne d
with th at in mind. On
th e
f ollowing page
h e
pr oce e de d
to e xamine h ow color e d
pape r s appe ar
in
candle ligh t.
T h e e ntir e
Expe r ime ntal Histor y of
C olour s is a
f ascinating
study
in Baconian
f utility . Only
wh e n its
loving
accumulation of f acts was
r e place d by
a
sy ste matic plan
of
e xpe r ime ntation inspir e d by
a ne w ide a
was th e r iddle of color solve d.
25
Ibid., I,
726-7.
346
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
Inth e same
pe r iod
of a f e w
y e ar s dur ing
wh ich
Boy le
was
comple ting
h is
Histor y of
C olour s and Ne wton
initiating
h is car e e r in
e xpe r ime ntal
optics,
Robe r t Hooke was also
inve stigating
color s.
Alth ough
Hooke
pr e -
se nte d a br ie f and
de vastating cr itique
of th e C ar te sian
th e or y
of color s in
h is
Micr ogr aph ia,
h e was
f ully
unde r th e dominationof th e C ar te sianvision
of natur e .26 Inth e
pr e f ace
h e h ad
pr oclaime d
wh at th e
micr oscope migh t
accomplish
-
th at it
migh t
incr e ase me ch anical
knowle dge by e nabling
me n
" todisce r nall th e se cr e t
wor kings
of
Natur e ,
almost inth e same manne r
as we doth ose th at ar e th e
pr oductions
of
Ar t,
and ar e
manag'd by
Wh e e ls,
and
Engine s,
and
Spr ings,
th at we r e de vise d
by
h umane Wit." 27 T h e
ve r y
me ch anical
ge nius
th at
picke d
out th e de f icie ncie s of th e C ar te sianmode l
so
ke e nly
would not allow h imto
stop
with de str uction. Inh is
optical
wor k
at le ast Hooke se e ms tobe dr ive n
by
a
compulsion
to tr anslate ide as into
pictur able palpable image s.
He se e ms unable todooth e r wise . T h e f limsie st
e vide nce se ts h imatwor k
constr ucting
a mode l. As inth e case of
De scar te s,
h is
e xpe r ime ntation
with color s was
guide d by
th at e nd. " T h e r e must be
th e r e f or e some oth e r
pr opr ie ty
of r e f r actionth at cause s
colour ,"
h e con-
clude d th e
cr itique
of De scar te s. " And
upon
th e e xaminationof th e
th ing,
I cannot conce ive
any
one mor e
ge ne r al, inse par able ,
and
suf f icie nt,
th an
th at wh ich I h ave be f or e
assign'd."
28
De scar te s h ad lit
upon
th e
pr ism
as a me ans of
isolating
a
single
r e f r action.
Alth ough
Hooke 's obse r vations onth in
plate s e xplicitly
r e f ute d De scar te s'
conte ntion th at th e r e f r actions at two
par alle l
sur f ace s of a
plate
cance l
e ach
oth e r ,
h e saw th e
advantage
of th e
pr ismatic spe ctr um
f or
analy sis.
Inactualf actHooke did not
e mploy
th e
pr ism
atth is
point,
but h e obtaine d
anide ntical r e sult
by
a me ans Gr imaldi h ad also
e mploy e d
at time s. He
r e f r acte d a be amat th e sur f ace of a
de e p
ve sse l of wate r and r e ce ive d th e
image
on th e bottom. Hooke h ad
alr e ady
state d h is
conce ption
of
ligh t:
it is a swif t
vibr ating
motion tr ansmitte d
th r ough
me dia
susce ptible
of
such vibr ations. Be cause th e
ve locity
of
ligh t
var ie s in dif f e r e nt
me dia,
r e f r actionr e nde r s th e f r ontof th e
pulse oblique
toth e dir e ctionof th e
be am;
and th e
obliquity
cause s se nsations of color . Hooke 's
e xpe r ime nt
with th e
spe ctr um
was
pe r f or me d
tode monstr ate th is
th e or y .
His ske tch of th e e x-
pe r ime nt
sh ows th e r e f r acte d be am
dive r ging,
with th e
r ay s
at e ach
e dge -
coming,
of
cour se ,
f r omth e twoside s of th e sun. He was conf ir me d inh is
vie w wh e nh e looke d
up
at th e sun
th r ough
th e bottomof th e be ake r and5
saw one of its
e dge s tinge d
r e d and th e oth e r blue .29
Accor ding
toHooke 's.
e xplanation
th e f or war d
angle
of th e
oblique pulse
is " de ade ne d "
by
th e
r e sistance of th e dar k me dium
bor de r ing
th e be am.
(Again
th e r ole of
dar kne ss in
modif y ing ligh t!)
T h e f ur th e r th e
pulse
move s f r omth e r e -
f r acting
sur f ace ,
th e f ur th e r th e de adne ss
pe ne tr ate s
th e
r ay ,
and th e
pr of ile
of
th e r e f r acte d be amr e ve als a
tr iangular
de ad
-
ine vitably
blue
-
r e gion
with
its
ape x
at th e
r e f r acting
sur f ace . Onth e
opposite
side of th e
be am,
me an-
26
Micr ogr aph ia:
or Some
Ph y siological
De -
T h e r e upon (London, 1665), pp.
60-1.
scr iptions of
Minute Bodie s Made
by Magni-
27
Ibid.,
Pr e f ace .
f y ing
Glasse s. With Obse r vations and
Inquir ie s
28
Ibid.,
p. 61.
347
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
wh ile ,
th e
f ollowing e dge ,
its
way pr e par e d by
th e buf f e te d
le ading angle ,
waxe s
str ong
and
pr opagate s
a motion into th e
adjace nt quie sce nt
me dium.
He nce a
tr iangular str ong,
r e d,
ar e a is f ound on th e oth e r side of th e be am.
Hooke was convince d th at th e r e ar e
only
two
pr imar y
color s. " Blue is an
impr e ssion
on th e Re tina of an
oblique
and conf us'd
pulse
of
ligh t,
wh ose
we ake st
par t pr e ce de s,
and wh ose
str onge st
f ollows." " Re d is an
impr e ssion
on th e Re tina of an
oblique
and conf us'd
pulse
of
ligh t,
wh ose
str onge st
par t pr e ce de s,
and wh ose we ake st f ollows."
30
Oth e r color s ar e
compounds
of th e se two. T h us wh e r e th e two
tr iangular
ar e as in th e r e f r acte d be am
be gin
to
ove r lap, gr e e n appe ar s.
Hooke 's
e xplanation
of th e
spe ctr um sug-
ge ste d
a me ans of conf ir mation
by var y ing
th e distance of th e scr e e n. Unf or -
tunate ly
h is use of a wate r sur f ace inste ad of a
pr ismimpose d
a conside r able
inf le xibility .
T o incr e ase th e distance would h ave be e n
e spe cially
dif f icult;
h e was
using
a be ake r two f e e t
de e p
at is was. But Hooke
appar e ntly
f e lt
no ne e d to
pr e ss
th e
inve stigation
f ur th e r ;
th e
e xpe r ime nt
h ad se r ve d its
pur pose
f or h im.
It r e maine d f or Isaac Ne wton to
ch alle nge
th e tr aditional
conce pt
of
modif ication. T h e e ar lie st of h is conside r ations of
ligh t
and color of wh ich
we know is r e cor de d in one of h is note books.31 At th e time Ne wton made
th e note s h e h ad r e ad De scar te s'
Dioptr ique
and almost
ce r tainly
h is Me te or e s
as we ll. He h ad r e ad
Boy le 's Expe r ime ntal Histor y
of C olour s,
th e inf lue nce
of wh ich is
pe r ce ptible
f r omalmost th e f ir st note s and citations f r omit wh ich
appe ar f r e que ntly .
