David Riazanov's

KARL MARX and FREDERICK ENGELS

An Introduction to Their Lives and Work
written 1927
first published 1937
Translated by Joshua Kunitz
Transribed for the !nternet
by diretor"#ar$%or& in between January and 'pril 199(%
When Monthly Review Press reprinted this classic work in 1973, Paul M. Sweezy wrote the reasons
or doin! so in a "rie oreword#
)*a+ in the 193,s when ! was plannin& a ourse on the eono#is of soialis# at
-arvard. ! found that there was a dearth of suitable #ateiral in /n&lish on all aspets
of the sub0et. but espeially on 1ar$ and 1ar$is#% !n o#bin& the relevant shelves
of the 2niversity library. ! a#e upon a onsiderable nu#ber of titles whih were new
to #e% 1any of these of ourse turned out to be useless. but several ontributed
i#protantly to #y own eduation and a few fitted niely into the need for ourse
readin& #aterial% 3ne whih 4ualified under both these headin&s and whih ! found to
be of absorbin& interest was David Riazanov's Karl 1ar$ and 5riedrih /n&els whih
had been written in the #id6192,s as a series of letures for 7oviet wor+in&6lass
audienes and had reently been translated into /n&lish by Joshua Kunitz and
published by !nternational 8ublishers%
)! assi&ned the boo+ in its entirety as an introdution to 1ar$is# as lon& as ! &ave the
ourse% The results were &ood9 the students li+ed it and learned fro# it not only the
#ain fats about the lives and wor+s of the founders of 1ar$is#. but also. by way of
e$a#ple. so#ethin& of the 1ar$ist approah to the study and writin& of history%
):ater on durin& the 19(,s when there was a revival of interest in 1ar$is# a#on&
students and others. a &rowin& need was felt for reliable wor+s of introdution and
e$planation% ;iven #y own past e$periene. ! naturally responded to re4uests for
assistane fro# students and teahers by reo##endin&. a#on& other wor+s.
Riazanov's Karl 1ar$ and 5riedrih /n&els% *ut by that ti#e the boo+ had lon& been
1
out of print and ould usually be found only in the lar&er libraries <so#e of whih. as
has a way of happenin& with useful boo+s. had lost their opies in the intervenin&
years=% >e at 1onthly Review 8ress therefore deided to re4uest per#ission to reprint
the boo+. and this has now been &ranted% ! hope that students and teahers in the 197,s
will share #y enthusias# for a wor+ whih e$e#plifies in an outstandin& way the art
of popularizin& without falsifyin& or vul&arizin&%)
$is senti%ents are shared. So here&s a di!ital edition, per%anently archived on the net, thus never
o the li"rary shel. 'ownload or print out your own copy.

2
TALE !F C!NTENTS
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T-/ ;R/'T 5R/?@- R/A3:2T!3? '?D !T7 !?5:2/?@/ 283? ;/R1'?B%
C"A#TER ( T"E EARL) RE&!L%TI!NAR) M!&EMENT IN GERMAN)'
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T-/ /'R:B >R!T!?;7 35 /?;/:7%
1'RC '7 /D!T3R 35 T-/ Rheinishe Deitun&%
C"A#TER * T"E RELATI!N ETWEEN SCIENTIFIC S!CIALISM AND
#"IL!S!#")'
1'T/R!':!71%
K'?T%
5!@-T/%
-/;/:%
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D!':/@T!@ 1'T/R!':!71%
T-/ -!7T3R!@ 1!77!3? 35 T-/ 8R3:/T'R!'T%
C"A#TER + T"E "IST!R) !F T"E C!MM%NIST LEAG%E'
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C"A#TER , T"E GERMAN RE&!L%TI!N !F $-$-'
1'RC '?D /?;/:7 !? T-/ R-!?/ 8R3A!?@/%
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T-/ @3:3;?/ >3RK!?;1/?'7 2?!3?%
T-/ 83:!@!/7 '?D T'@T!@7 35 T-/ ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&%
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35 38!?!3?7 !? T-/ @3112?!7T :/';2/%
T-/ 78:!T%

C"A#TER . T"E REACTI!N !F T"E FIFTIES'
T-/ ?ew Bor+ Tribune%
3
T-/ @R!1/'? >'R%
T-/ A!/>7 35 1'RC '?D /?;/:7%
T-/ !T':!'? E2/7T!3?%
1'RC '?D /?;/:7 D!55/R >!T- :'77'::/%
T-/ @3?TR3A/R7B >!T- A3;T%
1'RC'7 'TT!T2D/ T3>'RD :'77'::/%
C"A#TER / T"E CRISIS !F $-./0-'
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!? /?;:'?D. 5R'?@/ '?D ;/R1'?B%
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T-/ 532?D!?; 35 T-/ 5!R7T !?T/R?'T!3?':%
T-/ R3:/ 35 1'RC%
T-/ !?'2;2R': 'DDR/77%
C"A#TER - T"E C!NSTIT%TI!N !F T"E FIRST INTERNATI!NAL'
T-/ :3?D3? @3?5/R/?@/%
T-/ ;/?/A' @3?;R/77%
1'RC'7 R/83RT%
T-/ :'27'??/ '?D *R277/:7 @3?;R/77/7%
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T-/ 5R'?@368R277!'? >'R%
T-/ 8'R!7 @3112?/%
T-/ 7TR2;;:/ */T>//? 1'RC '?D *'K2?!?%
T-/ -';2/ @3?;R/77%

C"A#TER 1 ENGELS M!&ES T! L!ND!N'
-!7 8'RT!@!8'T!3? !? T-/ ;/?/R': @32?@!:%
1'RC'7 !::?/77%
/?;/:7 T'K/7 -!7 8:'@/%
'nti6DGhrin&%
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T-/ R3:/ 35 /?;/:7 !? T-/ 7/@3?D !?T/R?'T!3?':%
T-/ D/'T- 35 /?;/:7%


H
C"A#TER I
T"E IND%STRIAL RE&!L%TI!N IN ENGLAND'
T-/ ;R/'T 5R/?@- R/A3:2T!3? '?D !T7 !?5:2/?@/ 283? ;/R1'?B%
!n Karl 1ar$ and 5riedrih /n&els we have two individuals who have &reatly
influened hu#an thou&ht% The personality of /n&els reedes so#ewhat into the
ba+&round as o#pared to 1ar$% >e shall subse4uently see their interrelation% 's
re&ards 1ar$ one is not li+ely to find in the history of the nineteenth entury a #an
who. by his ativity and his sientifi attain#ents. had as #uh to do as he. with
deter#inin& the thou&ht and ations of a suession of &enerations in a &reat nu#ber
of ountries% 1ar$ has been dead #ore than forty years% Bet he is still alive% -is
thou&ht ontinues to influene. and to &ive diretion to. the intelletual develop#ent of
the #ost re#ote ountries. ountries whih never heard of 1ar$ when he was alive%
>e shall atte#pt to disern the onditions and the surroundin&s in whih 1ar$ and
/n&els &rew and developed% /very one is a produt of a definite soial #ilieu% /very
&enius reatin& so#ethin& new. does it on the basis of what has been ao#plished
before hi#% -e does not sprout forth fro# a vauu#% 5urther#ore. to really deter#ine
the #a&nitude of a &enius. one #ust first asertain the antedatin& ahieve#ents. the
de&ree of the intelletual develop#ent of soiety. the soial for#s into whih this
&enius was born and fro# whih he drew his psyholo&ial and physial sustenane%
'nd so. to understand 1ar$ 66 and this is a pratial appliation of 1ar$'s own #ethod
66 we shall first proeed to study the historial ba+&round of his period and its
influene upon hi#%
Karl 1ar$ was born on the Ith of 1ay. 1F1F. in the ity of Treves. in Rhenish
8russiaJ /n&els. on the 2Fth of ?ove#ber. 1F2,. in the ity of *ar#en of the sa#e
provine% !t is si&nifiant that both were born in ;er#any. in the Rhine provine. and
at about the sa#e ti#e% Durin& their i#pressionable and for#ative years of
adolesene. both 1ar$ and /n&els a#e under the influene of the stirrin& events of
the early thirties of the nineteenth entury% The years 1F3, and 1F31 were
revolutionary yearsJ in 1F3, the July Revolution ourred in 5rane% !t swept all over
/urope fro# >est to /ast% !t even reahed Russia and brou&ht about the 8olish
!nsurretion of 1F31%
*ut the July Revolution in itself was only a ul#ination of another #ore #o#entous
revolutionary upheaval. the onse4uenes of whih one #ust +now to understand the
historial settin& in whih 1ar$ and /n&els were brou&ht up% The history of the
nineteenth entury. partiularly that third of it whih had passed before 1ar$ and
I
/n&els had &rown into soially onsious youths. was haraterised by two basi fats9
The !ndustrial Revolution in /n&land. and the ;reat Revolution in 5rane% The
!ndustrial Revolution in /n&land be&an appro$i#ately in 17(, and e$tended over a
prolon&ed period% -avin& reahed its zenith towards the end of the ei&hteenth entury.
it a#e to an end at about 1F3,% The ter# )!ndustrial Revolution) belon&s to /n&els% !t
refers to that transition period. when /n&land. at about the seond half of the
ei&hteenth entury. was beo#in& a apitalist ountry% There already e$isted a wor+in&
lass. proletarians 66 that is. a lass of people possessin& no property. no #eans of
prodution. and o#pelled therefore to sell the#selves as a o##odity. as hu#an
labour power. in order to &ain the #eans of subsistene% -owever. in the #iddle of the
ei&hteenth entury. /n&lish apitalis# was haraterised in its #ethods of prodution
by the handiraft syste#% !t was not the old raft prodution where eah petty
enterprise had its #aster. its two or three 0ourney#en. and a few apprenties% This
traditional handiraft was bein& rowded out by apitalist #ethods of prodution%
'bout the seond half of the ei&hteenth entury. apitalist prodution in /n&land had
already evolved into the #anufaturin& sta&e% The distin&uishin& feature of this
#anufaturin& sta&e was an industrial #ethod whih did not &o beyond the boundaries
of handiraft prodution. in spite of the e$ploitation of the wor+ers by the apitalists
and the onsiderable size of the wor+roo#s% 5ro# the point of view of tehni4ue and
labour or&anisation it differed fro# the old handiraft #ethods in a few respets% The
apitalist brou&ht to&ether fro# a hundred to three hundred rafts#en in one lar&e
buildin&. as a&ainst the five or si$ people in the s#all wor+roo# heretofore% ?o #atter
what raft. &iven a nu#ber of wor+ers. there soon appeared a hi&h de&ree of division
of labour with all its onse4uenes% There was then a apitalist enterprise. without
#ahines. without auto#ati #ehanis#s. but in whih division of labour and the
brea+in& up of the very #ethod of prodution into a variety of partial operations had
&one a lon& way forward% Thus it was 0ust in the #iddle of the ei&hteenth entury that
the #anufaturin& sta&e reahed it apo&ee%
3nly sine the seond half of the ei&hteenth entury. appro$i#ately sine the si$ties.
have the tehnial bases of prodution the#selves be&un to han&e% !nstead of the old
i#ple#ents. #ahines were introdued% This invention of #ahinery was started in
that branh of industry whih was the #ost i#portant in /n&land. in the do#ain of
te$tiles% ' series of inventions. one after another. radially han&ed the tehni4ue of
the weavin& and spinnin& trades% >e shall not enu#erate all the inventions% 7uffie it
to say that in about the ei&hties. both spinnin& and weavin& loo#s were invented% !n
17FI. >att's perfeted stea#6en&ine was invented% !t enabled the #anufatories to be
established in ities instead of bein& restrited to the ban+s of rivers to obtain water
power% This in its turn reated favourable onditions for the entralisation and
onentration of prodution% 'fter the introdution of the stea#6en&ine. atte#pts to
utilise stea# as #otive power were bein& #ade in #any branhes of industry% *ut
(
pro&ress was not as rapid as is so#eti#es lai#ed in boo+s% The period fro# 17(, to
1F3, is desi&nated as the period of the &reat !ndustrial Revolution%
!#a&ine a ountry where for a period of seventy years new inventions were
inessantly introdued. where prodution was beo#in& ever #ore onentrated.
where a ontinuous proess of e$propriation. ruin and annihilation of petty handiraft
prodution. and the destrution of s#all weavin& and spinnin& wor+shops were
ine$orably &oin& on% !nstead of rafts#en there a#e an ever6inreasin& host of
proletarians% Thus in plae of the old lass of wor+ers. whih had be&un to develop in
the si$teenth and seventeenth enturies. and whih in the first half of the ei&hteenth
entury still onstituted a ne&li&ible portion of the population of /n&land. there
appeared towards the end of the ei&hteenth and the be&innin& of the nineteenth
enturies. a lass of wor+ers whih o#prised a onsiderable portion of the population.
and whih deter#ined and left a definite i#print on all onte#porary soial relations%
To&ether with this !ndustrial Revolution there ourred a ertain onentration in the
ran+s of the wor+in& lass itself% This funda#ental han&e in eono#i relations. this
uprootin& of the old weavers and spinners fro# their habitual #odes of life. was
superseded by onditions whih forefully brou&ht to the #ind of the wor+er the
painful differene between yesterday and to6day%
Besterday all was wellJ yesterday there were inherited fir#ly established relations
between the e#ployers and the wor+ers% ?ow everythin& was han&ed and the
e#ployers relentlessly threw out of e#ploy#ent tens and hundreds of these wor+ers%
!n response to this basi han&e in the onditions of their very e$istene the wor+ers
reated ener&etially% /ndeavourin& to &et rid of these new onditions they rebelled% !t
is obvious that their un#iti&ated hatred. their burnin& indi&nation should at first have
been direted a&ainst the visible sy#bol of this new and powerful revolution. the
#ahine. whih to the# personified all the #isfortune. all the evils of the new syste#%
?o wonder that at the be&innin& of the nineteenth entury a series of revolts of the
wor+ers direted a&ainst the #ahine and the new tehnial #ethods of prodution
too+ plae% These revolts attained for#idable proportions in /n&land in 1F1I% <The
weavin& loo# was finally perfeted in 1F13=% 'bout that ti#e the #ove#ent spread to
all industrial entres% 5ro# a purely ele#ental fore. it was soon transfor#ed into an
or&anised resistane with appropriate slo&ans and effiient leaders% This #ove#ent
direted a&ainst the introdution of #ahinery is +nown in history as the #ove#ent of
the :uddites%
'ordin& to one version this na#e was derived fro# the na#e of a wor+erJ
aordin& to another. it is onneted with a #ythial &eneral. :ud. whose na#e the
wor+ers used in si&nin& their prola#ations%
7
The rulin& lasses. the do#inant oli&arhy. direted the #ost ruel repressions a&ainst
the :uddites% 5or the destrution of a #ahine as well as for an atte#pt to in0ure a
#ahine. a death penalty was i#posed% 1any a wor+er was sent to the &allows%
There was a need for a hi&her de&ree of develop#ent of this wor+ers' #ove#ent and
for #ore ade4uate revolutionary propa&anda% The wor+ers had to be infor#ed that the
fault was not with the #ahines. but with the onditions under whih these #ahines
were bein& used% ' #ove#ent whih was ai#in& to #ould the wor+ers into a lass6
onsious revolutionary #ass. able to ope with definite soial and politial proble#s
was 0ust then be&innin& to show vi&orous si&ns of life in /n&land% :eavin& out details.
we #ust note. however. that this #ove#ent of 1F1I61F17 had its be&innin&s at the end
of the ei&hteenth entury% To understand. however. the si&nifiane of it. we #ust turn
to 5raneJ for without a thorou&h &rasp of the influene of the 5renh Revolution. it
will be diffiult to understand the be&innin&s of the /n&lish labour #ove#ent%
The 5renh Revolution be&an in 17F9. and reahed its li#a$ in 1793% 5ro# 179H. it
be&an to di#inish in fore% This brou&ht about. within a few years. the establish#ent
of ?apoleon's #ilitary ditatorship% !n 1799. ?apoleon ao#plished his oup d'etat%
'fter havin& been a @onsul for five years. he prolai#ed hi#self /#peror and ruled
over 5rane up to 1F1I%
To the end of the ei&hteenth entury. 5rane was a ountry ruled by an absolute
#onarh. not unli+e that of Tsarist Russia% *ut the power was atually in the hands of
the nobility and the ler&y. who. for #onetary o#pensation of one +ind or another.
sold a part of their influene to the &rowin& finanial6o##erial bour&eoisie% 2nder
the influene of a stron& revolutionary #ove#ent a#on& the #asses of the people 66
the petty produers. the peasants. the s#all and #ediu# trades#en who had no
privile&es 66 the 5renh #onarh was o#pelled to &rant so#e onessions% -e
onvo+ed the so6alled /states ;eneral% !n the stru&&le between two distint soial
&roups 66 the ity poor and the privile&ed lasses 66 power fell into the hands of the
revolutionary petty bour&eoisie and the 8aris wor+ers% This was on 'u&ust 1,. 1792%
This do#ination e$pressed itself in the rule of the Jaobins headed by Robespierre and
1arat. and one #ay also add the na#e of Danton% 5or two years 5rane was in the
hands of the insur&ent people% !n the van&uard stood revolutionary 8aris% The Jaobins.
as representatives of the petty bour&eoisie. pressed the de#ands of their lass to their
lo&ial onlusions% The leaders. 1arat. Robespierre and Danton. were petty6bour&eois
de#orats who had ta+en upon the#selves the solution of the proble# whih
onfronted the entire bour&eoisie. that is. the pur&in& of 5rane of all the re#nants of
the feudal re&i#e. the reatin& of free politial onditions under whih private
property would ontinue unha#pered and under whih s#all proprietors would not be
hindered fro# reeivin& reasonable ino#es throu&h honest e$ploitation of others% !n
F
this strife for the reation of new politial onditions and the stru&&le a&ainst
feudalis#. in this onflit with the aristoray and with a united /astern /urope whih
was atta+in& 5rane. the Jaobins 66 Robespierre and 1arat 66 perfor#ed the part of
revolutionary leaders% !n their fi&ht a&ainst all of /urope they had to resort to
revolutionary propa&anda% To hurl the stren&th of the populae. the #ass. a&ainst the
stren&th of the feudal lords and the +in&s. they brou&ht into play the slo&an9 )>ar to
the palae. peae to the otta&e%) 3n their banners they insribed the slo&an9 ):iberty.
/4uality. 5raternity%)
These first on4uests of the 5renh Revolution were refleted in the Rhine provine%
There. too. Jaobin soieties were for#ed% 1any ;er#ans went as volunteers into the
5renh ar#y% !n 8aris so#e of the# too+ part in all the revolutionary assoiations%
Durin& all this ti#e the Rhine provine was &reatly influened by the 5renh
Revolution. and at the be&innin& of the nineteenth entury. the youn&er &eneration was
still brou&ht up under the potent influene of the heroi traditions of the Revolution%
/ven ?apoleon. who was a usurper. was obli&ed. in his war a&ainst the old
#onarhial and feudal /urope. to lean upon the basi vitories of the 5renh
Revolution. for the very reason that he was a usurper. the foe of the feudal re&i#e% -e
o##ened his #ilitary areer in the revolutionary ar#y% The vast #ass of the 5renh
soldiers. ra&&ed and poorly ar#ed. fou&ht the superior 8russian fores. and defeated
the#% They won by their enthusias#. their nu#bers% They won beause before
shootin& bullets they hurled #anifestoes. thus de#oralisin& and disinte&ratin& the
ene#y's ar#ies% ?or did ?apoleon in his a#pai&ns shun revolutionary propa&anda%
-e +new 4uite well that annon was a splendid #eans. but he never. to the last days of
his life. disdained the weapon of revolutionary propa&anda 66 the weapon that
disinte&rates so effiiently the ar#ies of the adversary%
The influene of the 5renh Revolution spread further /astJ it even reahed 7t%
8etersbur&% 't the news of the fall of the *astille. people e#braed and +issed one
another even there%
There was already in Russia a s#all &roup of people who reated 4uite intelli&ently to
the events of the 5renh Revolution. the outstandin& fi&ure bein& Radishhev% This
influene was #ore or less felt in all /uropean ountriesJ even in that very /n&land
whih stood at the head of nearly all the oalition ar#ies direted a&ainst 5rane% !t
was stron&ly felt not only by the petty6bour&eois ele#ents but also by the then
nu#erous labourin& population whih a#e into bein& as a result of the !ndustrial
Revolution% !n the years 1791 and 1792 the @orrespondin& 7oiety. the first /n&lish
revolutionary labour or&anisation. #ade its appearane% !t assu#ed suh an innouous
na#e #erely to iru#vent the /n&lish laws whih prohibited any soiety fro#
enterin& into or&anisational onnetions with soieties in other towns%
9
*y the end of the ei&hteenth entury. /n&land had a onstitutional &overn#ent% 7he
already had +nown two revolutions 66 one in the #iddle. the other at the end. of the
seventeenth entury% K1(H2 and 1(FFL 7he was re&arded as the freest ountry in the
world% 'lthou&h lubs and soieties were allowed. not one of the# was per#itted to
unite with the other% To overo#e this interdit those soieties. whih were #ade up of
wor+ers. hit upon the followin& #ethod9 They for#ed @orrespondin& 7oieties
wherever it was possible 66 assoiations whih +ept up a onstant orrespondene
a#on& the#selves% 't the head of the :ondon soiety was the shoe#a+er. Tho#as
-ardy <17I261F32=% -e was a 7oth#an of 5renh e$tration% -ardy was indeed
what his na#e i#plied% 's or&aniser of this soiety he attrated a #ultitude of
wor+ers. and arran&ed &atherin&s and #eetin&s% 3win& to the orrosive effet of the
!ndustrial Revolution on the old #anufatory prodution. the &reat #a0ority of those
who 0oined the soieties were artisans 66 shoe#a+ers and tailors% The tailor. 5ranis
8lae. should also be #entioned in this onnetion. for he. too. was a part of the
subse4uent history of the labour #ove#ent in /n&land% 3ne ould #ention a nu#ber
of others. the #a0ority of who# were handirafts#en% *ut the na#e of Tho#as
-olroft <17HI61F,9=. shoe#a+er. poet. publiist and orator. who played an i#portant
role at the end of the ei&hteenth entury. #ust be &iven%
!n 1792. when 5rane was delared a republi. this @orrespondin& 7oiety availed
itself of the aid of the 5renh a#bassador in :ondon and seretly dispathed an
address. in whih it e$pressed its sy#pathy with the revolutionary onvention% This
address. one of the first #anifestations of international solidarity and sy#pathy. #ade
a profound i#pression upon the onvention% !t was a #essa&e fro# the #asses of
/n&land where the rulin& lasses had nothin& but hatred for 5rane% The onvention
responded with a speial resolution. and these relations between the wor+ers'
@orrespondin& 7oieties and the 5renh Jaobins were a prete$t for the /n&lish
oli&arhy to launh perseutions a&ainst these soieties% ' series of proseutions were
instituted a&ainst -ardy and others%
The fear of losin& its do#ination i#pelled the /n&lish oli&arhy to resort to drasti
#easures a&ainst the risin& labour #ove#ent% 'ssoiations and soieties whih
heretofore had been a thorou&hly le&al #ethod of or&anisation for the well6to6do
bour&eois ele#ents. and whih the handirafts#en ould not by law be prevented fro#
for#in&. were. in 1F,,. o#pletely prohibited% The various wor+ers' soieties whih
had been +eepin& in touh with eah other were partiularly perseuted% !n 1799 the
law speifially forbade all or&anisations of wor+ers in /n&land% 5ro# 1799 to 1F2H
the /n&lish wor+in& lass was alto&ether deprived of the ri&ht of free asse#bly and
assoiation%
1,
To return to 1F1I% The :uddite #ove#ent. whose sole purpose was the destrution of
the #ahine. was sueeded by a #ore onsious stru&&le% The new revolutionary
or&anisations were #otivated by the deter#ination to han&e the politial onditions
under whih the wor+ers were fored to e$ist% Their first de#ands inluded freedo# of
asse#bly. freedo# of assoiation. and freedo# of the press% The year 1F17 was
ushered in with a stubborn onflit whih ul#inated in the infa#ous )1anhester
1assare) of 1F19% The #assare too+ plae on 7t% 8eter's 5ield. and the /n&lish
wor+ers hristened it the *attle of 8eterloo% /nor#ous #asses of avalry were #oved
a&ainst the wor+ers. and the s+ir#ish ended in the death of several sores of people%
5urther#ore. new repressive #easures. the so6alled 7i$ 'ts <);a&
:awsMinde$%ht#)=. were direted a&ainst the wor+ers% 's a result of these perseutions.
revolutionary strife bea#e #ore intense% !n 1F2H. with the partiipation of 5ranis
8lae <177161FIH=. who had left his revolutionary o#rades and sueeded in
beo#in& a prosperous #anufaturer. but who #aintained his relations with the
radials in the -ouse of @o##ons. the /n&lish wor+ers won the fa#ous @oalition
:aws <1F2H62I= as a onession to the revolutionary #ove#ent% The #ove#ent in
favour of reatin& or&anisations and unions throu&h whih the wor+ers #i&ht defend
the#selves a&ainst the oppression of the e#ployers. and obtain better onditions for
the#selves. hi&her wa&es. et%. bea#e lawful% This #ar+s the be&innin& of the
/n&lish trade union #ove#ent% !t also &ave birth to politial soieties whih be&an the
stru&&le for universal suffra&e%
1eanwhile. in 5rane. in 1F1I. ?apoleon had suffered a rushin& defeat. and the
*ourbon #onarhy of :ouis CA!!! was established% The era of Restoration. be&innin&
at that ti#e. lasted appro$i#ately fifteen years% -avin& attained the throne throu&h the
aid of forei&n intervention <'le$ander ! of Russia=. :ouis #ade a nu#ber of
onessions to the landlords who had suffered by the Revolution% The land ould not
be restored to the#. it re#ained with the peasants. but they were onsoled by a
o#pensation of a billion frans% The royal power used all its stren&th in an endeavour
to arrest the develop#ent of new soial and politial relations% !t tried to resind as
#any of the onessions to the bour&eoisie as it was fored to #a+e% 3win& to this
onflit between the liberals and the onservatives. the *ourbon dynasty was fored to
fae a new revolution whih bro+e out in July. 1F3,%
/n&land whih had towards the end of the ei&hteenth entury reated to the 5renh
Revolution by sti#ulatin& the labour #ove#ent. e$periened a new upheaval as a
result of the July Revolution in 5rane% There be&an an ener&eti #ove#ent for a
wider suffra&e% 'ordin& to the /n&lish laws. that ri&ht had been en0oyed by an
insi&nifiant portion of the population. hiefly the bi& landowners. who not
infre4uently had in their do#inions depopulated borou&hs with only two or three
11
eletors <)Rotten *orou&hsMinde$%ht#)=. and who. nevertheless. sent representatives to
8arlia#ent%
The do#inant parties. atually two fations of the landed aristoray. the Tories and
the >hi&s. were o#pelled to sub#it% The #ore liberal >hi& 8arty. whih felt the
need for o#pro#ise and eletoral refor#s. finally won over the onservative Tories%
The industrial bour&eoisie were &ranted the ri&ht to vote. but the wor+ers were left in
the lurh% 's answer to this treahery of the liberal bour&eoisie <the e$6#e#ber of the
@orrespondin& 7oiety. 8lae. was a party to this treahery=. there was for#ed in 1F3(.
after a nu#ber of unsuessful atte#pts. the :ondon >or+in&#en's 'ssoiation% This
7oiety had a nu#ber of apable leaders% The #ost pro#inent a#on& the# were
>illia# :ovett <1F,,61F77= and -enry -etherin&ton <179261FH9=% !n 1F37. :ovett
and his o#rades for#ulated the funda#ental politial de#ands of the wor+in& lass%
They aspired to or&anise the wor+ers into a separate politial party% They had in #ind.
however. not a definite wor+in&6lass party whih would press its speial pro&ra##e
as a&ainst the pro&ra##e of all the other parties. but one that would e$erise as #uh
influene. and play as &reat a part in the politial life of the ountry. as the other
parties% !n this bour&eois politial #ilieu they wanted to be the party of the wor+in&
lass% They had no definite ai#s. they did not propose any speial eono#i
pro&ra##e direted a&ainst the entire bour&eois soiety% 3ne #ay best understand
this. if one realls that in 'ustralia and ?ew Dealand there are suh labour parties.
whih do not ai# at any funda#ental han&es in soial onditions% They are
so#eti#es in lose oalition with the bour&eois parties in order to insure for labour a
ertain share of influene in the &overn#ent%
The @harter. in whih :ovett and his assoiates for#ulated the de#ands of the
wor+ers. &ave the na#e to this @hartist #ove#ent% The @hartists advaned si$
de#ands9 2niversal suffra&e. vote by seret ballot. parlia#ents eleted annually.
pay#ent of #e#bers of parlia#ent. abolition of property 4ualifiations for #e#bers
of parlia#ent. and e4ualisation of eletoral distrits%
This #ove#ent be&an in 1F37. when 1ar$ was nineteen. and /n&els seventeen years
old% !t reahed its hei&ht when 1ar$ and /n&els were #ature #en%
The Revolution of 1F3, in 5rane re#oved the *ourbons. but instead of establishin& a
republi whih was the ai# of the revolutionary or&anisations of that period. it resulted
in a onstitutional #onarhy. headed by the representatives of the 3rleans dynasty% 't
the ti#e of the Revolution of 17F9 and later. durin& the Restoration period. this
dynasty stood in opposition to their *ourbon relatives% :ouis 8hilippe was the typial
representative of the bour&eoisie% The hief oupation of this 5renh #onarh was the
savin& and hoardin& of #oney. whih deli&hted the hearts of the shop+eepers of 8aris%
12
The July #onarhy &ave freedo# to the industrial. o##erial. and finanial
bour&eoisie% !t failitated and aelerated the proess of enrih#ent of this
bour&eoisie. and direted its onslau&hts a&ainst the wor+in& lass whih had
#anifested a tendeny toward or&anisation%
!n the early thirties. the revolutionary soieties were o#posed hiefly of students and
intelletuals% The wor+ers in these or&anisations were few and far between%
?evertheless a wor+ers' revolt as a protest a&ainst the treahery of the bour&eoisie
bro+e out in 1F31. in :yons. the entre of the sil+ industry% 5or a few days the ity was
in the hands of the wor+ers% They did not put forward any politial de#ands% Their
banner arried the slo&an9 ):ive by wor+. or die in battle%) They were defeated in the
end. and the usual onse4uenes of suh defeats followed% The revolt was repeated in
:yons in 1F3H% !ts results were even #ore i#portant than those of the July Revolution%
The latter sti#ulated hiefly the so6alled de#orati. petty6bour&eois ele#ents. while
the :yons revolts e$hibited. for the first ti#e. the si&nifiane of the labour ele#ent.
whih had raised. thou&h so far in only one ity. the banner of revolt a&ainst the entire
bour&eoisie. and had pushed the proble#s of the wor+in& lass to the fore% The
priniples enuniated by the :yons proletariat were as yet not direted a&ainst the
foundations of the bour&eois syste#. but they were de#ands flun& a&ainst the
apitalists and a&ainst e$ploitation%
Thus toward the #iddle of the thirties in both 5rane and /n&land there stepped forth
into the arena a new revolutionary lass 66 the proletariat% !n /n&land. atte#pts were
bein& #ade to or&anise this proletariat% !n 5rane. too. subse4uent to the :yons revolt.
the proletariat for the first ti#e tried to for# revolutionary or&anisations% The #ost
stri+in& representative of this #ove#ent was 'u&uste *lan4ui <1F,I61FF1=. one of the
&reatest 5renh revolutionists% -e had ta+en part in the July Revolution. and.
i#pressed by the :yons revolts whih had indiated that the #ost revolutionary
ele#ent in 5rane were the wor+ers. *lan4ui and his friends proeeded to or&anise
revolutionary soieties a#on& the wor+ers of 8aris% /le#ents of other nationalities
were drawn in 66 ;er#an. *el&ians. 7wiss. et% 's a result of this revolutionary
ativity. *lan4ui and his o#rades #ade a darin& atte#pt to provo+e a revolt% Their
ai# was to seize politial power and to enfore a nu#ber of #easures favourin& the
wor+in& lass% This revolt in 8aris <1ay. 1F39=. ter#inated in defeat% *lan4ui was
onde#ned to life i#prison#ent% The ;er#ans who too+ part in these disturbanes
also felt the dire onse4uenes of defeat% Karl 7happer <1F1261F7,=.who will be
#entioned a&ain. and his o#rades were fored to flee fro# 5rane a few #onths later%
They #ade their way to :ondon and ontinued their wor+ there by or&anisin&. in 1FH,.
the >or+ers' /duational 7oiety%
13
*y this ti#e 1ar$ had reahed his twenty6seond and /n&els his twentieth year% The
hi&hest point in the develop#ent of a proletarian revolutionary #ove#ent is
onte#poraneous with their attainin& #anhood%
1H
C"A#TER II
T"E EARL) RE&!L%TI!NAR) M!&EMENT IN GERMAN)'
T-/ R-!?/ 8R3A!?@/%
T-/ B32T- 35 1'RC '?D /?;/:7%
T-/ /'R:B >R!T!?;7 35 /?;/:7%
1'RC '7 /D!T3R 35 T-/ Rheinishe Deitun&%
>/ shall now pass on to the history of ;er#any after 1F1I% The ?apoleoni wars
a#e to an end% These wars were onduted not only by /n&land. whih was the soul
of the oalition. but also by Russia. ;er#any and 'ustria% Russia too+ suh an
i#portant part that Tsar 'le$ander !. )the *lessed.) played the hief role at the
infa#ous Aienna @on&ress <1F1H61I=. where the destinies of #any nations were
deter#ined% The ourse that events had ta+en. followin& the peae onluded at
Aienna. was not a whit better than the haos whih had followed the Aersailles
arran&e#ents at the end of the last i#perialist war% The territorial on4uests of the
revolutionary period were wrenhed fro# 5rane% /n&land &rabbed all the 5renh
olonies. and ;er#any. whih e$peted unifiation as a result of the >ar of
:iberation. was split definitely into two parts% ;er#any in the north and 'ustria in the
south%
7hortly after 1F1I. a #ove#ent was started a#on& the intelletuals and students of
;er#any. the ardinal purpose of whih was the establish#ent of a 2nited ;er#any%
The arh ene#y was Russia. whih i##ediately after the Aienna @on&ress. had
onluded the -oly 'lliane with 8russia and 'ustria a&ainst all revolutionary
#ove#ents% 'le$ander ! and the 'ustrian /#peror were re&arded as its founders% !n
reality it was not the 'ustrian /#peror. but the #ain en&ineer of 'ustrian politis.
1etternih. who was the brains of the 'lliane% *ut it was Russia that was onsidered
the #ainstay of reationary tendeniesJ and when the liberal #ove#ent of intelletuals
and students started with the avowed purpose of advanin& ulture and enli&hten#ent
a#on& the ;er#an people as a preparation for unifiation. the whole6hearted hatred of
this &roup was reserved for Russia. the #i&hty prop of onservatis# and reation% !n
1F19 a student. Karl 7and. +illed the ;er#an writer 'u&ust Kotzebue. who was
suspeted. not without reason. of bein& a Russian spy% This terrorist at reated a stir in
Russia. too. where Karl 7and was loo+ed up to as an ideal by #any of the future
Dee#brists. and it served as a prete$t for 1etternih and the ;er#an &overn#ent to
swoop down upon the ;er#an intelli&entsia% The student soieties. however. proved
insuppressibleJ they &rew even #ore a&&ressive. and the revolutionary or&anisations in
the early twenties sprun& up fro# their #idst%
>e have #entioned the Russian Dee#brist #ove#ent whih led to an atte#pt at
ar#ed insurretion. and whih was frustrated on Dee#ber 1H. 1F2I% >e #ust add that
1I
this was not an isolated. e$lusively Russian pheno#enon% This #ove#ent was
developin& under the influene of the revolutionary perturbations a#on& the
intelli&entsia of 8oland. 'ustria. 5rane. and even 7pain% This #ove#ent of the
intelli&entsia had its ounterpart in literature. its hief representative bein& :udwi&
*orne. a Jew. a fa#ous ;er#an publiist durin& the period of 1F1F61F3, and the first
politial writer in ;er#any% -e had a profound influene upon the evolution of
;er#an politial thou&ht% -e was a thorou&h&oin& politial de#orat. who too+ little
interest in soial 4uestions. believin& that everythin& ould be set ri&ht by &rantin& the
people politial freedo#%
This went on until 1F3,% !n that year the July Revolution shoo+ 5rane. and its
reverberations set ;er#any a4uiver% Rebellions and uprisin&s ourred in several
loalities. but were brou&ht to an end by so#e onstitutional onessions% The
&overn#ent #ade short shrift of this #ove#ent whih was not very deeply rooted in
the #asses%
' seond wave of a&itation rolled over ;er#any. when the unsuessful 8olish
rebellion of 1F31. whih also was a diret onse4uene of the July Revolution. aused
a &reat nu#ber of 8olish revolutionists. fleein& fro# perseution. to see+ refu&e in
;er#any% -ene a further stren&thenin& of the old tendeny a#on& the ;er#an
intelli&entsia 66 a hatred for Russia and sy#pathy for 8oland. then under Russian
do#ination%
'fter 1F31. as a result of the two events #entioned above. and despite the frustration
of the July Revolution. we witness a series of revolutionary #ove#ents whih we
shall now ursorily review% >e shall e#phasise the events whih in one way or another
#i&ht have influened the youn& /n&els and 1ar$% !n 1F32 this #ove#ent was
onentrated in southern ;er#any. not in the Rhine provine. but in the 8alatinate%
Just li+e the Rhine provine. the 8alatinate was for a lon& ti#e in the hands of 5rane.
for it was returned to ;er#any only after 1F1I% The Rhine provine was handed over
to 8russia. the 8alatinate to *avaria where reation rei&ned not less than in 8russia% !t
an be readily understood why the inhabitants of the Rhine provine and the
8alatinate. who had been austo#ed to the &reater freedo# of 5rane. stron&ly
resented ;er#an repression% /very revolutionary upheaval in 5rane was bound to
enhane opposition to the &overn#ent% !n 1F31 this opposition assu#ed threatenin&
proportions a#on& the liberal intelli&entsia. the lawyers and the writers of the
8alatinate% !n 1F32. the lawyers >irth and Diebenpfeifer arran&ed a &rand festival in
-a#bah% 1any orators appeared on the rostru#% *orne too was present% They
prolai#ed the neessity of a free. united ;er#any% There was a#on& the# a very
youn& #an. Johann 8hilip *e+er <1F,961FF(=. brush#a+er. who was about twenty6
three years old% -is na#e will be #entioned #ore than one in the ourse of this
1(
narrative% *e+er tried to persuade the intelli&entsia that they #ust not onfine
the#selves to a&itation. but that they #ust prepare for an ar#ed insurretion% -e was
the typial revolutionist of the old shool% 'n able #an. he later bea#e a writer.
thou&h he never bea#e an outstandin& theoretiian% -e was #ore the type of the
pratial revolutionist%
'fter the -a#bah festivities. *e+er re#ained in ;er#any for several years. his
oupations rese#blin& those of the Russian revolutionists of the seventies% -e
direted propa&anda and a&itation. arran&ed esapes and ar#ed atta+s to liberate
o#rades fro# prison% !n this #anner he aided 4uite a few revolutionists% !n 1F33 a
&roup. with whih *e+er was losely onneted <he hi#self was then in prison=.
#ade an atte#pt at an ar#ed atta+ on the 5ran+fort &uard6house. e$petin& to &et
hold of the ar#s% 't that ti#e the Diet was in session at 5ran+fort. and the students and
wor+ers were onfident that havin& arran&ed a suessful ar#ed uprisin& they would
reate a furore throu&hout ;er#any% *ut they were su##arily done away with% 3ne of
the #ost darin& partiipants in this uprisin& was the previously #entioned Karl
7happer% -e was fortunate in his esape ba+ to 5rane% !t #ust be re#e#bered that
this entire #ove#ent was entred in loalities whih had for a lon& ti#e been under
5renh do#ination%
>e #ust also note the revolutionary #ove#ent in the prinipality of -esse% -ere the
leader was >eidi&. a #inister. a reli&ious soul. but a fervent partisan of politial
freedo#. and a fanatial wor+er for the ause of a 2nited ;er#any% -e established a
seret printin& press. issued revolutionary literature and endeavoured to attrat the
intelli&entsia% 3ne suh intelletual who too+ a distin&uished part in this #ove#ent
was ;eor& *uhner <1F1361F37=. the author of the dra#a. The Death of Danton% -e
differed fro# >eidi& in that in his politial a&itation he pointed out the neessity of
enlistin& the sy#pathy of the -essian peasantry% -e published a speial propa&anda
paper for the peasants 66 the first e$peri#ent of its +ind 66 printed on >eidi&'s press%
>eidi& was soon arrested and *uhner esaped by a hair's breadth% -e fled to
7witzerland where he died soon after% >eidi& was inarerated. and sub0eted to
orporal punish#ent% !t #i&ht be #entioned that >eidi& was >ilhel# :ieb+neht's
unle. and that the latter was brou&ht up under the influene of these profound
i#pressions%
7o#e of the revolutionists freed fro# prison by *e+er. a#on& who# were 7happer
and Theodor 7huster. #oved to 8aris and founded there a seret or&anisation alled
The 7oiety of the /$iles% 3win& to the appearane of 7huster and other ;er#an
wor+ers who at that ti#e settled in 8aris in &reat nu#bers. the 7oiety too+ on a
distint soialist harater% This led to a split% 3ne fation under the &uidane of
7huster for#ed the :ea&ue of the Just. whih e$isted in 8aris for three years% !ts
17
#e#bers too+ part in the *lan4ui uprisin&. shared the fate of the *lan4uists and
landed in prison% >hen they were released. 7happer and his o#rades went to
:ondon% There they or&anised the >or+ers' /duational 7oiety. whih was later
transfor#ed into a o##unist or&anisation%
!n the thirties there were 4uite a few other writers alon&side of *orne who do#inated
the #inds of the ;er#an intelli&entsia% The #ost illustrious of the# was -einrih
-eine. the poet. who was also a publiist. and whose 8aris orrespondene li+e the
orrespondene of :udwi& *orne. was of &reat eduational i#portane to the youth
old ;er#any%
*orne and -eine were Jews% *orne a#e fro# the 8alatinate. -eine fro# the Rhine
provine where 1ar$ and /n&els were born and &rew up% 1ar$ was also a Jew% 3ne of
the 4uestions that invariably presents itself is the e$tent to whih 1ar$'s subse4uent
fate was affeted by the iru#stanes of his bein& a Jew%
The fat is that in the history of the ;er#an intelli&entsia. in the history of ;er#an
thou&ht. four Jews played a #onu#ental part% They were9 1ar$. :assalle. -eine and
*orne% 1ore na#es ould be enu#erated. but these were the #ost notable% !t #ust be
stated that the fat that 1ar$ as well as -eine were Jews had a &ood deal to do with
the diretion of their politial develop#ent% !f the university intelli&entsia protested
a&ainst the soio6politial re&i#e wei&hin& upon ;er#any. then the Jewish
intelli&entsia felt this yo+e even #ore +eenlyJ one #ust read *orne to realise the
ri&ours of the ;er#an ensorship. one #ust read his artiles in whih he lashed
philistine ;er#any and the polie spirit that hovered over the land. to feel how a
person. the least bit enli&htened. ould not help protestin& a&ainst these abo#inations%
The onditions were then partiularly onerous for the Jew% *orne spent his entire youth
in the Jewish distrit in 5ran+fort. under onditions very si#ilar to those under whih
the Jews lived in the dar+ #iddle a&es% ?ot less burdenso#e were these onditions to
-eine%
1ar$ found hi#self in so#ewhat different iru#stanes% These. however. do not
warrant the disposition of so#e bio&raphers to deny this Jewish influene al#ost
entirely%
Karl 1ar$ was the son of -einrih 1ar$. a lawyer. a hi&hly eduated. ultured and
freethin+in& #an% >e +now of 1ar$'s father that he was a &reat ad#irer of the
ei&hteenth6entury literature of the 5renh /nli&hten#ent. and that alto&ether the
5renh spirit see#s to have pervaded the ho#e of the 1ar$es% 1ar$'s father li+ed to
read. and interested his son in the writin&s of the /n&lish philosopher :o+e. as well as
the 5renh writers Diderot and Aoltaire%
1F
:o+e. one of the ideolo&ists of the seond so6alled &lorious /n&lish Revolution.
was. in philosophy. the opponent of the priniple of innate ideas% -e instituted an
in4uiry into the ori&in of +nowled&e% /$periene. he #aintained. is the soure of all
we +nowJ ideas are the result of e$perieneJ +nowled&e is wholly e#pirialJ there are
no innate ideas% The 5renh #aterialists adopted the sa#e position% They held that
everythin& in the hu#an #ind reated in one way or other throu&h the sensory or&ans%
The de&ree to whih the at#osphere about 1ar$ was per#eated with the ideas of the
5renh #aterialists an be 0ud&ed fro# the followin& illustration%
1ar$'s father. who had lon& sine severed all onnetions with reli&ion. ontinued
ostensibly to be bound up with Judais#% -e adopted @hristianity in 1F2H. when his
son was already si$ years old% 5ranz 1ehrin& <1FH(61919= in his bio&raphy of 1ar$
tried to prove that this onversion had been #otivated by the elder 1ar$'s
deter#ination to &ain the ri&ht to enter the #ore ultured ;entile soiety% This is only
partly true% The desire to avoid the new perseutions whih fell upon the Jews sine
1F1I. when the Rhine provine was returned to ;er#any. #ust have had its influene%
>e should note that 1ar$ hi#self. thou&h spiritually not in the least attahed to
Judais#. too+ a &reat interest in the Jewish 4uestion durin& his early years% -e retained
so#e ontat with the Jewish o##unity at Treves% !n endless petitions the Jews had
been i#portunin& the &overn#ent that one or another for# of oppression be re#oved%
!n one ase we +now that 1ar$'s lose relatives and the rest of the Jewish o##unity
turned to hi# and as+ed hi# to write a petition for the#% This happened when he was
twenty6four &ears old%
'll this indiates that 1ar$ did not alto&ether shun his old +in. that he too+ an interest
in the Jewish 4uestion and also a part in the stru&&le for the e#anipation of the Jew%
This did not prevent hi# fro# drawin& a sharp line of de#aration between poor
Jewry with whih he felt a ertain propin4uity and the opulent representatives of
finanial Jewry%
Treves. the ity where 1ar$ was born and where several of his anestors were rabbis.
was in the Rhine provine% This was one of the 8russian provines where industry and
politis were in a hi&h state of effervesene% /ven now it is one of the #ost
industrialised re&ions in ;er#any% There are 7olin&en and Re#sheid. two ities
fa#ous for their steel produts% There is the entre of the ;er#an te$tile industry 66
*ar#en6/lberfeld% !n 1ar$'s ho#e town. Treves. the leather and weavin& industries
were developed% !t was an old #edieval ity. whih had played a bi& part in the tenth
entury% !t was a seond Ro#e. for it was the 7ee of the @atholi bishop% !t was also an
industrial ity. and durin& the 5renh Revolution. it too was in the &rip of a stron&
19
revolutionary paro$ys#% The #anufaturin& industry. however. was here #uh less
ative than in the northern parts of the provine. where the entres of the #etallur&ial
and otton industries were loated% !t lies on the ban+s of the 1oselle. a tributary of
the Rhine. in the entre of the wine #anufaturin& distrit. a plae where re#nants of
o##unal ownership of land were still to be found. where the peasantry onstituted a
;lass of s#all landowners not yet i#bued with the spirit of the ti&ht6fisted. finanially
a&&ressive peasant6usurer. where they #ade wine and +new how to be happy% !n this
sense Treves preserved the traditions of the #iddle a&es% 5ro# several soures we
&ather that at this ti#e 1ar$ was interested in the ondition of the peasant% -e would
#a+e e$ursions to the surroundin& villa&es and thorou&hly fa#iliarise hi#self with
the life of the peasant% ' few years later he e$hibited this +nowled&e of the details of
peasant life and industry in his writin&s%
!n hi&h shool 1ar$ stood out as one of the #ost apable students. a fat of whih the
teahers too+ o&nisane% >e have a asual dou#ent in whih a teaher #ade so#e
very flatterin& o##ents on one of K/arl's o#positions% 1ar$ was &iven an
assi&n#ent to write a o#position on )-ow Boun& 1en @hoose a 8rofession%) -e
viewed this sub0et fro# a uni4ue aspet% -e proeeded to prove that there ould be no
free hoie of a profession. that #an was born into iru#stanes whih
predeter#ined his hoie. for they #oulded his weltanshauun&% -ere one #ay disern
the &er# of the 1aterialist @oneption of -istory% 'fter what was said of his father.
however. it is obvious that in the above we have evidene of the de&ree to whih
1ar$. influened by his father. absorbed the basi ideas of the 5renh #aterialists% !t
was the for# in whih the thou&ht was e#bodied that was #ar+edly ori&inal%
't the a&e of si$teen. 1ar$ o#pleted his hi&h shool ourse. and in 1F3I he entered
the 2niversity of *onn% *y this ti#e revolutionary disturbanes had well6ni&h eased%
2niversity life relapsed into its nor#al routine%
't the university. 1ar$ plun&ed passionately into his studies% >e are in possession of
a very urious dou#ent. a letter of the nineteen6year6old 1ar$ to his father%
The father appreiated and understood his son perfetly% !t is suffiient to read his
reply to 1ar$ to be onvined of the hi&h de&ree of ulture the #an possessed% Rarely
do we find in the history of revolutionists a ase where a son #eets with the full
approval and understandin& of his father. where a son turns to his father as to a very
inti#ate friend% !n aord with the spirit of the ti#es. 1ar$ was in searh of a
philosophy 66 a teahin& whih would enable hi# to &ive a theoretial foundation to
the i#plaable hatred he felt for the then prevailin& politial and soial syste#% 1ar$
bea#e a follower of the -e&elian philosophy. in the for# whih it had assu#ed with
the Boun& -e&elians who had bro+en away #ost radially fro# old pre0udies. and
2,
who throu&h -e&el's philosophy had arrived at #ost e$tre#e dedutions in the real#s
of politis. ivil and reli&ious relations% !n 1FH1 1ar$ obtained his dotorate fro# the
2niversity of Jena%
't that ti#e /n&els too fell in with the set of the Boun& -e&elians% >e do not +now
but that it was preisely in these irles that /n&els first #et 1ar$%
/n&els was born in *ar#en. in the northern setion of the Rhine provine% This was
the entre of the otton and wool industries. not far fro# the future i#portant
#etallur&ial entre% /n&els was of ;er#an e$tration and belon&ed to a well6to6do
fa#ily%
!n the boo+s ontainin& &enealo&ies of the #erhants and the #anufaturers of the
Rhine provine. the /n&els fa#ily oupies a respetable plae% -ere one #ay find the
fa#ily oat of ar#s of the /n&elses% These #erhants. not unli+e the nobility. were
suffiiently pedi&reed to have their own oat of ar#s% /n&els' anestors bore on their
shield an an&el arryin& an olive branh. the e#ble# of peae. si&nalisin& as it were.
the paifi life and aspirations of one of the illustrious sions of their rae% !t is with
this oat of ar#s that /n&els entered life% This shield was #ost li+ely hosen beause
of the na#e. /n&els. su&&estin& 'n&el in ;er#an% The pro#inene of this fa#ily an
be 0ud&ed by the fat that its ori&in an be traed ba+ to the si$teenth entury% 's to
1ar$ we an hardly asertain who his &randfather wasJ all that is +nown is that his
was a fa#ily of rabbis%9 *ut so little interest had been ta+en in this fa#ily that reords
do not ta+e us further ba+ than two &enerations% /n&els on the ontrary has even two
variants of his &enealo&y% 'ordin& to ertain data. /n&els was a re#ote desendant
of a 5renh#an :''n&e. a 8rotestant. a -u&uenot. who found refu&e in ;er#any%
/n&els' #ore i##ediate relatives deny this 5renh ori&in. insistin& on his purely
;er#an anteedents% 't any rate. in the seventeenth entury the /n&els fa#ily was an
old. fir#ly rooted fa#ily of loth #anufaturers. who later bea#e otton
#anufaturers% !t was a wealthy fa#ily with e$tensive international dealin&s% The
older /n&els. to&ether with his friend /r#an. ereted te$tile fatories not only in his
native land but also in 1anhester% -e bea#e an 'n&lo6;er#an te$tile #anufaturer%
/n&els' father belon&ed to the 8rotestant reed% 'n evan&elist. he was uriously
re#inisent of the old @alvinists. in his profound reli&ious faith. and no less profound
onvition. that the business of #an on this earth is the a4uisition and hoardin& of
wealth throu&h industry and o##ere% !n life he was fanatially reli&ious% /very
#o#ent away fro# business or other #undane ativities he onserated to pious
refletions% 3n this &round the relations between the /n&elses. father and son. were
4uite different fro# those we have observed in the 1ar$ fa#ily% Aery soon the ideas of
father and son lashedJ the father was resolved to #a+e of his son a #erhant. and he
21
aordin&ly brou&ht hi# up in the business spirit% 't the a&e of seventeen the boy was
sent to *re#en. one of the bi&&est o##erial ities in ;er#any% There he was fored
to serve in a business offie for three years% *y his letters to so#e shool hu#s we
learn how. havin& entered this at#osphere. /n&els tried to free hi#self of its effets%
-e went there a &odly youth. but soon fell under the sway of -eine and *orne% 't the
a&e of nineteen he bea#e a writer and sallied forth as an apostle of a freedo#6lovin&.
de#orati ;er#any% -is first artiles. whih attrated attention and whih appeared
under the pseudony# of 3swald. #erilessly sored the environ#ent in whih the
author had spent his hildhood% These letters fro# >upperthal reated a stron&
i#pression% 3ne ould sense that they were written by a #an who was brou&ht up in
that loality and who had a &ood +nowled&e of its people% >hile in *re#en he
e#anipated hi#self o#pletely of all reli&ious prepossessions and developed into an
old 5renh Jaobin%
'bout 1FH1. at the a&e of twenty. /n&els entered the 'rtillery ;uards of *erlin as a
volunteer% There he fell in with the sa#e irle of the Boun& -e&elians to whih 1ar$
belon&ed% -e bea#e the adherent of the e$tre#e left win& of the -e&elian
philosophy% >hile 1ar$. in 1FH2. was still en&rossed in his studies and was preparin&
hi#self for a 2niversity areer. /n&els. who had be&un to write in 1F39. attained a
onspiuous plae in literature under his old pseudony#. and was ta+in& a #ost ative
part in the ideolo&ial stru&&les whih were arried on by the disiples of the old and
the new philosophial syste#s%
!n the years 1FH1 and 1FH2 there lived in *erlin a &reat nu#ber of Russians 66
*a+unin. 3&arev. 5rolov and others% They too were fasinated by the sa#e philosophy
whih fasinated 1ar$ and /n&els% To what e$tent this is true an be shown by the
followin& episode% !n 1FH2 /n&els wrote a trenhant ritiis# of the philosophy of
-e&el's adversary. 5riedrih 7hellin&% The latter then reeived an invitation fro# the
8russian &overn#ent to o#e to *erlin and to pit his philosophy. whih endeavoured
to reonile the *ible with siene. a&ainst the -e&elian syste#% The views e$pressed
by /n&els at that period were so su&&estive of the views of the Russian riti *ielins+y
of that period. and of the artiles of *a+unin. that. up to very reently. /n&els'
pa#phlet in whih he had atta+ed 7hellin&'s 8hilosophy of Revelation. was asribed
to *a+unin% ?ow we +now that it was an error. that the pa#phlet was not written by
*a+unin% The for#s of e$pression of both writers. the sub0ets they hose. the proofs
they presented while atte#ptin& to establish the perfetions of the -e&elian
philosophy. were so re#ar+ably si#ilar that it is little wonder that #any Russians
onsidered and still onsider *a+unin the author of this boo+let%
Thus at the a&e of twenty6two. /n&els was an ao#plished de#orati writer. with
ultra6radial tendenies% !n one of his hu#orous poe#s he depited hi#self a fiery
22
Jaobin% !n this respet he re#inds one of those few ;er#ans who had beo#e very
#uh attahed to the 5renh Revolution% 'ordin& to hi#self. all he san& was the
1arseillaise. all he la#oured for was the &uillotine% 7uh was /n&els in the year
1FH2% 1ar$ was in about the sa#e #ental state% !n 1FH2 they finally #et in one
o##on ause%
1ar$ was &raduated fro# the university and reeived his dotor's de&ree in 'pril.
1FH1% -e had proposed at first to devote hi#self to philosophy and siene. but he
&ave up this idea when his teaher and friend. *runo *auer. who was one of the
leaders of the Boun& -e&elians lost his ri&ht to teah at the university beause of his
severe ritiis# of the offiial theolo&y%
!t was a ase of &ood fortune for 1ar$ to be invited at this ti#e to edit a newspaper%
Representatives of the #ore radial o##erial6industrial bour&eoisie of the Rhine
provine had #ade up their #inds to found their own politial or&an% The #ost
i#portant newspaper in the Rhine provine was the Kolnishe Deitun&. and @olo&ne
was then the &reatest industrial entre of the Rhine distrit% The Kolnishe Deitun&
rin&ed before the &overn#ent% The Rhine radial bour&eoisie wanted their own or&an
to oppose the Kolnishe Deitun& and to defend their eono#i interests a&ainst the
feudal lords% 1oney was olleted. but there was a dearth of literary fores% Journals
founded by apitalists fell into the hands of a &roup of radial writers% 'bove the# all
towered 1oses -ess <1F1261F7I=% 1oses -ess was older than either /n&els or 1ar$%
:i+e 1ar$ he was a Jew. but he very early bro+e away fro# his rih father% -e soon
0oined the #ove#ent for liberation. and even as far ba+ as the thirties. advoated the
for#ation of a lea&ue of the ultured nations in order to insure the winnin& of politial
and ultural freedo#% !n 1F12. influened by the 5renh o##unist #ove#ent. 1oses
-ess bea#e a o##unist% !t was he and his friends who were a#on& the pro#inent
editors of the Rheinishe Deitun&%
1ar$ lived then in *onn% 5or a lon& ti#e he was only a ontributor. thou&h he had
already be&un to wield onsiderable influene% ;radually 1ar$ rose to a position of
first #a&nitude% Thus. thou&h the newspaper was published at the e$pense of the
Rhine industrial #iddle lass. in reality it bea#e the or&an of the *erlin &roup of the
youn&est and #ost radial writers%
!n the autu#n of 1FH2 1ar$ #oved to @olo&ne and i##ediately &ave the 0ournal an
entirely new trend% !n ontradistintion to his *erlin o#rades. as well as /n&els. he
insisted on a less noisy yet #ore radial stru&&le a&ainst the e$istin& politial and
soial onditions% 2nli+e /n&els. 1ar$. as a hild. had never felt the &oadin& yo+e of
reli&ious and intelletual oppression 66 a reason why he was rather indifferent to the
reli&ious stru&&le. why he did not dee# it neessary to spend all his stren&th on a bitter
23
ritiis# of reli&ion% !n this respet he preferred pole#is about essentials to pole#is
about #ere e$ternals% 7uh a poliy was indispensable. he thou&ht. to preserve the
paper as a radial or&an% /n&els was #uh nearer to the &roup that de#anded
relentless open war a&ainst reli&ion% ' si#ilar differene of opinion e$isted a#on& the
Russian revolutionists towards the end of 1917 and the be&innin& of 191F% 7o#e
de#anded an i##ediate and sweepin& atta+ upon the @hurh% 3thers #aintained that
this was not essential. that there were #ore serious proble#s to ta+le% The
disa&ree#ent between 1ar$. /n&els and other youn& publiists was of the sa#e
nature% Their ontroversy found e$pression in the epistles whih 1ar$ as editor sent to
his old o#rades in *erlin% 1ar$ stoutly defended his tatis% -e e#phasised the
4uestion of the wrethed onditions of the labourin& #asses% -e sub0eted to the #ost
sathin& ritiis# the laws whih prohibited the free uttin& of ti#ber% -e pointed out
that the spirit of these laws was the spirit of the propertied and landownin& lass who
used all their in&enuity to e$ploit the peasants. and who purposely devised ordinanes
that would render the peasants ri#inals% !n his orrespondene he too+ up the ud&els
for his old a4uaintanes. the 1oselle peasants% These artiles provo+ed a austi
ontroversy with the &overnor of the Rhine provine%
The loal authorities brou&ht pressure to bear at *erlin% ' double ensorship was
i#posed upon the paper% 7ine the authorities felt that 1ar$ was the soul of the paper.
they insisted on his dis#issal% The new ensor had &reat respet for this intelli&ent and
brilliant publiist. who so de$terously evaded the ensorship obstales. but he
nevertheless ontinued to infor# a&ainst 1ar$ not only to the editorial #ana&e#ent.
but also to the &roup of sto+holders who were behind the paper% '#on& the latter. the
feelin& be&an to &row that &reater aution and the avoidane of all +inds of
e#barrassin& 4uestions would be the proper poliy to pursue% 1ar$ refused to
a4uiese% -e asserted that any further atte#pt at #oderation would prove futile. that
at any rate the &overn#ent would not be so easily paified% 5inally he resi&ned his
editorship and left the paper% This did not save the paper. for it soon was fored to
disontinue%
1ar$ left the paper a o#pletely transfor#ed #an% -e had entered the newspaper not
at all a o##unist% -e had si#ply been a radial de#orat. interested in the soial and
eono#i onditions of the peasantry% *ut he &radually bea#e #ore and #ore
absorbed in the study of the basi eono#i proble#s relatin& to the peasant 4uestion%
5ro# philosophy and 0urisprudene 1ar$ was drawn into a detailed and speialised
study of eono#i relations%
!n addition. a new pole#i between 1ar$ and a onservative 0ournal burst out in
onnetion with an artile written by -ess who. in 1FH2. onverted /n&els to
o##unis#% 1ar$ vehe#ently denied the paper's ri&ht to atta+ o##unis#% )! do
2H
not +now o##unis#.) he said. )but a soial philosophy that has as its ai# the
defene of the oppressed annot be onde#ned so li&htly% 3ne #ust a4uaint hi#self
thorou&hly with this trend of thou&ht ere he dares dis#iss it%) >hen 1ar$ left the
Rheinishe Deitun& he was not yet a o##unist. but he was already interested in
o##unis# as a partiular tendeny representin& a partiular point of view% 5inally. he
and his friend. 'rnold Ru&e <1F,261FF,=. a#e to the onlusion that there was no
possibility for ondutin& politial and soial propa&anda in ;er#any% They deided to
&o to 8aris <1FH3= and there publish a 0ournal Deutsh65ranzNsishen JahrbGher
<5rano6;er#an Bear *oo+s=% *y this na#e they wanted. in ontradistintion to the
5renh and ;er#an nationalists. to e#phasise that one of the onditions of a
suessful stru&&le a&ainst reation was a lose politial alliane between ;er#any
and 5rane% !n the JahrbGher 1ar$ for#ulated for the first ti#e the basi priniples of
his future philosophy. in whih evolution of a radial de#orat into a o##unist is
diserned%