T h e note s r e f le ct th e state of
opinion
on color s at th at
junctur e pe r f e ctly . T h e y
contain a br ie f r e f utation of De scar te s'
conce ption
of
ligh t,
inwh ich Ne wton laid bar e th e dif f icultie s inh e r e nt in a
conce ption
of
ligh t
as
pr e ssur e .
Me anwh ile th e C ar te sian inf lue nce continue d todomin-
ate h is
appr oach
tocolor s as h is f ir st discussion of th e mr e ve als.
Of C olour s.
T h at dar ke colour s se e me f ur th e r of
y nligh t
one s
may
be f r omh e nce
y t
th e be ame s loose little of th e ir e f or ce i
nr e f le cting
f r oma wh ite
body
be cause
th e y
ar e
powe r f ully
r e siste d
th e r e by
but a dar ke
body by
r e asonof
y e
loose ne s
of its
par ts give
some admission to
y e ligh t
& r e f le cts it but
we akly
& so
y e
r e f le ctionf r omwh ite ne s will be soone r at
y e e y e .
or e lse be cause
y e
wh it
se nds be ams wth mor e f or ce to
y e e y e
&
givs
it a f e ir ce r knock.32
As th e
passage
indicate s, Ne wton,
like
Gr imaldi,
like
Boy le ,
and like
Hooke ,
was
se ar ch ing
f or a me ch anical
e xplanation
of color s
-
a me ch anical
e xplana-
tion, as De scar te s h ad
de mande d,
but a
satisf actor y
me ch anical
e xplanation,
as De scar te s h ad not
supplie d.
One oth e r
th ing
th e
passage sugge sts,
and
late r
passage s sugge st
mor e
str ongly ,
th at Ne wton would insist on th e
r igor -
ous
application
of me ch anical
pr inciple s.
Wh at a
quantity
of h alf -bake d
me ch anizing
h ad be e n
ge ne r ate d
in th e name of
scie nce ,
imaginar y
f r ictions
pr oducing imaginar y
r otations,
imaginar y obliquitie s imaginative ly
blunte d!
29
Ibid.,
p.
58. A. R.
Hall,
"Sir Isaac Ne wton's
Note -book,
30
Ibid.,
p.
64.
1661-65,"
C ambr idge
Histor ical
Jour nal,
9
31
Add.
3996,
Univ.
Lib.,
C ambr idge ;
e xte n-
(1948),
239-50.
sive
passage s
f r omth e note book ar e cite d in 32 Add.
3996,
f . 105v.
348
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
T h e nove l f e atur e of Ne wton's discussion is th e se r ious
application
of th e
pr inciple s
of me ch anics on a
micr oscopic
scale . Inste ad of
constr ucting
imaginar y
mode ls,
f or
e xample ,
h e
sugge ste d
th at color s
may appe ar
in
pr isms
be cause some
r ay s, moving
mor e
slowly
th an
oth e r s,
ar e r e f r acte d
at a
gr e ate r angle .
T h e
sugge stion migh t
be e xte nde d
be y ond pr ismatic
color s to
e xplain
th e color s of bodie s.
He nce r e dne s
y e llowne s
&c ar e made in
body s by stoping
y e
slowly
move d
r ay s
wtlloutmuch
h inde r ing
of
y e
motion of
y e
swif te r
r ay s.
& ble w
gr e e ne
&
pur ple by diminish ing
y e
motion of
y e
swif te r
r ay s
8 not of
y e
slowe r . Or in
some
body s
all th e se colour s
may
ar ise
by diminish ing y e
motion of all
y e
r ay s
in
gr e ate r
or le sse
ge ome tr icall pr opor tion,
f or
y n
th e r e will be le sse
dif f e r e nce in th e ir e motions
y n
oth e r wise
.3
A f e w se nte nce s late r h e tr ie d anoth e r
h y poth e sis. Supposing
th e
r ay s
of
e qual ve locity
but th e ir
par ticle s
of
une qual
size ,
h e conclude d th at
th e y
would str ike th e
e y e
with dif f e r e nt
impacts.
Wh e nce
suppose ing y t
th e r e ar e loose
par ticle s
in
y e
por e s of a
body be ar ing
pr opor tion
to
y e gr e ate r r ay s,
as 9:12: 8&
y e
le ss
globulus
is in
pr opor tion
to
y e gr e ate r
as 2:9.
y e gr e ate r globulus by impr inging
on such a
par ticle
will
loose
6/7 pte s
of its motion
y e
le ss
glob:
will loose
2/7 par ts
of its motion
&
y e r e maining
motion of
y e
glob:
will h ave almost such a
pr opor tion
toone
anoth e r as th e ir
quantity s
h ave . viz.
5/7:1/7::9:1 4/5
wch is almost 2
y e
le sse
glob.
& such a
body may pr oduce
ble ws and
pur ple s.
But if
y e par ticle s
on
wce l
y e
globuli
r e f le ct ar e
e quall
to
y e
le sse
globulus
it sh all loose its motion
c
y e gr e ate r glob:
sh all loos
2/11 par ts
of its motion and such a
body may
be
r e d or
y e llow
34
Wh ile h e was
se ar ch ing
f or a me ch anical
e xplanation
of
color ,
Ne wton h ad
be e n car r ie d
by
h is own me ch anical
ge nius
to substitute a ne w
assumption
in th e discussion. T h e f ir st of h is
ste ps
in
optics,
as th e note book r e ve als
it,
saw h im br e ak with th e
conce ption
of modif ication to
tr y ,
h owe ve r
te ntative ly , analy sis.
T h at
is,
h e conside r e d th e ide a th at wh ite
ligh t may
be a mixtur e out of wh ich th e individual color s ar e
se par ate d.
Inth is
insigh t
was
containe d,
as it
f inally pr ove d,
th e wh ole of h is wor k in
optics.
Of wh at
sugge ste d
th e ide a Ne wton did not
say
a wor d.
Ne ve r th e le ss,
th e te nor of h is e ntir e scie ntif ic car e e r
pe r vade s
th e note book so
de f inite ly
th at
conje ctur e appe ar s
r e asonable . Instinctive
pr e f e r e nce
f or
quantitative
tr e atme nt and insiste nce on math e matical
r igor ,
wh e r e unch e cke d
imagina-
tion in mode l
building
h ad h e ld
sway ,
se e mto h ave
pr ompte d
th e
sugge s-
tions inth e note books. Me ch anical
e xplanations
we r e de mande d.
Ve r y
we ll,
le t me ch anical
pr inciple s
be
e mploy e d
inste ad of
e mpty
counte r f e its in th e
f or mof
imaginar y
mach ine s. Would a slow
r ay
and a swif t
r ay
be
e qually
r e f r acte d
by
a constant
r e f r acting
f or ce ? Would a small and a
lar ge
cor -
puscle
r e bound with
e qual
f or ce f r om
par ticle s
of th e same size ? T h e obvi-
ous
par alle l
be twe e n Ne wton's f inal
conce ption
of color and th e
pr inciple
of
ine r tia,
sugge sting
th e
application
of me ch anics to
color , r e nde r s th is
349
33
Ibid.,
f . 122v.
34
Ibid.,
f . 123v.
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
conje ctur e
mor e
plausible .
In a
wor d,
th e ne w ide a h e
e mploy e d appe ar s
h and inh and with mor e
r igor ous
me ch anical and math e matical tr e atme nt.
Wh ate ve r th e
cause ,
Ne wton h ad h it
upon
a ne w ide a. As
y e t
it was
only
an ide a. He tr e ate d it as a te ntative
h y poth e sis
to wh ich h e h ad not com-
mitte d h imse lf ; th e
e xample s
cite d above sh ow h im
tr y ing
a combination of
analy sis
and modif ication. He tr ie d to
apply
th e ide a to th e
e xplanation
of color e d
f r inge s
ar ound bodie s se e n
th r ough
a
pr ism. C onje ctur ally
h e
place d
two
r e ctangle s
side
by
side
(abcd
and
cdsr )
and onboth h e
de signate d
th e
f r inge
ar e as ne xt to th e common
e dge (e odc
in th e
r e ctangle
abcd,
and
cdqp
in
cdsr ).
He
atte mpte d
to
compile
a ch ar t of th e color e d
f r inge s
wh e n
var ious
pair s
of
color s,
ge ne r ally pair s
of
contr asting ligh t
and dar k
color s,
ar e
place d
inabcd and cdsr . An
e xplanation
f ollowe d:
1. Note
y t
slowly
move d
r ay s
ar e r e f r acte d mor e th e n swif t one s
2dly
If adbc be sh addow and cdsr wh ite th e n
y e slowly
move d
r ay s come ing
f r om
cdqp
will be r e f r acte d as if
th e y
h ad come f r ome odc soe
y t y e slowly
move d
r ay be ing se pe r ate d
f r om
y e
swif t one s
by
r e f r action,
th e r e ar ise t 2
kinds of colour s viz: f r om
y e
slow one s
ble w,
sky
colour ,
&
pur ple s.
f r om
y e
swif t one s r e d
y e llow
& f r omth e m
wch
ar e ne ith e r move d
ve r y
swif t
nor slow ar ise th
gr e e ne
but f r om
y e
slow g&
swif tly
move d
r ay s mingle d
ar ise th
wh ite
gr e y
& black. wh e nce it is
y t cdqp
will not
appe ar e
r e d unle ss
qsr p
be
dar ke be cause as
many
slow
r ay s
as come f r om
cdqp
& ar e r e f r acte d as if
th e y
came f r om
e odc;
soe
many
slow
r ay s
come f r om
qsr p
& ar e r e f r acte d as
if
th e y
came f r om
dqpc
unle ss
qsr p
be dar ke r
y n
dqpc
35
Noth ing
in th e
passage sugge sts
actual
e xpe r ime ntation;
Ne wton se e ms
to be
tr y ing me r e ly
to
e xplain commonly
obse r ve d
f r inge s.
If th e
e xplana-
tion
pr ove s any th ing,
it is th at
simplif ication
and
clar ity
we r e not to be
r e ach e d down th is r oad.
Evide ntly
Ne wton f ound th e
going
as
r ough
as th e
mode r n r e ade r
doe s;
h e did not
atte mpt
to f ollow th is
appr oach again.
Rath e r Ne wton tur ne d ina dif f e r e nt dir e ction and took th e se cond
major
ste p
inh is
optical
wor k,
conde nsing
th e
dismay ing comple xity
into a
simple
e xpe r ime nt.
3dly
T h at
y e r ay s
wch make ble w ar e r e f r acte d mor e
y n
y e r ay s
wh 1 make r e d
appe ar e s
f r omth is
e xpe r imnt
If one h af e of
y e
th r e d abc be ble w &
y e
oth e r
r e d & a sh ade or black
body
be
put
be h ind it th e n
looke ing
on
y e
th r e d
th r ough
a
pr ism
one h alf e of
y e
th r e d sh all
appe ar e h igh e r y ny e
oth e r . &
not both inone dir e ct
line ,
by
r e asonof
une quall
r e f r actions in
y e
dif f e r ing
colour s.36
Appar e ntly
th e color e d th r e ad and not th e
pr ismatic spe ctr um
was Ne wton's
f ir st obse r vation of dif f e r e ntial r e f r action.
C e r tainly
h e made a
pr actice
of
citing
th e th r e ad
e xpe r ime nt
with th e
spe ctr um
in
suppor t
of h is
th e or y .
Ye ar s
late r ,
wh e n
Anth ony
Lucas wr ote f r om
Lie ge ch alle nging
Ne wton,
h e cite d se ve r al
e xpe r ime nts
in
suppor t
of h is
case ,
including
a var iant of
th e one with th r e ad. Ne wton comme nte d in h is
r e ply
th at one of Lucas'
e xpe r ime nts, duly pe r f or me d,
was th e most
conspicuous e xpe r ime nt
h e
3e
Ibid.,
f . 122v.
350
35
Ibid.,
f . 122v.
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
kne w,
ne xt to th e
e xpe r ime ntum
cr ucis,
f or
de monstr ating
th e dif f e r e ntial
r e f r action of
ligh t.37
If it late r took on th is
impor tance
in h is
mind,
th e
e xpe r ime nt
did not
do soat once . Ne wton h ad take n
up
a ne w ide a of
major impor tance .
He
h ad conf ir me d it
by
an
inge nious e xpe r ime nt.
He h ad
not,
appar e ntly ,
r e alize d its
signif icance . Following
th e
e xpe r ime nt
inth e note book ar e some
of th e
spe culations
cite d above in wh ich h e r e tur ne d
par tially
to th e ide a
of modif ication.
Finally
th e discussion tr ails of f into a se r ie s of note s on
color take n f r om
Boy le .
If Ne wton h ad discove r e d " th e odde st if not th e
most conside r able de te ction wch h ath h ith e r to be e ne made inth e
ope r ations
of
Natur e ,"
h e did not know it.38
Ne wton h imse lf h as told us wh at occasione d a ne w look at th e
signif icance
of th e th r e ad
e xpe r ime nt.
He was
tr y ing
to
gr ind non-sph e r ical
le nse s to
pe r f e ct
th e
te le scope .
It is not h ar d to
imagine
th e sce ne wh e n f ull r e aliza-
tion str uck. As h e
ponde r e d
th e dif f icult task of
ge ne r ating
a
non-sph e r ical
sur f ace ,
h is mind would h ave r oame d ove r th e
pr oble ms
of
optics. Sudde nly
th e
signif icance
of th e th r e ad
e xpe r ime nt
f or th e wor k h e was
e ngage d
in
would h ave f lash e d be f or e h im. T h e r e is no
r e f r acting
sur f ace th at can
br ing
all of th e
r ay s
to a f ocus
-
th at
is,
th e r e is no such sur f ace if
ligh t
is a
h e te r oge ne ous
mixtur e of
r ay s
with dif f e r e nt
r e f r angibilitie s.
At th is
point
Ne wton would h ave
be gun
a
sy ste matic inve stigation.
Anoth e r note book
r e cor ds th at
inve stigation.39
It
be gins
with some obse r vations take n f r om
Boy le .
Gold
le af ,
pie ce s
of color e d
glass,
aninf usion of
lignum ne ph r iticum,
e ach
appe ar s
of dif f e r e nt color s wh e n se e n f r om
opposite
side s. Ne wton
include d th e same obse r vations in th e
pape r
se nt to th e
Roy al Socie ty
in
1672 as f ur th e r
e xample s
of th e
pr oce ss
of
analy sis by
wh ich color e d
ph e -
nome na ar e
pr oduce d.