2I
C"A#TER III
T"E RELATI!N ETWEEN SCIENTIFIC S!CIALISM AND #"IL!S!#")'
1'T/R!':!71%
K'?T%
5!@-T/%
-/;/:%
5/2/R*'@-%
D!':/@T!@ 1'T/R!':!71%
T-/ -!7T3R!@ 1!77!3? 35 T-/ 8R3:/T'R!'T%
This study of the lives of 1ar$ and /n&els is in aordane with the sientifi #ethod
they the#selves developed and e#ployed% Despite their &enius. 1ar$ and /n&els were
after all #en of a definite histori #o#ent% 's both of the# #atured. that is. as both of
the# &radually e#er&ed fro# their i##ediate ho#e influene they were diretly
drawn into the vorte$ of the histori epoh whih was haraterised hiefly by the
effets upon ;er#any of the July Revolution. by the forward strides of siene and
philosophy. by the &rowth of the labour and the revolutionary #ove#ents% 1ar$ and
/n&els were not only the produts of a definite histori period. but in their very ori&in
they were #en of a speifi loality. the Rhine provine. whih of all parts of ;er#any
was the #ost international. the #ost industrialised. and the #ost widely e$posed to the
influene of the 5renh Revolution% Durin& the first years of his life. 1ar$ was
sub0eted to different influenes than /n&els. while the 1ar$ fa#ily was under the
sway of the 5renh #aterialists. /n&els was brou&ht up in a reli&ious. al#ost
santi#onious. at#osphere% This was refleted in their later develop#ent% Euestions
pertainin& to reli&ion never touhed 1ar$ so painfully and so profoundly as they did
/n&els% 5inally. both. thou&h by different paths. one by an easier one the other by a
#ore tortuous one. arrived at the sa#e onlusions%
>e have now reahed the point in the areers of these two #en when they beo#e the
e$ponents of the #ost radial politial and philosophial thou&ht of the period% !t was
in the Deutsh65ranzNsishen JahrbGher that 1ar$ for#ulated his new point of view%
That we #ay &rasp what was really new in the oneption of the twenty6five6year6old
1ar$% let us first hastily survey what 1ar$ had found
!n a prefae <7ept% 21.1FF2= to his 7oialis#. 2topian and 7ientifi. /n&els wrote9
)>e ;er#an soialists are proud that we trae our desent not only fro# 7aint 7i#on.
5ourier and 3wen. but also fro# Kant. 5ihte and -e&el%) /n&els does not #ention
:udwi& 5euerbah. thou&h he later devoted a speial wor+ to this philosopher% >e
shall now proeed to study the philosophi ori&in of sientifi soialis#%
2(
3ne of the funda#ental proble#s of #etaphysis is the 4uestion of a first ause. a
5irst 8riniple. a so#ethin& anteedent to #undane e$istene 66 that whih we are in
the habit of allin& ;od% This @reator. this 3#nipotent and 3#nipresent 3ne. #ay
assu#e different for#s in different reli&ions% -e #ay #anifest -i#self in the i#a&e of
an al#i&hty heavenly #onarh. with ountless an&els as -is #essen&er boys% -e #ay
rele&ate -is power to popes. bishops and priests% 3r. as an enli&htened and &ood
#onarh. -e #ay &rant one for all a onstitution. establish funda#ental laws
whereby everythin& hu#an and natural shall be ruled and. without interferin& in the
affairs of &overn#ent. or ever &ettin& #i$ed up in any other business. be satisfied with
the love and reverene of -is hildren% -e #ay% in short% reveal -i#self in the &reatest
variety of for#s% *ut one we reo&nise the e$istene of this ;od and these little &ods.
we thereby ad#it the e$istene of so#e divine bein& who. on wa+in& one beautiful
#ornin&% uttered%
):et there be a worldO) and a world sprun& into bein&% Thus the thou&ht. the will. the
intention to reate our world e$isted so#ewhere outside of it% >e annot be any #ore
speifi as to its whereabouts. for the seret has not yet been revealed to us by any
philosopher%
This pri#ary entity reates all bein&% The idea reates #atterJ onsiousness
deter#ines all bein&% !n its essene. despite its philosophi wrappin&s. this new for#
of the #anifestation of the 5irst 8riniple is a rerudesene of the old theolo&y% !t is
the sa#e :ord of 7abaoth. or 5ather or 7on or -oly ;host% 7o#e even all it Reason.
or the >ord. or :o&os% )'t the be&innin& was the >ord%) The >ord reated *ein&% The
>ord reated the world%
The oneption that )'t the be&innin& was the >ord.) aroused the opposition of the
ei&hteenth6entury #aterialists% !nsofar as they atta+ed the old soial order 66 the
feudal syste# 66 these represented a new view. a new lass 66 the revolutionary
bour&eoisie% The old philosophy did not provide an answer to the 4uestion as to how
the new. whih undoubtedly distin&uished their ti#e fro# the old ti#e 66 the new a&es
fro# the preedin& ones 66 ori&inated%
1ind. idea. reason 66 these had one serious flaw. they were stati. per#anent.
unalterable% *ut e$periene showed the #utability of everythin& earthly% *ein& was
e#bodied in the #ost varie&ated for#s% -istory as well as onte#porary life. travel
and disoveries. revealed a world so rih. so #ultifor# and so fluid that in the fae of
all this a stati philosophy ould not survive%
The ruial 4uestion therefore was9 >herefro# all this #ultifariousnessP >here did
this o#ple$ity ariseP -ow did these subtle differentiations in ti#e and spae
27
ori&inateP -ow ould one pri#ary ause 66 ;od the eternal and unalterable 66 be the
ause of these nu#berless han&esP The naive supposition that all these were #ere
whi#s of ;od ould satisfy no one any #ore%
*e&innin& with the ei&hteenth entury. thou&h it was already stron&ly pereptible in
the seventeenth. hu#an relations were &oin& throu&h preipitous hanes. and as these
han&es were the#selves the result of hu#an ativity. Deity as the ulti#ate soure of
everythin& be&an to inspire ever &raver doubts% 5or that whih e$plains everythin&. in
all its #ultifariousness. both in ti#e and in spae. does not really e$plain anythin&% !t
is not what is o##on to all thin&s. but the differenes between thin&s that an be
e$plained only by the presu#ption that thin&s are different beause they were reated
under different iru#stanes. under the influene of different auses% /very suh
differene #ust be e$plained by partiular. speifi auses. by partiular influenes
whih produed it%
The /n&lish philosophers. havin& been e$posed to the effets of a rapidly e$pandin&
apitalis# and the e$perienes of two revolutions% boldly 4uestioned the atual
e$istene of a superhu#an fore responsible for all these events% 'lso the oneption
of #an's innate ideas e#anatin& fro# one 5irst 8riniple appeared e$tre#ely dubious
in view of the diversity of new and onflitin& ideas whih were rystallised durin&
the period of revolution%
The 5renh #aterialists propounded the sa#e 4uestion. but even #ore boldly% They
denied the e$istene of an e$tra6#undane divine power whih was onstantly
preoupied with the affairs of the ?ew /urope. and whih was busy shapin& the
destinies of everythin& and everybody% To the# everythin& observable in #an's
e$istene. in #an's history. was the result of #an's own ativity%
The 5renh #aterialists ould not point out or e$plain what deter#ined hu#an ation%
*ut they were fir# in their +nowled&e that neither ;od nor any other e$ternal power
#ade history% -erein lay a ontradition whih they ould not reonile% They +new
that #en at differently beause of different interests and different opinions% The ause
of these differenes in interests and opinions they ould not disern% 3f ourse. they
asribed these to differenes in eduation and brin& in a upJ whih was true% *ut what
deter#ined the type of eduation and brin&in& upP -ere the 5renh #aterialists failed%
The nature of soiety. of eduation. et%. was in their opinion. deter#ined by laws
#ade by #en. by le&islators. by law&ivers% Thus the law#a+er is elevated into the
position of an arbiter and diretor of hu#an ation% !n his powers he is al#ost a ;od%
'nd what deter#ines the ation of the law&iverP This they did not +now%
2F
3ne #ore 4uestion was bein& thrashed out at this ti#e% 7o#e of the philosophers of
the early 5renh /nli&hten#ent were Deists% )3f ourse.) they #aintained. )our Deity
does not in any way rese#ble the ruel -ebrew ;od. nor the 5ather. the 7on and the
-oly ;host of the @hristian reed% Bet we feel that there is a spiritual priniple. whih
i#pre&nated #atter with the very ability to thin+. a supre#e power whih antedated
nature%) The #aterialists' answer to this was that there was no need for postulatin& an
e$ternal power. and that sensation is the natural attribute of #atter%
7iene in &eneral. and the natural sienes in partiular. were not yet suffiiently
advaned when the 5renh #aterialists tried to wor+ out their views% >ithout havin&
positive proof they nevertheless arrived at the funda#ental proposition #entioned
above%
/very #aterialist re0ets the onsiousness 66 the #ind 66 as anteedent to #atter and
to nature% 5or thousands. nay #illions. of years there was not an inti#ation of a livin&.
or&ani bein& upon this planet. that is. there was not anythin& here of what is alled
#ind or onsiousness% /$istene. nature. #atter preeded onsiousness. preeded
spirit and #ind%
3ne #ust not thin+. however. that 1atter is neessarily so#ethin& rude. u#brous.
unlean. while the !dea is so#ethin& deliate. ethereal and pure% 7o#e. partiularly the
vul&ar #aterialists and. at ti#es. si#ply youn& people. unwittin&ly assert in the heat of
ar&u#ent and often to spite the 8harisees of idealis#. who only prate of the )lofty and
the beautiful) while adaptin& the#selves #ost o#fortably to the filth and #eanness
of their bour&eois surroundin&s. that #atter is so#ethin& ponderous and rude%
This. of ourse. is a #ista+en view% 5or a hundred and fifty years we have been
learnin& that #atter is inredibly ethereal and #obile% /ver sine the !ndustrial
Revolution has turned the abut#ents of the old and slu&&ish natural eono#y upside
down. thin&s be&an to #ove% The dor#ant was awa+enedJ the #otionless was stirred
into ativity% !n hard. see#in&ly frozen #atter new fores were disovered and new
+inds of #otion diserned%
-ow inade4uate was the +nowled&e of the 5renh #aterialists. an be 0ud&ed fro# the
followin&% >hen d'-olbah. for instane. was writin& his 7yste# of ?ature. he +new
less of the essential nature of pheno#ena than an ele#entary shool &raduate to6day%
'ir to hi# was a pri#ary ele#ent% -e +new as little about air as the ;ree+s had +nown
two thousand years before hi#% 3nly a few years after d'-olbah had written his hief
wor+. he#istry proved that air was a #i$ture of a variety of ele#ents 66 nitro&en.
o$y&en and others% ' hundred years later. towards the end of the nineteenth entury.
29
he#istry disovered in the air the rare &ases. ar&on. heliu#. et% 1atter. to be sureO
*ut not so very rude%
'nother instane% ?owadays we all use the radio and wireless #ost dili&ently% !t
renders us &reat servies% >ithout it we would literally be &ropin& in the dar+% Bet a
study of its develop#ent shows us its o#paratively reent ori&in 66 about twenty6five
years% !t was only in 1F97 or 1F9F that #atter revealed to us suh un#aterial attributes
that we had to turn to -indoo theolo&y to find ter#s to depit the#% The radio
trans#its si&ns and sounds% 3ne #ay be in 1osow and en0oy a onert broadast a
few thousand #iles away% !t is only very reently that we have learned that even
photo&raphs an be trans#itted by radio% 'll these #irales are perfor#ed not throu&h
so#e )spiritual) a&eny. but by #eans of very ethereal. and. no doubt. very deliate.
but none the less 4uite #easurable and ontrollable #atter%
The above e$a#ples were addued for the purpose of illustratin& the obsoleteness of
so#e oneptions of the #aterial and the i##aterial% They were even #ore obsolete in
the ei&hteenth entury% -ad the #aterialists of those days had at their disposal all the
reently dislosed fats. they would not have been so )rude.) and they would not have
offended the )sensibilitiesMinde$%ht#) of so#e people%
!##anuel Kant's <172H61F,H= onte#poraries a#on& the ;er#an philosophers held
to the orthodo$ point of view% They re0eted #aterialis# as &odless and i##oral%
Kant. however. was not satisfied with suh a si#ple solution% -e +new full well the
fli#siness of the traditional reli&ious notions% *ut he had neither enou&h oura&e nor
enou&h onsisteny definitely to brea+ with the old%
!n 17F1 he published his #a&nu# opus the @riti4ue of 8ure Reason in whih he
established #ost onlusively that all +nowled&e was e#pirial. and that there were no
proofs for the e$istene of a ;od. the i##ortality of the soul. absolute ideas. et% >e
do not +now thin&s in the#selves. their essenes% >e an +now only the for#s in
whih these essenes #anifest the#selves to our sensory or&ans% The essene of thin&s
<nou#enon= is onealed behind the for# <pheno#enon= and it will forever re#ain in
the real# of the un+nown% !t appeared that the &ulf between #aterialis# and idealis#.
between siene and reli&ion was brid&ed% Kant did not deny the suesses of siene
in the study and the e$planation of pheno#ena% *ut he also found a plae for theolo&y%
The essene was hristened with the na#e of ;od%
!n his double6entry syste# of boo++eepin&. in his deter#ination to offend neither
siene nor reli&ion. Kant went even further% !n his ne$t wor+. the @riti4ue of 8ratial
Reason. he proeeded to prove that thou&h in theory the oneptions ;od. i##ortality
3,
of the soul. et%. are not indispensable. in pratie one is fored to aept the#. for
without the# hu#an ativity would be devoid of any #oral basis%
The poet -eine. who was a friend of 1ar$ and upon who# the latter at one ti#e had a
&reat influene. depited very vividly Kant's #otives for treadin& the two paths% Kant
had an old and faithful servant. :a#pe. who had lived with. and attended to. his #aster
for forty years% 5or Kant this :a#pe was the personifiation of the avera&e #an who
ould not live without reli&ion% 'fter a brilliant e$position of the revolutionary i#port
of the @riti4ue of 8ure Reason in the stru&&le with theolo&y and with the belief in a
Divine 8riniple. -eine e$plained why Kant found it neessary to write the @riti4ue of
8ratial Reason in whih the philosopher re6established everythin& he had torn down
before% -ere is what -eine wrote9

)'fter the tra&edy o#es the fare% !##anuel Kant has hitherto appeared as the
&ri#. ine$orable philosopherJ he has stor#ed heaven. put all the &arrison to the
swordJ the ruler of the world swi#s senseless in his bloodJ there is no #ore any
#ery. or fatherly &oodness. or future reward for present privationsJ the
i##ortality of the soul is in its last a&onies 66 death rattles and &roans% 'nd old
:a#pe stands by with his u#brella under his ar# as a sorrowin& spetator. and
the sweat of an&uish and tears run down his hee+s% Then !##anuel Kant is
#oved to pity. and shows hi#self not only a &reat philosopher. but a &ood #an%
-e reonsiders. and half &ood6naturedly and half ironially says. '3ld :a#pe
#ust have a ;od. or else the poor #an annot be happy. and people really ou&ht
to be happy in this world% 8ratial o##on sense delares that% >ell. #einet
we&en. for all ! are. let pratial reason &uarantee the e$istene of a ;od%')
K-einrih -eine. @olleted >or+s% >% -eine#an. :ondon. 19,(% Aol% I. pp% 1I,6
1I1%L

Kant had a &reat influene on siene. too% To&ether with the 5renh astrono#er 8ierre
:aplae <17H961F27=. he #aintained that the biblial aount of the reation of the
world was faulty. that the earth was the produt of a prolon&ed develop#ent. of a
ontinuous evolutionary proess. that li+e all heavenly bodies it a#e about as the
&radual on&eal#ent of a hi&hly rarefied substane%
Kant was essentially a #ediator between the old and the new philosophiesJ he
re#ained a o#pro#iser in #ost pratial fields of life% Thou&h he was not able
o#pletely to brea+ away fro# the old. he none the less #ade a onsiderable step
forward% -is #ore onsistent disiples re0eted the @riti4ue of 8ratial Reason and
#ade the #ost e$tre#e dedutions fro# his @riti4ue of 8ure Reason%
31
The philosopher Johann 5ihte <17(261F1H= i#pressed :assalle ino#parably #ore
than he did 1ar$ or /n&els% *ut there was one ele#ent in his philosophy whih was
absolutely ne&leted in the Kantian syste# and whih had a tre#endous influene
upon the ;er#an revolutionary intelli&entsia% leant was a peaeful professor% ?ot one
in a few deades was he even te#pted to &o beyond the boundaries of his beloved
Koni&sber&% 5ihte. on the ontrary. besides bein& a philosopher. was ative in the
pratial pursuits of life% !t was this ele#ent of ation that 5ihte arried over into his
philosophy% To the old oneption of an e$ternal power that direted the ations of
#en. he opposed the idea of the 'bsolute /&o. thus onvertin& the hu#an personality
and its ativity into the #ainsprin& of all theory and pratie%
Bet it was ;% >% 5% -e&el <177,61F31= who. #ore than any other philosopher. e$erted
a powerful influene on 1ar$ and /n&els% -is philosophy was based on a ritiis# of
the Kantian and 5ihtean syste#s% !n his youth -e&el had been an ardent devotee of
the 5renh Revolution. while toward the end of his life he bea#e a 8russian professor
and offiial. and his philosophy was #ost &raiously approved of by the )enli&htened)
rulers%
The 4uestion then presents itself how was it that -e&el's philosophy bea#e the
soure of inspiration for 1ar$. /n&els and :assalle% >hat was it in -e&el's philosophy
that irresistibly drew to itself the #ost illustrious e$ponents of soial and revolutionary
thou&htP
Kant's philosophy. in its #ain outlines. had ta+en shape previous to the 5renh
Revolution% -e was si$ty6five years old when the Revolution be&an% True. he. too. was
#oved sy#pathetially. still he never went further than his usto#ary o#pro#isin&
and oniliatory dedutions% Thou&h with re&ard to the history of our planet. as we
have seen. he had already adopted the idea of evolution. his philosophi syste#.
nevertheless. redued itself to an e$planation of the universe as it was%
>ith -e&el it was different% -avin& &one throu&h the e$perienes of the late
ei&hteenth and the early nineteenth entury. that epoh of olossal eono#i and
politial han&es. he viewed and e$plained the os#os as a ontinuous proess of
unfold#ent% There is nothin& i##obile% The 'bsolute !dea lives and #anifests itself
only in the proess of uninterrupted #ove#ent 66 develop#ent% /verythin& flows.
han&es and vanishes% The easeless #ove#ent. the eternal unfold#ent of the
'bsolute !dea deter#ines the evolution of the world in all its aspets% To o#prehend
the iru#a#bient pheno#ena. one #ust not only study the# as they e$ist. but one
#ust understand how they have been developin&J for everythin& about one is the result
of a past develop#ent% 5urther#ore. a thin& #ay appear at first &lane as bein& in a
state of i##obility whih on loser srutiny. however. will dislose within itself
32
inessant #ove#ent and onflit. nu#erous influenes and fores. so#e tendin& to
preserve it as it is. others tendin& to han&e it% !n eah pheno#enon. in eah ob0et.
there is the lash of two priniples. the thesis and the antithesis. the onservative and
the destrutive% This stru&&le between the two opposin& priniples resolves itself into a
final har#onious synthesis of the two%
This is how it was e$pressed in the -e&elian idio#% The Reason. the Thou&ht. the
!dea. does not re#ain #otionlessJ it does not re#ain frozen to one propositionJ it does
not re#ain on the sa#e thesis% 3n the ontrary. the thesis. the thou&ht interposin& itself
brea+s up into two ontraditory ideas. a positive and a ne&ative. a )yesMinde$%ht#)
idea. and a )no) idea% The onflit between the two ontraditory ele#ents inluded in
the antithesis reates #ove#ent. whih -e&el. in order to underline the ele#ent of
onflit. styles dialeti% The result of this onflit. this dialeti. is reoniliation. or
e4uilibriu#% The fusion of the two opposite ideas for#s a new idea. their synthesis%
This in its turn divides into two ontraditory ideas 66 the thesis is onverted into its
antithesis. and these a&ain are blended in a new synthesis%
-e&el re&arded every pheno#enon as a proess. as so#ethin& that is forever
han&in&. so#ethin& that is forever developin&% /very pheno#enon is not only the
result of previous han&es. it also arries within itself the &er# of future han&es% !t
never halts at any sta&e% The e4uilibriu# attained is disturbed by a new onflit. whih
leads to a hi&her reoniliation. to a hi&her synthesis. and to a still further dihoto#y
on a still hi&her plane% Thus. it is the stru&&le between opposites that is the soure of
all develop#ent%
-erein lay the revolutionary potentialities of -e&el's philosophy% Thou&h he was an
idealist. thou&h his syste# was based on the 7pirit and not on ?ature. on the !dea and
not on 1atter. he none the less e$erted a &reat influene upon all historial and soial
sienes. and even upon natural siene% -e sti#ulated the study of reality% -e inspired
the study of the various for#s whih the 'bsolute !dea had assu#ed in the proess of
its unfold#ent% 'nd the #ore varie&ated were the for#s throu&h whih the !dea
#anifested itself. the #ore varie&ated were the pheno#ena and the proesses that had
to be investi&ated%
>e shall not dwell on the other sides of the -e&elian philosophy whih would #a+e
lear why it &ave suh a powerful i#pulse for a #ore areful study of reality% The
#ore his disiples studied reality in the li&ht of and &uided by. the dialeti #ethod
evolved by their teaher. the #ore evident bea#e the radial defiieny of his
philosophy% 5or it was an idealisti philosophyJ that is. the #otivatin& fore. the
@reator. was. aordin& to -e&el. the 'bsolute !dea. whih deter#ined e$istene% This
wea+ point in the -e&elian 7yste# alled forth ritiis#% The 'bsolute !dea see#ed a
33
new edition of the old ;od. the sa#e bodiless ;od whih suh philosophers as Aoltaire
reated for the#selves and partiularly for the #asses%
:udwi& 5euerbah <1F,H61F72=. one of the #ost talented disiples of -e&el. finally
e$a#ined his #aster's philosophy fro# this point of view% -e understood perfetly and
#astered the revolutionary aspet of the -e&elian 7yste#% -e propounded. however.
the followin& 4uestion9 @an the 'bsolute !dea in its develop#ent atually deter#ine
all bein&P To this 4uestion 5euerbah &ave a ne&ative answer% -e upset -e&el's basi
proposition by pointin& out the onverse to be the truth 66 *ein& deter#ines
@onsiousness% There was a ti#e when there was bein& without onsiousness% The
1ind or the !dea is itself the produt of *ein&% -e re&arded -e&el's philosophy as the
latest theolo&ial syste#. for in plae of a ;od. it on0ured up another pri#ary *ein&.
the 'bsolute !dea% 5euerbah indiated that the various oneptions of ;od.
@hristianity inluded. were reated by #an hi#self% ?ot ;od had reated #an. but
rather #an reated ;od. in his own i#a&e% !t is #erely neessary to dissipate this
world of phanto#s. oult ob0ets. an&els. withes and si#ilar #anifestations of the
basially sa#e Divine /ssene. to have left a hu#an world% Thus 1an beo#es the
funda#ental priniple of 5euerbah's philosophy% The supre#e law in this hu#an
world is not the law of ;od but the happiness of #an% !n opposition to the old
theolo&ial Deisti priniple. 5euerbah advaned a new anthropolo&ial or hu#an
priniple%
!n his shool o#position. #entioned in an earlier hapter. 1ar$ had lai#ed that by
a hain of iru#stanes operative even before a #an's birth. his future profession is
predeter#ined% Thus the idea whih followed lo&ially fro# the #aterialist philosophy
of the ei&hteenth entury was fa#iliar to 1ar$ when he was yet at hi&h shool% 1an is
the produt of his environ#ent. and of onditionsJ he annot therefore be free in the
hoie of his profession. he annot be the #a+er of his own happiness% There was
nothin& new or ori&inal in this view% 1ar$ was #erely for#ulatin& in a uni4ue
#anner. to be sure. what he had already read in the wor+s of the philosophers to whih
he had been introdued by his father% >hen he entered the 2niversity and a#e in
touh with the lassial ;er#an philosophy that was rei&nin& there. he be&an fro# the
very first to e$pound a #aterialist philosophy in opposition to the then prevailin&
idealisti thou&ht% This was why he so soon arrived at the #ost radial dedutions
fro# the -e&elian syste#% This was also why he &reeted so war#ly 5euerbah's
/ssene of @hristianity% !n his ritiis# of @hristianity. 5euerbah a#e to the sa#e
onlusions to whih the ei&hteenth6entury #aterialists had o#e% *ut where they
had seen only deeit and bi&otry. he. who had &one throu&h the -e&elian shool.
diserned a neessary phase of hu#an ulture% *ut even to 5euerbah. #an was as
#uh of an abstrat fi&ure as he was to the #aterialists of the ei&hteenth entury%
3H
!t was neessary to &o only one step further in the analysis of #an and his
surroundin&s to disover that #an was 4uite varied. e$istin& in diverse sires. havin& a
different status% The 8russian +in&. the 1oselle peasant. as well as the fatory wor+er.
who# 1ar$ had been #eetin& in the Rhine provine. were all #en% They all had the
sa#e or&ans 66 heads. feet. hands. et% 8hysiolo&ially and anato#ially there was not
any &reat differene between the 1oselle peasant and the 8russian landlord% Bet there
was an overwhel#in& differene in their soial position% 5uther#ore. #en differed
fro# eah other not only in spae but in ti#e. those of the seventeenth entury
differin& fro# those of the twelfth. and fro# those of the nineteenth% -ow did all these
differenes ori&inate. if #an hi#self was not han&in&. if he was e$lusively a produt
of natureP
1ar$'s thou&ht be&an to wor+ in this diretion% To #aintain that #an is the produt of
his environ#ent. that he is fashioned by his surroundin&s. is not enou&h% To breed suh
differenes. environ#ent itself #ust be a o#ple$ of ontraditions% /nviron#ent is
not a #ere olletion of people. it is rather a soial #ilieu in whih #en are bound up
in definite relations and belon& to distint soial &roups%
This was why 1ar$ ould not be satisfied even with 5euerbah's riti4ue of reli&ion%
5euerbah e$plained the essene of reli&ion by the essene of #an% *ut the essene of
#an is not at all so#ethin& abstrat and belon&in& to #an as a separate individual%
1an hi#self represents an a&&re&ate. a totality of definite soial relations% There is no
separated and isolated #an% /ven the natural ties e$istin& a#on& #en reede before
the si&nifiane of soial ties that are established in the proess of historial
develop#ent% Therefore reli&ious senti#ent is not anythin& natural. but is itself a
soial produt%
The assertion that #an is the soure of a new weltanshauun& see#s inade4uate% 3ne
#ust e#phasise the soial aspet in the onept of #an% 3ne #ust thin+ of #an as the
produt of a ertain soial develop#ent who is for#ed and brou&ht up upon a definite
soial soil speifially stratified and differentiated% This stratifiation and
differentiation of the environ#ent into distint lasses is not anythin& pri#ordial. but
is the result of a lon& develop#ental proess% 'n investi&ation of the #anner in whih
this historial proess was ao#plished shows that it has always resulted fro# a
stru&&le between opposites. between ontraditions that had appeared at a ertain
definite sta&e of soial develop#ent%
1ar$ did not onfine hi#self to this. he sub0eted to his ritiis# other propositions
of 5euerbah's philosophy% !nto the purely theoretial onte#plative philosophy he
in0eted a new revolutionary ele#ent whih was based on a ritiis# of reality 66
pratial ativity%
3I
:i+e the 5renh #aterialists. 5euerbah tau&ht that #an was the produt of
iru#stanes and eduation. the produt of e$istene atin& upon onsiousness%
Thus #an as he is. with his head. hands. feet. et%. and set apart fro# the ani#al
+in&do#. was viewed as a sort of sensitive apparatus sub0eted to the influenes and
the ation of nature upon hi#% 'll his thou&hts. his ideas. are refletions of nature%
'ordin& to 5euerbah it see#ed. therefore. that #an was a purely passive ele#ent.
an obedient reipient of i#pulses supplied by nature%
To this proposition 1ar$ opposed another% /verythin&. he insisted. that &oes on within
#an. the han&es of #an hi#self. are the effets not only of the influene of nature
upon #an. but even #ore so of the reation of #an upon nature% !t is this that
onstitutes the evolution of #an% The pri#itive #anli+e ani#al in his eternal stru&&le
for e$istene did not #erely passively sub0et hi#self to the sti#uli that a#e fro#
nature. he reated upon nature. he han&ed it% -avin& han&ed nature. he han&ed the
onditions of his e$istene 66 he also han&ed hi#self%
Thus 1ar$ introdued a revolutionary. ative ele#ent into 5euerbah's passive
philosophy% The business of philosophy. #aintained 1ar$ in ontradistintion to
5euerbah. is not only to e$plain this world. but also to han&e it% Theory should be
supple#ented by pratie% The riti4ue of fats. of the world about us. the ne&ation of
the#. should be supple#ented by positive wor+ and by pratial ativity% Thus had
1ar$ onverted 5euerbah's onte#plative philosophy into an ative one% *y our
whole ativity #ust we prove the orretness of our thou&ht and our pro&ra##e% The
#ore effiiently we introdue our ideas into pratie. the sooner we e#body the# in
atuality. the #ore indubitable is the proof that atuality had in it the ele#ents that
were needed for the solution of the proble# we had onfronted ourselves with. for the
e$eution of the pro&ra##e we had wor+ed out%
The &eneral features of this ritiis# of 5euerbah were for#ulated by 1ar$ at 4uite
an early period% ' thou&htful e$a#ination of the line of his thou&ht shows how he
arrived at his funda#ental idea the elaboration of whih led hi# to sientifi
o##unis#%
!n his pole#is with the ;er#an intelli&entsia. fro# whose #idst he had hi#self
e#er&ed. 1ar$ tried to prove the ban+rupty of their old slo&ans%
>e all a&ree. he told the#. that the ;er#an reality about us. the 8russia where life is
so diffiult. where there is neither freedo# of thou&ht nor teahin&. presents in itself
so#ethin& utterly unattrative% There is not the sli&htest doubt that this world #ust be
3(
han&ed. if we do not wish the ;er#an people to sin+ to the botto# of this horrible
#orass%
*ut how an this world be han&edP in4uired 1ar$% This han&e is ontin&ent upon
the presene within ;er#an soiety of so#e &roup. a ate&ory of people. who would
with every fibre of their bein& be interested in brin&in& about the han&e%
1ar$ e$a#ined suessively the various &roups e$istin& within ;er#an soiety 66 the
nobility. the bureauray. the bour&eoisie% -e a#e to the onlusion that even the last
#entioned. unli+e the 5renh bour&eoisie whih played suh an i#portant
revolutionary part. was not apable of ta+in& upon itself the role of the )liberator
lassMinde$%ht#) whih would o#pletely han&e the soial syste#%
!f not the bour&eoisie. whih other lass would #easure up to the tas+P 'nd 1ar$
who was at that ti#e steeped in the study of the histories and the prevailin& ondition
of 5rane and /n&land. onluded that the proletariat was the only lass that held out
any real soial pro#ise%
Thus even in 1FHH. 1ar$ advaned his #ain thesis9 The lass that is apable and that
should assu#e the #ission of freein& the ;er#an. people and of han&in& the soial
order is the proletariat%%%% >hyP *eause it onstitutes a lass of people whose very
onditions of e$istene are the e#bodi#ent of what is #ost perniious in
onte#porary bour&eois soiety% ?o other lass stands as low on the soial ladder.
feels as heavily the wei&ht of the rest of soiety% >hile the e$istene of all the other
lasses of soiety is founded upon private property. the proletariat is devoid of this
property and onse4uently not in the least interested in the preservation of the present
order% The proletariat. however. la+s the onsiousness of its #ission. la+s
+nowled&e and philosophy% !t will beo#e the propeller of the entire e#anipation
#ove#ent one it beo#es i#bued with this onsiousness. this philosophy. one it
understands the onditions re4uisite for its e#anipation. one it oneives the e$alted
role that fell to its lot%
This point of view is e$lusively 1ar$ian% The &reat 2topian 7oialists 66 @laude
7aint67i#on <17(,61F2I=. @harles 5ourier <177261F37=. and partiularly Robert 3wen
<177161FIF= 66 had already direted their attention to the )#ost nu#erous and the
neediest lassMinde$%ht#) 66 the proletarians% *ut they wor+ed on the assu#ptions that
the proletariat was #erely the #ost sufferin& lass. the #ost indi&ent lass. that it had
to be ta+en are of. and that this are had to be e$erised by the hi&her. ultured
lasses% !n the poverty of the proletariat they saw only poverty. they did not fatho# the
revolutionary possibilities i##anent in this poverty. the produt of the deay of
bour&eois soiety%
37
1ar$ was the first to point out that the proletariat besides bein& #erely the sufferin&
lass. was the ative fi&hter a&ainst the bour&eois orderJ it was the lass whih in every
ondition of its e$istene was bein& onverted into the sole revolutionary ele#ent in
bour&eois soiety%
This idea. advaned by 1ar$ at the be&innin& of 1FHH. was further developed by hi#
in ollaboration with /n&els in a wor+ alled The -oly 5a#ily% Thou&h a bit obsolete.
this boo+ is not #uh #ore obsolete than so#e of the early wor+s of 8le+hanov or of
:enin% !t is still full of interest to those who are aware of the intense intelletual and
soial stru&&les that were ra&in& in ;er#any in the early forties% !n this boo+ 1ar$
vehe#ently ridiules all the atte#pts of the ;er#an intelli&entsia either to turn away
fro# the proletariat. or to find satisfation in philanthropi soieties whih were
e$peted &reatly to benefit the proletariat% 1ar$ a&ain tried to e$plain to the ;er#an
intelli&entsia the revolutionary si&nifiane of the proletariat. whih only a few #onths
before had shown. by the uprisin&s of the 7ilesian weavers. that when it a#e to a
defene of its #aterial interests the proletariat did not stop at insurretion%
1ar$ was already adu#bratin& in this boo+ the &uideposts of his new philosophy% The
proletariat is a distint lass. for the soiety in whih it lives is onstruted on lass
lines% The proletariat is opposed by the bour&eoisie% The wor+er is e$ploited by the
apitalist% There is still another 4uestion% >here did the apitalists o#e fro#P >hat
were the auses that en&endered this e$ploitation of hired labour by apitalP
There was need for a sientifi e$a#ination of the funda#ental laws of this soiety. its
evolution and its e$istene% !n this boo+ 1ar$ already stressed the i#portane of a
+nowled&e of the onditions of industry. of prodution. of the #aterial onditions of
life. of the relations established a#on& people in the proess of satisfyin& their
#aterial wants. for a thorou&h o#prehension of the real fores wor+in& in any &iven
histori period%
5ro# then on 1ar$ be&an to wor+ assiduously upon this proble#% -e threw hi#self
into the study of politial eono#y to larify for hi#self the #ehanis# of eono#i
relations in onte#porary soiety% *ut 1ar$ was not only a philosopher who wanted to
e$plain the world. he was also a revolutionist who wanted to han&e it%

3F
C"A#TER I&
T"E "IST!R) !F T"E C!MM%NIST LEAG%E'
1'RC '7 '? 3R;'?!D/R%
T-/ 7TR2;;:/ >!T- >/!T:!?;%
T-/ 53R1'T!3? 35 T-/ @3112?!7T :/';2/%
T-/ @o##unist 1anifesto%
T-/ @3?TR3A/R7B >!T- 8R32D-3?%
>e shall now proeed to e$a#ine the e$tent to whih 1ar$ too+ part in the
or&anization of the @o##unist :ea&ue at the re4uest of whih the @o##unist
1anifesto was written% 'fter e$a#inin& all the data obtainable fro# the writin&s of
1ar$ and /n&els pertainin& to this 4uestion. one #ust onlude that their aount
re&ardin& the ori&in of the :ea&ue is not entirely orret% 1ar$ had oasion to touh
upon this episode only one in one of his wor+s that is read very little. -err Ao&t.
published in 1F(,% -e allowed a &reat nu#ber of errors to reep into that boo+% The
history of the @o##unist :ea&ue is usually learned throu&h the aount written by
/n&els in 1FFI% /n&els' story an be su##arised as follows9
3ne there lived 1ar$ and /n&els. two ;er#an philosophers and politiians. who
were fored to abandon their native land% They lived in 5rane and they lived in
*el&iu#% They wrote learned boo+s. whih first attrated the attention of the
intelli&entsia. and then fell into the hands of the wor+ers% 3ne fine #ornin& the
wor+ers turned to these two savants who had been sittin& in their loisters re#ote fro#
the loathso#e business of pratial ativity and. as was proper for &uardians of
sientifi thou&ht. had been proudly awaitin& the o#in& of the wor+ers% 'nd the day
arrivedJ the wor+ers a#e and invited 1ar$ and /n&els to enter their :ea&ue% *ut
1ar$ and /n&els delared that they would 0oin the :ea&ue only on ondition that the
:ea&ue aept their pro&ra##e% The wor+ers a&reed. they or&anized the @o##unist
:ea&ue and forthwith proeeded to authorise 1ar$ and /n&els to prepare the
@o##unist 1anifesto%
The wor+ers who did this had belon&ed to the :ea&ue of the Just whih was
#entioned in onnetion with the history of the labour #ove#ent in 5rane and
/n&land% !t was l pointed out that this :ea&ue of the Just had been for#ed in 8aris and
that it had suffered serious reverses after the unsuessful uprisin& of the *lan4uists on
1ay 12. 1F39% !t was also reported that after the defeat. the #e#bers of the :ea&ue
went to :ondon% '#on& the# was 7happer who or&anised the >or+ers' /duational
7oiety in 5ebruary. 1FH,%
2% 7te+lov. in his boo+ on 1ar$. &ives a si#ilar aount of the ori&in of the
@o##unist :ea&ue%
39
)>hile livin& in 8aris. 1ar$ was +eepin& in personal touh with the leaders of
the :ea&ue of the Just whih onsisted of ;er#an politial e#i&rants and
artisans% -e did not 0oin this :ea&ue beause its pro&ra##e was too &reatly
oloured with an idealisti and onspiratory spirit whih ould not appeal to
1ar$% The ran+ and file of the :ea&ue. however. &radually a#e to a position
approahin& that of 1ar$ and /n&els% The latter throu&h personal and written
ontat. as well as throu&h the press. influened the politial views of the
#e#bers of the :ea&ue% 3n so#e oasions the two friends trans#itted their
views to their orrespondents throu&h printed irulars% 'fter the breah with the
rebel >eitlin&. after the syste#atially 'severe ritiis# of the useless
theoretiians.' the soil was fully prepared for 1ar$ and /n&els to 0oin the :ea&ue%
't the first on&ress of the :ea&ue. whih had now assu#ed the na#e of the
@o##unist :ea&ue. /n&els and >ilhel# >olff were presentJ at the seond
onvention. at the end of ?ove#ber. 1FH7. 1ar$. too. was present% The
onvention. after havin& heard 1ar$'s address in whih he e$pounded the new
soialist philosophy. o##issioned hi# and /n&els to prepare the pro&ra##e of
the :ea&ue% This was how the fa#ous @o##unist 1anifesto a#e to be written%)

7te+lov has only related what 1ar$ had written. while 1ehrin& has repeated what
/n&els had told us% 'nd one annot but believe /n&els. for who is #ore 4ualified to
relate the history of an enterprise than the person who hi#self too+ part in itP 7till a
ritial attitude #ust be preserved even where /n&els is onerned. partiularly sine
in his artile he desribed affairs that had ourred forty years before% 'fter suh a
onsiderable interval of ti#e it is rather easy to for&et thin&s. partiularly if one writes
under entirely different iru#stanes and in a wholly different #ood%
>e have at our disposal other fats whih do not at all tally with the above aount%
1ar$ and /n&els were not at all the pure theoretiians that 7te+lov. for instane. #a+es
the# out to be% 3n the ontrary. as soon as 1ar$ had o#e to the view that any
neessary and radial han&e in the e$istin& soial order had to be wholly dependent
upon the wor+in& lass 66 the proletariat 66 whih in the very onditions of its life was
findin& all the sti#uli. all the i#pulses that were forin& it into opposition to this
syste# 66 as soon as 1ar$ was onvined of this. he forthwith went into the #idst of
the wor+ersJ he and /n&els tried to penetrate all plaes. all or&anisations. where the
wor+ers had already been sub0eted to other influenes% 7uh or&anisations were
already then in e$istene%
!n the aount of the history of the wor+ers' #ove#ent we have reahed the early
forties% The :ea&ue of the Just after the debale of 1ay. 1F39. eased to e$ist as a
H,
entral or&anisation% 't any rate. no traes of its e$istene or its ativity as a entral
or&anisation are found after 1FH,% There re#ained only independent irles or&anised
by e$6#e#bers of the :ea&ue% 3ne of these irles was or&anised in :ondon%
3ther #e#bers of the :ea&ue of the Just fled to 7witzerland. the #ost influential
a#on& the# bein& >ilhel# >eitlin& <1F,961F(H=% ' tailor by trade. one of the first
;er#an revolutionists fro# a#on& the artisan proletariat. >eitlin&. li+e #any other
;er#an artisans of the ti#e. pere&rinated fro# town to town% !n 1F3I he found
hi#self in 8aris. but it was in 1F37 that he settled there for lon&% !n 8aris he bea#e a
#e#ber of the :ea&ue of the Just and fa#iliarized hi#self with the teahin&s of
-u&ues :a#ennais. the prota&onist of @hristian soialis#. of 7aint67i#on and 5ourier%
There he also #et *lan4ui and his followers% Towards the end of 1F3F he wrote. at the
re4uest of his o#rades. a pa#phlet alled 1an+ind 's !t !s and 's !t 3u&ht To *e. in
whih he ha#pioned the ideas of o##unis#%
!n 7witzerland >eitlin& and so#e friends. after an unsuessful atte#pt to
propa&andise the 7wiss. be&an to or&anise irles a#on& the ;er#an wor+ers and the
e#i&rants% !n 1FH2 he published his hief wor+. ;uarantees of -ar#ony and 5reedo#%
!n this boo+ he developed in &reater detail the views he had e$pressed in 1F3F%
!nfluened by *lan4ui. >eitlin&'s ideas differed fro# those of other onte#porary
utopians. in that he did not believe in a peaeful transition into o##unis#% The new
soiety. a very detailed plan of whih was wor+ed out by hi#. ould only be realised
throu&h the use of fore% The sooner e$istin& soiety is abolished. the sooner will the
people be freed% The best #ethod is to brin& the e$istin& soial disorder to the last
e$tre#e% The worse. the betterO The #ost trustworthy revolutionary ele#ent whih
ould be relied upon to wre+ present soiety was. aordin& to >eitlin&. the lowest
&rade proletariat. the lu#penproletariat. inludin& even the robbers%
!t was in 7witzerland. too. that 1ihael *a+unin <1F1161F7(= #et >eitlin& and
absorbed so#e of his ideas% 3win& to the arrest and the 0udiial proseution started
a&ainst >eitlin& and his followers. *a+unin was o#pro#ised and forever bea#e an
e$ile fro# his own ountry%
'fter a ter# in prison. >eitlin& was e$tradited to ;er#any in 1FH1% 5ollowin& a
period of wanderin&. he finally landed in :ondon where his arrival was 0oyously
elebrated%
' lar&e #ass #eetin& was arran&ed in his honour% /n&lish soialists and @hartists as
well as ;er#an and 5renh e#i&rants partiipated% This was the first &reat
international #eetin& in :ondon% !t su&&ested to 7happer the idea of or&anisin&. in
H1
3tober. 1FHH. an international soiety. The 7oiety of De#orati 5riends of all
?ations% The ai# was the rapprohe#ent of the revolutionists of all nationalities. the
stren&thenin& of a feelin& of brotherhood a#on& peoples. and the on4uest of soial
and politial ri&hts 't the head of this enterprise were 7happer and his friends%
>eitlin& stayed in :ondon for about a year and a half% !n the labour irles. where all
+inds of topis dealin& with urrent events were bein& passionately disussed. >eitlin&
had at first e$erted a &reat influene% *ut he soon a#e upon stron& opposition% -is
old o#rades. 7happer. -einrih *auer and Joseph 1oll <1F1161F19=. had durin&
their #uh lon&er stay in :ondon. learned all about the /n&lish labour #ove#ent and
the teahin&s of 3wen%
'ordin& to >eitlin& the proletariat was not a separate lass with distint lass
interestsJ the proletariat was only a portion of the indi&ent oppressed setion of the
population% '#on& these poor. the !u#penproletariat was the #ost revolutionary
ele#ent% -e was still tru#petin& his idea that robbers and bandits were the #ost
reliable ele#ents in the war a&ainst the e$istin& order% -e did not attah #uh wei&ht
to propa&anda% -e visualised the future in the for# of a o##unist soiety direted by
a s#all &roup of wise #en% To attrat the #asses. he dee#ed it indispensable to resort
to the aid of reli&ion% -e #ade @hrist the forerunner of o##unis#. piturin&
o##unis# as @hristianity #inus its later aretions%
To better understand the frition that subse4uently developed between hi# and 1ar$
and /n&els. it is well to re#e#ber that >eitlin& was a very able wor+er. self6tau&ht
and &ifted with a literary talent. but handiapped by all the li#itations of those who are
self6eduated%
The tendeny of an autodidat is to try to &et out of his own head so#ethin& e$tra6
new. to invent so#e intriate devie% -e is often doo#ed to find hi#self in a foolish
predia#ent. as after a &reat e$penditure of labour he disovers a lon&6disovered
'#eria%
'n autodidat #ay be in searh of a perpetuu# #obileJ he #ay invent a funnel of
wisdo# whereby one #i&ht beo#e a savant before one ounts two% >eitlin&
belon&ed to this lass of autodidats% -e wanted to ontrive a syste# of teahin& that
would enable #an to #aster all sienes in a very short ti#e% -e wanted to devise a
universal lan&ua&e% !t is harateristi that another wor+er6autodidat. 8ierre 8roudhon
<1F,961F(I=. also laboured over a solution of this proble#% 's to >eitlin&. it was at
ti#es diffiult to deter#ine what he preferred. what was dearer to hi# 66 o##unis#.
or a universal lan&ua&e% ' veritable prophet. he broo+ed no ritiis#% -e nursed a
H2
partiular distrust for people learned in boo+s who used to re&ard his hobby with
septiis#%
!n 1FHH >eitlin& was one of the #ost popular and renowned #en. not only a#on&
;er#an wor+ers but also a#on& the ;er#an intelli&entsia% >e have a harateristi
desription of a #eetin& between the fa#ous tailor and the fa#ous poet -eine% -eine
writes9
)>hat partiularly offended #y pride was the fellow's utter la+ of respet while
he onversed with #e% -e did not re#ove his ap and. while ! was standin&
before hi#. he re#ained sittin& with his ri&ht +nee raised to his very hin. with
the aid of his ri&ht hand. and steadily rubbin& with his left hand the raised le&.
0ust above the an+le% 't first. ! thou&ht this disrespetful attitude to be the result
of a habit he had a4uired while wor+in& at the tailorin& trade. but ! was soon
onvined of #y error% >hen ! as+ed hi# why he was ontinually rubbin& his le&
in this #anner. >eitlin& responded in a nonhalant #anner. as if it were the #ost
ordinary ourrene. that in the various ;er#an prisons in whih he had been
onfined. he had been +ept in hainsJ and as the iron rin& whih held his +nee
was fre4uently too s#all. he had developed a hroni irritation of the s+in whih
was the ause for the perpetual srathin& of his le&% ! onfess. ! reoiled when
the tailor >eitlin& told #e of these hains%)
<Bet the poet had su&&ested the ontraditory nature of the feelin&s whih
ani#ate the hu#an breast=9 )!. who had one in 1unster +issed with burnin& lips
the relis of the tailor John of :eyden 66 the hains he had worn. the ton&s with
whih he was tor#ented. and whih have been preserved at the 1unster @ity
-all. !. who had #ade an e$alted ult of the dead tailor. now felt an
insur#ountable aversion for this livin& tailor. >ilhel# >eitlin&. thou&h both
were apostles and #artyrs in the sa#e ause%)
Thou&h -eine disloses hi#self in not a partiularly favourable li&ht. we an
nevertheless see that >eitlin& #ade a stron& i#pression upon the universally ad#ired
poet% The revolutionist ould easily distin&uish in -eine the intelletual and artisti
aristorat who beholds with uriosity thou&h not without aversion the type of a
revolutionary fi&hter who is stran&e to hi#% 1ar$'s attitude to >eitlin& was 4uite
different. thou&h 1ar$. too. was an intelletual% To hi# >eitlin& was a very &ifted
e$pression of the aspirations of that very proletariat. the histori #ission of whih he
hi#self was then for#ulatin&% -ere is what he wrote of >eitlin& before he #et hi#9