In all of
th e m,
Ne wton
ar gue d,
some
r ay s
ar e tr ans-
mitte d wh ile oth e r s ar e
r e f le cte d,
soth at dif f e r e nt color s
appe ar
on
opposite
side s. Fr om
Boy le 's
obse r vations h e move d on to th e th r e ad
e xpe r ime nt.
T h e n
-
h is th ir d
signif icant ste p
-
h e saw th e r e le vance of th e
pr ismatic
spe ctr um
f or h is ide a.
Ne wton could
h ar dly
h ave f aile d to
tr y
th e
pr oje ction. Boy le
h ad done
it and h ad calle d th e
pr ism
" th e use f ulle st instr ume nt me n h ave
y e t
e m-
ploy e d
about th e
conte mplation
of colour s . .
" 40
De scar te s and
Hooke ,
among
th ose h e h ad
r e ad,
and Mar ci and Gr imaldi
among
th e
oth e r s,
h ad
made th e
pr ismatic spe ctr um
th e ce ntr al e vide nce f or th e ir th e or ie s of color .
Ne wton now
pe r ce ive d
th at th e same
e xpe r ime nt
must e ith e r conf ir m or
de ny
h is ne w
th e or y ,
and if it conf ir me d
it,
ove r th r ow th ose of h is
pr e -
de ce ssor s. Not th e same
e xpe r ime nt,
h owe ve r ;
as oth e r s h ad tailor e d th e
e xpe r ime nt
to th e ir
ne e ds,
so also Ne wton tailor e d it to h is. T h e f ir st
r e cor de d instance of h is
pr ismatic pr oje ction
involve d two
spe cif ic
modif ica-
tions of
pr e vious e xpe r ime nts.
Wh e n e ar lie r
inve stigator s
h ad obse r ve d
37
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
18
August
1676;
39 Add.
3975,
pp.
1-20,
Univ.
Lib.,
C am-
T h e
C or r e sponde nce of
Isaac
Ne wton,
e d.
br idge ;
Exte nsive
passage s
ar e cite d in A. R.
H. W.
T ur nbull,
6 vols.
pr oje cte d (C ambr idge ,
Hall,
"
Fur th e r
Optical Expe r ime nts
of Isaac
1959-continuing), 2,
80.
Ne wton,"
Annals
of Scie nce ,
11
(1955),
27-43.
38
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
18
Januar y 1671/2;
40
Wor ks, I,
738.
C or r e sponde nce , 1, 82-3.
351
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
dispe r sion, th e y
h ad r e f e r r e d it to th e
appar e nt
diame te r of th e sun. Wh e n
Par die s se nt h is
inte llige nt
comme nts onNe wton's
pape r
toth e
Roy al Socie ty
in
1672,
h e se ize d
upon
th e same
point.
Ne wton was
f ully
awar e of th is
possible e xplanation
of
dispe r sion.
He calculate d th at wh e n th e
angle s
of
incide nce and r e f r action of th e me dian
r ay s
at th e two f ace s of th e
pr ism
ar e
e qual,
th e e f f e ct of th e
appar e nt
diame te r of th e sun is ne utr alize d.
If th e
pr ism
is
place d
at th e
pr ope r angle
with
r e spe ct
to th e incide nt
r ay s,
th e
image ough t
to be r ound if all of th e
r ay s
h ave th e same
r e f r angibility .
In th e f ir st r e cor de d instance of th e
e xpe r ime nt
Ne wton state d th at th e
pr ism
was
place d
soth at th e
r ay s
we r e "
e qually
r e f r acte d
"
at th e two f ace s
of th e
pr ism.41
He also allowe d th e
spe ctr ume nough space
to
spr e ad
out,
a
tr aje ctor y
of
twe nty -two
f e e t wh e r e De scar te s h ad
pe r mitte d
a f e w inch e s
and Hooke two f e e t. In h is
pape r
to th e
Roy al Socie ty
Ne wton wr ote th at
"
apply ing my
se lf to conside r th e m
[th e
color s of th e
spe ctr um]
mor e cir -
cumspe ctly ,
I be came
sur pr ise d
to se e th e m in an
oblong
f or m; wh ich ,
accor ding
to th e r e ce ive d laws of
Re f r action,
I
e xpe cte d
sh ould h ave be e n
cir cular ." 42 T h e wor ds sh ould be take n as a r h e tor ical de vice wh ich is not
to be unde r stood
lite r ally .
T h e
de ve lopme nt
of h is
ar gume nt
in th e Le c-
tione s
Opticae
wor ks f or th e ide ntical e f f e ct. Fir st h e state d th e
conce pt
of dif f e r e ntial r e f r action as a
pr e mise .
He aske d th e n wh at th e
sh ape
of th e
image
sh ould be
give n e qual r e f r angibility (i.
e .,
"
accor ding
to th e r e ce ive d
laws of Re f r action
")
and calculate d th at it sh ould be r ound.
Finally
h e
intr oduce d th e
e xpe r ime nt r e ve aling
th at it is not r ound and th us
uph e ld
th e
pr e mise or iginally
state d. Ne wton did not obse r ve an
e longate d spe ctr um
by
accide nt. He h ad
car e f ully de signe d
an
e xpe r ime nt,
convince d,
in th e
ligh t
of h is e ar lie r
obse r vations,
th at such a r e sult would occur .
Ne wton's
inve stigations
of color h ad
be gun
with in th e f r ame wor k of
C ar te sian
ide as;
th at
is,
h e too was
se ar ch ing
f or a me ch anical
e xplanation.
His de libe r ations h ad le d h im to th e
discove r y
of a ne w
pr ope r ty
of
ligh t
wh ich was
ine xtr icably
inte r wove n with a
comple te
r e f or mulation of th e
que stion
of color . At le ast h alf of h is
ge nius lay
in h is
ability
to
r e cognize
th e distinction be twe e n th e
pr ope r ty
and me ch anical
e xplanations.
Wh e r e as
De scar te s and Hooke would h ave br oke n of f th e
inve stigation
to
imagine
a
me ch anical
mode l,
Ne wton was able to
ke e p
th e two
pr oce sse s se par ate
and
to
e xplor e
th e
pr ope r ty
to its f ulle st e xte nt. Of
cour se ,
Ne wton h ad an
e xplanation
f r om th e
ve r y be ginning.
He h e ld a
cor puscular th e or y
of
ligh t,
and th e old tr adition of
str ong
and we ak color s le d h im to
ide ntif y
blue with small
par ticle s
and r e d with
lar ge .
In an inatte ntive mome nt
as h e wr ote th e
pape r
of 1672 h e include d a r e f e r e nce to th e
mate r iality
of
ligh t,
and was as a r e sult
plunge d
into an
e xch ange
with Hooke . Var ious
passage s
in le tte r s
f ollowing
th e
pape r
r e f e r to h is
cor puscular h y poth e sis,
and in 1675 h e submitte d a ve r sion of it to th e
Roy al Socie ty .
T h e
pape r
anticipate s
h is f utur e state me nts on e th e r . Ne wton ne ve r sur r e nde r e d th e
41
Add. 3975,
p.
2. Ne wton conducte d f ur th e r pe r f or me d th e
e xpe r ime nt
with th e be amf r om
e xpe r ime nts
inwh ich h e nar r owe d th e incide nt Ve nus.
pe ncil
down to 7' in or de r to de monstr ate 42
C oh e n, e d.,
Ne wton's
Pape r s, p.