)>here an the bour&eoisie. its philosophers and literati inluded. boast of wor+
dealin& with the politial e#anipation. o#parable with >eitlin&'s ;uarantees
H3
of -ar#ony and 5reedo#P !f one o#pares the dry and ti#id #ediority of
;er#an politial literature with this fiery and brilliant debut of the ;er#an
wor+ers. if one o#pares these haltin& but &i&anti first steps of the proletariat
with the #inin& &ait of the full6&rown ;er#an bour&eoisie. one annot help
preditin& that the proletarian @inderella will develop into a prodi&y of stren&th%)

!t was 4uite natural that 1ar$ and /n&els should see+ to #a+e the a4uaintane of
>eitlin&% >e +now that the two friends durin& their short so0ourn in :ondon in 1FHI.
bea#e a4uainted with the /n&lish @hartists and with the ;er#an e#i&rants% Thou&h
>eitlin& was still in :ondon at that ti#e. we are not ertain that 1ar$ and /n&els #et
hi#% They entered into lose relations in 1FH(. when >eitlin& a#e to *russels where
1ar$. too. had settled in 1FHI after he had been driven out of 5rane%
*y that ti#e 1ar$ was o#pletely en&rossed in or&anisational wor+% *russels was
very onvenient for this purpose. for it was a transit station between 5rane and
;er#any% ;er#an wor+ers and ;er#an intelletuals wendin& their way to 8aris
invariably stopped for a few days in *russels% !t was fro# *russels that forbidden
literature was s#u&&led into. and disse#inated all over. ;er#any% '#on& the wor+ers
who had te#porarily settled in *russels there were few very able #en%
1ar$ soon advaned the idea of onvo+in& a on&ress of all the o##unists for the
purpose of reatin& the first all6o##unist or&anisation% The *el&ian ity Aerviers
near the ;er#an border. and therefore onvenient for the ;er#an o##unists. was
hosen as the plae of the #eetin&% >e are not ertain whether this onvention ever
too+ plae. but aordin& to /n&els. all the preparations for it had been thou&ht out by
1ar$ lon& before the dele&ates fro# the :ea&ue of the Just arrived fro# :ondon with
an invitation for the two friends to 0oin the :ea&ue%
!t is obvious why 1ar$ and /n&els should have onsidered the irles whih were
under the sway of >eitlin& as bein& of supre#e i#portane% They had wasted a &ood
deal of effort to #eet hi# on a o##on platfor#. but the whole affair ul#inated in a
brea+% The history of this brea+ was reorded by the Russian riti. 'nnen+ov. who
happened to be in *russels durin& the 7prin& of 1FH(% -e left us a very urious
desription ontainin& an abundane of #isrepresentation inludin&. however. a bit of
truth% -e &ives us a report of one #eetin& at whih a furious 4uarrel ourred between
1ar$ and >eitlin&% >e learn that 1ar$. poundin& his fist on the table. shouted at
>eitlin&. )!&norane never helped nor did anybody any &ood%) This is 4uite
oneivable. partiularly sine >eitlin&. li+e *a+unin. was opposed to propa&andisti
and preparatory wor+% They #aintained that paupers were always ready to revolt. that
a revolution. therefore. ould be en&ineered at any #o#ent provided there be resolute
leaders on hand%
HH
5ro# a letter written by >eitlin& onernin& this #eetin&. we learn that 1ar$ pressed
the followin& points9 a thorou&h leansin& in the ran+s of the o##unistsJ a ritiis#
of the useless theoretiiansJ a renuniation of any soialis# that was based on #ere
&ood6willJ the realisation that o##unis# will be preeded by an epoh durin& whih
the bour&eoisie will be at the hel#%
!n 1ay. 1FH(. the final rupture a#e% >eitlin& soon left for '#eria where he
re#ained until the Revolution of 1FHF%
1ar$ and /n&els. aided by so#e friends. ontinued the tas+ of or&anisation% !n
*russels they built up the >or+ers' /duational 7oiety where 1ar$ letured to the
#e#bers on 8olitial /ono#y% *esides the intelletuals suh as >ilhel# >olff
<1F,961F(H= to who# 1ar$ later dediated the first volu#e of @apital. they had as
their assoiates a nu#ber of wor+ers li+e 7tefan *orn <1F2H61F99= and others%
>ith this or&anisation as a basis. and usin& their o#rades who were travellin&
between *russels and other points. 1ar$ and /n&els strove to for# and to onsolidate
onnetions with irles that e$isted in ;er#any. :ondon. 8aris and 7witzerland%
/n&els hi#self fulfilled this tas+ in 8aris% ;radually the nu#ber of those who inlined
to the new views of 1ar$ and /n&els inreased Then. in order to unite all the
o##unist ele#ents. 1ar$ deided upon the followin& plan9 !nstead of a national.
purely ;er#an or&anisation. 1ar$ now drea#ed of an international one% To be&in
with. it was i#perative to reate &roups. nulei of the #ore #ature o##unists in
*russels. 8aris and :ondon% These &roups were to hoose o##ittees for the purpose
of #aintainin& o##uniation with other o##unist or&anisations% Thus was laid the
foundation of the future international assoiation% 't the su&&estion of 1ar$ these
o##ittees were styled the @o##unist @o##ittees for !nterrelation <@orrespondene
@o##ittees=%
7ine the history of ;er#an soialis# and the labour #ove#ent was written by
literateurs and 0ournalists who often had oasion to write artiles for the press. or to
be #e#bers of orrespondene or press bureaus. they onluded that the
)@orrespondene @o##itteesMinde$%ht#) were nothin& else than ordinary
orrespondene bureaus% !t appeared to the# that 1ar$ and /n&els established a
orrespondene bureau in *russels fro# whih they sent out printed irulars and
orrespondene% 3r. as 1ehrin& wrote in his wor+ on 1ar$9
)?ot havin& had their own or&an. 1ar$ and his friends strove to fill the &ap as
#uh as was possible by resortin& to printed or #ulti&raphed irular letters% 't
the sa#e ti#e they endeavoured to seure the#selves with per#anent
HI
orrespondents fro# those lar&e entres where o##unists lived% 7uh
orrespondene bureaus e$isted in *russels and :ondon% ' si#ilar bureau was to
be established in 8aris% 1ar$ wrote to 8roudhon as+in& for his o6operation%)

Bet it is suffiient to read 8roudhon's reply a bit #ore attentively to see that he tal+s of
so#ethin& wholly different fro# the usual orrespondene bureau% 'nd if we reall
that this letter to 1ar$ belon&s to the su##er of 1FH(. then we #ust onlude that
lon& before 1ar$ reeived the invitation fro# the :ondon dele&ation to enter the
already defunt :ea&ue of the Just. there e$isted in :ondon. in *russels and in 8aris.
or&anisations the initiative for whih e#anated no doubt fro# 1ar$%
Thus toward the seond half of 1FH( there was a well6or&anised entral
orrespondene o##ittee in *russels where all the reports were sent% !t was #ade up
of a onsiderable nu#ber of #e#bers. so#e of who# were wor+ers% There was also
the 8aris o##ittee. or&anised by /n&els and arryin& on very ative wor+ a#on& the
;er#an artisans% Then there was the :ondon o##ittee headed by 7happer. *auer.
and that sa#e 1oll who half a year later a#e to *russels presu#ably to ur&e 1ar$ to
beo#e a #e#ber of the :ea&ue of the Just% *ut as is shown in a letter dated January
2,. 1FH7. this 1oll a#e representin& not the :ea&ue of the Just. but the @o##unist
@orrespondene @o##ittee. and he a#e personally to report on the state of affairs in
the :ondon soiety%
>e #ust onlude then that the story. about the for#in& of the @o##unist :ea&ue.
whih was started by /n&els and whih still travels fro# boo+ to boo+. is nothin& but a
le&end%
1ar$'s or&anisation wor+ has been al#ost o#pletely overloo+ed by the
investi&atorsJ he has been transfor#ed into a loistered thin+er% 3ne of the #ost
interestin& sides of his personality has been ne&leted% >ere we to fail to realise the
i#portant role whih 1ar$ 66 and not /n&els 66 played durin& the seond half of the
forties as the diretor and inspirer of all the preparatory wor+. we would not
understand the tre#endous part he subse4uently perfor#ed as or&aniser in 1FHF6H9
and durin& the period of the 5irst !nternational%
'fter 1oll's visit to *russels. probably. when 1ar$ bea#e onvined that #ost of
the :ondoners had freed the#selves fro# >eitlin&'s influene. the onvoation of a
on&ress at :ondon was deided upon on the initiative of the *russels o##ittee% 8re6
onvention disussions and onflits between various tendenies be&an% !t was worst
of all in 8aris. where /n&els wor+ed% >hen one reads his letters. one is onvined that
/n&els was a apable politiian% !t appeared. for instane. to /n&els that he won a
vitory. of whih he sole#nly infor#s the *russels o##ittee. not only beause he
H(
sueeded in persuadin& the vaillatin& ones but also beause he )put it over) on so#e.
and )ba#boozled) others%
!n the su##er of 1FH7 the on&ress onvened in :ondon% 1ar$ was not present%
>ilhel# >olff represented *russels and /n&els the 8arisian o##unists% There were
only a few dele&ates. but this perturbed no one% They deided to unite in the
@o##unist :ea&ue% This was not a reor&anisation of the old :ea&ue of the Just as
/n&els. who apparently for&ot that he represented the 8aris o##unist o##ittee
whih he had hi#self founded. assures us% ' onstitution was adopted. the first
para&raph of whih learly and definitely for#ulated the basi idea of revolutionary
o##unis#%
)The ai# of the :ea&ue is the overthrow of the bour&eoisie. the rule of the
proletariat. the abolition of the old bour&eois soiety based on lass anta&onis#s.
and the establish#ent of a new soiety without either lasses or private property%)

The onstitution was adopted provisionally% !t had to be sub#itted to the separate
o##ittees for disussion and finally adopted at the ne$t onvention%
The priniple of )de#orati entralis#) was #ade the basis of the or&anisation% !t
was inu#bent upon the #e#bers to avow the o##unist reed. to live in aordane
with the ai#s of the :ea&ue% ' definite &roup of #e#bers for#ed the basi unit of
or&anisation 66 the nuleus% This was alled a o##une% These were o#bined into
distrits with their distrit o##ittees% The various distrits were united under the
ontrol of a speial leadin& distrit% The leadin& distrits were responsible to the
entral o##ittee%
This or&anisation subse4uently bea#e the pattern for all o##unist wor+in&6lass
parties in their first sta&es of develop#ent% !t. however. had one peuliarity whih
vanished later. but whih was still to be #et with in ;er#any up to the be&innin& of
the seventies% The entral o##ittee of the @o##unist :ea&ue was not eleted by the
onvention% !ts powers. as the hief leadin& entre. were dele&ated to the distrit
o##ittee of any ity desi&nated by the onvention as the seat of the entral
o##ittee% !f :ondon was desi&nated. then the or&anisation of the :ondon distrit
eleted a entral o##ittee of at least five #e#bers% This seured for it lose ontat
with a vast national or&anisation%
!t was also deided by the onvention to wor+ out a pro0et for a o##unist
)atehis# of faith) whih should beo#e the pro&ra##e of the :ea&ue% /ah distrit
was to offer its own pro0et at the ne$t onvention% !t was further resolved that a
popular 0ournal was to be published% !t was the first wor+in&6lass or&an that fran+ly
H7
alled itself )o##unist%) !t was published half a year before the @o##unist
1anifesto. but it already had as its slo&an )>or+ers of all ountries. uniteO)
The publiation of this 0ournal never went beyond the trial nu#ber% The artiles were
written and printed #ainly by #e#bers of the @o##unist :ea&ue who lived in
:ondon% The leadin& artile was in a very popular style% !n si#ple lan&ua&e it pointed
out the peuliarities of the new o##unist or&anisation and wherein it differed fro#
>eitlin&'s and fro# the 5renh or&anisations% There was no #ention of the :ea&ue of
the Just% ' speial artile was devoted to the 5renh o##unist. /tienne @abet <17FF6
1FI(=. the author of the fa#ous utopia. !aria% !n 1FH7 @abet started a lively a&itation
with the purpose of &atherin& people who would be willin& to #i&rate to '#eria and
to build on its vir&in soil. a o##unist olony alon& the lines desribed by hi# in his
!aria% -e even #ade a speial trip to :ondon in the hope of attratin& the o##unists
there to his side% The artile sub0eted this plan to a very thorou&h ritiis#J it ur&ed
the wor+ers not to abandon /urope. for it was there that o##unis# would first be
established% There was another lon& artile whih had apparently been written by
/n&els% !n onlusion there was a &eneral soial and politial survey written
undoubtedly by the dele&ate fro# *russels. >ilhel# >olff%
't the end of 1FH7. a seond on&ress onvened in :ondon% This ti#e 1ar$ was
present% /ven before he was ready to &o to :ondon. /n&els had written to hi# fro#
8aris that he had 0otted down an outline of a o##unist atehis#. but that he thou&ht
it #ore advisable to all it @o##unist 1anifesto% 1ar$ probably brou&ht to the
onvention his fully wor+ed6out propositions% ?ot everythin& went so s#oothly as is
desribed by 7te+lov% There were violent disa&ree#ents% The debates lasted for days
and it ost 1ar$ a &ood deal of labour to onvine the #a0ority of the orretness of
the new pro&ra##e% The pro&ra##e was adopted and the onvention har&ed 1ar$ 66
and this is i#portant 66 with writin& a #anifesto in the na#e of the :ea&ue% True. 1ar$
in o#posin& the #anifesto availed hi#self of the pro0et that had been prepared by
/n&els% *ut 1ar$ was the only one politially responsible to the :ea&ue% 'nd if the
1anifesto #a+es the i#pression of a stately #onu#ent ast out of one whole blo+ of
steel it is o#pletely due to the fat that 1ar$ alone wrote it% @ertainly. #any thou&hts
developed in o##on by 1ar$ and /n&els entered into it. but its ardinal idea. as
/n&els hi#self insisted in the followin& lines. belon&ed e$lusively to 1ar$9
)The basi ideas of the 1anifesto9 that in every historial epoh. the prevailin&
#ode of prodution and the soial or&anisation neessarily followin& fro# it.
for# the basis upon whih is built the politial and intelletual history of that
epohJ that onse4uently at the different sta&es of soial develop#ent <sine the
dissolution of the pri#itive o##unity of property in the soil= the history of
#an+ind has been a history of lass stru&&les. stru&&le between e$ploited and
HF
e$ploiters. oppressed and rulin& lassesJ that this stru&&le has however now
reahed a sta&e where the e$ploited and oppressed lass 66 the proletariat 66
annot attain its e#anipation fro# the e$ploitin& and oppressin& lass 66 the
bour&eoisie 66 without. at the sa#e ti#e. and for all ti#e. e#anipatin& soiety as
a whole fro# all e$ploitation. oppression. and lass stru&&les 66 these
funda#ental ideas belon& entirely and solely to 1ar$%)

>e should note this iru#stane% The @o##unist :ea&ue. as well as /n&els. +new
that the #ain burden of evolvin& the new pro&ra##e fell upon 1ar$. that it was he
who was har&ed with the writin& of the 1anifesto% >e have an interestin& letter 66
interestin& in other respets too 66 substantiatin& our ontention% !t asts a urious li&ht
on the relations between 1ar$ and the or&anisation whih was proletarian in its spirit
and its tendeny to re&ard the )intelletual) as #erely an e$pert at for#ulatin&% The
better to understand this letter. we #ust +now that :ondon was desi&nated as the seat
of the entral o##ittee. whih was. in aordane with the onstitution. seleted by
the :ondon or&anisation%
This letter was sent on January 2(. 1FHF. by the entral o##ittee to the distrit
o##ittee of *russels for trans#ission to 1ar$% !t ontains a resolution passed by the
entral o##ittee on January 2H9

)The @entral @o##ittee hereby direts the Distrit @o##ittee of *russels to
notify @itizen 1ar$ that if the 1anifesto of the @o##unist 8arty. whih he
onsented. at the last @on&ress. to draw up. does not reah :ondon before
Tuesday. 5ebruary 1. further #easures will be ta+en a&ainst hi#% !n ase @itizen
1ar$ does not write the 1anifesto. the @entral @o##ittee re4uests the
i##ediate return of the dou#ents whih were turned over to hi# by the
on&ress%
)!n the na#e and at the instrution of the @entral @o##ittee. <7i&ned= 7happer.
*auer. 1oll)

>e see fro# this an&ry #issive that even toward the end of January. 1ar$ was not
throu&h with the wor+ handed over to hi# in Dee#ber% This. too. is very typial of
1ar$% >ith all his literary ability he was a bit slow of #ove#ent% -e &enerally
laboured lon& over his wor+s. partiularly if it was an i#portant dou#ent% -e wanted
this dou#ent to be invested with the #ost nearly perfet for#. that it #i&ht withstand
the rava&es of ti#e% >e have one pa&e fro# 1ar$'s first draft. it shows how
painsta+in&ly 1ar$ laboured over eah phrase%
H9
The entral o##ittee did not have to resort to any further #easures% 1ar$ evidently
sueeded in o#pletin& his tas+ toward the be&innin& of 5ebruary% This is worth
notin&% The 1anifesto was issued a few days before the 5ebruary Revolution% 5ro#
this we #ay dedue. of ourse. that the 1anifesto ould hardly have played any part in
the #atter of preparin& for the 5ebruary Revolution% 'nd after we disover that the
first opies of the 1anifesto did not #a+e their way into ;er#any before 1ay or June
of 1FHF. we an #a+e the further dedution that the ;er#an Revolution. too. was not
#uh affeted by this dou#ent% !ts ontents were +nown only to a s#all &roup of
*russels and :ondon o##unists%
The 1anifesto was the pro&ra##e of the international @o##unist :ea&ue% This
:ea&ue was o#posed of a few *el&ians. so#e o##unist6#inded /n&lish @hartists.
and #ost of all. of ;er#ans% The 1anifesto had to ta+e into onsideration not any one
partiular ountry. but the whole bour&eois world before whih the o##unists for the
first ti#e openly e$pounded their ai#s%
The first hapter presents a stri+in& and lear piture of bour&eois. apitalist soiety.
of the lass stru&&le whih had reated it and whih ontinued to develop within this
soiety% >e see the inevitable ineption of the bour&eoisie in the wo#b of the old
#edieval feudal syste#% >e wath the han&in& onditions in the e$istene of the
bour&eoisie in response to the han&es in eono#i relations% >e observe the
revolutionary role it played in its o#bat with feudalis# and to what e$traordinary
de&ree it fostered the develop#ent of the produtive fores of hu#an soiety. havin&
thus for the first ti#e in history reated the possibility of the #aterial liberation of all
#an+ind%
Then follows an historial s+eth of the evolution of the proletariat% >e see how the
proletariat developed as inevitably as the bour&eoisie. and ono#itantly with it% >e
see how it &radually inte&rated into a separate lass% *efore us pass the various for#s
whih the onflit between the proletariat and the bour&eoisie assu#ed before the
proletariat bea#e a lass for itself. and before it reated its own lass or&anisation%
The 1anifesto further presents and sub0ets to an annihilatin& ritiis# all the
ob0etions to o##unis# advaned by the ideolo&ists of the bour&eoisie%
1ar$ 66 and here he relied on /n&els. thou&h not to the e$tent that we i#a&ined 66
further e$plains the tatis of the o##unists with respet to other wor+in&#en's
parties% -ere we enounter an interestin& detail% The 1anifesto delares that the
o##unists do not onstitute a separate party in ontradistintion to other
wor+in&#en's parties They are #erely the van&uard of the wor+ers. and their
I,
advanta&e over the re#ainin& #ass of the proletariat is in their understandin& of the
onditions. diretion. and &eneral results of the labour #ove#ent%
?ow that we +now the atual history of the @o##unist :ea&ue. it is easier to e$plain
suh a state#ent of the proble#s of the o##unists% !t was ditated by the state of the
labour #ove#ent at that ti#e. partiularly that of the /n&lish #ove#ent% Those
@hartists who a&reed to enter the :ea&ue did it on ondition that they be allowed to
#aintain their onnetions with their old party% They only too+ upon the#selves the
obli&ation of or&anisin& within @hartis# so#ethin& in the nature of a o##unist
nuleus for the purpose of disse#inatin& there the pro&ra##e and the ideas of
o##unis#%
The 1anifesto analyses #inutely the nu#erous tendenies that were strivin& for
asendany a#on& the soialists and the o##unistsJ !t sub0ets the# to a #ost
inisive ritiis# and definitely re0ets the#. all e$ept the &reat utopians 66 7aint
7i#on. 5ourier. and 3wen 66 whose teahin&s 1ar$ and /n&els had to a ertain de&ree
adopted and re#odelled% 'eptin& their ritiis# of the bour&eois order. the
1anifesto pits a&ainst the paifi. utopian. nonpolitial soialis#. the revolutionary
pro&ra##e of the new proletarian 66 ritial o##unis#%
!n onlusion the 1anifesto e$a#ines the o##unist tatis at the li#e of a
revolution. partiularly with respet to the bour&eois parties% The proedure varies with
eah ountry. dependin& on its speifi historial onditions% >here the bour&eoisie is
already do#inant. the proletariat wa&es war e$lusively a&ainst it% !n those ountries
where the bour&eoisie is still strin& for politial power. as for instane in ;er#any. the
o##unist party wor+s hand in hand with the bour&eoisie. as lon& as the latter fi&hts
a&ainst the #onarhy and the nobility%
Bet the o##unists never ease instillin& into the #inds of the wor+ers an ever6
+eener onsiousness of the truth that the interests of the bour&eoisie are dia#etrially
opposed to those of the proletariat% The ruial 4uestion always re#ains that of private
property% These were the tatial rules wor+ed out by 1ar$ and /n&els on the eve of
the 5ebruary and the 1arh Revolutions of 1FHF% >e shall subse4uently see how these
rules were applied in pratie. and how they were han&ed as a result of revolutionary
e$periene%
>e now have a &eneral idea of the ontents of the 1anifesto% >e #ust bear in #ind
that it inorporated the results of all the sientifi wor+ whih /n&els and partiularly
1ar$ had perfor#ed fro# 1FHI to the end of 1FH7% Durin& this period /n&els
sueeded in &ettin& into shape the #aterial he had olleted for his @ondition of the
>or+in& @lass in /n&land. and 1ar$ laboured over the history of politial and
I1
eono#i thou&ht% Durin& these two years. in the stru&&le a&ainst all +inds of idealist
teahin&s. they pretty ade4uately developed the #aterialisti oneption of history
whih enabled the# to orient the#selves so well in their study of the #aterial
relations. the onditions of prodution and distribution whih always deter#ine soial
relations%
The new teahin& had been #ost o#pletely and learly e$pounded by 1ar$ even
before the 1anifesto. in his pole#i a&ainst 8roudhon% !n the -oly 5a#ily. 1ar$
spo+e very hi&hly of 8roudhon% >hat was it then that provo+ed the brea+ between the
two old allies P
8roudhon. li+e >eitlin&. was a wor+er and an autodidat% -e subse4uently bea#e
one of the outstandin& 5renh publiists% -e set out upon his literary areer in a very
revolutionary spirit% !n his boo+. >hat !s 8roperty. whih was published in 1FH1. he
ritiised #ost autely the institution of private property. and he a#e to the darin&
onlusion that in its essene private property is robbery% !n reality. however. 8roudhon
onde#ned only one for# of property. the apitalisti. whih was based upon the
e$ploitation of the s#all produer by the bi& apitalist% -avin& nothin& a&ainst the
abolition of apitalisti private property. 8roudhon was at the sa#e ti#e opposed to
o##unis#% The only seurity for the welfare of the peasant and the artisan was
aordin& to hi# the preservation and the enhane#ent of their private property% The
ondition of the wor+er ould he i#proved. in his opinion. not by #eans of stri+es and
eono#i warfare. but by onvertin& the wor+er into a property6owner% -e finally
arrived at these views in 1FHI and 1FH( when he first for#ulated a plan whereby he
thou&ht it possible to insure the artisan a&ainst ruin. and to transfor# the proletarian
into an independent produer%
>e have already #entioned the role that /n&els at that ti#e played in 8aris% -is hief
opponent in the disussion of pro&ra##es was Karl ;run <1F1361FFH= who
represented )real soialis#%) ;run was very inti#ately allied with 8roudhon. whose
views he e$pounded before the ;er#an wor+ers livin& in 8aris% /ven before 8roudhon
published his new hoo+ in whih he wanted to e$pose all the )eono#i
ontraditionsMinde$%ht#) in e$istin& soiety. and to e$plain the ori&in of poverty. the
)philosophy of poverty.) he o##uniated his new plan to ;run% The latter hastened
to use it in his pole#is a&ainst the o##unists% /n&els hurried to o##uniate this
plan to the *russels o##ittee%
)*ut what was this plan whih was to save the worldP ?othin& #ore or less than
the well6+nown and ban+rupt /n&lish :abour /$han&es run by assoiations of
various rafts#en% 'll that is re4uired is a lar&e depotJ all the produts delivered
by the #e#bers of the assoiation are to be evaluated aordin& to the pries of
I2
the raw #aterials plus the labour. and paid for in other produts evaluated in
preisely the sa#e way% The produts in e$ess of the needs of the assoiation are
to be sold in the world #ar+et. and the reeipts are to be turned over to the
produers% Thus. thin+s the unnin& 8roudhon. the profits of the o##erial
#iddle#an #i&ht be eli#inated to the advanta&e of hi#self and his
onfederates%)

!n his letter /n&els o##uniated new details of 8roudhon's plan and was indi&nant
that suh fantasies as the transfor#ation of wor+ers into property6owners by the
purhase of wor+shops on their savin&s still attrated the ;er#an wor+ers%
!##ediately upon the appearane of 8roudhon's 8hilosophy of 8overty. 1ar$ sat
down to wor+ and wrote in 1FH7 his little boo+. 8overty of 8hilosophy. in whih. step
by step. he overthrew the ideas of 8roudhon% *ut he did not onfine hi#self #erely to
destrutive ritiis#J he e$pounded his own fully developed ideas of o##unis#% *y
its brilliane and +eenness of thou&ht and by its orretness of state#ent this boo+ was
a worthy introdution to the @o##unist 1anifesto. and was not inferior to the last
o##ents 1ar$ wrote on 8roudhon in 1F7H in an artile on )8olitial !ndifferene%)
This proves that 1ar$ had developed his funda#ental points of view by 1FH7%
1ar$ va&uely for#ulated his ideas for the first ti#e in 1FHI% Two #ore years of
assiduous wor+ were re4uired for 1ar$ to be able to write his 8overty of 8hilosophy%
>hile studyin& the iru#stanes under whih the proletariat was for#ed and had
developed in bour&eois soiety. he delved deeper and deeper into the laws of
prodution and distribution under the apitalist syste#% -e re6e$a#ined the teahin&s
of bour&eois eono#ists in the li&ht of the dialeti #ethod and he showed that the
funda#ental ate&ories. the pheno#ena of bour&eois soiety 66 o##odity. value.
#oney. apital 66 represent so#ethin& transitory% !n his 8overty of 8hilosophy. he #ade
the first atte#pt to indiate the i#portant phases in the develop#ent of the proess of
apitalist prodution% This was only the first draft. but fro# this it was already obvious
that 1ar$ was on the ri&ht tra+. that he had a true #ethod. a splendid o#pass. by the
aid of whih he onfidently #ade his way throu&h the thi+ets of bour&eois eono#y%
*ut this boo+ also proved that it was not suffiient to be in possession of a orret
#ethod. that one ould not li#it hi#self to &eneral onlusions. that it was neessary
to #a+e a areful study of apitalist reality. in order that one #i&ht penetrate into all
the subtleties of this intriate #ehanis#% 1ar$ had a olossal tas+ before hi#J this
first draft. thou&h the wor+ of a &enius. still had to be onverted into a stately edifie%
*ut before 1ar$ had a hane to build this edifie. he and /n&els had to &o throu&h
the Revolution of 1FHF. whih they had been i#patiently awaitin&. whih they had
foretold. for whih they had been preparin&. and in antiipation of whih they had
wor+ed out the basi propositions of the @o##unist 1anifesto%
I3

IH
C"A#TER &
T"E GERMAN RE&!L%TI!N !F $-$-'
1'RC '?D /?;/:7 !? T-/ R-!?/ 8R3A!?@/%
T-/ 532?D!?; 35 T-/ ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&%
;3T7@-':K '?D >!::!@-%
T-/ @3:3;?/ >3RK!?;1/?'7 2?!3?%
T-/ 83:!@!/7 '?D T'@T!@7 35 T-/ ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&%
7T/5'? *3R?%
1'RC 7 @-'?;/ 35 T'@T!@7%
T-/ D/5/'T 35 T-/ R/A3:2T!3? '?D T-/ D!55/R/?@/ 35 38!?!3?7
!? T-/ @3112?!7T :/';2/%
T-/ 78:!T%
The @o##unist 1anifesto was published only a few days before the 5ebruary
Revolution. and the or&anisation of the @o##unist :ea&ue was brou&ht to o#pletion
only in ?ove#ber. 1FH7% The :ea&ue whih was o#posed of the 8aris. :ondon and
*russels irles. was only loosely onneted with so#e s#aller ;er#an &roups%
This in itself is suffiient to show that the or&anised fores of the ;er#an setions of
the @o##unist :ea&ue with whih 1ar$ had to operate were 4uite insi&nifiant% The
Revolution flared up in 8aris on 5ebruary 2H. 1FHF% !t spread rapidly to ;er#any% 3n
1arh 3 there was so#ethin& of a popular insurretion in @olo&ne. the hief ity in the
Rhine provine% The ity authorities were fored to address a petition to the 8russian
Kin&J they i#plored hi# to heed this disturbane and to #a+e so#e onessions% 't
the head of this @olo&ne insurretion there were two #en. ;otshal+. a physiian who
was very popular a#on& the poor and the wor+ers of @olo&ne. and the e$6offier.
'u&ust >illih <1F1,61F7F=% 3n 1arh 13. the Revolution bro+e out in Aienna. on the
1Fth it reahed *erlin%
Durin& all this ti#e 1ar$ was in *russels% The *el&ian &overn#ent. not wishin& to
share the fate of the July #onarhy swooped down upon the i##i&rants who resided
in *russels. arrested 1ar$. and within a few hours onduted hi# out of the ountry%
-e went to 8aris% 3ne of the heads of the provisional &overn#ent of 5rane. 5erdinand
5loon <1F,,61F((=. an editor of a newspaper to whih /n&els was a ontributor. had
previously invited 1ar$ to o#e. delarin& that on the now free 5renh soil all the
derees of the old &overn#ent were null and void%
The *russels distrit o##ittee. to who# the :ondon o##ittee had handed over its
authority after the revolutionary outbrea+s on the ontinent. transferred its authority to
1ar$% '#on& the ;er#an wor+ers who on&re&ated in 8aris in lar&e nu#bers. #any
dissensions arose and various &roups were or&anised% 3ne of these &roups was under
II
the sway of *a+unin who. to&ether with the ;er#an poet ;eor& -erwe&h <1F176
1F7I=. hathed a plan of for#in& an ar#ed or&anisation and invadin& ;er#any%
1ar$ tried to dissuade the# fro# this enterpriseJ he su&&ested that they &o to
;er#any sin&ly. and partiipate in the revolutionary events there% *ut *a+unin and
-erwe&h adhered to their old plan% -erwe&h or&anised a revolutionary le&ion. and led
it to the ;er#an border. where he
was o#pletely defeated% 1ar$ to&ether with so#e o#rades sueeded in &ettin&
into ;er#any. where they settled in different plaes% 1ar$ and /n&els went to the
Rhine provine%
>e #ust re#e#ber that the ;er#an setion of the @o##unist :ea&ue had no
or&anisation% There were only isolated sy#pathisers% >hat was there left for 1ar$.
/n&els and their o#rades to doP 'bout forty years after the events desribed here.
/n&els tried to e$plain to the youn& o#rades the tatis whih he and 1ar$ had
pursued in ;er#any in 1FHF% To a 4uestion. )why did he and 1ar$ stay in the Rhine
provine. in @olo&ne. instead of &oin& to *erlinP) he &ave the followin& lear answer9
They hose the Rhine provine beause industrially it was the #ost developed part of
;er#anyJ beause it was under the syste# of the ?apoleoni ode 66 a herita&e of the
5renh Revolution. and they ould. therefore. e$pet &reater freedo# of ation. &reater
latitude for a&itation and propa&anda% *esides. the Rhine provine had an appreiable
proletarian ele#ent% True. @olo&ne itself was not a#on& the #ost industrialised
loalities in the Rhine provine. but in the ad#inistrative and every other sense. it was
the entre of the provine% @onsiderin& the ti#es. its population was onsiderable 66
ei&hty thousand inhabitants% !ts #ost i#portent #ahine industry was su&ar refinin&%
The eau6de6@olo&ne industry. while i#portant. did not re4uire #uh #ahinery% The
te$tile industries distintly la&&ed behind those of /lberfeld and *ar#en% 't any rate.
1ar$ and /n&els had &ood reasons for havin& hosen @olo&ne as their residene% They
wished to +eep in touh with the whole of ;er#anyJ they wished to found a stron&
0ournal whih would serve as a tribune for the entire ountry. and for this. in their
opinion. @olo&ne was the #ost appropriate plae% >as it not in the sa#e provine that
the first i#portant politial or&an of the ;er#an bour&eoisie had been published in
1FH2P 'll the preli#inary wor+ for the publiation of suh an or&an had been &oin& on
for so#e ti#e% 1ar$ and /n&els sueeded in &ainin& ontrol of the publiation that
was bein& or&anised%
*ut this publiation was the or&an oJ the de#orati &roups% -ere is how /n&els tried
to e$plain why they referred to it as the 3r&an of De#oray% There had been no
proletarian or&anisation. and there were only two roads they ould follow 66 either the
i##ediate or&anisation of a o##unist party. or the utilisation of the de#orati
I(
or&anisations that were on hand. first by unitin& the# all. and then by borin& fro#
within. by ritiis# and propa&anda. to effet a reor&anisation and to attrat wor+in&
#en's irles that had not belon&ed to the de#orati or&anisations before% The seond
#ethod was hosen% This plaed 1ar$ and /n&els in a so#ewhat false position in
relation to the >or+in&#en's 2nion of @olo&ne whih had been or&anised by
;otshal+ and >illih i##ediately after the third of 1arh%
;otshal+ was a physiian. very popular with the @olo&ne poor% -e was not a
o##unistJ in his views he rather approahed >eitlin& and the >eitlin&ites% -e was a
&ood revolutionist. but too easily swayed by #oods% 8ersonally he was a #an beyond
reproah% Thou&h not &uided by a definite pro&ra##e. he was suffiiently ritial of
de#oray to have delared at his first publi appearane at the town hall. )! o#e not
in the na#e of the people. for all these representatives are of the peopleJ no. ! address
#yself to you only in the na#e of the labourin& population%) -e differentiated
between the wor+in& lass and the people as a whole% -e insisted on revolutionary
#easures. but bein& a republian he de#anded a federation of all the ;er#an
republis% This was one of the essential points of disa&ree#ent between hi# and 1ar$%
The soiety founded by hi# in @olo&ne. the >or+in&#en's 2nion of @olo&ne. soon
e#braed al#ost all the proletarian ele#ents of the ity% !t ounted about seven
thousand #e#bers% 5or a ity with a population of ei&hty thousand this was an
i#posin& nu#ber%
The >or+in&#en's 7oiety led by ;otshal+ soon entered into a onflit with the
or&anisation to whih 1ar$ and /n&els belon&ed% >e should note. however. that there
were ele#ents within this vast wor+in&#en's or&anisation that differed with
;otshal+% 1oll and 7happer. for instane. thou&h #e#bers of the >or+in&#en's
2nion. were losely onneted with 1ar$ and /n&els% Thus within the 2nion there
were soon for#ed two fations% *ut the fat re#ains that alon&side the >or+in&#en's
2nion of @olo&ne. there e$isted a de#orati soiety whih ounted 1ar$. /n&els and
others a#on& its #e#bers%
'll this resulted fro# 1ar$'s plan% /verythin& onver&ed to one point% 1ar$ and
/n&els had hoped to #a+e the entral or&an. whih was first published on June 1.
1F1F. the a$is around whih all the future o##unist or&anisations whih would be
for#ed in the proess of revolutionary onflit. would asse#ble% >e #ust not thin+
that 1ar$ and /n&els entered this de#orati or&an as de#orats% They did notJ they
entered as o##unists who re&arded the#selves as the #ost e$tre#e left win& of the
entire de#orati or&anisation% ?ot for a #o#ent did they ease vehe#ently to
denoune the errors not only of the ;er#an liberal party. but above all. the errors of
the de#orats% They did it so well that they lost their shareholders within the first few
#onths% !n his very first editorial. 1ar$ atta+ed the de#orats #ost severely% 'nd
I7
when the news of the June defeat of the 8aris proletariat arrived. when @ava&nia.
supported by all the bour&eois parties. swept down upon the wor+ers. effeted a
#assare in whih several thousands of 8aris wor+ers perished. the de#orati or&an.
the ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&. published an artile whih till now re#ains une$elled
in power and passion with whih it lashes the bour&eois han&#en and their de#orati
apolo&ists%
)The wor+ers of 8aris were rushed by the superior fores of their ene#ies 66
they were annihilated% They are beaten. but their ene#ies are defeated% The
#o#entary triu#ph of brute fore is purhased with the destrution of all the
sedutions and illusions of the 5ebruary Revolution. with the o#plete
disinte&ration of the old Republian 8arty. with the splittin& of the 5renh nation
into two parts 66 a nation of owners. and a nation of wor+ers% The Republi of the
triolour will heneforth be of one hue only 66 the olour of the van4uished. the
olour of blood% !t has beo#e a Red Republi%
)The 5ebruary Revolution was splendid% !t was a revolution of universal
sy#pathies. for the ontraditions whih flared up within it a&ainst the royal
power as yet lay in latent har#ony. slu#berin& undeveloped side by side. sine
the soial onflit whih was their ba+&round had attained #erely a phanto#
e$istene. the e$istene of a phrase. a word% The June Revolution. on the
ontrary. is dis&ustin&. repulsive. for instead of the word e#er&ed the deed.
beause the Republi itself bared the head of the #onster. havin& dashed fro# it
its protetin& and onealin& rown%
)'re we de#orats to be #isled by the deep abyss that &apes before usP 're we
to onlude that the stru&&le for new for#s of the 7tate is devoid of #eanin&. is
illusory 66 a phantas#P
)3nly wea+. ti#id #inds would as+ this 4uestion% The onflits arisin& fro# the
very onditions of bour&eois soiety. have to be fou&ht to the endJ they annot be
reasoned away% The best for# of state is one in whih the soial ontraditions
are not overo#e by fore. in other words. only by artifiial and speious #eans%
The best for# of state is one in whih the ontraditions ollide in open stru&&le
and thus attain a solution%
)>e shall be as+ed. is it possible that we shall reserve not a sin&le tear. not a
si&h. not a word. for the viti#s of popular frenzy. for the ?ational ;uards. for
the &uardes #obiles. for the Republian ;uards. for the soldiers of the lineP
IF
)The 7tate will ta+e are of their widows and orphans. derees will &lorify the#.
sole#n funeral proessions will plae their re#ains in their last restin& plaes.
the offiial press will prolai# the# i##ortal. the /uropean reation will do
ho#a&e to the# fro# /ast to >est%
)*ut the plebeians. ravished by hun&er. spat upon by the press. deserted by the
physiians. denouned by respetable thieves as inendiaries and 0ailbirdsJ their
wives and hildren hurled into still #ore fatho#less poverty. their best
representatives. who have survived the slau&hter. deported to forei&n parts 66 to
rown their #enain& and &loo#y brows with laurel 66 this is the privile&e. the
ri&ht and duty. of the de#orati press%)

This artile was written on June 2F. 1FHF% 7uh an artile ould not have been written
by a de#oratJ only a o##unist ould have written it% 1ar$ and /n&els deeived no
one with their tatis% The paper eased to reeive finanial support fro# the
de#orati bour&eoisie% !t had in reality beo#e the or&an of the @olo&ne wor+ers and
of the ;er#an wor+ers% 3ther #e#bers of the @o##unist :ea&ue. 7pread all over
;er#any. ontinued their wor+% 3ne of the#. 7tefan *orn. a o#positor. is worth
#entionin&% /n&els does not spea+ favourably of hi#J *orn adopted different tatis%
-avin& found hi#self fro# the very be&innin& in *erlin. in the proletarian entre. he
put before hi#self. as his ob0etive. the reation of a lar&e wor+in&#en's or&anisation%
>ith the aid of so#e o#rades he established a s#all 0ournal. The *rotherhood of
>or+ers. and onduted a syste#ati a&itation a#on& various types of wor+ers%
2nli+e ;otshal+ and >illih. he did not onfine hi#self #erely to or&anisin& a
wor+ers' politial party% *orn undertoo+ to or&anise raft unions and other soieties
whih were to protet the eono#i interests of the wor+ers% -e for&ed ahead so
ener&etially that he soon atte#pted to arry over this or&anisation into a nu#ber of
nei&hbourin& ities. and to spread it into other parts of ;er#any% There was one flaw
in this or&anisation 66 it e#phasised the purely eono#i de#ands of the wor+ers to
the e$lusion of other de#ands% Thus. while so#e #e#bers of the @o##unist :ea&ue
were for#in& purely wor+in&#en's or&anisations all over ;er#any. in the 7outh there
were others who. headed by 1ar$. used all their stren&th to reor&anise the de#orati
ele#ents. and to #a+e the wor+in& lass into a nuleus of an even #ore de#orati
party% !t was in this spirit that 1ar$ arried on his wor+%
The ?eue Rheinishe Deitun& reated upon all funda#ental 4uestions% >e #ust ad#it
that up to the present the paper re#ains the unattainable ideal of revolutionary
0ournalis#% !ts auteness of analysis. its freshness. its revolutionary ardour. its breadth
and profundity have never been parallelled%
I9
*efore we pass over to the disussion of the basi priniples upon whih the internal
and the e$ternal poliies of the paper were deter#ined. we should e$a#ine the
revolutionary e$periene of its editors6in6hief% ?either 1ar$ nor /n&els had had any
other e$periene e$ept that whih had been provided by the ;reat 5renh Revolution%
1ar$ had studied #ost attentively the history of that revolution and had endeavoured
to wor+ out priniples of tatis for the epoh of the o#in& revolution whih he.
ontrary to 8roudhon. had orretly foreseen% >hat then did 1ar$ learn fro# the
e$periene of the 5renh RevolutionP The Revolution bro+e out in 17F9% !t represented
a rather len&thy proessJ it lasted fro# 17F9 to 1799. that is. up to the year in whih
?apoleon ao#plished his oup d'etat% The /n&lish Revolution of the seventeenth
entury also su&&ested that the o#in& revolution would be a prolon&ed one% The
5renh Revolution be&an with universal 0oy. with universal 0ubilation% 't the very
be&innin& the bour&eoisie assu#ed the leadership of the oppressed populae. and
abolished absolutis#% 3nly later there developed frition within this triu#phant
bour&eoisie% !n the proess of this stru&&le. power was passin& to #ore e$tre#e
ele#ents% This stru&&le lasted for three years. with the result that power had passed
into the hands of the Jaobins% To 1ar$. who had arefully studied the evolution of the
Jaobin party. it see#ed that in the ne$t revolution. too. it would be possible to diret
the fores whih would develop spontaneously in the heat of prolon&ed politial
ation%
This pre#ise e$plains his error% 5or lon& he held to this opinion. and a whole series of
events were needed to #a+e hi# renoune this pre#ise% The first blow the Revolution
had reeived in the >est was the June defeat of the 8aris proletariat% !t i##ediately
&ave reation a hane to raise its head in 8russia. in 'ustria and in Russia% ?iholas !
offered help to the 8russian Kin& fro# the very startJ the ar#ed assistane was re0eted
but Russian #oney was heerfully aepted% !t proved e$eedin&ly helpful% To the
'ustrian /#peror. a&ainst who# -un&ary had rebelled. ?iholas offered battalions%
They were aepted%
The ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&. relyin& upon the e$periene of the 5renh Revolution.
advoated the followin& tatis9 >ar with Russia. it see#ed. was the only #eans of
savin& the Revolution in western /urope% The defeat of the 8aris proletariat was the
first blow at the Revolution% The history of the ;reat 5renh Revolution showed that it
had been the atta+ of the @oalition upon 5rane that supplied the i#pulse for the
stren&thenin& of the revolutionary #ove#ent% The #oderate parties had been thrown
aside% The leadership had been ta+en over by those parties whih were able to repel
#ost ener&etially the e$ternal atta+% 's a result of the atta+ by the @oalition. 5rane
had been delared a republi on 'u&ust 1,. 1792% 1ar$ and /n&els e$peted that a war
of the reationaries a&ainst the new Revolution would lead to si#ilar results% That is
why they +ept on ritiisin& Russia in the olu#ns of their paper% Russia was
(,
onstantly bein& pointed out as the power behind 'ustrian and ;er#an reation% /ah
editorial tried to prove that war with Russia was the sole #eans of savin& the
Revolution% The de#orati ele#ents were bein& prepared for this war as for the only
way out% 1ar$ and /n&els #aintained that war with Russia would &ive the needed 0olt
to awa+en all the revolutionary passions of the ;er#an people% ;uided by this view.
1ar$ and /n&els defended every oppositional. every revolutionary tendeny a&ainst
the established order% They were the #ost fervent defenders of the -un&arian
RevolutionJ they #ost passionately defended the 8oles who shortly before had #ade a
fresh atte#pt at insurretion% They de#anded the re6establish#ent of an independent
and united 8oland% !n the sa#e spirit. they de#anded the unifiation of ;er#any into
one republi. and the restoration to ;er#any of so#e distrits that had one belon&ed
to ;er#any. and that were populated with ;er#ans% !n short. everywhere did they
re#ain true to the basi priniples of the @o##unist 1anifesto by supportin& /very
revolutionary #ove#ent direted a&ainst the established order%
?evertheless. it should not be overloo+ed that the artiles in the ?eue Rheinishe
Deitun& dealt overwhel#in&ly with the politial aspet of thin&s% They were always
ritiis#s of the politial ats of the bour&eoisie. or the politial ats of the
bureauray% >hen we peruse the ?eue Rheinishe Deitun& we are stru+ by the
inade4uaies of spae allotted to proletarian 4uestions% This was partiularly so durin&
the year 1FHF% 7tefan *orn's or&an. on the ontrary. rese#bled a #odern trade6union
paper% !t was replete with disussions of proletarian affairs% !n 1ar$'s paper 4uestions
dealin& diretly with the de#ands of the wor+in& lass were very rare% !t was al#ost
o#pletely devoted to the e$itation of politial passions. and to the a&itation in favour
of the reation of suh de#orati revolutionary fores whih would with one blow
free ;er#any of all the re#nants of the obsolete feudal syste#%
*ut towards the end of 1FHF onditions han&ed% The reation whih had already
be&un to &ain stren&th after the June defeat of the 8aris proletariat. bea#e even #ore
a&&ressive in 3tober. 1FHF% The failure at Aienna served as the si&nal. and brou&ht in
its train the defeat at *erlin% >ith renewed arro&ane the 8russian &overn#ent
dispersed the national asse#bly and i#posed a onstitution of its own #a+in&% 'nd the
8russian bour&eoisie. in lieu of offerin& atual resistane. was worryin& about
establishin& har#ony between the people and the Kin&'s &overn#ent%
1ar$. on the other hand. #aintained that the royal power of 8russia suffered defeat in
1arh. 1FHF. and that there ould be no 4uestion of an a&ree#ent with the rown% The
people should adopt its own onstitution and. without heedin& the royal power. it
should delare the ountry one indivisible ;er#an Republi% *ut the national
asse#bly. in whih there was a preponderane of the liberal and de#orati
(1
bour&eoisie. fearso#e of a final brea+ with the #onarhy. +ept on preahin&
o#pro#ise until it was dispersed%
5inally 1ar$ was persuaded that no hope ould be plaed even on the #ost e$tre#e
fation of the ;er#an bour&eoisie% /ven the de#orati fation of the #iddle lass
whih ould be e$peted to reate free politial onditions onduive to the
develop#ent of the wor+in& lass proved its utter ineptitude for the tas+%
-ere is how 1ar$. on the basis of the sad e$perienes of the *erlin and 5ran+fort
asse#blies. haraterised the bour&eoisie in Dee#ber. 1FHF9
)>hile the Revolutions of 1(HF and 17F9 had been inspired with a boundless
feelin& of pride. standin&. as they did. on the threshold of a new era. the pride of
the *erliners in 1FHF was based on the fat that they represented an anahronis#%
Their li&ht was not unli+e the li&ht of those stars whose rays reah the denizens
of our earth 1,,.,,, years after the e$tintion of the lu#inary whih sent the#
forth% The 8russian Revolution of 1arh represented in #iniature 66 it
represented nothin& e$ept in #iniature 66 suh a star in /urope% !ts li&ht was the
li&ht of a soial orpse lon& sine deayed%
)The ;er#an bour&eoisie had developed so lan&uidly. so ti#idly. so slowly. that
when it be&an to onstitute a dan&er to feudalis# and absolutis#. it already
found itself opposed on the other hand by the proletariat and all those strata of
the ity population the interests and ideas of whih were idential with those of
the proletariat% !ts ene#y inluded not only the lass behind it but all of /urope
in front% 's distin&uished fro# the 5renh bour&eoisie of 17F9. the 8russian
bour&eoisie was not the lass that would defend the whole of onte#porary
soiety a&ainst the representatives of the old order. the #onarhy. the nobility% !t
had delined to the level of an estate whih was in opposition to the rown as
well as to the people. and was irresolute in its relations to either of its ene#ies
beause it was always beholdin& both of the# either before it or behind its ba+J
it was inlined fro# the very start to betray the people and to #a+e o#pro#ises
with the rowned representative of the old soiety. for the ;er#an bour&eoisie
itself belon&ed to the old soiety it represented the interests not of a new order
a&ainst the old. but interests within the old order. whih have ta+en on a new
lease of lifeJ it stood at the hel# of the revolution not beause it was ba+ed by
the people. but beause the people had shoved it to the frontJ it found itself at the
head not beause it too+ the initiative in favour of the new soial epoh. but
#erely beause it represented the disontent of the obsolete soial epohJ it was a
stratu# of the old 7tate whih had not yet effeted its e#er&ene. but whih was
now flun& to the surfae of the new 7tate by an upheavalJ without faith in itself.
(2
without faith in the people. &ru#blin& a&ainst the upper lass. tre#blin& before
the lower lasses. selfish in its attitude toward both. and aware of its selfishness.
revolutionary with respet to the onservatives. and onservative with respet to
the revolutionists. distrustful of its own slo&ans. whih were phrases instead of
ideas. inti#idated by the world stor#. yet e$ploitin& that very stor#. devoid of
ener&y in any diretion. yet resortin& to pla&iaris# in all diretions. banal
throu&h la+ of ori&inality. but ori&inal in its sheer banality. enterin& into
o#pro#ises with its own desires. without initiative. without faith in itself.
without faith in the people. without a universal historial allin&. a doo#ed senile
reature. devoted to the i#possible tas+ of leadin& and #anipulatin& the robust
youthful aspirations of a new people in his own senile interests 66 sans eyes. sans
ears. sans teeth. sans everythin& 66 suh was the position of the 8russian
bour&eoisie that had been &uidin& the destinies of the 8russian 7tate sine the
1arh Revolution%)
The hope whih 1ar$ had plaed in the pro&ressive bour&eoisie. in the 1anifesto.
althou&h even there he enu#erated a series of onditions preedent to real o6
operation with it. was not 0ustified% Towards the 5all of 1FHF. 1ar$ and /n&els
han&ed their tatis% ?ot re0etin& the support of the bour&eois de#orats. nor
severin& his relations with the de#orati or&anisation. 1ar$. nevertheless. shifted the
entre of his ativity into the proletarian #idst% To&ether with 1oll and 7happer. he
onentrated his wor+ in the >or+in&#en's 2nion of @olo&ne whih. too. had its
representative in the Distrit @o##ittee of De#orati 7oieties%
The fat that upon ;otshal+'s arrest. 1oll was eleted hair#an of the >or+in&#en's
2nion indiates the inreased stren&th of the o##unists% The federalist trend whih
was headed by ;otshal+ &radually faded into a #inority% >hen 1oll was fored for a
ti#e to flee @olo&ne. 1ar$. despite the fat that he had repeatedly delined the honour.
was eleted hair#an in his stead% !n 5ebruary. durin& the eletions for the new
parlia#ent. disa&ree#ents arose% 1ar$ and his followers insisted that the wor+ers.
where there was no hane of eletin& their own representatives. should vote for
de#orats% The #inority protested a&ainst this%
!n 1arh and 'pril. frition between the wor+ers and the de#orats who were united
in the Distrit @o##ittee of the De#orati 7oieties reahed a sta&e where a shis#
was unavoidable% 1ar$ and his supporters resi&ned fro# the @o##ittee% The
>or+in&#en's 2nion realled its representative and proeeded to ally itself with the
wor+in&#en's soieties whih had been or&anised by 7tefan *orn in eastern ;er#any%
The >or+in&#en's 2nion itself was reor&anised into the @entral @lub with nine
re&ional branhes. wor+in&#en's lubs% Towards the end of 'pril. 1ar$ and 7happer
issued a prola#ation whih invited all the wor+in&#en's soieties throu&hout the
Rhine provine and >estphalia to a re&ional on&ress for the purpose of or&anisation
(3
and for the eletion of deputies to the ;eneral >or+in&#en's @on&ress whih was to
ta+e plae in June at :eipzi&%
*ut 0ust as 1ar$ and his followers were settin& out upon the or&anisation of a labour
party. a new blow was stru+ at the Revolution% -avin& put an end to the 8russian
?ational 'sse#bly. the &overn#ent deided also to put an end to the ;er#an ?ational
'sse#bly% !t was in southern ;er#any that the fi&ht for the so6alled !#perial
@onstitution be&an%
>e #ust point out one #ore detail whih is &enerally overloo+ed by 1ar$'s
bio&raphers% 1ar$'s position in @olo&ne was preariousJ his behaviour had to be
e$eedin&ly iru#spet% Thou&h he did not have to live under&round. he was.
nevertheless. sub0et to e$pulsion fro# @olo&ne by a #ere &overn#ent order% -ere is
how it a#e about that 1ar$ found hi#self in this uni4ue predia#ent%
-avin& been e$posed to the inessant perseutions of the 8russian ;overn#ent.
havin& been e$pelled fro# 8aris on the insistene of the sa#e &overn#ent. and havin&
feared deportation fro# *el&iu#. 1ar$ finally resolved to renoune his alle&iane to
8russia% -e did not delare his alle&iane to any other ountry. but definitely
renouned his 8russian one% The 8russian &overn#ent seized upon it% >hen 1ar$
returned to @olo&ne. the loal authorities reo&rused hi# as a itizen of the Rhine
provine. but they de#anded that the 8russian authorities in *erlin onfir# it% The
latter deided that 1ar$ had lost his ri&hts of itizenship% That is why 1ar$. who was
tryin& very hard for a reinstate#ent into the ri&hts of 8russian itizenship. was
o#pelled in the seond half of 1FHF to desist fro# #a+in& publi appearanes% >hen
the revolutionary wave would rise and onditions would i#prove. 1ar$ appeared
openly before the publiJ as soon as the wave of reation would rise and repressions in
@olo&ne would beo#e #ore furious. 1ar$ vanished and onfined hi#self only to
literary wor+. that is. to the diretin& of the ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&% This is why
1ar$ was so relutant to beo#e hair#an of the >or+in&#en's 2nion of @olo&ne%
!n aord with the han&e in tatis. there was a turn in the poliy of the ?eue
Rheinishe Deitun&% The first artiles on >a&e :abour and @apital appeared only after
the han&e% These were prefaed by a lon& state#ent in whih 1ar$ e$plained why the
paper had never before touhed upon the anta&onis# between apital and labour% The
han&e. however. was #ade too late% !t too+ plae in 5ebruary. while in 1ay the
;er#an revolution was already o#pletely rushed%
The feroity of the 8russian &overn#ent swept li+e a stor# aross the ountry% !ts
ar#ies swooped down upon the southwest% The ?eue Rheinishe Deitun& was a#on&
the first asualties% !t was disontinued on 1ay 19. when the fa#ous red nu#ber was
(H
published% <*esides a beautiful poe# by 5erdinand 5reili&rath K1F1,61F7(L. that issue
ontained 1ar$'s address to the wor+in& lass warnin& the# a&ainst provoations by
the &overn#ent%= 'fter this. 1ar$ left the Rhine provine. and as a forei&ner. had to
abandon ;er#any% The rest of the staff left for various plaes% /n&els. 1oll. and
>illih went to 0oin the south ;er#an rebels%
'fter several wee+s of heroi but badly or&anised resistane a&ainst the 8russian
ar#ies. the rebels were fored to ross over into 7witzerland% The a$6#e#bers of the
staff of the ?eue Rheinishe Deitun& and of the >or+in&#en's 2nion of @olo&ne
pere&rinated to 8aris. but in 1FH9. after the unsuessful de#onstration of June 13.
they. too. fell under the ban and were fored to leave 5rane% Towards the be&innin& of
1FI, there a#e to&ether. in :ondon. al#ost the entire old &uard of the @o##unist
:ea&ue% 1oll had perished durin& the insurretion in the south% 1ar$. /n&els.
7happer. >illih. and >olff found the#selves in :ondon%
1ar$ and /n&els. as #ay be &leaned fro# their writin&s of that period. did not at first
lose hope% They felt that this was only a te#porary halt in the #arh of the revolution
and that a fresh and &reater upheaval was bound to follow% !n order that they #i&ht not
be au&ht unawares. they wished to stren&then the or&anisation. and to tie it up #ore
seurely with ;er#any% The old @o##unist :ea&ue was reor&anisedJ the old ele#ents
as well as the new ones fro# 7ilesia. *reslau and the Rhine provines were drawn in%
Aery soon. however. differenes be&an to sprin& up% The ontroversy a#e to a head
on the followin& 4uestion9
/ven at the be&innin& of 1FI,. 1ar$ and /n&els thou&ht that it would not be lon& ere
the revolution would be resusitated% !t was preisely at this ti#e that two fa#ous
irulars were released by the @o##unist :ea&ue% :enin. who +new the# by heart.
used to deli&ht in 4uotin& the#%
!n these irulars 66 and they an only be understood if we reall the errors #ade by
1ar$ and /n&els durin& the Revolution of 1FHF 66 we find that besides #erilessly
ritiisin& bour&eois liberalis#. we #ust also atta+ the de#orati ele#ents% >e #ust
#uster all our stren&th to reate a wor+in&#en's party in opposition to the de#orati
or&anisation% The de#orats #ust be lashed and flayed% !f they de#and a ten6hour
wor+day. we should de#and an ei&ht6hour day% !f they de#and e$propriation of lar&e
estates with 0ust o#pensation. then we #ust de#and onfisation without
o#pensation% >e #ust use every possible #eans to &oad on the revolution. to #a+e it
per#anent. and not to let it lapse into desuetude% >e annot afford to be satisfied with
the i##ediate on4uests% /ah bit of on4uered territory #ust serve as a step for
further on4uests% /very atte#pt to delare the revolution onsu##ated is treason to
(I
its ause% >e #ust e$ert our stren&th. to the last bit. to under#ine and destroy the
soial and politial fabri in whih we live. until the last vesti&es of the old lass
anta&onis#s are eradiated forever%
Differenes of opinion arose about the evaluation of the e$istin& onditions% !n
ontradistintion to his opponents. the #ost i#portant a#on& who# were 7happer
and >illih. 1ar$. true to his #ethod. insisted that every politial revolution was the
effet of definite eono#i auses. of a ertain eono#i revolution% The Revolution
of 1FHF was preeded by the eono#i risis of 1FH7 whih had held all of /urope.
e$ept the 5ar /ast. in its &rip% -avin& studied in :ondon the prevailin& eono#i
onditions. the state of the world #ar+et. 1ar$ a#e to the onlusion that the new
situation was not favourable to a revolutionary eruption. and that the absene of the
new revolutionary upheaval. whih he and his friends had been antiipatin&. #i&ht be
e$plained otherwise than by the la+ of revolutionary initiative and revolutionary
ener&y on the part of the revolutionists% 3n the basis of his detailed analysis of the
e$istin& onditions. he reahed the onlusion. at the end of 1FI,. that in the fae of
suh eono#i effloresene any atte#pt to fore a revolution. to indue an uprisin&.
was doo#ed to fruitless defeat% 'nd onditions were then partiularly onduive to the
develop#ent of /uropean apital% 5abulously rih &old #ines were disovered in
@alifornia and in 'ustraliaJ vast hosts of wor+ers rushed into these ountries% The
delu&e of /uropean e#i&ration started in 1FHF and reahed tre#endous proportions in
1FI,%
Thus. a study of eono#i onditions brou&ht 1ar$ to the onvition that the
revolutionary wave was reedin& and that there would be no renewal of the
revolutionary #ove#ent until another eono#i risis arose and reated #ore
favourable onditions% 7o#e of the #e#bers of the @o##unist :ea&ue did not
subsribe to these views% These views #et with the partiular disapproval of those who
were not well &rounded in eono#is and who attahed inordinate i#portane to the
revolutionary initiative of a few resolute individuals% >illih. 7happer. a nu#ber of
other #e#bers of the @olo&ne >or+in&#en's 2nion. and the old >eitlin&ites.
oalesed% They insisted upon the neessity of forin& a revolutionary uprisin& in
;er#any% 'll they needed. they lai#ed. was a ertain su# of #oney. and a nu#ber of
darin& individuals% They be&an to hunt for #oney% 'n effort was #ade to soliit a loan
fro# '#eria. a loan with a ;er#an revolution as its ob0etive% 1ar$. /n&els and a
few of their near friends refused to partiipate in this a#pai&n% 5inally a shis#
ourred. and the @o##unist :ea&ue was split into a 1ar$6/n&els fation and a
>illih67happer fation%
!t happened that at this very ti#e one setion of the @o##unist :ea&ue whih was
still in ;er#any. a#e to &rief% !t was sine 1FI, that 1ar$ and /n&els were #a+in&
((
an effort to stren&then the :ea&ue in ;er#any alon& with its reor&anisation in :ondon%
/#issaries were sent to ;er#any with the purpose of establishin& loser ties with the
;er#an o##unists% 3ne of the# was arrested% The papers that were found on hi#
revealed the na#es of all his o#rades% ' nu#ber of o##unists were 0ailed% The
8russian &overn#ent. in order to de#onstrate to the ;er#an bour&eoisie that the latter
had no reason to re&ret the few privile&es it had lost in 1FI,. sta&ed an i#posin& trial
of the o##unists% The upshot was a few lon&6ter# sentenes for several o##unists
who inluded 5riedrih :essner% Durin& the trial ertain u&ly fats a#e to the surfae
66 the a&ent provoateur. 7tieber. the falsifiation of #inutes. per0ury. et%
't the su&&estion of the o##unists who stood with 1ar$. he wrote a pa#phlet in
whih he e$posed the nefarious wor+ of the 8russian polie in onnetion with the
perseution of the o##unists% This. however. proved of little assistane to the
onde#ned% 2pon the ter#ination of the trial. 1ar$. /n&els and their o#rades a#e
to the onlusion that. in fae of this unfortunate turn of events. and sine all
revolutionary onnetions with ;er#any were severed. the :ea&ue had nothin& to do
but to wait for a #ore auspiious ti#eJ in 1FI2 the @o##unist :ea&ue was offiially
disbanded% The other part of the @o##unist :ea&ue. the >illih67happer fation.
ve&etated for another year% 7o#e left for '#eria% 7happer re#ained in :ondon% '
few years later he a#e to realise the errors he had #ade in 1FI2. and a&ain #ade
peae with 1ar$ and /n&els%
(7
C"A#TER &I
T"E REACTI!N !F T"E FIFTIES'
T-/ ?ew Bor+ Tribune%
T-/ @R!1/'? >'R%
T-/ A!/>7 35 1'RC '?D /?;/:7%
T-/ !T':!'? E2/7T!3?%
1'RC '?D /?;/:7 D!55/R >!T- :'77'::/%
T-/ @3?TR3A/R7B >!T- A3;T%
1'RC'7 'TT!T2D/ T3>'RD :'77'::/%
>ith the li4uidation of the @o##unist :ea&ue there a#e for 1ar$ and /n&els a
essation of politial ativity whih lasted for #any years% The reation whih had
o##ened in 1F19 was &ainin& in intensity and reahed its li#a$ in 1FIH% 'll traes
of free politial ativity were obliterated% :abour unions were stritly forbidden% 5ree
press had perished in the tur#oil of 1FH9% 'll that was left was the 8russian asse#bly
and even this was fri&htfully reationary%
1ar$ and /n&els were onfronted now with the very serious 4uestion of earnin& a
livelihood% >e an hardly visualise the distressin& #aterial iru#stanes in whih
1ar$ and /n&els were at that ti#e% /n&els was too proudly realitrant to bow to his
rih father with who# he had had violent disa&ree#ents% -e and 1ar$ tried to find
so#e literary wor+% *ut ;er#any was losed to the#% !n '#eria they had a hane to
write for labour or&ans. but this was not in the least lurative% !t was a splendid
opportunity to wor+ without pay%
!t was then that 1ar$ published in an '#erian paper his #ost inspired piee of
historial writin&. The /i&hteenth *ru#aire of :ouis *onaparte% !n it 1ar$ &ave a
brilliant study of the 5ebruary Revolution% 7tep by step. disentan&lin& diffiulties. he
traed the deter#inin& effets of the stru&&le between the lasses upon the fate of the
revolution% -e showed how various portions of the bour&eoisie. inludin& the #ost
de#orati ones. had one after another. so#e +nowin&ly and #aliiously. and others
unwillin&ly and with tears in their eyes. been betrayin& and sellin& the proletariat.
astin& it forth as prey for &enerals and e$eutioners% -e showed how onditions had
been &radually prepared so that a vapid nonentity li+e ?apoleon !!! was able to seize
power%
1eanwhile 1ar$'s #aterial straits were a&&ravated% Durin& his first years of residene
in :ondon he lost two hildren. a boy and a &irl% >hen the latter died. there was
literally no #oney with whih to #eet the funeral e$penses%
(F
;rindin& his teeth. /n&els deided to resu#e his old )do&'s trade.) as he used to all
business% -avin& found e#ploy#ent in the offie of the /n&lish branh of his father's
fatory. he #oved to 1anhester% 't the be&innin& he was a si#ple e#ployee% -e had
still to win the onfidene of his father and of the /n&lish branh of the fir#J he had to
prove that he was able to en&a&e hi#self in a business enterprise%
1ar$ stayed in :ondon% The @o##unist :ea&ue was no #ore% 3nly a s#all nu#ber
of wor+ers re#ained lusterin& about the @o##unist >or+ers' /duational 7oiety
and e+in& out a prearious livin& as tailors and o#positors% 3nly at the end of 1FI1
an opportunity to write for the ?ew Bor+ Tribune suddenly presented itself to 1ar$%
The ?ew Bor+ Tribune was then one of the #ost influential papers% @harles Dana. one
of the editors of the Tribune. who had been in ;er#any and who had #et 1ar$ durin&
the Revolution of 1FHF. invited 1ar$ to write a series of artiles on ;er#any for the
paper% Dana had been in @olo&ne and he +new the i#portant position 1ar$ oupied
a#on& the ;er#an 0ournalists% -avin& ta+en to heart the interests of his ;er#an
readers <;er#an i##i&ration into the 2nited 7tates durin& the Revolution had &reatly
inreased=. Dana deided for their benefit to enlar&e the setion of the Tribune dealin&
with >estern /urope% This unforeseen invitation brou&ht in its train so#e
e#barrass#ents. for at that ti#e 1ar$ was not yet able to write /n&lish% -e turned to
/n&els for help. and a very urious for# of ollaboration was established% >e have
already seen that the @o##unist 1anifesto. thou&h it appeared under the 0oint na#es
of 1ar$ and /n&els. was overwhel#in&ly the wor+ of 1ar$% /n&els' ontribution to it
was al#ost as little as had been his ontribution to their o##on wor+. The -oly
5a#ily% ?ow it was /n&els who perfor#ed the #a0or tas+% -is artiles were later
olleted into a separate volu#e alled Revolution and @ounter6Revolution in
;er#any% 1ar$ was redited with this boo+. but fro# their orrespondene we now
+now that /n&els was the author% -owever. ideolo&ially it was the o##on wor+ of
1ar$ and /n&els% The latter wrote it on the basis of ideas and fats that were supplied
by 1ar$. and hiefly on the basis of the artiles whih they had both been writin& for
the ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&% Thus be&an 1ar$'s relations with the ?ew Bor+ Tribune%
3ne year later he &ained suffiient #astery of the /n&lish lan&ua&e to be able to write
his own artiles%
Thus fro# 1FI2 1ar$ had a periodial publiation in whih he ould e$press his
views% 2nfortunately. it was not in /urope% The '#erian readers sou&ht fro# it
answers to their own speifi 4uestions% Thou&h interested in /uropean events. they
were interested in the# only insofar as they affeted events in the 2nited 7tates of
'#eria% !n the fifties the #ost vital. the #ost absorbin& 4uestion in the 2nited 7tates
was the abolition of slavery% 'nother burnin& 4uestion was that of free trade as it
affeted the southern and the northern states%
(9
The ?ew Bor+ Tribune was an abolitionist paper% *ut in the free6trade vs%
protetionis# ontroversy it stood for a #ost thorou&h&oin& protetionis#% 3n the
4uestion of slavery 1ar$ was in full aord with this paper% 3n the seond issue 1ar$
ould not aept the point of view of the editors% *ut /urope supplied suffiient
#aterial on other sub0ets%
5ro# the 7prin& of 1FI3 the te#po of events in /urope be&an to be aelerated% This
aeleration. we #ust observe. was not aused by any pressure fro# below% 3n the
ontrary. a nu#ber of the hief /uropean states. suh as Russia. 5rane and /n&land.
whih were all ali+e interested in the preservation of order. suddenly be&an to 4uarrel%
This is harateristi of rulin& lasses and rulin& nations% 's soon as they bea#e freed
of the dread of revolution. old #isunderstandin&s that had e$isted a#on& the states of
;er#any. 5rane. /n&land and Russia a&ain be&an to rise to the surfae% The rivalry.
whih had been ra&in& a#on& the nations before the Revolution of 1FHF and whih
had only for a ti#e. and throu&h the stress of neessity. been s#othered to &ive plae
to a o##on alliane for the suppression of revolution. now flared up a&ain% Russia.
who had so suessfully helped to restore )order) in western /urope. now see#ed to
be de#andin& o#pensation for her servies% 7he see#ed to thin+ that now was the
#ost opportune #o#ent for strethin& her paws out to the *al+an peninsula% -er
for#er aspirations &radually to a4uire the Tur+ish do#inions in /urope were revived%
The li4ue around the throne of ?iholas !. who dee#ed this #o#ent auspiious for
an a&&ressive poliy. were &rowin& in influene% They hoped that 5rane would not be
in a position to offer resistane. and that /n&land. where the Tories were in power.
would not interfere. onsiderin& the ordial a&ree#ent whih e$isted between /n&land
and Russia% Thus be&an the ontroversy ostensibly about the +eys to the 7aviour's
to#b% !n reality the Dardanelles was the bone of ontention%
' few #onths had passed. and the situation bea#e so aute that /n&land and 5rane.
both unwillin& to fi&ht. both feelin& that a war ould lead to nothin& &ood. were finally
fored to delare war upon Russia% The notorious @ri#ean >ar whih a&ain brou&ht
the /astern 4uestion to the front bro+e out% 1ar$ and /n&els now had their
opportunity. even thou&h it was in re#ote '#eria. to interpret the events of the day%
1ar$ and /n&els hailed the war% 5or. after all. the war did #ean that the three #a0or
powers whih had been the #ainstay of ounter6revolution. had fallen out. and when
thieves fall out. honest fol+s are li+ely to benefit by it% !t was fro# this an&le that 1ar$
and /n&els viewed the war% Bet they had to assu#e a definite attitude with re&ard to
eah of the warrin& parties%
!t is worthwhile dwellin& upon this a little lon&er. for the position whih 1ar$ and
/n&els had ta+en in the fifties has been repeatedly ited as a preedent in the
disussions of tatis in relation to war% !t is &enerally assu#ed that durin& the
7,
@ri#ean >ar. 1ar$ and /n&els had plaed the#selves diretly on the side of Tur+ey.
and a&ainst Russia% >e +now the &reat si&nifiane that 1ar$ and /n&els had attahed
to Russian @zaris# as the prop of /uropean reation. and the &reat si&nifiane they
had attahed to a war a&ainst Russia as a fator whih would be li+ely to stir the
revolutionary ener&ies of ;er#any% !t was natural. then. for the# to have welo#ed
the war a&ainst Russia. and to have sub0eted Russia to a #ost sathin& ritiis#% <!n
their literary ollaboration /n&els wrote the artiles overin& the #ilitary side of the
war. while 1ar$ dealt with the diplo#ati and eono#i 4uestions%=
Does it follow. however. that 1ar$ and /n&els had plaed the#selves on the side of
ulture. enli&hten#ent. and pro&ress as a&ainst Russia. and that. havin& delared
the#selves a&ainst Russia. they ipso fato stood for the enli&htened and ultured
/n&lish#en and 5renh#enP !t would be erroneous to #a+e suh a dedution%
/n&land and 5rane a#e in for as #uh denuniation as Russia% 'll the efforts of
?apoleon and 8al#erston to represent the war as a rusade of ivilisation and pro&ress
a&ainst 'siati barbaris# were e$posed in the #ost #eriless #anner% 's to 1ar$
havin& been a Turophile. there is nothin& #ore absurd than suh an ausation%
?either 1ar$ nor /n&els had his eyes losed to the fat that Tur+ey was even #ore
'siati and #ore barbarous than Russia% They sub0eted to severe ritiis# all the
ountries involved. and they showed no partiality% They had only one riterion 66 did or
did not any &iven event. any iru#stane under disussion. e$pedite the o#in& of
the revolutionP !t was fro# this point of view that they ritiised the ondut of
/n&land and 5rane whih. as we have pointed out. had been relutantly drawn into
this war and thorou&hly dis&runtled with the obstinate ?iholas !. who flatly refused to
onsider any o#pro#ises that they proffered hi#% The fears of the rulin& lasses were
fully 0ustifiedJ the war see#ed to dra& on% !t had been started in 1FIH and it was
ter#inated in 1FI( with the Treaty of 8aris% !n /n&land and in 5rane. a#on& the
#asses of wor+ers and peasants. this war aused &reat e$ite#ent% !t o#pelled
?apoleon and the rulin& lasses of /n&land to #a+e a &reat #any pro#ises and
onessions% The war ended with the vitory of 5rane. /n&land and Tur+ey% To Russia
the @ri#ean >ar &ave the i#petus for the so6alled )&reat refor#s%) !t proved how a
state based on the anti4uated syste# of serfdo# was inapable of fi&htin&
apitalistially developed ountries% Russia was fored to onsider the e#anipation of
the serfs%
3ne #ore 0olt was needed finally to stir a /urope whih had fallen into a state of
o#a after the e$plosive 1FHF61FH9 epoh% :et us reall that 1ar$ and /n&els. when
they bro+e away fro# the >illih67happer &roup. had delared that a new revolution
was only possible as the result of a fresh powerful eono#i sho+. and that 0ust as the
Revolution of 1FHF had resulted fro# the risis of 1FH7. so would the new revolution
o#e only as the result of a new eono#i risis% The industrial boo# that had started
71
in 1FH9. a4uired suh a sweep toward the early fifties that even the @ri#ean >ar was
not able to inflit a serious blow to it%
!t be&an to appear al#ost as if this boo# would be of endless duration% 1ar$ and
/n&els were onfident in 1FI1 that the ne$t risis was due not later than 1FI3% 3n the
basis of their past researhes. pri#arily those of /n&els. they held to the opinion that
rises were periodi disloations in the real# of apitalist prodution. and that they
reurred in fro# five to seven6year intervals% 'ordin& to this esti#ate. the risis
whih was to follow the one of 1F17 was to be e$peted about 1FIF% *ut 1ar$ and
/n&els #ade a sli&ht error% The period within whih apitalist prodution &oes throu&h
the various phases of risin& and fallin& proved to be lon&er% ' pani bro+e out only in
1FI7J it assu#ed unheard6of di#ensions. so #ali&nant and widespread did it beo#e%
1ar$ rapturously &reeted this risis. thou&h to hi# personally it brou&ht nothin& but
privation% The ino#e whih 1ar$ had been derivin& fro# the ?ew Bor+ Tribune was
not partiularly i#posin&J at first ten and later fifteen dollars per artile% 7till. in
o#parison with the first years of his so0ourn in :ondon. this ino#e plus the
assistane fro# /n&els. who used to ta+e upon hi#self a &reat deal of the wor+ for the
'#erian newspapers. &ave hi# a hane to #a+e both ends #eet% -e ould even find
ti#e. despite his onstant wor+in& on @apital. to write. without re#uneration. artiles
for the entral @hartist or&an. the 8eople's 8aper%
>ith the pani of 1FI7. onditions &rew onsiderably worse% The 2nited 7tates was
the first to suffer% The ?ew Bor+ Tribune had to redue its e$pensesJ forei&n
orrespondene was redued to a #ini#u#% 1ar$ a&ain bea#e enu#bered with
debts and a&ain had to loo+ for sporadi earnin&s% This lean period lasted until 1FI9%
Then a#e a respite% 5inally. in 1F(2. 1ar$'s wor+ for the Tribune a#e to an end%
*ut if in his personal affairs 1ar$ was unfortunate <durin& this period other
#isfortunes fell upon hi#=. in his revolutionary outloo+ he never was #ore opti#isti
than after the year 1FI7% 's he had foreseen. the new eono#i risis brou&ht to life a
nu#ber of revolutionary #ove#ents all over the world% The abolition of slavery in
'#eria and the e#anipation of the serfs in Russia bea#e #ost ruial proble#s
whih de#anded i##ediate solution% *our&eois /n&land had to strain all her
resoures in her stru&&le with the vast uprisin&s in !ndia% >estern /urope too was in a
state of o##otion%
The Revolution of 1FHF had left a few unanswered 4uestions% !taly re#ained
disunited% ' lar&e setion of her northern territory re#ained in the hands of 'ustria%
-un&ary was rushed with the aid of Russian bayonets and was a&ain hained to
'ustria% ;er#any persisted as a heap of prinipalities and +in&do#s of different
72
#a&nitudes. where 8russia and 'ustria had been inessantly bi+erin& and fi&htin& for
do#inane. for the so6alled he&e#ony in the union of ;er#an states%
!n 1FIF there already be&an a &eneral rise of the opposition and revolutionary
#ove#ents in all western /uropean ountries% The old unsolved proble#s were a&ain
brou&ht to the fore% !n ;er#any the strife for unifiation asserted itself one #ore% The
stru&&le between the party whih wanted a ;reat ;er#any. whih la#oured for the
unifiation of the whole of ;er#any inludin& 'ustria. and the ):ittle ;er#an) party
whih de#anded that 8russia be the point around whih all the ;er#an states with the
e$eption of 'ustria be united. was still &oin& on%
!n !taly there was an analo&ous awa+enin& of national aspirations% !n 5rane the pani
of 1FI7 brou&ht in its train the ruin of #any inflated enterprisesJ it affeted
partiularly the te$tile industries% The petty6bour&eoisie be&an to show a spirit of
opposition% ' new vi&our was also #anifested by the under&round revolutionary
or&anisations% The labour #ove#ent whih had beo#e #oribund after the June
defeat. was revivified. partiularly in the buildin& and the furniture6#a+in& trades%
Russia. too. reeived its first apitalist baptis# in a series of olossal business failures
in 1osowJ it now be&an to hobble alon& the path of liberal refor#s%
To rid the#selves of internal diffiulties the &overn#ents. and first of all ?apoleon.
endeavoured to distrat the attention of their peoples by startin& up a tinsel show in
e$ternal politis% ?apoleon was re#inded by the atte#pt of the !talian revolutionist
3rsini. in 1FIF. that the polie was not always o#nipotent% -e was fored to ta+e into
onsideration the popular disontent% To dissipate the revolutionary senti#ent of the
labourin& #asses. ?apoleon raised the pro&ressive slo&an of liberatin& !taly fro# the
'ustrian yo+e% -e i##ediately entered into seret a&ree#ents with @avour. the
#inister of the 7ardinian +in&% The role played by 7ardinia in !taly was analo&ous to
that of 8russia in ;er#any%
>hile the babble of the offiial press i#plied that it was all a 4uestion of unifyin&
!taly. the atual a&ree#ent. upon the basis of whih ?apoleon had pro#ised to help
7ardinia. had an entirely different ontentJ it was not the unifiation of !taly but the
roundin& out of 7ardinia whih was pro#ised :o#bardy and Aenie% *esides the
pro#ise that the 8apal Do#inions would be left intat. ?apoleon was to reeive as
o#pensation ?ie and 7avoy% ?apoleon. who was o#pelled to wri&&le between
opposition fro# the left and the lerial party. did not want to 4uarrel with the 8ope
and was therefore a&ainst an atual unifiation of !taly% 3n the other hand. he hoped
that the a4uisition of two new territories would satisfy the 5renh patriots%
73
Thus arose a new and an e$tre#ely i#portant politial 4uestion whih perturbed all
/urope and espeially the revolutionists within the different ountries% >hat attitude
were the revolutionists and soialists to assu#eP >ere they to side with ?apoleon who
had stepped forth al#ost as a revolutionist. who was advoatin& the liberal priniple of
the ri&ht of !taly to self6deter#ination. or were they to be on the side of 'ustria whih
was the personifiation of despotis#. whih was the oppressor of !taly and -un&aryP
This was a 4uestion of supre#e i#portane% The different answers to this 4uestion
ditated the different tatis of suh revolutionists as 1ar$ and /n&els on one side.
and 5erdinand :assalle <1F2I61F(H= on the other%
2ntil now we had no oasion to #ention :assalle. thou&h he had been one of the
first disiples of 1ar$ and had already ta+en part in the events of 1FHF% >e shall not
dwell on his bio&raphy. for it would lead us too #uh astray fro# our #ain topi%
Durin& the fifties. after havin& served a short ter# in prison. :assalle stayed in
;er#any and ontinued his sientifi wor+. +eepin& up his relations with 1ar$ and
/n&els at the sa#e ti#e% !n 1FI9. a ontroversy between the# arose in onnetion with
the !talian 4uestion% This was an e$tre#ely interestin& pole#i. and the two sides to
this ontroversy were finally rystallised into two fations within the sa#e party% The
disa&ree#ents were redued to the followin&9
?apoleon !!! and his li4ue were &reat adepts at shapin& publi opinion% Just as durin&
the @ri#ean >ar. the #ar+et was flooded with a &reat #ass of boo+lets and pa#phlets
in whih the liberalis# of ?apoleon and the 0ustie of the !talian ause were #ost
elo4uently ha#pioned% 1any voluntary and a #uh &reater nu#ber of #erenary
0ournalists 0oined this literary a#pai&n% The volunteers were reruited hiefly fro#
a#on& the -un&arian and the 8olish e#i&rants% Just as they had. a few years before.
re&arded the @ri#ean >ar as a war of pro&ress and ivilisation a&ainst 'siati
despotis# and had for#ed and e4uipped le&ions of volunteers in order to aid
8al#erston and ?apoleon. so did the -un&arian and 8olish e#i&rants. with very few
e$eptions. #aintain now that ?apoleon was fi&htin& for pro&ress and for the self6
deter#ination of nations. and that it was inu#bent upon all forward6loo+in& people to
hasten to his aid% These e#i&rants. a#on& who# there were #any who did not disdain
?apoleon's #oney. entered the !talo65renh ar#y%
?either was 'ustria slu#berin&% 7he finaned the publiists who were tryin& to prove
that in this war 'ustria was defendin& the interests of all of ;er#any. that in ase
?apoleon on4uered 'ustria. he ould seize the Rhine. that if this were the ase. it was
really ;er#any and not !taly that 'ustria was onerned with. that. therefore 'ustria's
retention of her do#inion over ?orthern !taly was for the purpose of protetin&
;er#any%
7H
These were the two #ain hannels in whih the opinions of /uropean 0ournalis# of
the ti#e were oursin&% !n ;er#any itself the proble# was o#pliated by the
ontroversy between the );reat6;er#any) and the ):ittle6;er#any) parties% !t was
4uite natural that the ;reat6;er#anists who wanted the unifiation of the whole of
;er#any. 'ustria inluded. should lean to the side of the latter. while the :ittle6
;er#anists. who pulled toward 8russia. should #aintain that 'ustria be left to her own
fate% 3f ourse. there were various shadin&s. but these did not essentially han&e the
&eneral piture%
>hat then were the attitudes ta+en by 1ar$ and /n&els on the one hand. and by
:assalle on the otherP They all held to the priniples of the @o##unist 1anifesto%
Durin& the Revolution of 1FHF they had all delared the#selves in favour of a 2nited
;er#an Republi. with the ;er#an distrits of 'ustria inorporated% !t see#ed that
there was no plae for any disa&ree#ents% !n reality these differenes were not any less
profound than the differenes whih arose a#on& the various 7oial6De#orats who
stood on the sa#e 1ar$ian platfor# at the be&innin& of the ;reat >ar in 191H%
1ar$ and /n&els. in their artiles and pa#phlets. reasoned that in order to protet the
Rhine. ;er#any was not in need of ?orthern !taly. and that it ould very well afford to
per#it 'ustria to &ive up all its !talian possessions to a 2nited !taly. that any atte#pt to
support 'ustria. supposedly in the interests of ;er#any. #eant a o#pro#ise with
'ustrian despotis#%
1ar$ and /n&els were onsistent% They atta+ed ?apoleon as relentlessly as they
lashed 'ustrian and 8russian reation% ' o#plete vitory for ?apoleon. they felt.
would be as #uh of a ala#ity as a o#plete vitory for 'ustria% /n&els #aintained
that ?apoleon. should he defeat 'ustria. would also atta+ ;er#any% -e therefore
advaned the idea that the unifiation of !taly as well as that of ;er#any should be
ao#plished by fores within these ountries the#selves% Revolutionists. aordin&
to hi#. ould not onsistently support either side% The only thin& for the# to onsider
should be the interests of the proletarian revolution% >e #ust not overloo+ another
fator whih was loo#in& behind the sta&e% /n&els was pointin& out. and 0ustly. that
?apoleon would not have dared to delare war upon 'ustria had he not been onfident
of the silent onsent of Russia. had he not been assured that she would not &o to the
aid of 'ustria% -e thou&ht it 4uite probable that in this there e$isted so#e sort of an
understandin& between 5rane and Russia% Durin& the @ri#ean >ar. 'ustria had
repaid in )base in&ratitude) that sa#e Russia whih had so )self6sarifiin&ly) and so
)unselfishly) helped her to stran&le the -un&arian revolution% Russia now had
obviously no sruples about punishin& 'ustria with ?apoleon's hands% !f an a&ree#ent
between 5rane and Russia atually e$isted by whih Russia pro#ised to o#e to the
aid of 5rane. it would be the duty of ;er#any to hasten to the assistane of 'ustria.
7I
but it would already be a revolutionary ;er#any% Then the situation would be si#ilar
to that upon whih 1ar$ and /n&els had been ountin& in the days of the Revolution
of 1FHF% !t would be a war of revolution a&ainst reation% The bour&eois parties would
not be able to attrat to the#selves all the lower lassesJ they would &ive way
suessively to ever6#ore radial parties. thus reatin& the opportunity for the vitory
of the #ost e$tre#e. the #ost revolutionary party 66 the proletarian party%
7uh was the point of view of 1ar$ and /n&els% :assalle re&arded this 4uestion
differently% To a de&ree this differene ould be e$plained by the different ob0etive
onditions to whih these people were diretly e$posed% :assalle lived in 8russia and
was too losely bound up with the loal 8russian onditions% 1ar$ and /n&els lived in
/n&land. on the wathtower of the worldJ they onsidered /uropean events fro# the
point of view of the >orld Revolution. not only the ;er#an. nor #erely the 8russian%
:assalle ar&ued in the followin& #anner9 To hi# the #ost dan&erous foe of ;er#any
was the internal foe. 'ustria% 7he was a #ore dan&erous ene#y than liberal 5rane. or
than a Russia whih was already in the &rip of liberal refor#s% 'ustria was the #ain
ause of the blea+ reation that pressed F, insufferably upon ;er#any% ?apoleon.
thou&h a usurper. was none the less an e$pression of liberalis#. pro&ress. and
ivilisation% That was why. :assalle felt. that in this war the ;er#an De#oray
should abandon 'ustria to her own fate. and that the defeat of 'ustria would be the
#ost desirable outo#e%
>hen we read :assalle's writin&s dealin& with this 4uestion 66 all the o#pli#ents he
showered upon ?apoleon and Russia. the e$tre#e aution he displayed in disussin&
offiial 8russia 66 we are o#pelled to #a+e an effort so as not to beo#e onfused%
>e onstantly have to re#ind ourselves that :assalle tried to spea+ as a 8russian
de#orat who wanted to onvine the rulin& lass of 8russia. the Jun+ers. that no aid
should be &ranted to 'ustria% *ut. havin& donned the loa+ of a 8russian de#orat.
:assalle really e$pounded his own ideas whih diver&ed sharply fro# those of 1ar$
and /n&els% :ater this diver&ene too+ on a &raver aspet% @arried away by the desire
to attain i##ediate and tan&ible suess. deter#ined to beo#e a )pratial
politiian.) instead of a dotrinaire. he allowed hi#self to resort to ar&u#ents and
proofs whih plaed hi# under obli&ations to the rulin& party. whih invei&led hi#
into flatterin& those who# he tried to persuade to leave 'ustria without assistane%
'buse hurled upon 'ustria. a &entle attitude toward Russia. the o4uettin& with
offiial 8russia 66 all this was so far only the enthusias# of a publiist who was not
writin& in the na#e of the party% The sa#e tatis. however. when they were
subse4uently arried over by :assalle into the i##ediate pratial stru&&le. bea#e
frau&ht with dan&er%
7(
The war between 5rane and 'ustria ter#inated differently fro# what either side
e$peted% 't the be&innin&. 'ustria. opposed by a lonely !taly. was une4uivoally
vitorious% :ater she was defeated by the o#bined fores of 5rane and !taly% *ut as
soon as the war be&an to assu#e a popular harater and to threaten an atual
revolutionary unifiation of !taly and the abolition of the 8apal distrit. ?apoleon
aepted Russian #ediation and hurried to rawl out of the war% 7ardinia had to be
satisfied with :o#bardy% Aenie re#ained in the hands of 'ustria% To o#pensate
hi#self for 5renh blood and 5renh #oney. ?apoleon helped hi#self to the whole
provine of 7avoy. the birthplae of the 7ardinian +in&s and. to prove to the fa#ous
!talian revolutionist and fi&hter for a 2nited !taly. ;iuseppe ;aribaldi <1F,761FF2=.
that one #ust not be #isled by the pro#ises of rowned +naves. he anne$ed
;aribaldi's native ity. ?ie. and its environs% Thus did the )liberal) ?apoleon with the
thunderous applause of liberal fools and ba#boozled revolutionists defend the )ri&ht
of self6deter#ination) of !taly and other oppressed nationalities% :assalle. too. was to
disover that not only was ?apoleon not better than 'ustria. but that he ould run rin&s
about 'ustria when it a#e to 1ahiavellian double6dealin&% !taly was left as
dis#e#bered as it had been% 3nly 7ardinia bea#e #ore rounded out% *ut now
so#ethin& 4uite une$peted happened% 3win& to the disillusion#ent and indi&nation
resultin& fro# ?apoleon's poliies. a stron& revolutionary #ove#ent was started in
!taly% 't the head was the noble revolutionist. but the bad politiian. ;aribaldi% !n
1F(1. !taly was han&ed into a 2nited Kin&do#. but without Aenie% The further
unifiation of !taly now passed into the hands of bour&eois business #en. ;aribaldian
rene&ades and adventurers%
1ar$ had to en&a&e in another pole#i in onnetion with the 5rano6'ustrian war%
>e have seen that the entire ;er#an de#oray too+ a definite stand in this onflit
between ?apoleon and 'ustria% The #ost noted and influential #an a#on& the
;er#an de#orats was the old revolutionist. Karl Ao&t <1F1761F9I=. who in 1FH9 had
also been fored to flee to 7witzerland% -e was not #erely ative in politisJ he was a
&reat savant with a /uropean reputation% -e is +nown as one of the hief e$ponents of
naturo6historial #aterialis# whih is so often onfused. partiularly by bour&eois
sholars. with the historial #aterialis# of 1ar$ and /n&els% -is influene was wide.
not only a#on& the ;er#an de#orats. but also a#on& the international revolutionary
e#i&rants. espeially the 8olish. !talian and -un&arian% -is ho#e at ;eneva served as
a politial entre%
5or ?apoleon it was e$tre#ely i#portant to attrat to his side the noted sholar and
leader of the ;er#an de#orats% *eause of the overweenin& vanity of the old
;er#an professor. this was easily ao#plished% Ao&t was on a friendly footin& with
?apoleon's brother. 8rine 8lon68lon. who ated the part of a &reat liberal and patron
77
of siene 66 Ao&t had been &ettin& #oney fro# hi# for distribution a#on& the
representatives of the various e#i&rant &roups%
>hen our professor a#e out #ost deidedly for ?apoleon and !taly. it of ourse
reated a tre#endous i#pression a#on& the irles of e#i&rant revolutionists% 's
always happens in suh ases. a#on& the e#i&rants that were #ost losely onneted
with 1ar$ and /n&els. there were so#e who +ept up relations with the republian
e#i&rants% 3ne of the latter. Karl *lind. delared in the presene of a few o##unists
that Ao&t was reeivin& #oney fro# ?apoleon% This was printed in one of the :ondon
papers% >hen >ilhel# :ieb+neht <1F2(619,,=. who was orrespondent for an
'u&sbur& paper. reported these ru#ours. Ao&t instituted a ase for libel and won. for
there was no dou#entary evidene a&ainst hi#%
Jubilant over his vitory. Ao&t published a speial pa#phlet about this trial% *ein&
perfetly ertain that >ilhel# :ieb+neht did not underta+e a step. did not write a line
without the diretion of 1ar$. Ao&t ai#ed all his blows a&ainst the latter% 'nd so this
#an on the basis of preise data. as he lai#ed. aused 1ar$ of bein& at the head of a
&an& of e$propriators and ounterfeiters who stopped at nothin&% /verythin& that the
i#a&ination of a )sinere) de#orat ould on0ure up was let loose a&ainst the
o##unists% ' #an notorious for his penhant for the o#forts of life. -err Ao&t was
ausin& 1ar$ of livin& in lu$ury at the e$pense of the wor+ers%
Ao&t's pa#phlet. than+s to the na#e of the author as well as the na#e of the #an he
atta+ed <1ar$ had 0ust published his @riti4ue of 8olitial /ono#y=. reated a
sensation and. as was to be e$peted. #et with the #ost favour able reeption fro# the
bour&eois press% The bour&eois 0ournals. and hief of all. the rene&ade bour&eois
sribes who had one +nown 1ar$ personally. were deli&hted at the opportunity to
spill a pailful of slops upon the head of their old foe%
8ersonally. 1ar$ was of the opinion that the press had a ri&ht to ritiise any publi
#an it pleased% !t is the privile&e. he lai#ed. of every one who appears publily. to
bear praise or onde#nation% Bou are reeived with stones and rotten applesP !t
#atters little% 3rdinary abuse 66 and it was flun& without end 66 he absolutely i&nored%
3nly when the interests of the ause de#anded it. did he dei&n to reply% 'nd then he
was #eriless%
>hen Ao&t's pa#phlet appeared. the 4uestion of whether or not to answer arose%
:assalle and so#e other ;er#an friends of his irle #aintained that the pa#phlet
ou&ht to be i&nored% They saw what a tre#endous i#pression in favour of Ao&t was
reated by the trial he had won% The &reat de#orat. they felt. was inadvertently
in0ured by :ieb+neht. and in defendin& his honour he lost his head a bit% 'nother trial
7F
would only brin& hi# another triu#ph. for there were no proofs a&ainst hi#% The #ost
advisable thin& it see#ed. was to i&nore hi#. and to let publi opinion beo#e
paified%
7uh philistine ar&u#ents ould not. of ourse. affet 1ar$% 3ne ould disdain
answerin& personal atta+s. but the honour of the party had to be defended% Thou&h
1ar$ and his #ost inti#ate friends were onvined that Ao&t had really been bribed.
they found the#selves in a 4uandary. for both *lind and another e#i&rant renouned
now what they had said. and :ieb+neht was plaed in a position of a slanderer%
5inally it was deided to answer% 'n atte#pt to &et Ao&t before a ourt of 0ustie
proved futile beause of the partiality of the 8russian ourts% The only way out was a
literary atta+% 1ar$ too+ upon hi#self the e$eution of the diffiult tas+% >e are now
approahin& a point where we are a&ain fored to stron&ly disa&ree with the late 5ranz
1ehrin&% !n his opinion. 1ar$ ould easily have spared hi#self a &reat deal of endless
worry and effort. and the waste of preious ti#e without any use to the &reat tas+ of
his life. had he si#ply refused to ta+e any part in the 4uarrel between :ieb+neht and
Ao&t% *ut suh a ourse would have been entirely at variane with 1ar$'s ations%
1ehrin& overloo+ed o#pletely the funda#ental ontroversy that had been &oin& on
a#on& the e#i&rants% -e did not disern that behind this. what appeared to be a
personal inident. there were onealed profound tatial disa&ree#ents whih had
sprun& up between the proletarian party and all bour&eois parties. that even within the
proletarian party itself. as the ase of :assalle indiated. there were revealed dan&erous
osillations% ?or did 1ehrin& notie that the boo+ a&ainst Ao&t ontained a ritiis# of
all the ar&u#ents of :assalle and his onfreres%
:et us turn to the boo+ -err Ao&t itself% 5ro# the literary point of view it belon&s to
the best of 1ar$'s pole#ial writin&s% >e should add that in all literature there is no
e4ual to this boo+% There was 8asal's fa#ous pa#phlet a&ainst the Jesuits% !n the
literature of the ei&hteenth entury there were :essin&'s pa#phlets direted a&ainst his
literary adversaries% *ut all these. as well as other +nown pa#phlets. pursued only
literary ai#s%
!n -err Ao&t. 1ar$'s ob0etive was not #erely the politial and #oral annihilation of a
#an &reatly respeted by the bour&eois world for his sholarly and politial
attain#ents% True. this 0ob. too. 1ar$ fulfilled #ost brilliantly% 'll that 1ar$ had were
the printed wor+s of Ao&t% The star witnesses retrated their state#ents% 1ar$.
therefore. too+ all the politial writin&s of Ao&t and proved that he was a *onapartist
and that he had been literally reiteratin& all the ar&u#ents that were developed in the
writin&s of a&ents bou&ht by ?apoleon% 'nd when 1ar$ a#e to the onlusion that
79
Ao&t was either a self6satisfied parrot idiotially repeatin& the *onapartists' ar&u#ents
or possibly a bou&ht a&ent li+e the rest of the *onapartist publiists. one is ready to
believe that by and by history will brin& to li&ht Ao&t's reeipt for the #oney he
reeived%
*ut 1ar$ did not onfine hi#self to politial sour&in&% -is pa#phlet was not #ere
abuse interspersed with stron& words% 1ar$ also direted at Ao&t another weapon of
whih he was a past #aster 66 saras#. irony. ridiule% >ith eah hapter. the o#ial
fi&ure of -err Ao&t was brou&ht into &reater relief% >e see how the &reat savant and
the &reat politial wor+er is onverted into a boastful. &arrulous 5alstaff. prone to have
a &ay ti#e on so#e one else's #oney%
*ut behind Ao&t there loo#ed the #ost influential part of the ;er#an bour&eois
de#oray% 1ar$. therefore. also e$posed the politial #iserliness of this )flower) of
the ;er#an nation. bearin& down upon the heads of those who. in spite of their
pro$i#ity to the o##unist a#p. ould not free the#selves of obse4uiousness before
the )learned ones%)
Ao&t's base atte#pt to pour filth upon the neediest and #ost radial fation of the
revolutionary e#i&rants afforded 1ar$ the opportunity of drawin& the piture of the
)#oral) and )proper) bour&eois parties. those who were in power as well as those in
opposition. and partiularly. of haraterisin& the prostituted press of the bour&eois
world. whih had beo#e a apitalist enterprise derivin& a profit fro# the sale of
words. as so#e enterprises derive it fro# the sale of #anure%
/ven in 1ar$'s lifeti#e. students of the deade between 1FH961FI9 a+nowled&ed
that there was no other wor+ that had suh an insi&ht into the parties of this epoh as
did this wor+ of 1ar$% ' present6day reader. no doubt. would need #any
o##entaries to &rasp all the details. but anyone would easily understand the politial
si&nifiane that 1ar$'s pa#phlet had at the ti#e%
:assalle hi#self had to ad#it that 1ar$ wrote a #asterpiee. that all fears had been
idle. that Ao&t was forever o#pro#ised as a politial leader%
!n the late fifties and the early si$ties. when a new #ove#ent had started a#on& the
petty6bour&eoisie and the wor+in& lass. when the stru&&le for influene upon the
urban poor was beo#in& #ore intensified. it bea#e i#portant to establish that not
only were the representatives of the proletarian de#oray intelletually not inferior to
the #ost outstandin& fi&ures of the bour&eois de#oray. but that they were infinitely
superior% !n the person of Ao&t. the bour&eois de#orats reeived a #ortal blow to the
presti&e of one of its a+nowled&ed leaders% !t re#ained for :assalle to be than+ful to
F,
1ar$ for the latter's #a+in& it easier for hi# to arry on the fi&ht a&ainst the
pro&ressives for the influene upon the ;er#an wor+ers%
>e shall now pass to an e$a#ination of a #ost interestin& 4uestion 66 the attitude of
1ar$ and /n&els toward :assalle's revolutionary a&itation% >e have already indiated
that :assalle be&an his a&itation in 1F(2. when the onflit pertainin& to the #ethod of
fi&htin& the &overn#ent bea#e very sharp within the ran+s of the 8russian bour&eois
de#oray% !t happened that in 1FIF. the old 8russian Kin& who had so notoriously
distin&uished hi#self durin& the 1FHF Revolution. bea#e o#pletely and hopelessly
insane% >ilhel#. the )&rapeshot prine.) who had ahieved infa#y by his slau&hter of
the de#orats in 1F19 and 1FI,. was first appointed Re&ent and finally Kin&% 't the
be&innin& he felt o#pelled to stri+e up a liberal tune. but very soon he found hi#self
at odds with the 'sse#bly on the 4uestion of ar#y or&anisation% The &overn#ent
insisted on inreasin& the ar#y and de#anded heavier ta$ation. the liberal bour&eoisie
de#anded definite &uarantees and the ontrollin& power% 3n the basis of this bud&et
onflit. proble#s of tatis arose% :assalle. personally still losely bound up with the
de#orati and pro&ressive bour&eois irles. de#anded #ore deisive tatis% 7ine
every onstitution is only an e$pression of the fatual interrelation of fores in a &iven
soiety. it was neessary to initiate the #ove#ent of a new soial fore direted
a&ainst the &overn#ent. headed by the deter#ined and lever reationary *is#ar+%
>hat this new soial fore was. :assalle pointed out in a speial report whih he read
before the wor+ers% Devoted to a presentation of the )onnetion e$istin& between the
onte#porary historial epoh with the idea of the wor+in& lassMinde$%ht#) it is better
+nown by the na#e of The >or+in&#en's 8ro&ra##e% !n substane it was an
e$position of the funda#ental ideas of the @o##unist 1anifesto. onsiderably diluted
and adapted to the le&al onditions of the ti#e% 7till. sine the Revolution of 1FHF. it
was the first open delaration of the neessity of or&anisin& the wor+in& lass into an
independent politial or&anisation sharply #ar+ed off fro# all. even the #ost
de#orati. bour&eois parties%
:assalle thus stepped forth to #eet the #ove#ent whih arose independently and
&rew very rapidly a#on& the wor+ers of 7a$ony. where strife had already sprun& up
a#on& the de#orats and the few representatives of the )old &uard) of the proletarian
#ove#ent of 1F1F% '#on& these wor+ers the idea of allin& to&ether a on&ress of
wor+ers was already bein& debated% ' speial o##ittee was or&anised at :eipzi& for
this purpose% -avin& been alled upon by this o##ittee to delare hi#self upon the
4uestions of the ai#s and the proble#s of the wor+in&6lass #ove#ent. :assalle
developed his pro&ra##e in his 3pen :etter addressed to the :eipzi& o##ittee%
F1
'fter sub0etin& to a severe ritiis# the pro&ra##e of the bour&eois pro&ressives
and the #eans they were proposin& for the a#elioration of the wor+ers' onditions.
:assalle advaned the idea of the indispensability of the or&anisation of an
independent party of the wor+in& lass% The prinipal politial de#and. upon the
realisation of whih all the fores had to onentrate. was the winnin& of universal
suffra&e% 's to his eono#i pro&ra##e. :assalle. relyin& upon what he alled the
)iron law of wa&es.) proved that there were no #eans of raisin& wa&es above a
definite #ini#u#% -e therefore reo##ended the or&anisation of produin& o6
operatives with the aid of redits &ranted by the &overn#ent%
!t is obvious that 1ar$ ould not aept suh a plan% :assalle's efforts to draw 1ar$ to
his side proved futile% There were other reasons whih too+ on definite for# only a
few #onths later when :assalle. arried away by )pratial politisMinde$%ht#) and his
stru&&le a&ainst the pro&ressive party. al#ost stooped to a flirtation with the
&overn#ent%
't any rate. it is beyond any shadow of a doubt 66 and this was reo&nized by 1ar$
hi#self 66 that it was :assalle who after the prolon&ed spell of reation fro# 1FH9 to
1F(2 planted the proletarian banner on ;er#an soil. that it was he who was the first
or&aniser of the ;er#an wor+in&6lass party% This was :assalle's undeniable servie%
*ut in :assalle's very intensive thou&h short6lived 66 it lasted less than two years 66
or&anisational and politial ativity there were radial defets whih. even #ore than
his inade4uate pro&ra##e. were bound to repel 1ar$J and /n&els%
!t was very onspiuous that not only did :assalle not underline the onnetion
between the ;eneral ;er#an :abour 2nion whih he or&anised and the old
o##unist #ove#ent. but. on the ontrary. #ost vehe#ently denied any onnetion%
-avin& borrowed #ost of his basi ideas fro# the @o##unist 1anifesto and other
wor+s of 1ar$. he #ost dili&ently avoided any referene to the#% 3nly in one of his
very last wor+s does he 4uote 1ar$. not the o##unist. not the revolutionist. but the
eono#ist%
:assalle e$plained this by tatial onsiderations% -e did not wish to fri&hten away
the insuffiiently onsious #asses whih had to be freed fro# the spiritual ustody of
the pro&ressives. who ontinued spreadin& fairy tales of the terrible spetre of
o##unis#%
:assalle was vain&loriousJ he loved all +inds of din. parade. and advertise#ent whih
at so powerfully on the unultivated #ass. and whih repel the eduated wor+er% -e
en0oyed bein& depited as the reator of the ;er#an labour #ove#ent% !t was this that
F2
repelled not only 1ar$ and /n&els but also all the veterans of the old revolutionary
#ove#ent% !t is si&nifiant that only the for#er >eitlin&ites and 1ar$'s fational
opponents 0oined :assalle% ?ot one year had passed ere the ;er#an wor+ers
disovered that their #ove#ent was started not by :assalle alone% 1ar$ and his friends
protested a&ainst this desire to li4uidate all bonds with the old revolutionary and
under&round #ove#ent% This relutane to o#pro#ise hi#self by his onnetions
with the old ille&al &roup was also e$plained by :assalle's wea+ness for real politi+%
The other point of disa&ree#ent was the 4uestion of universal suffra&e% This de#and
had been advaned by the @hartists% 1ar$ and /n&els had also been propoundin& it.
but they ould not reo&nise the e$a&&erated i#portane whih :assalle was attahin&
to it. or the ar&u#ents whih he was advanin&% >ith hi# it bea#e a #irale6wor+in&
panaea. suffiient in itself. and whih independently of other han&es in the politial
and eono#i life would i##ediately plae the power in the hands of the wor+ers% -e
naively believed that the wor+ers would win about ninety per ent of all the seats in
8arlia#ent one they had the vote% -e did not understand that a nu#ber of very
i#portant onditions were prere4uisite for the renderin& of universal suffra&e into a
#eans for lass eduation instead of a #eans for the deeption of the #asses%
?ot less profound was the disa&ree#ent as to the 4uestion of )produers'
assoiations%) 5or 1ar$ and /n&els they were then already a subsidiary #eans of very
li#ited si&nifiane% They were to serve as proof that neither the entrepreneur nor the
apitalist was an indispensable fator in prodution% *ut to view o6operative
assoiations as a #eans for a &radual ta+in& over by soiety of the olletive #eans of
prodution. was to for&et that in order to ao#plish this it was neessary first to be in
possession of politial power% 3nly then. as had been indiated in the 1anifesto. ould
a series of neessary #easures be effeted%
Just as sharply did 1ar$ and /n&els disa&ree with :assalle on the role of trade unions%
@o#pletely overesti#atin& the si&nifiane of o6operative produers' assoiations.
:assalle onsidered as absolutely useless the or&anisation of trade unions. and in this
respet he har+ed ba+ to the views of the old utopians who had been sub0eted to a
#ost thorou&h ritiis# in 1ar$'s 8overty of 8hilosophy%
?ot less profound and. fro# the pratial side. even #ore i#portant was the
disa&ree#ent in the do#ain of tatis% >e have not the least ri&ht to ause 1ar$. as
did 1ehrin&. of overesti#atin& the si&nifiane of the pro&ressives. of plain& too
&reat a hope in the bour&eoisie% >e have already had oasion to read 1ar$'s
haraterisation of the 8russian bour&eoisie written by hi# as a result of the
e$perienes of 1FHF% >e have seen how severely he ritiised the bour&eois%
de#oray in his pole#i a&ainst Ao&t% The differene arose not beause 1ar$. torn
F3
away fro# his native land. still retained faith in the pro&ressivis# of the 8russian
bour&eoisie. while :assalle. better a4uainted with 8russian realities. was thorou&hly
disillusioned in the#% !t was a disa&ree#ent onernin& the tatis in relation to the
bour&eoisie% Just as in a war between apitalist states. so in the stru&&le between the
pro&ressive bour&eoisie and *is#ar+. was it neessary to wor+ out tatis whih
would re#ove t6he dan&er of the soialists beo#in& atspaws of one of the
onflitin& parties% !n his onslau&ht a&ainst the 8russian pro&ressives. :assalle was
for&ettin& that there was still a 8russian feudalis#. a 8russian Jun+erdo#. whih was
not less ini#ial to the wor+ers than the bour&eoisie% -e beat and lashed the
pro&ressives with &ood reason. but he did +eep hi#self within the neessary bounds
and only o#pro#ised his ause by toadyin& before the &overn#ent. :assalle did not
even hesitate to resort to wholly unper#issible o#pro#ises% >hen. for instane.
so#e wor+ers were arrested. he su&&ested that they address a petition to *is#ar+.
who. no doubt. would release the# 0ust to spite the liberals% The wor+ers refused to
follow :assalle's advie% ' study of his speehes. partiularly those delivered durin&
the first half of the year 1F(H. reveals a #ultitude of suh errors% >e shall not dwell on
the ne&otiations whih :assalle. without the +nowled&e of the or&anisation. was
ondutin& with *is#ar+. thus e$posin& his own reputation and the ause whih he
served to serious in0ury%
These were the differenes whih prevented 1ar$ and /n&els fro# &ivin& the
authority of their na#es in support of :assalle's a&itation% *ut 66 and this we e#phasise
66 while refusin& :assalle their support. they nevertheless refused to oppose hi#
openly% Their influene upon their owor+ers in ;er#any. :ieb+neht. for instane.
was in the sa#e spirit% 1eanwhile :assalle. who &reatly prized their neutrality. was
preipitously rollin& down an inlined plane% :ieb+neht. as well as other o#rades
fro# *erlin. and the Rhine provine. was de#andin& of 1ar$ to o#e out openly
a&ainst :assalle's erroneous tatis% !t is 4uite li+ely that it would have o#e to an
open rupture had not :assalle been +illed on 'u&ust 3,. 1F(H% 5our wee+s after his
death. 7epte#ber 2F. 1F(H. the 5irst !nternational was founded% This &ave 1ar$ a
hane to return to i##ediate revolutionary wor+. this ti#e on an international sale%