48.
dif f e r e ntial r e f r action. On one occasion h e
352
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
C ar te sian vision of a me ch anical
e xplanation.
But h e did se e th at th e ne w
pr ope r ty
h e h ad discove r e d was
some th ing e ntir e ly
distinct. He r e f use d
cor r e ctly
to mix h is
e xpe r ime ntal
de monstr ations of th e
pr ope r ty
with
discussions of its sour ce .
Ne wton's
ar gume nt
in Par t II of th e
Le ctione s,
and in th e
popular ize d
ve r sion wh ich h e se nt to th e
Roy al Socie ty ,
constitute s a r e asone d attack
on th e doctr ine of modif ication. If th e f act of dif f e r e ntial r e f r action take s
a
le ading position
in th e
ar gume nt,
its f unction is to
suppor t
mor e f unda-
me ntal
conce pts-th at
wh ite
ligh t (th at
is to
say ,
nor mal
sunligh t)
is a
h e te r oge ne ous
mixtur e ,
and th at th e
ph e nome na
of color ar e
pr oduce d by
a
pr oce ss
of
analy sis,
wh e th e r
th r ough
r e f r action or r e f le ction. T h us th e
obse r vations take n f r om
Boy le
th at h e include d in th e 1672
pape r de pe nd
on
analy sis
with out r e f r action.
Similar ly
th e
inge nious e xpe r ime nts
with
th e color s of th in
plate s, be gun
in th e note book
inve stigation, comple te d
in th e
unpublish e d
Discour se
of
Obse r vations
(1675),
and
ultimate ly pub-
lish e d in th e
Opticks,
we r e inte nde d to de monstr ate th at
analy sis e xplains
th e color s of bodie s as we ll as it
e xplains
th e
pr ismatic
spe ctr um.
Ne wton's
th e or y
was
e xpounde d spe cif ically
in r e f utation of th ose with wh ich h e
was most
f amiliar ,
th e th e or ie s of De scar te s and Hooke . Individual
passage s
in th e Le ctione s and in th e
pape r
of 1672 r e ve al th at both me n we r e
ve r y
much in mind as Ne wton wr ote . T h e discussion of th e
pr ismatic spe ctr um
r e f e r s
e xplicitly
to th e ir insiste nce on th e
ne ce ssity
of a dar k me dium limit-
ing
th e
be am,
and of cour se de nie s it. Ne wton aske d if
dispe r sion migh t
be
due to a
spinning
motion
acquir e d by
th e
cor puscle s
in r e f r action wh ich
would cause th e ir
path s
to
cur ve ; th e r e f e r e nce to De scar te s is e vide nt. In
a cur ious
passage
Ne wton
inquir e d
if
dispe r sion
could r e sult f r om
"
con-
tinge nt ir r e gular itie s"
in th e
glass.
Obvious me ans of
e liminating
th at
possibility spr ing
to
mind;
h e could h ave sh if te d th e
pr ism
a little , use d
anoth e r
angle ,
use d anoth e r
pr ism.
Inste ad h e r e f r acte d th e
dispe r sing
be am
th r ough
a se cond
pr ism
se t in r e ve r se d
position imme diate ly be y ond
th e
f ir st;
by
th is me ans h e r e stor e d th e r ound wh ite be amand de monstr ate d
th at
dispe r sion
is th e
r e gular pr oduct
of an or de r e d cause and not an acci-
de ntal
ph e nome non.43
T h e
e xpe r ime nt
was
impor tant
in th e
ne ce ssar y
de monstr ation th at wh ite
ligh t
can be
r e compose d,
but th e discussion of it
is couch e d
e ntir e ly
in te r ms of
ir r e gular itie s
in th e
glass. Passage s
in De s-
car te s and
Hooke , wh ich
e xploit
a similar ide a,
h e lp
to illuminate Ne wton's
pr oce dur e .
De scar te s'
e xplanation
of a come t's tail
h inge s upon
th e
h y po-
th e sis th at
ligh t
r e f le cte d f r omth e come t is
dispe r se d by
a sur f ace in th e
sky
wh e r e
cor puscle s
of dif f e r e nt size s me e t.44 Hooke
de ve lope d
a
th e or y
43
C oh e n,
e d. Ne wton's
Pape r s,
p.
48. to Hooke 's cr iticismof h is
pape r
r e f e r r e d e x-
44
Le
monde , C h ap. xv; Pr inciple s of Ph i-
plicitly
to th is
point. "Amongst
oth e r
ir r e gu-
losoph y ,
Par t III. In h is
e ar ly
note book Ne w- lar itie s I know not wh at is mor e obvious to
ton e nte r e d a
par agr aph h e ade d,
"
Of
y e
Sunn
suspe ct
th e n a f or tuitous
dilating
&
spr e ading
Star r s & Planne ts & C ome ts" wh ich containe d of
ligh t
af te r some such manne r as De s-C ar te s
a numbe r of
que stions
about vor tice s
including
h ath de scr ibe d in h is ae th e r e all r e f r actions f or
th e
f ollowing:
"Wh ith e r C ar te s h is r e f le xion
e xplicating
y e T ay le
of a C ome t .. ."
(Ne wton
will unr iddle
y e miste r y
of a C ome ts bir d to
Olde nbur g,
11
June
1672; C or r e sponde nce ,
[be ar d]." (Add. 3996, f .
93v.)
Ne wton's
r e ply 1,
178.)
353
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
of wh at h e calle d th e inf le ctionof
ligh t
as it
passe s th r ough
a me diumof
var y ing de nsity .
He
ar gue d
th at bubble s of
h e ate d,
r ar e f ie d air act as con-
cave
le nse s,
causing
be ams to
dive r ge .
T h is le d h imonto
sugge st
th atle nse s
migh t
be
pe r f e cte d
to ach ie ve a tr ue f ocus
by var y ing
th e
de nsity
of th e
glass
inste ad of th e ir
f igur e .45 Undoubte dly
h is immode r ate
claims,
in th e
f ace of Ne wton's
r e f le cting te le scope ,
of wh at h e could ach ie ve
by
r e f r action
we r e base d onth is ide a. Inth e
ligh t
of th e se
passage s
Ne wton's discussion
of
"
continge nt ir r e gular itie s
" inth e
pr ismbe gins
tomake se nse .
Fur th e r -
mor e th e f amous
ph r ase , e xpe r ime ntum
cr ucis,
wh ich be came almost
sy nony -
mous with th e Ne wtonian
th e or y ,
was coine d
by
Hooke in h is
optical
wr itings.
Fr ancis Baconh ad r e f e r r e d toaninstantia
cr ucis;
Hooke
e mploy e d
th e
ph r ase
in h is
Micr ogr aph ia
and e xte nde d th e notion with th e
ph r ase
e xpe r ime ntum
cr ucis.46 Ne wtonbor r owe d it and
applie d
it toth e climactic
e xpe r ime nt
inth e
pape r
of 1672. T h us
many passage s
indicate th at Ne wton
wr ote with De scar te s and Hooke inmind. T h e most
impor tant
r e f e r e nce to
th e m, h owe ve r ,
is not anisolate d
passage .
It is Ne wton's
ar gume nt
in its
e ntir e ty ,
h is r e asone d r e f utationof th e
conce pt
of modif ication.
InPar t II of th e Le ctione s
Opticae
Ne wton state d a
comple te th e or y
of
color s.