FH
C"A#TER &II
T"E CRISIS !F $-./0-'
T-/ ;R3>T- 35 T-/ :'*32R 13A/1/?T !? /?;:'?D. 5R'?@/ '?D
;/R1'?B%
T-/ :3?D3? !?T/R?'T!3?': /C837!T!3? !? 1F(2%
T-/ @!A!: >'R !? '1/R!@'%
T-/ @3TT3? 5'1!?/%
T-/ 83:!7- R/A3:T%
T-/ 532?D!?; 35 T-/ 5!R7T !?T/R?'T!3?':%
T-/ R3:/ 35 1'RC%
T-/ !?'2;2R': 'DDR/77%
>e pointed out in the previous hapter that al#ost ten years had &one by before the
revolutionary labour #ove#ent be&an to reover fro# its defeat of 1FHF6H9% >e
showed that the be&innin& of this reovery was bound up with the risis of 1FI76IF
whih was assu#in& international proportions and whih even affeted Russia in a
very pronouned for#% >e indiated how the rulin& lasses of /urope. outwardly
peaeful up to that ti#e. were fored to underta+e anew the solution of all those
proble#s whih were put forward by the Revolution of 1FHF and never solved% The
#ost i#portant proble# pressin& for a solution was that of nationalis# 66 the
unifiation of !taly. the for#ation of a united ;er#any% >e #entioned briefly the fat
that this revolutionary #ove#ent was. stritly spea+in&. li#ited only to >estern
/urope and influened stron&ly only a part of /n&land. but that it failed to reah the
#a0or part of /urope. Russia. and the far6away 2nited 7tates of '#eria% !n Russia. at
that ti#e. the burnin& 4uestion of the day was the abolition of serfdo#% !t was the so6
alled period of )&reat refor#sMinde$%ht#) when the #ove#ent be&an whih. towards
the early si$ties. shaped itself into those under&round revolutionary soieties the
fore#ost of whih was the so6alled :and and 5reedo# soiety% 3n the other side of
the 'tlanti' in the 2nited 7tates. the 4uestion of the abolition of slavery was bein&
pressed for solution% This 4uestion. even in a &reater #easure than the si#ilar one in
Russia. showed how really international the world had beo#e. the world whih used
to be thou&ht of in ter#s of a li#ited part of /urope%
' proble# so far re#oved as that of the abolition of slavery in the 2nited 7tates
bea#e of the ut#ost i#portane to /urope itself% !ndeed. so i#portant did it beo#e
that 1ar$. in his foreword to the first volu#e of @apital. stated that the war for the
abolition of slavery sounded the tosin for the new labour #ove#ent in >estern
/urope%
>e shall be&in with the #ost i#portant labour #ove#ent. the /n&lish% 3f the old
revolutionary @hartist #ove#ent there was nothin& left by 1F(3% @hartis# was dead%
FI
!ndeed so#e historians #aintain that it died in 1FHF. ri&ht after the fa#ous e$peri#ent
of the abortive de#onstration% *ut atually @hartis# had one #ore period of bloo# in
the fifties. durin& the @ri#ean >ar% 3win& to the leadership of /rnest Jones <1F196
1F(F=. a splendid orator and a brilliant 0ournalist. who had built up with the assistane
of 1ar$ and 1ar$'s friends the best soialist or&an of those ti#es. @hartis# was able
to utilise the disontent of the #asses of wor+ers durin& the @ri#ean >ar% There were
#onths when the 8eoples 8aper. the entral or&an of the @hartists. was one of the #ost
influential papers% 1ar$'s #asterly artiles direted at ;ladstone and partiularly at
8al#erston were attratin& universal attention% *ut this was only a te#porary revival%
7oon after the onlusion of the war. the @hartists lost their or&an% The auses lay not
only in the fational dissensions whih flared up between Jones and his opponentsJ
there were #ore basi auses%
The first ause was the a#azin& effloresene of /n&lish industry whih had be&un as
far ba+ as 1FH9% The #inor irritations whih were ourrin& durin& this period.
irritations in separate branhes of industry. did not in the least interfere with the
&eneral rise of industry as a whole% The vast nu#ber of une#ployed at the end of the
forties was o#pletely dissolved in this &reat industrial overflow% !t #ay well be said
that for #any deades. nay. for enturies. /n&lish industry was not in so &reat a need
of wor+ers as after the first half of the nineteenth entury% The seond ause was the
powerful wave of e#i&ration fro# /n&land to the 2nited 7tates and 'ustralia. where
ine$haustible &old #ines were disovered between the years 1FI1 and 1FII% !n the
ourse of a few years. two #illion wor+ers e#i&rated fro# /n&land% 's is usual in
suh ases. the e#i&rants were not drawn fro# a#on& the hildren and the a&edJ the
healthiest. #ost ener&eti. and the stron&est ele#ents were leavin& /n&land% The
wor+in&6lass #ove#ent and the @hartist #ove#ent were bein& drained of the reserve
fro# whih they were drawin& their stren&th% These were the two pri#ary auses%
There were also a nu#ber of seondary auses%
@onurrent with the wea+enin& of the @hartist #ove#ent. there was a &eneral
loosenin& of the ties whih held the various branhes of the #ove#ent to&ether% /ven
in the forties a stru&&le had been &oin& on between the trade union and the @hartist
#ove#ents% ?ow other for#s of the wor+in&6lass #ove#ent. too. developed
separatist tendenies and were atte#ptin& to desert the parent trun+% The o6operatives.
for e$a#ple. were developin& on the basis of ertain historial onditions of the
/n&lish labour #ove#ent% This peuliarity of the /n&lish labour #ove#ent was
beo#in& well6defined even in the fifties% >e often enounter in its history various
speial or&anisations of sudden rapid &rowth and of still #ore sudden and still #ore
rapid deay% 7o#e of these or&anisations o#prised hundreds of thousands of
#e#bers% 3ne. for instane. had as its &oal the abolition of drun+enness% The @hartist
or&anisation was always followin& the line of least resistane% 't first it tried to
F(
ondut the war a&ainst alohol within the boundaries of party or&anisations% !t then
be&an to view it as a speial &oalJ it or&anised speial soieties all over /n&land. thus
divertin& fro# the #ain labour #ove#ent a nu#ber of battalions% *esides this
teetotaler #ove#ent. there was the o6operative #ove#ent led by the so6alled
@hristian 7oialists% Joseph 7tephens <1F,I61F79=. the fa#ous revolutionary #inister.
was one of the #ost popular orators of the forties. but he subse4uently turned
onsiderably to the ri&ht% 7tephens was 0oined by a nu#ber of si#ilar ele#ents drawn
fro# a#on& philanthropists and well6wishers who were preahin& pratial
@hristianity to the wor+ers% This indiated the deline of the @hartist #ove#ent as a
politial fator% !t devoted itself to the for#in& of o6operative soieties% 7ine this
#ove#ent was not #enain& to the rulin& lasses. it was helped even by #e#bers of
the &overnin& party% 7everal #e#bers of the intelli&entsia who o##iserated with the
wor+in& lass. attahed the#selves to the #ove#ent% Thus in pursuit of its speial
ai#s. another branh of the wor+in& lass bro+e away%
>e shall not enu#erate the different for#s and ra#ifiations of these #ove#ents% :et
us e$a#ine the trade unions% True. at the be&innin& of the fifties the trade6union
#ove#ent did not #eet with onditions as favourable to its develop#ent. as did the
o6operative and the teetotaler #ove#ents% ?one the less it enountered less resistane
than had the old @hartist #ove#ent% !n 1FI1 the first stable union of the /n&lish
#ahine6#a+in& trades was or&anised% This union was headed by two ener&eti
wor+ers who sueeded in repressin& the typially /n&lish raft spirit aordin& to
whih it was usto#ary to for# trade unions within the onfines of one or two towns
or. at the #ost. one or two ounties% >e should not. of ourse. overloo+ the
peuliarities of /n&lish industry% !t was diffiult to transfor# the union of te$tile
wor+ers into a national union for the si#ple reason that the #a0or part of the te$tile
industry was onentrated in a very s#all area% 'l#ost all of the te$tile wor+ers in
/n&land were huddled to&ether in two ounties% Thus a two6ounty union was
e4uivalent to a national union% The hief trouble of the /n&lish trade unions was due
not so #uh to their loal li#itations as to their raft traditions% /ah separate raft
within the sa#e industry was invariably prone to or&anise an independent union% This
was why trade unionis# was unable. despite its very vi&orous start. to reate for#s of
or&anisation e4ual to the tas+ of diretin& a stru&&le a&ainst the owners of lar&e6sale
industries% >hile industry was flourishin&. the overwhel#in& #a0ority of the wor+ers
easily won inreased wa&es% >hat is #ore. sine there were not enou&h wor+ers to fill
the needs of the e$pandin& new industries. the owners. in order to attrat #ore
wor+ers. o#peted a#on& the#selves and were therefore ready to #eet the wor+ers
#ore than half way% The /n&lish apitalists. durin& these years. tried to lure wor+ers
fro# the ontinent 66 ;er#ans. 5renh#en. *el&ians 66 into their ountry%
F7
2nder suh iru#stanes. the trade6union #ove#ent. despite its &rowth. was bound
to re#ain on a lower plane of develop#ent% 7eparate trade unions. whih were for#ed
in different subdivisions of one and the sa#e branh of industry. re#ained
disonneted. not only within the boundaries of the whole ountry but even within the
onfines of one town% There were not even any loal ounils%
The risis of 1FI761FIF brou&ht vast han&es into this at#osphere% 's we have seen.
the best6or&anised trade union was the union of the s+illed #ahine6#a+in& wor+ers%
:i+e the te$tile industry. the #anufature of #ahines was one of those few industries
whih did not produe e$lusively for the ho#e #ar+et% *e&innin& with the fifties the
#anufature of te$tiles and #ahines bea#e the privile&ed branhes of industry. for
they #aintained a #onopoly on the world #ar+et% The s+illed wor+ers in these
industries easily won onessions fro# the e#ployers who were reapin& enor#ous
profits% Thus it was that in these two branhes of industry onditions of )ivil peae)
between the wor+ers and the e#ployers were be&innin& to be established% The effets
of the very aute risis were rapidly disappearin&% The &ulf separatin& the s+illed fro#
the uns+illed wor+ers was beo#in& ever wider% This. in its turn. had debilitatin&
results on any stri+e #ove#ents in these industries%
7till. not all the wor+ers were so paifi% The risis was hiefly refleted on the
buildin& trades and on the wor+ers en&a&ed in these trades% -eneforth the wor+ers in
the buildin& trades oupied the first ran+s in the stru&&les of the /n&lish wor+ers%
The &rowth of apitalis# brou&ht in its train an unpreedented swellin& of the urban
population and onse4uently a &reater de#and for livin& 4uarters% -ene the &reat
boo# in the buildin& industries% !n the forties /n&land was in the throes of a railroad
fever. in the early fifties a buildin& fever too+ its plae% -ouses were built by the
thousand% They were in every sense of the word thrown upon the #ar+et li+e any other
o##odity% The buildin& business thou&h as yet little developed tehnially. had
already fallen into the hands of bi& apitalists% The /n&lish buildin& ontrator would
rent a lar&e plot of land upon whih he would build hundreds of houses whih he
would either rent or sell%
The develop#ent of the buildin& industry lured a #ultitude of wor+ers fro# the
villa&es 66 woodwor+ers. arpenters. painters. #asons. paperhan&ers. in brief. all +inds
of wor+ers who were en&a&ed in the buildin&. deoratin& and furnishin& of ho#es%
>ith the &rowth of buildin& there was a orrespondin& boo# in the furniture.
paperhan&in& and artisti trades% The inrease in the population &ave i#petus to the
develop#ent of lar&e6sale shoe#a+in& and lothin& industries%
FF
Thus the risis of 1FI761FIF had a partiularly stron& reperussion in these new
branhes of apitalist prodution% ;reat #asses were left without wor+. and a reserve
ar#y of une#ployed. whih #ade its pressure felt on the wor+ers in the shops and
fatories. was for#ed% The e#ployers on their part did not hesitate to #a+e use of this
weapon to oppress the wor+ers. to ut down their wa&es. and len&then the wor+in&
day% *ut the wor+ers. to the &reat surprise of their e#ployers. answered this with a
&eneral stri+e in 1FI9. whih bea#e one of the &reatest stri+es :ondon had +nown%
's if further to inrease the surprise of the e#ployers. the stri+e of the buildin& trades
found stron& support in other bodies of wor+ers in all branhes of industry% This stri+e
attrated the attention of /urope no less than the i#portant politial events of that day%
!n onnetion with it #any #eetin&s and #isellaneous &atherin&s too+ plae% '#on&
the spea+ers we often o#e aross the na#e of @re#er% 't a #eetin& in -yde 8ar+.
@re#er delared that the stri+e of the buildin& trades is but the first s+ir#ish between
the eono#is of labour and that of apital% 3ther wor+ers suh as ;eor&e 3d&er
<1F2,61F77=. for instane. also arried on #uh propa&anda wor+% :eaflets. as well.
played a part in the a&itation% Thus the fa#ous ollo4uy between the labourer and the
apitalist found in the first volu#e of @apital one of the #ost brilliant pa&es of that
boo+ 66 is in plaes al#ost a word6for6word repetition of one of the propa&anda leaflets
printed by the wor+ers durin& the stri+e of 1FI961F(,%
's a result of this stri+e. whih soon ended in a o#pro#ise. there arose in :ondon
for the first ti#e. the Trades @ounil. at the head of whih stood the three hief
leaders. 3d&er. @re#er and ;eor&e -owellJ they are also the ones who# we #eet at
the first ;eneral @ounil of the 5irst !nternational% 'lready. in 1F(1. this :ondon
Trades @ounil had beo#e one of the #ost influential labour or&anisations% 't the
sa#e ti#e. li+e the first 7oviets. it was ta+in& on a politial harater% !t endeavoured
to reat to all the events affetin& the wor+in& lass% 2sin& this as a #odel. si#ilar
trades ounils were for#ed in #any other plaes in /n&land and 7otland% Thus in
1F(2. lass or&anisations of wor+ers a&ain a#e into bein&% These trades ounils
were the outstandin& politial and eono#i entres of the day%
>hen we turn to 5rane we see that the risis there was no less severe% !t reated
stron&ly not only on the te$tile industry but also on all the other industries for whih
8aris was then fa#ous% >e have already #entioned the fat that the purpose of the war
underta+en by ?apoleon in 1FI9 was to sidetra+ this &rowin& disontent of the
wor+in& lass% Towards the be&innin& of the si$ties this risis affeted espeially those
speifially 8arisian trades +nown as the artisti trades% *ut 8aris was also an
i#portant urban entreJ it had been under&oin& a stron& and steady develop#ent% 3ne
of the #a0or refor#s arried throu&h by ?apoleon was the rebuildin& of several
residential distrits in 8aris% 3ld narrow streets were raised. broad avenues were laid
out. #a+in& the eretion of barriades thus i#possible% This buildin& ativity brou&ht
F9
about the sa#e results here as it had in :ondon. na#ely. an enor#ous inrease in the
nu#ber of wor+ers en&a&ed in the buildin& trades% !ndeed. it is these buildin& trades
with their various subdivisions ran&in& fro# the uns+illed to the hi&hly s+illed on the
one hand. and the wor+ers en&a&ed in the #anufature of artiles of lu$ury 66 the
representatives of the artisti trades 66 on the other hand. who supplied the ran+ and
file for the new #ass labour #ove#ent that unfolded itself in the early si$ties% 3ne
need only e$a#ine in detail the history of the 5irst !nternational to notie at one that
the #a0ority of its #e#bers and leaders a#e fro# the ran+s of the s+illed wor+ers in
both the buildin& and artisti trades%
'lon& with this revival of the labour #ove#ent a#e the awa+enin& of the old
soialist &roups% 3n the first plane one #ust notie the 8roudhonists% 8roudhon was
still alive% -e had at one ti#e been i#prisonedJ then he #i&rated to *el&iu# where he
e$erted a ertain influene on the labour #ove#ent diretly as well as throu&h his
followers% *ut the ideas whih he now preahed differed so#ewhat fro# the ideas he
had held at the ti#e of his pole#is with 1ar$%
?ow it was an alto&ether peaeful theory adapted to the le&alised labour #ove#ent%
The 8roudhonists ai#ed at a &eneral better#ent of the wor+ers' lot and the #eans
offered were to be adapted hiefly to the onditions of the s+illed wor+ers% Their hief
ai# was the redution of redit rates. or the establish#ent of free redit. if possible%
They reo##ended the or&anisin& of redit assoiations for the purpose of #utual aidJ
hene the na#e 1utualists% 1utual aid soieties. no stri+es of any sort. the le&alisation
of wor+ers' soieties. free redit. no partiipation in any i##ediate politial stru&&les.
a desire to better one's lot by usin& only the eono#i stru&&le as the weapon
<#oreover. this weapon was not to be onsidered as direted a&ainst the foundations of
apitalist soiety= 66 this. in brief. was the pro&ra##e of the 1utualists of that day.
who in several instanes were #ore #oderate than their teaher%
'lon&side of this &roup we find an even #ore onservative &roup. who tried to buy
the wor+ers by #eans of sops% 'r#and :evi. the 0ournalist. who had one been losely
onneted with the 8olish politial e#i&rants was the leader% -e was in lose relation
with the sa#e 8rine 8lon68lon who# we already +now as the patron of -err Ao&t%
The third 66 the least nu#erous. but #ade up of revolutionists 66 was the &roup of
*lan4uists who had by then resu#ed their wor+ a#on& the wor+ers as well as a#on&
the intelli&entsia and the student youth% '#on& these were 8aul :afar&ue <1F1161F77=.
and @harles :on&uet. both of who# subse4uently bea#e 1ar$'s sons6in6law%
-ere was also the now fa#ous ;eor&es @le#eneau% 'll these youn& people and
wor+ers were under the stron& influene of *lan4ui% The latter. thou&h in prison. +ept
9,
up a lively interourse with the outside worldJ he had fre4uent interviews with
representatives of these youths% The *lan4uists were #ost i#plaable foes of the
?apoleoni /#pire. and i#passioned under&round revolutionists%
7uh was the state of the wor+in&6lass #ove#ent in /n&land and in 5rane in 1F(2%
' series of events then too+ plae whih brou&ht about a loser rapprohe#ent
between the 5renh and the /n&lish wor+ers% 3utwardly. the arran&e#ent of the world
e$position in :ondon served as the oasion for this rapprohe#ent% This international
e$position was the result of the new sta&e in apitalist prodution 66 &iant industries
whih tended to +nit separate ountries into livin& parts of world eono#y% The first
e$position was arran&ed after the 5ebruary Revolution% !t too+ plae in :ondon in
1FI1J the seond. in 8aris in 1FIIJ the third. a&ain in :ondon%
!n onnetion with this e$position. there was started in 8aris serious a&itation a#on&
the wor+ers% The &roup whih was headed by 'r#and :evi turned to 8rine 8lon68lon.
who was the hair#an of the o##ission whih was to or&anise the 5renh
depart#ent at the :ondon e$position% The 8rine +indly arran&ed for the &rantin& of
subsidies to a dele&ation of wor+ers whih we' to be sent to the :ondon e$position%
*itter ontroversies arose a#on& the 8aris wor+ers% The *lan4uists. of ourse.
insisted on re0etin& this &overn#ent favour% 'nother &roup in whih the 1utualists
were preponderant. entertained a different opinion% 'ordin& to the# it was neessary
to utilise all le&al possibilities% 1oney was to be &iven to subsidise a wor+ers'
dele&ation% They de#anded that the dele&ation instead of bein& appointed fro# above.
should be eleted in the wor+shops% They proposed to utilise these eletions for
propa&anda purposes and for the pressin& of their own andidates%
The seond &roup was finally vitorious% /letions were per#itted. and the dele&ation
was hosen al#ost entirely fro# a#on& the #e#bers of this &roup% The *lan4uists
boyotted the eletions% The followers of 'r#and :evi were o#pletely swa#ped%
Thus was the wor+in&#en's dele&ation fro# 8aris or&anised% !t is si&nifiant that the
;er#an dele&ation to :ondon was onneted with that &roup of wor+ers who were
ative with :assalle in the or&anisation of a labour on&ress%
!n this #anner the world e$position at :ondon reated an opportunity for the 5renh.
/n&lish and ;er#an wor+ers to o#e to&ether% 7o#e historians of the !nternational
trae its be&innin& to this #eetin&% -ere is what 7te+lov writes of it9
)The oasion for the rapprohe#ent and the a&ree#ent between the /n&lish and
the @ontinental wor+ers was the world's e$position of 1F(2 in :ondon% 3n
'u&ust I. 1F(2. the /n&lish wor+ers sta&ed a reeption in honour of the seventy
91
5renh dele&ates% The do#inant note in the speehes was the neessity of
establishin& international ties a#on& the proletarians who as #en. as itizens and
as toilers had idential interests and aspirations%)

2nfortunately. this is #ere le&end% 's a #atter of fat this #eetin& bore an entirely
different harater% !t too+ plae with the partiipation and approval of the
representatives of the bour&eoisie and the rulin& lasses% The speehes delivered there
offended not even one e#ployer. disturbed not even one polie#an% Those of the
/n&lish apitalists who had been at the head of the ontrators durin& the stri+es in the
buildin& trades were the very ones who too+ an ative part in this #eetin&% 7uffie it to
say that the /n&lish trade unionists de#onstratively refused to ta+e part in this affair%
This #eetin& an under no iru#stanes be re&arded as the ori&in of the !nternational%
3nly one thin& was true9 !n :ondon. the 5renh and ;er#an dele&ations were li+ely
to #eet 5renh and ;er#an wor+ers who had e#i&rated after 1FHF% The plae where
wor+ers of various nationalities would #eet in the fifties and the si$ties was the well6
+nown >or+ers' /duational 7oiety. whih had been founded by 7happer and his
friends in 1FH,% The tea6roo# and the dinin&6roo# of this soiety were situated on a
street where forei&ners settledJ it served as suh a entre up to the late war% The
/n&lish &overn#ent hastened to lose this lub i##ediately upon the delaration of
war in 191H%
!t was there. no doubt. that so#e #e#bers of the 5renh dele&ation bea#e
a4uainted with the old 5renh e#i&rants. and that the ;er#an wor+ers fro# :eipzi&
and *erlin #et their old o#rades% *ut these were of ourse only aidental ties whih
were as unli+ely to lead to the for#in& of the !nternational as was the #eetin& of
'u&ust I. to whih 7te+lov. to&ether with other historians. attahes suh &reat
i#portane%
*ut now two very i#portant events happened. the first of whih was the '#erian
@ivil >ar <1F(,61F(I=% >e have already seen that the abolition of slavery was the
#ost i#portant proble# of the day% !t bea#e so aute and it had led to suh an arid
onflit between the southern and the northern 7tates. that the 7outh. in order to
preserve slavery. deter#ined to seede and to or&anise an independent republi% The
result was a war whih brou&ht in its train une$peted and unpleasant onse4uenes to
the whole of the apitalisti world% The southern 7tates were then the sole &rowers of
the otton whih was used in all the otton industries of the world% /&yptian otton
was still of very little i#portaneJ /ast !ndia and Tur+estan were not produin& any
otton at all% /urope thus found itself without any otton supply% The te$tile industries
of the world were e$perienin& a risis% The shorta&e of otton aused a rise in the
pries of all the other raw #aterials in the te$tile industry% 3f ourse. the bi& apitalists
92
suffered. least of allJ the petty apitalists hastened to shut down their fatories% Tens.
nay hundreds of thousands of wor+ers were doo#ed to perish of hun&er%
The &overn#ents onfined the#selves to handin& out pitiful pittanes% The /n&lish
wor+ers who had not lon& before. durin& the stri+e in the buildin& trades. shown an
e$a#ple of solidarity. now too. too+ up the ause of or&anisin& help% The initiative
belon&ed to the :ondon Trades @ounil. whih appointed a speial o##ittee% !n
5rane also there was or&anised a speial o##ittee for this purpose% The two
o##ittees were in fre4uent o##uniation with one another% !t was this that
su&&ested to the 5renh and /n&lish wor+ers how losely allied were the interests of
labour of different ountries% The @ivil >ar in the 2nited 7tates &ave a terrifi sho+
to the entire eono#i life of /uropeJ its #ali&nant effets were e4ually felt by the
/n&lish. 5renh. ;er#an. and even Russian wor+ers% This was why 1ar$ wrote in his
introdution to @apital. that the '#erian @ivil >ar in the nineteenth entury. played
the sa#e role with re&ard to the wor+in& lass. as the '#erian >ar for !ndependene
in the ei&hteenth entury had played with re&ard to the 5renh bour&eoisie and the
5renh Revolution%
'nother event then ourred whih also was of e4ual interest to the wor+ers of the
different ountries% 7erfdo# was abolished in Russia <1F(1=% Refor#s in other
branhes of the politial and eono#i life of Russia were i##inent% The
revolutionary #ove#ent bea#e #ore ani#atedJ it advoated #ore radial han&es%
Russia's outlyin& possessions. hiefly 8oland. were in a state of o##otion% The Tsar's
&overn#ent &rasped at this as the best prete$t for &ettin& rid of e$ternal as well
internal sedition% !t provo+ed the 8olish revolt. while at the sa#e ti#e. aided by
Kat+ov and other venal sribes. it inited Russian hauvinis# at ho#e% The notorious
han&#an. 1uraviev. and other brutes li+e hi#. were o##andeered to stifle the 8olish
revolt%
!n western /urope. where hatred for Russian @zaris# was prevalent. the rebellious
8oles evo+ed the war#est sy#pathy% The /n&lish and 5renh &overn#ents allowed the
sy#pathisers of the 8olish insur&ents o#plete freedo# of ation. re&ardin& this as a
onvenient outlet for the stored6up feelin&s of resent#ent% !n 5rane a nu#ber of
#eetin&s were held. and a o##ittee. headed by -enri Tolain <1F2F1F97=. and
8erruhon. was or&anised% !n /n&land the pro68olish #ove#ent was headed by the
wor+ers. 3d&er and @re#er. and by the radial intelletual. 8rofessor *eesly%
!n 'pril. 1F(3. a #onster #ass #eetin& was alled in :ondon% 8rofessor /% 7% *eesly
<1F316191I=. presidedJ @re#er delivered a speeh in defene of the 8oles% The
#eetin& passed a resolution whih ur&ed the /n&lish and the 5renh wor+ers to brin&
si#ultaneous pressure to bear upon their respetive &overn#ents and to fore their
93
intervention in favour of the 8oles% !t was deided to provide for an !nternational
#eetin&% This too+ plae in :ondon on July 22. 1F(3% The hair#an was a&ain *eesly%
3d&er and @re#er spo+e in the na#e of the /n&lish wor+ersJ Tolain. in the na#e of
the 5renh% ?othin& but the 8olish affair was disussed. and they all insisted on the
neessity of restorin& independene to 8oland% 3n the ne$t day. another #eetin& too+
plae to whih the historians of the !nternational have not paid #uh attention% !t was
arran&ed on the initiative of the :ondon Trades @ounil. this ti#e without the
partiipation of the bour&eoisie% 3d&er had been advoatin& loser ties between
/n&lish and @ontinental labour% The proble# presented itself on a pratial basis%
/n&lish labour had to ta+e note of the serious o#petition of the 5renh. the *el&ian.
and partiularly the ;er#an wor+ers% 't the be&innin& of the si$ties. the breadba+in&
industry whih was already onentrated into &reat enterprises was wholly operated by
;er#an wor+ers% !n the buildin&. furniture. and deorative industries there was an
influ$ of 5renh#en% That was why the /n&lish trade unionists valued so #uh any
possible hane of influenin& forei&n labourers who were pourin& into /n&land% This
ould best be ao#plished throu&h an or&anisation whih would unite the wor+ers of
various nations%
!t was deided that the /n&lish wor+ers send an appropriate address to the 5renh
wor+ers% 'l#ost three #onths elapsed. while the draft of this address was bein&
offered to the :ondon trade unionists for approval% !t was written lar&ely by 3d&er%
*y this ti#e the 8olish revolt had been rushed by the Tsar's henh#en with unheard6
of ruelty% The address #ade al#ost no #ention of it% -ere is a s#all e$erpt9
)' fraternity of peoples is hi&hly neessary for the ause of labour. for we find
that whenever we atte#pt to better our soial ondition by reduin& the hours of
toil. or by raisin& the prie of labour. our e#ployers threaten us with brin&in&
over 5renh#en. ;er#ans. *el&ians and others to do our wor+ at a redued rate
of wa&esJ and we are sorry to say that this has been done. thou&h not fro# any
desire on the part of our ontinental brethren to in0ure us. but throu&h a want of
re&ular and syste#ati o##uniation between the industrial lasses of all
ountries% 3ur ai# is to brin& up the wa&es of the ill6paid to as near a level as
possible with that of those who are better re#unerated. and not to allow our
e#ployers to play us off one a&ainst the other. and so dra& us down to the lowest
possible ondition. suitable to their avariious bar&ainin&%)

The address was translated into 5renh by 8rofessor *eesly and was sent to 8aris in
?ove#ber. 1F(3% There it served as #aterial for propa&anda in the wor+shops% The
5renh answer was very tardy% 8aris was then &ettin& ready for the fortho#in&
eletions to the le&islative asse#bly. later +nown as the @ha#ber of Deputies% ' &roup
9H
of wor+ers at the head of who# we a&ain see Tolain and 8erruhon. raised the
e$eedin&ly i#portant 4uestion as to whether labour should no#inate its own
andidates or whether it should be satisfied to support the radial andidates% !n other
words. should labour stand on its own independent platfor#. or should it stra&&le at
the tail of the bour&eois parties% This 4uestion was hetially disussed at the end of
1F(3 and in the be&innin& of 1F(H% The wor+ers deided to wor+ independently. and to
no#inate Tolain% They resolved to e$plain this brea+ with the bour&eois de#orats in a
speial platfor#. whih has sine been +nown as the 1anifesto of the 7i$ty. beause of
the nu#ber of si&natures affi$ed to the dou#ent%
The theoretial part of this 1anifesto. the ritiis# to whih the bour&eois order was
sub0eted. was in full aord with 8roudhon's views% *ut at the sa#e ti#e it definitely
abandoned the #aster's politial pro&ra##e by advoatin& a separate politial party
for the wor+ers. and the no#ination of labour andidates for politial offie to
represent the interests of the wor+ers%
8roudhon &reeted this 1anifesto of the 7i$ty very war#ly% !nspired by it. he
proeeded to write a boo+ whih turned out to be the best wor+ he had ever written% -e
devoted the last #onths of his life to it. but he did not live to see it published% The
boo+ was alled The 8olitial @apaity of the >or+in& @lass% -ere for the first ti#e
8roudhon a+nowled&ed the ri&ht of the wor+in& lass to for# independent lass
or&anisations% -e hailed the new pro&ra##e of the 8aris wor+ers as the best proof of
the vast politial potentialities stored away in the depths of the wor+in& lass% Despite
the fat that 8roudhon did not han&e his stand on the 4uestion of stri+es and #utual
aid assoiations. his last boo+. by its spirit of protest a&ainst bour&eois soiety and its
deidedly proletarian slant. was re#inisent of his e$ellent first literary wor+. >hat !s
8roperty. This 0ustifiation of the wor+in& lass bea#e one of the favourite boo+s of
the 5renh wor+ers% >hen we are told of the influene of 8roudhonis# durin& the
epoh of the 5irst !nternational. we #ust not for&et that it was the influene of that
for# of 8roudhonis# whih bea#e rystallised after the publiation of the 1anifesto
of the 7i$ty%
'l#ost a year passed before the wor+ers of 8aris o#posed their reply to the /n&lish
address% ' speial dele&ation was hosen to ta+e it to :ondon% 3n 7epte#ber 2F. 1F(1.
a #eetin& to reeive the 5renh dele&ation was held in the fa#ous 7t% 1artin's -all%
*eesly presided% The hall was rowded% 5irst 3d&er read the address fro# the /n&lish
wor+ers% Tolain then read the 5renh reply. a short e$erpt of whih follows9
)!ndustrial pro&ress. the division of labour. freedo# of trade 66 these are three
fators whih should reeive our attention today. for they pro#ise to han&e the
very substane of the eono#i life of soiety% @o#pelled by the fore of
9I
iru#stanes and the de#ands of the ti#e. apital is onentratin& and
or&anisin& in #i&hty finanial and industrial o#binations% 7hould we not ta+e
so#e defensive #easure. this fore. if not ounterbalaned in so#e way. will
soon be a despoti power% >e. the wor+ers of the world. #ust unite and eret an
insur#ountable barrier to the baleful syste# whih would divide hu#anity into
two lasses9 a host of 6 hun&ry and brutalised people on one hand. and a li4ue of
fat. overfed #andarins on the other% :et us see+ our salvation throu&h solidarity%)