Pe r h aps
th e f ull dime nsions of h is
ge nius
ar e as visible h e r e as in
any
of h is wor k. Be f or e
any
cr itic h ad
ch alle nge d
h is
conclusions,
h e h ad
f or e se e nth e
obje ctions th e y
would r aise and
pr ovide d
h is answe r s. Inth e
e xch ange s
th at f ollowe d
publication
Ne wton did ach ie ve a
h igh e r de gr e e
of
clar ity
and concisionin
stating
th e e sse ntials of h is
th e or y ,
at th e cost of
conside r able
psy ch ic
attr ition. But almost all of th e mate r ial th at h e now
br ough t
f or war d to
suppor t
h is
position
h ad be e n state d
alr e ady
in th e
le ctur e s. In
many way s
th e
pape r
of
June ,
1672,
se nt in
r e ply
to
Hooke ,
display s
Ne wton's
e xpe r ime ntal powe r
inf ulle r
play
th anth e
or iginal pape r
se nt in
Fe br uar y .
With
pe r f e ct sur e ty
h e se ize d th e ce ntr al issue s Hooke
h ad r aise d and de vise d br illiant
e xpe r ime nts
tose ttle th e m. Or r ath e r h e
se e me d tode vise
e xpe r ime nts,
f or
th e y
h ad all be e n
e xpounde d
be f or e h and
inth e Le ctione s.
Having th ough t th r ough
th e
pr oble mcomple te ly ,
Ne wton
h ad be e nable to
pr e se nt
a
f ully
e labor ate d
th e or y
of color .
Wh e r e as th e modif ication
th e or y
h e ld
or dinar y sunligh t
to be
simple
and
h omoge ne ous,
Ne wtonde monstr ate d th at it is a
h e te r oge ne ous
mixtur e
of wh ath e calle d dif f or m
r ay s, r ay s dif f e r ing
in
r e f r angibility ,
in
r e f le xibility ,
and inth e color
th e y
e xh ibit. One of h is cle ar e st state me nts of th e
point
occur s ina
r e ply
to
Huy ge ns
in 1673.
1. T h e Sun's
ligh t
consist of
r ay s dif f e r ing by
inde f inite
de gr e e s
of r e -
f r angibility .
2.
Ray s
wch dif f e r in
r e f r angibility ,
wh e n
par te d
f r omone anoth e r do
45Micr ogr aph ia, pp.
220-1, 232-3. Ne wton's 14 vols.
(London, 1858-62), 1,
pp.
294 f f .
note s on
Micr ogr aph ia
contain th is
point.
Hooke ,
Micr ogr aph ia, pp.
54,
59.
Pe r h aps
(Add. 3958.1,
f .
4.)
some of Hooke 's
pique
ste mme d f r om th e
46
Novum
Or ganum,
Bk.
ii,
Aph .
xxxvi;
T h e r e alization th at h is own
ph r ase
h ad be e n at-
Wor ks
of
Fr ancis
Bacon,
e d.
Jame s Spe dding,
tach e d to a de monstr ation
r e f uting
h im.
Robe r t Le slie
Ellis,
and
Douglas
De non
He ath ,
35.4
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
pr opor tionally
dif f e r in th e colour s wch
th e y
e xh ibit. T h e se two
Pr opo-
sitions ar e matte r of f act.
3. T h e r e ar e as
many simple
or
h omoge ne al
colour s as
de gr e e s
of
r e f r angi-
bility .
For to
e ve r y de gr e e
of
r e f r angibility be longs
a dif f e r e nt colour
by
Pr op:
2. And th at colour is
simple ...
4. Wh ite ne ss in all
r e spe cts
like th at of th e Sun's imme diate
ligh t
& of all
y e
usuall obe cts of our se nse s cannot be
compounde d
of two
simple
colour s alone ...
5. Wh ite ne ss inall
r e spe cts
like th at of th e Sun's imme diate
ligh t
cannot be
compounde d
of
simple
C olour s,
with out aninde f inite
var ie ty
of th e m.47
Me n of th e se ve nte e nth
ce ntur y
did not f ind th is an
e asy conce ption
to
gr asp.
In
1676,
f or
e xample ,
af te r th e issue h ad be e n discusse d be f or e th e m
ove r a
space
of f our
y e ar s,
me mbe r s of th e
Roy al Socie ty
could still ask
wh e th e r
r ay s
of
ligh t migh t
not owe th e ir e xh ibition of dif f e r e nt color s
to th e ir se ve r al
de gr e e s
of
ve locity
" r ath e r
th an,
as Mr . Ne wton
th ough t,
to th e se ve r al connate
de gr e e s
of
r e f r angibility
in th e
r ay s
th e mse lve s? "
48
In
r e ply ing
to th e
que stion
Ne wton tr ie d to se ttle th e matte r once and
f or all.
T h at in
any Hy poth e sis
wh e nce
y e r ay s may
be
suppose d
toh ave
any or iginall
dive r sitie s,
wh e th e r as tosize or
f igur e
or motion or
f or ce
or
quality
or
any
th ing
e ls
imaginable
wch
may suf f ice
to
dif f e r e nce
th ose
r ay s
in colour b&
r e f r angibility ,
th e r e is no ne e d tose e k
f or
oth e r cause s
of
th e se e f f e cts th e n
th ose
or iginal
dive r sitie s. T h is r ule
be ing
laid
down,
I
ar gue
th us. In
any
Hy poth e sis
wh ate ve r ,
ligh t
as it come s f r om
y e
Sunmust be
suppose d
e ith e r
h omoge ne al
or
h e te r oge ne al.
If
y e
last,
th e n is th at
Hy poth e sis compr e -
h e nde d in th is
ge ne r al
r ule & socannot be
against
me : if th e f ir stth e nmust
r e f r actions h ave a
powe r
to
modif y ligh t
so as to
ch ange
it's color if ick
qualif ication
8c
r e f r angibility ;
wch is
against e xpe r ie nce .49
All th e
ph e nome na
of color s ar e
pr oduce d,
not
by
th e modif ication of
simple ligh t,
not
by
th e mixtur e of
ligh t
with
any th ing
e lse ,
but
th r ough
analy sis, by
wh ate ve r
me ans,
of th e
h e te r oge ne ous
mixtur e into its com-
pone nts.
Ne wton maintaine d th at th e r e ctiline ar
pr opagation
of
ligh t
can
be inf le cte d
by
two
ge ne r al
me ans,
r e f r action and r e f le ction. Wh e n Hooke
br ough t
dif f r action
f or war d,
Ne wton claime d th at it was
me r e ly
a
spe cial
case of r e f r action. Be cause
r ay s
dif f e r in th e ir connate
de gr e e s
of
r e f r angi-
bility , th e y
ar e
se par ate d by
r e f r action. T h e
e xpe r ime nt
with th e
pr ismatic
spe ctr um
was th e
pr incipal
de monstr ation of th is f act.
"
And wh at is said
of th e ir
r e f r angibility ,"
h e adde d at th e e nd of h is Discour se
of Obse r vations,
in wh ich h e
inve stigate d
th e color s in th in
plate s, "may
be unde r stood
of th e ir
r e f le xibility :
th at
is,
of th e ir
dispositions
to be
r e f le cte d,
some at a
gr e ate r ,
and oth e r s at a le ss th ickne ss of th in
plate s
or
bubble s,
name ly ,
th at
th ose
dispositions
ar e alsoconnate with th e
r ay s,
and immutable .." 50
47
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
23
June
1673;
Pape r s,
p. 225.
C or r e sponde nce , 1, 293.
49
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
15
Fe br uar y 1675/6;
48
T h omas
Bir ch ,
Histor y of
th e
Roy al
So-
C or r e sponde nce , 1,
419-20.
cie ty , 3, 295;
cite d in
C oh e n,
e d. Ne wton's 50
C oh e n,
e d. Ne wton's
Pape r s, p.
224.
355
RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
For I
appr e h e nd
[h e
state d in a
le tte r ]
th at all
y e
Ph ae nome na of colour s
in
y e
wor ld r e sult f r om
noth ing
but
se par ations
or mixtur e s of dif f or m
r ay s
& th at dif f e r e nt
r e f r angibility
8c
r e f le xibility
ar e
only y e
me ans
by
wch th ose
se par ations
or mixtur e s ar e made .51
In th e
h y poth e sis
of
ligh t
Ne wton r e duce d r e f le ction and r e f r action to a
single pr oce ss,
th e inf le ction of a r e ctiline ar
r ay passing th r ough
a me dium
(e th e r )
of
var y ing de nsity .
All th e
ph e nome na
of
color s, th e n,
canbe tr ace d
back to th e size of
cor puscle s constituting
th e var ious
r ay s.
I
suppose ,
th at as
body e s
of var ious
size s, de nsitie s,
or
te nsions,
do
by pe r -
cussionor oth e r actione xcite sounds of var ious tone s &
conse que ntly
vibr a-
tions inth e Air of var ious
bigne sse
sowh e nth e
r ay e s
of
ligh t, by impinging
on th e stif
r e f r acting Supe r f icie s
e xcite vibr ations in th e
ae th e r ,
th ose
r ay e s,
wh at e ve r
th e y
be ,
as
th e y h appe n
todif f e r in
magnitude , str e ngth
or
vigour ,
e xcite vibr ations of var ious
bigne sse s;
th e
bigge st, str onge st
or most
pote nt
r ay e s,
th e
lar ge st
vibr ations & oth e r s
sh or te r ,
accor ding
to th e ir
bigne sse
str e ngth
or
powe r ,
And th e r e f or e th e e nds of th e
C apillame nta
of th e
optique
ne r ve ,
wch
pave
or f ace th e
Re tina,
be ing
such
r e f r acting Supe r f icie s,
wh e n
th e
r ay e s impinge upon
th e m,
th e y
must th e r e e xcite th e se
vibr ations,
wch
vibr ations
(like
th ose of Sound in a tr unk or
tr umpe t,)
will r un
along
th e
aque ous por e s
or
C r y stalline pith
of th e
C apillame nta th r ough
th e
optic
Ne r ve s into th e se nsor ium
(wch Ligh t
itse lf cannot
doe ,)
& th e r e I
suppose ,
af f e ct th e se nse with var ious colour s
accor ding
to th e ir
bigne sse
& mixtur e ;
th e
bigge st
with th e
str onge st
colour s,
Re ds &
Ye llows;
th e le ast with th e
we ake st,
ble ws &
viole ts;
th e midle with
gr e e n,
& a conf usion of
all,
with
wh ite ,
much af te r th e
manne r ,
th at in th e se nse of
He ar ing
Natur e make s
use of ae r ial vibr ations of se ve r all
bigne sse s
to
ge ne r ate
Sounds of dive r s
tone s,
f or th e
Analogy
of Natur e is tobe obse r ve d.52
Since h e
agr e e d
th at all
r ay s
of
ligh t
h ave a common
ve locity ,
dif f e r e nce s in
"
magnitude , str e ngth
or
vigour ,"
could
only
me an dif f e r e nce s in th e f ir st
of th e se .
One f ace t of th is
th e or y
on wh ich Ne wton insiste d is its r e lation to th e
law of sine s. Once th e
dispe r sion
of
ligh t
in r e f r action was
e stablish e d,
th e
or de r ly pr oce dur e
of natur e was calle d into
que stion
unle ss th e dif f or m
natur e of
ligh t
we r e admitte d. If th e conte ntion asse r te d
by
Hooke af te r
th e
pape r
of 1672 we r e
tr ue ,
th at
dispe r sion
is
ge ne r ate d
in
r e f r action,
th e n
r e f r action is a f or tuitous
pr oce ss
not
gove r ne d by
law.
By apply ing
th e
law of sine s toe ach
spe cie s
of
r ay ,
Ne wton r e af f ir me d it.
A
ne ce ssar y conse que nce
of th e ne w
th e or y
of color is th e
immutability
of
r ay s. By
r e f r action and r e f le ction
th e y
canbe mixe d and
se par ate d,
but inth e ir
connate
pr ope r tie s
of
r e f r angibility , r e f le xibility ,
and
pr ope nsity
to e xh ibit
a ce r tain color
th e y
r e main
unch ange d.
T h e f ull r e alization of th is conse -
que nce ,
as th e
ar gume nt
in Par t II of th e Le ctione s
r e ve als,
le d to th e con-
ce ption
of th e
e xpe r ime ntum
cr ucis. T h e
e xpe r ime ntum
cr ucis in tur n
51
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
15
Fe br uar y
1675/6;
C or r e sponde nce , 1,
418.
52
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
7 De ce mbe r
1675;
C or r e sponde nce , 1,
376.
356
T HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEWT ON'S T HEORY OF C OLOR
be came th e
ve r y
anch or of th e Ne wtonian
position,
wh ich h is cr itics could
ne ith e r
budge
nor
ignor e .
And
th e r e f or e ,
[h e conclude d]
if
by
r e f r action,
or
any
oth e r of th e af or e said
cause s,
th e dif f or m
Ray s,
late nt insuch a
mixtur e , be
se par ate d,
th e r e sh all
e me r ge
colour s dif f e r e nt f r omth e colour of th e
composition.
Wh ich colour s
ar e not Ne w
ge ne r ate d,
but
only
made
Appar e nt by be ing par te d.53
State d in th is
way ,
Ne wton's
th e or y appe ar s
as th e
application
of th e
pr in-
ciple
of ine r tia to th e
th e or y
of
color ,
e spe cially
wh e n it is r e ad in con-
junction
with th e
h y poth e sis
of
ligh t. C h ange
is
me r e ly ch ange
of
ve locity
accor ding
to th e str ict r ule th at F
e quals
ma.
Pr ope r tie s
of a
par ticle
ar e indif f e r e nt to its state of
motion,
and
unde r go
no
ch ange s
with it.
T h e
ar gume nt
of two mille nia's
standing
as to th e numbe r of
pr imar y
color s was te r minate d with th e
une xpe cte d
answe r of
inf inity .
As
many
de gr e e s
of
r e f r angibility
as th e r e ar e be twe e n th e e xtr e me
case s,
so
many
color s th e r e ar e . And th e
angle
of
dispe r sion
is
inf inite ly
divisible . Ne wton
de signate d
th e individual
spe cie s
of
r ay s,
and th e
single
color s
th e y
e xh ibit,
with a
var ie ty
of
adje ctive s
-
pr imar y , pr imitive , uncompounde d, simple ,
or iginal, h omoge ne al.54
Inf inite in
numbe r ,
th e y
f all be twe e n th e e xtr e me s
of
pur ple
and r e d on an or de r e d scale
-
a discontinuous scale in th at e ach
color is a
single
discr e te and immutable
e ntity ,
a continuous scale in th at
th e
ste ps
be twe e n th e mar e
inde f inite ly
small.
Still mor e
sur pr ising
was th e tr e atme nt of wh ite and black.
For me r ly
th e two e xtr e me s of th e color
scale ,
th e y
we r e now r e move d f r omth e scale
e ntir e ly
-
and ide ntif ie d. Wh e r e as wh ite h ad be e n associate d with
pur e ligh t
and color s with
mixtur e s,
Ne wton r e ve r se d th e
positions.
Wh ite
(th at
is,
pur e wh ite )
can be
pr oduce d only by
a
h e te r oge ne ous
mixtur e of all th e
r ay s.
" T h is I be lie ve h ath se e me d th e most Par adoxicall of all
my
asse r -
tions,"
h e
comme nte d,
" & me t with th e most unive r sall and obstinate
Pr e judice ."
55
T h e Le ctione s indicate th at
pe r h aps
Ne wton h imse lf h ad
f ound th is a dif f icult conclusion to
acce pt;
th e
longe st,
most
th or ough ,
and
most br illiant se ction of Par t II is de vote d to
it,
as
th ough
Ne wton f e lt
oblige d
to convince h imse lf
be y ond any possible
doubt.
By
var ious
inge ni-
ous me th ods h e
analy ze d sunligh t
into its
compone nts; by e qually inge nious
me ans h e r e constitute d th e
or iginal composition.
T h e latte r
ste p
was man-
dator y ;
Ne wton h ad to de monstr ate th at a mixtur e of th e
se par ate d r ay s
appe ar s
as wh ite if h e we r e to e stablish h is
position.
In th e
pape r
of 1672
h e include d one of th e se
e xpe r ime nts.
He
inte r ce pte d
th e
r ay s dive r ging
f r oma
pr ism
with a le ns and
br ough t
th e mto a f ocus. A scr e e n be twe e n
th e le ns and th e f ocus
display e d
th e
spe ctr um
in r e duce d
f or m;
be y ond
th e
f ocus it
display e d
th e
spe ctr um
with th e or de r of color s
r e ve r se d;
at th e
f ocus it
display e d
wh ite . Wh e n Hooke
ch alle nge d
th is
position,
Ne wton
adde d var ious e labor ations to th e
e xpe r ime nt.
If h e obse r ve d th e wh ite
f ocus
th r ough
a
pr ism,
h e saw th e color s of th e
spe ctr um again.
Wh e n h e
inte r ce pte d
one color at th e
le ns,
th e same color
disappe ar e d
f r omth e
image
53
C oh e n,
e d. Ne wton's
Pape r s, p.
54. (Discour se
of Obse r vations); C or r e sponde nce ,
54
C or r e sponde nce , 1, 180, 287, 291,
293.
1,
385. Ne wton de le te d th is se nte nce f r omth e
55
Ne wton to
Olde nbur g,
7 De ce mbe r 1675 f inal ve r sion of th e Discour se .
357
358 RIC HARD S. WEST FALL
se e n
th r ough
th e
pr ism.
In one of h is most be autif ul
e xpe r ime nts
h e
ar r ange d
a
cogge d
wh e e l be twe e nth e le ns and th e f ocus so
th at,
as it tur ne d,
th e
cogs inte r ce pte d
some of th e
conve r ging r ay s.
As th e wh e e l tur ne d
slowly ,
a succe ssionof color s f licke d on th e scr e e n. Wh e n th e
spe e d
of
r otation incr e ase d until th e succe ssioncould no
longe r
be
distinguish e d,
th e f ocus
againappe ar e d
wh ite . Wh ite , th at is to
say ,
is not tobe ide ntif ie d
with
any single ph y sicale ntity ;
it is th e se nsation
pr oduce d by
a
h e te r oge ne -
ous mixtur e of all th e
r ay s. Gr e y
and black dif f e r f r omit in
inte nsity
alone ;
conside r e d as color s
th e y
ar e ide ntical towh ite . T o de monstr ate th is
point
Ne wtonr e f le cte d be ams of
sunligh t
f r omcolor e d sur f ace s ontoa wh ite
pape r .
Ine ach case th e
pape r display e d
th e color of th e sur f ace , th at
is,
th e color
e xh ibite d
by
th e
r ay s
th at th e sur f ace r e f le cte d most
copiously .
Wh e n a
black sur f ace was
use d,
gr anting
of cour se th at it r e f le cte d
ve r y
little
ligh t,
th e
pape r display e d
wh ite .
In
sh atte r ing
th e
conce ption
of color as a scale of
gr adation
be twe e n
opposing qualitie s,
Ne wton made
possible
th e ir math e matical tr e atme nt.
Once
again
th e af f initie s of h is
th e or y
with th e ne w
ph ilosoph y
of natur e
is e vide nt.
Ligh t
and
h e avy
we r e no
longe r
conside r e d as
opposite s,
but
as
de gr e e s
of th e same
quality ;
th e same was tr ue of h ot and cold. Ne wton
now ide ntif ie d color s with
give nr ay s posse ssing
oth e r
obje ctive ,
me asur able
qualitie s. De gr e e s
of
r e f r angibility
could be
ar r ange d
ona
single
absolute
scale ,
wh e r e as a scale
str e tch ing
f r omwh ite toblack
ne ce ssar ily
lacke d an
absolute r e f e r e nce . T h e
subje ctive
se nsationof color be came little mor e
th ana conve nie nt
sy mbol
to
signif y
th e me asur e able
e ntity .
In both me ch anics and math e matics Ne wton's ach ie ve me nt
r e pr e se nts
th e culmination of e ar lie r wor k. No
pr e de ce ssor ,
h owe ve r ,
made
str aigh t
th e
way
f or a ne w
th e or y
of color . Inth e f ace of a
long
tr aditionsanctif ie d
by
its
se e ming
e mbodime nt of common
se nse ,
h e was able to
r e cognize
its
assumptions,
conce ive of
oth e r s,
and inth e e nd maintainth e m
victor iously .
T o r e alize th at f amiliar
obje cts may
be conce ive d in
wh olly
unf amiliar
te r ms is not an
e asy
matte r . How dif f icult an inte lle ctual f e at it was is
r e ve ale d
by
th e case of
De scar te s,
wh o
consciously r e je cte d
tr adition but
was unable to
r e cognize
th at th e dictate s of commonse nse
conce r ning
color
be longe d
to th e tr aditionas we ll. It is r e ve ale d also
by
th e r e action to
Ne wton's
th e or y , e spe cially
onth e
par t
of me nlike Hooke and
Huy ge ns.
Eve nwith th e
th e or y spr e ad
be f or e th e m
suppor te d by e xpe r ime ntal pr oof s
th e y
we r e unable to
dispe nse
with th e f amiliar
obje cts
of inte lle ctual f ur ni-
tur e .
Huy ge ns
ne ve r did
acce pt
th e ne w
th e or y . Pe r h aps
it was
ne ce ssar y
th atNe wtonsh ould take th e initial
ste p,
th e h ar de st
ste p,
at th e
ve r y
outse t
of h is scie ntif ic
car e e r ,
be f or e th e tr aditionh ad be come a
par t
of h is natur e
toointimate tobe
r e cognize d
and conside r e d
obje ctive ly .
Be th atas it
may ,
h e did take th e
ste p,
and tur ne d th e
th e or y
of color s
upside
down
by
e mploy ing
a
wh olly
nove l ide a. Mor e
cle ar ly
th an
any th ing
e lse in h is
car e e r ,
Ne wton's wor k in
optics
r e ve als h is
powe r
of
or iginal th ough t.