The 5renh wor+ers brou&ht with the# even the pro0et for suh an or&anization% '
entral o##ission #ade up of representatives fro# various ountries was established
in :ondon% 7ubo##issions whih were to be in onstant o##uniation with the
entral body. and whih were to disuss 4uestions proposed by that body. were reated
in all the hief ities in /urope% The entral o##ission was to su##arise the results
of these disussions% 'n international on&ress was to onvene in *el&iu#. to deide
upon the final for# of the or&anisation%
*ut we #i&ht as+ where was 1ar$. what part did he ta+e in all thisP ?o part at all% >e
see. then. that all the preparations for the histori event whih too+ plae on 7epte#ber
2F. 1F(H. the day of the be&innin& of the 5irst !nternational. were the efforts of the
wor+ers the#selves% 2ntil now we had no oasion even to #ention the na#e of 1ar$
in onnetion with this affair% 7till on this au&ust oasion 1ar$ was a#on& the
invited &uests on the platfor#% -ow did he happen to be thereP ' little note found
a#on& 1ar$'s #isellaneous papers supplies the answer% !t reads9
)1r% 1ar$
Dear 7ir9
The o##ittee who have or&anised the #eetin& as announed in the enlosed
bill respetfully re4uest the favour of your attendane% The prodution of this
will ad#it you to the @o##ittee Roo# where the @o##ittee will #eet at half
past 7%
! a#. sir.
Bours respetfully.
<7i&ned= >% R% @re#er%)

The 4uestion arises. >hat pro#pted @re#er to invite 1ar$P >hy was this invitation
not e$tended to #any other e#i&rants who rowded :ondon at the ti#e and who were
9(
loser to the /n&lish#en or the 5renh#enP >hy was he hosen as a #e#ber of the
o##ittee of the future !nternational 'ssoiationP
's to this. we an for# only &uesses% The #ost plausible see#s to be the followin&9
>e have already seen the part that the /duational 7oiety of the ;er#an wor+ers was
playin& in :ondon as the entral #eetin& plae of wor+ers of various nationalities% !t
bea#e suh a entre to an even &reater e$tent when the /n&lish wor+ers the#selves
a#e to realise that it was neessary to o#bine with the ;er#ans in order to
ounterat the har#ful onse4uenes of the o#petition of wor+ers who# the /n&lish
e#ployers throu&h their a&ents were lurin& into :ondon% -ene the lose personal ties
whih e$isted between the# and the #e#bers of the for#er @o##unist :ea&ue 66 J%
;% /arius. 5riedrih :essner. 8fander% The first two were tailors. the third. a painter%
They were all ta+in& an ative part in the :ondon trade6union #ove#ent and were
well a4uainted with the or&anisers and the leaders of the :ondon Trades @ounil% !t is
not diffiult to understand how 3d&er and @re#er a#e to +now Dr% 1ar$. who
durin& the affair with Ao&t had renewed his relations with the ;er#an >or+ers'
/duational 7oiety%
1ar$'s hief role in the 5irst !nternational. with the foundation of whih he had
nothin& to do. be&an after it was or&anised% -e soon bea#e the &uidin& spirit of the
or&anisation% The o##ittee that was eleted by the #eetin& of 7epte#ber 2F. had no
instrutions% There was no pro&ra##e. nor onstitution. nor even a na#e% There was
already e$istin& in :ondon suh an international soiety. the @o##on :ea&ue. whih
offered its hospitality to the o##ittee% 5ro# a readin& of the #inutes of the
o##ittee's first #eetin& we &ather that there were present also several beni&n
bour&eois representatives of this :ea&ue% 7o#e of these &entle#en su&&ested to the
o##ittee that there was no need for a new or&anisation. others proposed the
or&anisation of a new international soiety whih would be open not only to wor+ers
but also to anybody to who# the ause of international solidarity and the a#elioration
of the eono#i and politial onditions of the toilers were dear% 3nly on the
insistene of two wor+in&#en. /arius and >hitlo+. a for#er @hartist. was it
deided to hristen the new soiety with the na#e of !nternational >or+in&#en's
'ssoiation% This #otion was supported by the /n&lish#en. a#on& who# there were
a few @hartists. #e#bers of the old >or+in&#en's 'ssoiation. the radle of the
@hartist #ove#ent%
The new na#e une4uivoally defined the distintive harater of the new international
assoiation whih forthwith shoo+ off the well6#eanin& bour&eoisie. who belon&ed to
the @o##on :ea&ue% The o##ittee was told to loo+ for other 4uarters% 5ortunately.
they were suessful in findin& a s#all #eetin& roo# not far fro# the ;er#an
97
>or+ers' /duational 7oiety. in a distrit populated by e#i&rants and forei&n
wor+ers%
's soon as the na#e was deided upon. the o##ittee proeeded to o#pose the
pro&ra##e and the statutes% There was one troubleJ the o##ittee was #ade up of too
#any different ele#ents% There were first of all /n&lish#en. who were divided up into
several &roups the#selves% There were trade unionists. for#er @hartistsJ there were
even e$63wenites% There were 5renh#en. not very &reat adepts at eono#i
4uestions. but who onsidered the#selves speialists alon& the lines of revolution% The
!talians. too. were very influential for they were headed by ;iuseppe 1azzini <1F,I6
1F72=. the very popular old revolutionist. republian. but who was also very reli&ious%
There were also the 8olish e#i&rants% To the# the 8olish 4uestion was para#ount%
There were. finally. several ;er#ans. all for#er #e#bers of the @o##unist :ea&ue 66
/arius. :essner. :ohner. 8fander and 1ar$%
Aarious pro0ets were brou&ht before the o##ittee% !n the subo##ittee on whih he
was servin&. 1ar$ propounded his theses and it was finally resolved that he present his
pro0et before the whole o##ittee% 5inally. when the o##ittee onvened for the
fourth ti#e <?ove#ber 1. 1F(H=. 1ar$'s draft with a s#all nu#ber of editorial
#odifiations was adopted by an overwhel#in& #a0ority%
>e #ust ad#it at the very outset that the draft. as it was adopted. ontained #any
o#pro#ises and onessions% 1ar$ hi#self. in his letter to /n&els. deplores the fat
that he was fored to introdue into the onstitution and the pro&ra##e suh words as
Ri&ht. 1orality and Justie. but. as he assures /n&els. he #ana&ed to insert these
words in plaes where they would do least har#%
Bet this was not what ontained the seret of 1ar$'s suess% -is suess in havin& his
propositions adopted al#ost unani#ously by suh a varie&ated &roup was the result of
the e$traordinary #astery with whih the !nau&ural 'ddress of the !nternational was
written% This was ad#itted even by *a+unin. 1ar$'s #ost virulent opponent% 's 1ar$
onfesses in his letter to /n&els. it was e$tre#ely diffiult to ouh the o##unist
view in a for# that would prove aeptable to the labour #ove#ent in its first rude
sta&es% !t was i#possible to e#ploy the bold revolutionary lan&ua&e of the @o##unist
1anifesto% 1ar$ endeavoured to be sweepin& in ontent yet #oderate in for#% -is
suess was une4uivoal%
This !nau&ural 'ddress was written seventeen years after the @o##unist 1anifesto%
These two dou#ents were the wor+ of the sa#e author% Bet the historial epohs in
whih. and the or&anisations for whih. these two #anifestoes were written. were
utterly different% The @o##unist 1anifesto was written at the re4uest of a s#all &roup
9F
of revolutionists and o##unists for a very youn& labour #ove#ent% These
o##unists e#phasised even then that they were not stressin& any priniples whih
they wanted to foist upon the labour #ove#ent. but that they were tryin& to rystallise
those &eneral priniples whih. irrespetive of nationality. represented the o##on
interests of the proletariat of the entire world%
!n 1F(H the labour #ove#ent &rew. and penetrated the #asses% *ut as far as a
developed lass onsiousness was onerned it was #uh behind the revolutionary
van&uard of 1FHF% ' si#ilar retro&ression was also to be observed a#on& the leaders%
The new 1anifesto had to be written in a #anner whih would ta+e into aount the
low level of proletarian lass onsiousness a#on& the #asses and the leaders. but
whih would at the sa#e ti#e adhere to the basi priniples laid down in the
@o##unist 1anifesto%
1ar$. in the 'ddress. &ave a lassial e$a#ple of )united front) tatis% -e
for#ulated the de#ands and e#phasised all the points upon whih the wor+in& lass
ould and should unite. and on the basis of whih a further develop#ent of the labour
#ove#ent ould be e$peted% 5ro# the i##ediate proletarian de#ands for#ulated by
1ar$ the &reater de#ands of the @o##unist 1anifesto would lo&ially follow%
!n all this 1ar$ had. of ourse. a olossal advanta&e over 1azzini. over the 5renh
revolutionists. as well as over the /n&lish soialists who were on the o##ittee of the
!nternational% -e hi#self. without havin& han&ed his basi priniples. ao#plished a
#onu#ental piee of wor+% *y this ti#e he had onluded the first draft of his &i&anti
wor+ and was en&a&ed in puttin& his finishin& touhes to the first volu#e of @apital%
1ar$ was then the only #an in the world who had #ade suh an e$haustive study of
the onditions of the wor+in& lass and had so profoundly &rasped the whole
#ehanis# of apitalist soiety% !n the whole of /n&land there was not another #an
who too+ the infinite pains of #a+in& suh a thorou&h study of all the reports of the
/n&lish fatory inspetors and the researhes of the parlia#entary o##issions whih
had been investi&atin& onditions in various branhes of industry and different
ate&ories of the ity and the ountry proletariat% The infor#ation whih 1ar$
possessed on this sub0et was o#prehensive and ino#parably wider than that
possessed by the wor+in&#en6#e#bers of the o##ittee% -e +new onditions in eah
trade and their relation to the &eneral laws of apitalist prodution%
The &ifts of a &reat propa&andist are shown in the very struture of the 'ddress% Just
as in the @o##unist 1anifesto. 1ar$ be&an with the lass stru&&le as the funda#ental
basis of all histori develop#ent and of all politial #ove#ents. so did he in the new
1anifesto be&in not with &eneral phrases. nor with hi&h6flown sub0ets. but with fats
whih haraterised the onditions of the wor+in& lass%
99
)!t is an e$tre#ely #o#entous fat that the #isery of the wor+in& lass in the
years 1FHF61F(H has not lessened. in spite of the une$a#pled develop#ent of
industry and &rowth of trade durin& this period%)

'nd 1ar$ referrin& to ;ladstone's speeh in the -ouse of @o##ons pointed out that
despite the three6fold inrease of the trade of ;reat *ritain sine 1FH3. hu#an life in
nine ases out of ten was nothin& but a hard stru&&le for a #ere e$istene% !n fat.
ri#inals in prison were &ettin& better nourish#ent than #any wor+ers%
@onstantly referrin& to the investi&ations of the parlia#entary o##issions. 1ar$
drew a piture of undernourish#ent. de&eneration. and disease a#on& the #asses of
the wor+in& lass% 't the sa#e ti#e he alled attention to the fabulous &rowth of the
wealth of the propertied lasses%
1ar$ thus arrived at the inevitable onlusion that. notwithstandin& the assertions of
the bour&eois eono#ists. neither the perfetin& of the #ahine. nor the appliation of
siene to industry. nor the openin& of new #eans of o##uniation. the disovery of
new olonies. e#i&ration. the reation of new #ar+ets. nor free trade were li+ely to
eli#inate the #isery of the wor+in& lass% -e therefore onluded further. as in the
@o##unist 1anifesto. that while the soial order rested on the old foundation. any
new develop#ent of the produtive powers of labour would only widen and deepen
the has# whih divided the lasses and would brin& to the fore even #ore stri+in&ly
the already e$istin& anta&onis#%
-avin& pointed out the auses whih had ontributed to the defets of the wor+in&
lass in 1FHF. the defeat whih had brou&ht in its train the apathy that had
haraterised the deade fro# 1FH9 to 1FI9. 1ar$ also direted attention to a few
on4uests #ade by the wor+ers durin& that period%
5irst. the ten6hour day law% -e proved that. despite all the assertions of the han&ers6on
of apitalis#. the shortenin& of the wor+day enhaned. rather than i#paired. the
produtivity of labour% 1oreover. 1ar$ pointed out the triu#ph of the priniple of
&overn#ent interferene in eono#i relations over the old ideas% -e further
onluded. as he had in the @o##unist 1anifesto.that prodution #ust be sub0eted to
the ontrol and the diretion of soiety as a whole. and that suh soial prodution lay
at the very basis of the politial eono#y of the wor+in& lass% The law pertainin& to
the ten6hour day was not #erely a pratial vitory. it indiated the vitory of
proletarian politial eono#y over the politial eono#y of the bour&eoisie%
1,,
'nother ahieve#ent was the o6operative fatories whih were bein& built on the
initiative of the wor+ers the#selves% *ut. unli+e :assalle for who# o6operative
assoiations were the startin& point of the transfor#ation of soiety into a state of
soialis#. 1ar$ did not e$a&&erate their pratial i#portane% 3n the ontrary. he used
these o6operatives to illustrate to the wor+in& #asses that lar&e sale and sientifi
prodution ould proeed and develop without a lass of apitalists to e$ploit the
toilersJ that wa&e labour. li+e slavery. was not anythin& eternal. but that. in point of
fat. it was a transitional and lower for# of wor+ whih ulti#ately was to &ive plae to
a syste# of soial prodution% -avin& #ade all the o##unist dedutions. 1ar$
pointed out that while these o6operative assoiations o#prised only a s#all nu#ber
of wor+ers. they ould not better the onditions of the wor+in& lass in any way%
The networ+ of o6operative prodution would have to spread all over the land before
apitalist prodution ould be superseded by o##unist prodution% *ut havin& put
the proble# thus wise. 1ar$ hastened to note that suh a transfor#ation would be
i#peded by the desperate opposition of the rulin& lasses% The landowners and the
apitalists would use their politial power to defend their eono#i privile&es% -ene.
the first duty of the wor+in& lass was the on4uest of politial power. and. to
ao#plish this. the wor+ers #ust reate politial labour parties in all the ountries of
the world% There is only one fator of suess that the wor+ers have at their o##and%
This is #ass. nu#bers% *ut this #ass is stron& only when it is o#pat. united. and
when it is &uided by +nowled&e and siene% >ithout o#patness. without solidarity.
without #utual support in the stru&&le for liberation. without a national and an
international or&anisation the wor+ers would be doo#ed to failure% ;uided by these
onsiderations. added 1ar$. the wor+ers of various ountries deided to for# an
!nternational >or+in&#en's 'ssoiation%
Thus did 1ar$ with his a#azin& tat and s+ill a&ain arrive at the basi onlusions he
had one reahed in the #ore fiery @o##unist 1anifesto9 the or&anisation of the
proletariat alon& lass lines. the overthrow of bour&eois do#ination. the proletarian
seizure of politial power. the abolition of wa&e labour. the passin& of all the #eans of
prodution into the hands of soiety%
1ar$ onluded the !nau&ural 'ddress with another 4uite i#portant politial proble#%
The wor+in& lass #ust not onfine itself to the narrow sphere of national politis% !t
#ust follow assiduously all the 4uestions of e$ternal politis% !f the suess of the
whole ause depends upon the fraternal solidarity of the wor+ers of the world. then the
wor+in& lass would not fulfill its #ission. were it to allow the rulin& lasses who are
in har&e of international diplo#ay to utilise national pre0udies. to set the wor+ers of
one ountry a&ainst the wor+ers of other ountries to shed the blood and destroy the
wealth of the people% The wor+ers #ust therefore #aster all the #ysteries of
1,1
international politis% They #ust wath the diplo#ati ats of their &overn#entsJ they
#ust resist. if need be with all the power at their disposalJ they #ust 0oin in one
sweepin& protest a&ainst the ri#inal #ahinations of their &overn#ents% !t is ti#e to
brin& to an end a state of affairs whih. while punishin& ri#es when perpetrated by
individuals. per#its stealin&. robbin& and deeit in international relations%
1,2
C"A#TER &III
T"E C!NSTIT%TI!N !F T"E FIRST INTERNATI!NAL'
T-/ :3?D3? @3?5/R/?@/%
T-/ ;/?/A' @3?;R/77%
1'RC'7 R/83RT%
T-/ :'27'??/ '?D *R277/:7 @3?;R/77/7%
*'K2?!? '?D 1'RC%
T-/ *'7:/ @3?;R/77%
T-/ 5R'?@368R277!'? >'R%
T-/ 8'R!7 @3112?/%
T-/ 7TR2;;:/ */T>//? 1'RC '?D *'K2?!?%
T-/ -';2/ @3?R/77%
>e have overed in detail the history of the foundation of the !nternational and the
writin& of its !nau&ural 'ddress% >e shall now proeed to study the @onstitution of the
!nternational% !t. too. was written by 1ar$ and was o#posed of two partsJ one a
state#ent of priniples. the other dealin& with or&anisation proble#s%
>e have seen how s+illfully 1ar$ introdued the basi priniples of o##unis# into
the !nau&ural 'ddress of the !nternational% *ut still #ore i#portant and ino#parably
#ore diffiult was the introdution of these priniples into the @onstitution% The
!nau&ural 'ddress pursued only one ai# 66 the eluidation of the #otives whih
i#pelled the wor+ers to asse#ble on 7epte#ber 2F. 1F(H. and to found the
!nternational% *ut this was not yet a pro&ra##e. it was only an introdution to itJ it
was #erely a sole#n pronunia#ento before the whole world 66 and this was
partiularly brou&ht out in its very na#e that a new international assoiation. an
assoiation of wor+ers. was bein& founded%
!n not a less #asterly fashion did 1ar$ sueed in solvin& the seond proble# 66 the
for#ulation of the &eneral proble#s onfrontin& the wor+in& lass in different
ountries%
)@onsiderin&.
)That the e#anipation of the wor+in& lasses #ust be on4uered by the
wor+in& lasses the#selvesJ that the stru&&le for the e#anipation of the
wor+in& lasses #eans not a stru&&le for lass privile&es and #onopolies. but for
e4ual ri&hts and duties. and the abolition of all lass ruleJ
)That the eono#ial sub0etion of the #an of labour to the #onopoliser of the
#eans of labour. that is. the soures of life. lies at the botto# of servitude in all
its forQns. of all soial #isery. #ental de&radation. and politial dependeneJ
1,3
)That the eono#ial e#anipation of the wor+in& lasses is therefore the &reat
end to whih every politial #ove#ent ou&ht to be subordinate as a #eansJ
)That all efforts ai#in& at that &reat end have hitherto failed fro# the want of
solidarity between the #anifold divisions of labour in eah ountry. and fro# the
absene of a fraternal bond of union between the wor+in& lasses of different
ountriesJ
)That the e#anipation of labour is neither a loal nor a national. but a soial
proble#. e#brain& all ountries in whih #odern soiety e$ists. and dependin&
for its solution on the onurrene. pratial and theoretial. of the #ost
advaned ountriesJ
)That the present revival of the wor+in& lasses in the #ost industrious ountries
of /urope. while it raises a new hope. &ives sole#n warnin& a&ainst a relapse
into the old errors. and alls for the i##ediate o#bination of the still
disonneted #ove#ents%)

' areful perusal of these points reveals how losely the @o##unist 8arty of Russia
had. in so#e plan+s of its pro&ra##e. followed the theses for#ulated by 1ar$% The
sa#e is true of the old pro&ra##es of the /n&lish. 5renh. and ;er#an parties% !n the
5renh and the /rfurt pro&ra##es partiularly. there are #any points that are atually
a literal transription of the basi pre#ises of the @onstitution of the 5irst
!nternational%
3f ourse. not all the #e#bers of the provisional o##ittee of the !nternational
understood these propositions in the sa#e way% 5or instane. the /n&lish. 5renh. and
;er#an #e#bers all a&reed on the proposition that the e#anipation of the wor+in&
lass ould be ahieved only by the wor+in& lass itselfJ but this was interpreted
differently by eah &roup% The /n&lish trade unionists and the e$6@hartists saw in this
proposition a protest a&ainst the ir+so#e soliitude bestowed upon the wor+ers by the
beni&n #e#bers of the #iddle lass% The 5renh#en. who were stron&ly inensed
a&ainst the intelli&entsia. understood this proposition in the sense of a warnin& a&ainst
the treaherous intelli&entsia and an afflr#ation of the ability of the wor+in& lass to
&et on without it% 3nly the ;er#ans. the for#er #e#bers of the @o##unist :ea&ue.
really &rasped all the i#pliations of this proposition% !f the wor+in& lass ould
e#anipate itself only throu&h its own efforts. then any oalition with the bour&eoisie.
any hobnobbin& with the apitalists would be in sharp opposition to this priniple% !t
was also e#phasised that the ai# was not to e#anipate this or that &roup of wor+ers.
1,H
but the wor+in& lass as a whole. and that the e#anipation ould be ao#plished not
by one or another &roup of wor+ers but by the entire wor+in& lass. and that this would
presuppose a lass or&anisation of the proletariat% 5ro# the proposition that apitalist
#onopoly of the #eans of prodution is the ause of the eono#i enslave#ent of the
wor+in& lass. it followed that it would be neessary to destroy this #onopoly% 'nd
this dedution was further stren&thened by the de#and for the abolition of any lass
rule. whih. of ourse. ould not be attained without the abolition of the division of
soiety into lasses%
The proposition. stated in the !nau&ural 'ddress. was not repeated in the
@onstitution% !n it there was no diret assertion that for the realisation of all the
ai#s the proletariat had put before itself. it was neessary for it to obtain politial
power% !nstead of this. we find another state#ent% The @onstitution #aintained
)That the eono#i e#anipation of the wor+in& lasses is therefore the &reat
end whih every politial #ove#ent ou&ht to be subordinate as a #eans%)
7ine this proposition subse4uently bea#e the startin& point of #ost furious
disa&ree#ents in the 5irst !nternational. we #ust e$plain it%
>hat did this proposition i#plyP The &reat &oal of the proletarian #ove#ent was the
eono#i liberation of the wor+in& lass% This &oal ould be reahed only by
e$propriatin& the #onopolists of the #eans of prodution. by the abolition of all lass
rule% *ut how ould this be ao#plishedP >ere the )pure) soialists and anarhists
ri&ht in their depreation of politial stru&&leP
?o. was the reply ontained in the thesis for#ulated by 1ar$% The stru&&le of the
wor+in& lass on the politial field is as neessary as it is on the eono#i field%
8olitial or&anisation is neessary% The politial #ove#ent of the proletariat #ust
needs develop% !t #ust not however be re&arded. as it is re&arded by the bour&eois
de#orats and the radial intelli&entsia. as so#ethin& independent% These are only
interested in the han&e of politial for#s. in the establish#ent of a republiJ they
want to hear nothin& of the funda#ental 4uestions% This was why 1ar$ e#phasised
that for the proletariat. the politial #ove#ent was only a #eans for the attain#ent of
their &reat ends. that it was a subsidiary #ove#ent% This state#ent was. to be sure. not
as lear ut as the one &iven in the @o##unist 1anifesto or even in the !nau&ural
'ddress. where it was e$pressly stated that the ardinal ai# of the wor+in& lass was
to &ain politial power%
True. to the /n&lish #e#bers of the !nternational the proposition as it. was for#ulated
by 1ar$ was 4uite lear% The @onstitution was written in the /n&lish lan&ua&e. and
1ar$ utilised the ter#s with whih the for#er @hartists and 3wenites. who were
1,I
#e#bers of the o##ittee. were thorou&hly fa#iliar% 'propos of this we should reall
that the @hartists' 4uarrel with the 3wenites had been hiefly on the &round that the
latter too+ o&nizane only of the )&reat end) and insisted on i&norin& the politial
stru&&le% >hen the @hartists advaned the @harter with its fa#ous si$ points. the
3wenites aused the# of havin& for&otten soialis# o#pletely% Then the @hartists
on their part asserted that for the#. too. the politial stru&&le was not the hief ai#%
Thus twenty years before. the @hartists had for#ulated the proposition whih was now
repeated by 1ar$% 5or the#. the @hartists #aintained. the politial stru&&le is a #eans
to an end. not an end in itself% >e an see then why 1ar$'s thesis did not arouse any
opposition in the o##ittee% 3nly a few years later. when the heated disussions
between the *a+uninists and their opponents arose. did this point beo#e the bone of
ontention% The *a+uninists #aintained that ori&inally the words )as a
#eansMinde$%ht#) were not ontained in the @onstitution and that 1ar$ purposely
s#u&&led the# in later to foist his oneption of politis on the !nternational% 'n
o#ission of the words )as a #eansMinde$%ht#) does no doubt han&e the whole
#eanin& of this point% !n the 5renh translation of the @onstitution these words were
atually o#itted%
' little #isunderstandin& arose whih ould have been easily e$plained but whih in
the heat of fational onflit led to the absurd ausation a&ainst 1ar$ of falsifiation.
of for&in& the @onstitution of the !nternational% >hen the @onstitution had been
translated the 5renh offiial edition did not ontain the words )as a #eans%) The
5renh te$t reads9 )The eono#i e#anipation of the wor+in& lass is the &reat end.
to whih the politial #ove#ent ou&ht to be subordinate%) This was dee#ed neessary
in order not to attrat the attention of *onaparte's polie whih re&arded with &reat
suspiion any politial #ove#ent a#on& the wor+ers% 't the be&innin& the polie did
atually onsider the 5renh !nternationalists as interested #ore in eono#is than in
politis% 8reisely on the sa#e &rounds did the *lan4uists who were )politiians.) also
atta+ the poor internationalists as )eono#ists%)
The trouble was still #ore a&&ravated by the fat that this inorret 5renh translation
of the @onstitution was reprinted in the 5renh part of 7witzerland and fro# there it
was spread throu&h all the ountries where the 5renh lan&ua&e was #ost fa#iliar 66
!taly. 7pain. and *el&iu#% >e shall see later. that at the first &eneral on&ress. whih
ratified the te#porary @onstitution of the !nternational. eah nation aepted the te$t
whih it had before it% The 5irst !nternational was too poor to print its @onstitution in
three lan&ua&es% /ven the /n&lish te$t was printed only in a thousand opies. all of
whih were soon &one% ;uillau#e. one of the #ost bitter opponents of 1ar$. and the
one who #ost persistently aused 1ar$ of for&ery. assures us in his -istory of the
!nternational that only in 19,I did he see for the first ti#e the /n&lish te$t with the
words )as a #eansMinde$%ht#) inludedO -ad he wanted to. he ould have onvined
1,(
hi#self lon& before that 1ar$ was not a falsifier. but this would not #aterially have
han&ed the ourse of events% >e +now full well that on the 4uestion of tatis the
#ost violent disords #ay arise when to all appearanes the onflitin& parties adhere
in priniple to the sa#e pro&ra##e%
The @onstitution ontained another point a&ainst whih. it is true. the anarhists did
not protest but whih fro# the point of view of 1ar$is# inspires doubts% >e have
already #entioned that. in order to reah an a&ree#ent a#on& the hi&hly diversified
ele#ents whih entered into the #a+e6up of the o##ittee. 1ar$ was fored to
o#pro#ise on so#e points% These were #ade not in the !nau&ural 'ddress. but in the
@onstitution% >e shall soon see what these o#pro#ises were%
Ri&ht after the presentation of the priniples. on the basis of whih the #e#bers of the
o##ittee that was eleted at the #eetin& of 7epte#ber 2F. 1F(H. had deided to
found the !nternational >or+in&#en's 'ssoiation. 1ar$ ontinued9
)The first !nternational >or+in& 1en's @on&ress delares that this !nternational
'ssoiation and all soieties and individuals adherin& to it will a+nowled&e
truth. 0ustie. and #orality. as the basis of their ondut towards eah other. and
towards all #en. without re&ard to olour. reed or nationalityJ
)This @on&ress onsiders it the duty of a #an to lai# the ri&hts of a #an and a
itizen. not only for hi#self but for every #an who does his duty. no ri&hts
without duties. no duties without ri&hts%)
>herein lay the onessions #ade by 1ar$P >e observe that onernin& this he
hi#self wrote to /n&els. )'ll #y su&&estions were adopted by the subo##ittee% !
was o#pelled to insert into the @onstitution so#e phrases about 'ri&hts' and 'duties.'
as well as 'truth. #orality. and 0ustie' but all this is so plaed that it is not li+ely to
brin& any har#%)
'nd it really was not anythin& atastrophi% There s nothin& terrible. per se. in the
words Truth. Justie. and 1orality. as lon& as we realise that these onepts are not
eternal. unalterable. and independent of soial onditions% 1ar$is# does not deny
truth. 0ustie. and #oralityJ it #erely proves that the evolution of these onepts is
deter#ined by historial develop#ents. and that different soial lasses see in the#
different ontents%
!t would have been bad had 1ar$ been o#pelled to reiterate the delaration of the
5renh and /n&lish soialists. had he been fored to say that we #ust fi&ht for
soialis# in the na#e of truth. 0ustie and #orality and not beause. as he had so
#arvellously presented in the !nau&ural 'ddress. it is inevitable. beause it lo&ially
1,7
follows fro# the very ondition reated by apitalis# and fro# the very situation of
the wor+in& lass% 's these words were put in by 1ar$ they #erely stated that the
#e#bers of the !nternational >or+in&#en's 'ssoiation were obli&ed to ondut
the#selves in their relations to eah other in the spirit of truth. 0ustie. and #orality.
that is. not to betray eah other or the lass to whih they belon&ed. not to deeive
eah other. to at in a o#radely spirit. et% !nstead of the priniples upon whih the
2topian 7oialists had based their de#and for soialis#. these onepts were now
trans#uted by 1ar$ into basi rules of ondut within the proletarian or&anisation
itself%
*ut the point whih we are now disussin& delares that these priniples #ust serve as
a basis for the ondut of the #e#bers of the !nternational in their relation to all
persons re&ardless of rae. reli&ion. or nationality% 'nd this was not less useful% >e
#ust bear in #ind that at this ti#e in the 2nited 7tates there ra&ed the @ivil >arJ that
shortly before the 8olish insurretion had been definitely rushedJ that the @zar's
ar#ies were brin&in& to a suessful onlusion the on4uest of the @auasusJ that
reli&ious perseution was still &oin& on throu&hout #ost of the ivilised ountriesJ that
even in /n&land the Jews were &iven politial ri&hts only toward the end of the fifties.
and that not only in Russia but in other /uropean states. too. they were not yet
en0oyin& full ivil ri&hts%
The bour&eoisie had not yet #aterialised the )eternal) priniples of #orality and
0ustie even where #e#bers of their own lass in their own ountries were involved%
These priniples were #ost unere#oniously tra#pled upon where #e#bers of other
ountries or nationalities were onerned%
The point pertainin& to Ri&hts and Duties was #uh #ore ob0etionable% There was
neither ri#e nor reason for ur&in& eah #e#ber to fi&ht for his ri&hts as a #an and as
a itizenJ to fi&ht not only for hi#self but for others% -ere 1ar$. despite his &reat
diplo#ati s+ill. was fored to #a+e a serious onession to the representatives of the
5renh revolutionary e#i&rants who were on the o##ittee%
:et us reall now so#e fats onernin& the ;reat 5renh Revolution% 3ne of the first
ats was the delaration of the ri&hts of #an and of the ri&hts of itizenship% !n its
stru&&le a&ainst the landed aristoray and absolutis# whih was appropriatin& all the
privile&es and was i#posin& on others all the duties. the revolutionary bour&eoisie
brou&ht forward de#ands for e4uality. fraternity. and liberty. and de#ands that every
#an. every itizen. should be reo&nised as possessin& a nu#ber of inalienable ri&hts%
'#on& these the sared irrefra&able ri&ht of private property was partiularly stressed%
This ri&ht was bein& unhesitatin&ly violated by the aristoray and by the royal power
where the property of the Third /state was onerned%
1,F
The Jaobins introdued only a few orretions into this delaration of ri&hts% The
point onernin& the saredness of private property was left intat% The delaration
was rendered #ore radial with respet to politis. for it santioned the ri&ht of the
people to revolt and it e#phasised the brotherhood of all nations% !n this for# it is
+nown as the Delaration of Ri&hts of 1793 or of Robespierre. and it bea#e the
pro&ra##e of the 5renh revolutionists fro# the be&innin& of 1F3,%
3n the other hand 1azzini's adherents insisted on the aeptane of his pro&ra##e%%
!n his fa#ous boo+. 3n the Duties of 1an. whih was translated into /n&lish and
whih won wide popularity there a#on& the wor+ers. 1azzini. in aord with his
slo&an. );od and the 8eople.) and in ontradistintion to the 5renh #aterialists with
their delaration of the ri&hts of #an based on reason and nature. advaned the
oneption of duty. of obli&ations. instilled by ;od in #an as the funda#ental pre#ise
of his idealisti ethis%
>e now understand the derivation of 1ar$'s for#ula9 There are no ri&hts without
duties. there are no duties with out ri&hts% 5ored to inorporate the de#ands fro# the
Delaration of Ri&hts. 1ar$ utilized the ontroversy between the 5renh#en and the
!talians to underline in his for#ulation the distintion between this de#and and the
for#er de#and of the bour&eoisie% The proletariat also de#ands its ri&hts but it
delares at the outset that it does not ad#it the ri&hts of the individual without the
individual's orrespondin& duties to soiety%
>hen a few years later. the @onstitution was re6e$a#ined. 1ar$ su&&ested that only
the words referrin& to the Delaration of Ri&hts be stri+en out% The proposition
dealin& with Ri&hts and Duties was retained. and was later inorporated into the /rfurt
8ro&ra##e in the for# of /4ual Ri&hts and /4ual Duties%
>e shall now pass on to the study of the @onstitution itself
)1% This 'ssoiation is established to afford a entral #ediu# of o##uniation
and o6operation between >or+in& 1en's 7oieties e$istin& in different ountries
and ai#in& at the sa#e endJ viz%. the protetion. advane#ent. and o#plete
e#anipation of the wor+in& lasses%
)2% The na#e of the 7oiety shall be The !nternational >or+in& 1en's
'ssoiation%
)3% There shall annually #eet a ;eneral >or+in& 1en's @on&ress. onsistin& of
dele&ates of the branhes of the 'ssoiation% The @on&ress will have to prolai#
the o##on aspirations of the wor+in& lass. ta+e the #easures re4uired for the
1,9
suessful wor+in& of the !nternational 'ssoiation. and appoint the ;eneral
@ounil of the 7oiety%
)H% /ah @on&ress appoints the ti#e and plae of #eetin& for the ne$t @on&ress%
The dele&ates asse#ble at the appointed ti#e and plae without any speial
invitation% The ;eneral @ounil #ay. in ase of need. han&e the plae. but has
no power to postpone the ti#e of #eetin&% The @on&ress appoints the seat and
elets the #e#bers of the ;eneral @ounil annually% The ;eneral @ounil thus
eleted shall have power to add to the nu#ber of its #e#bers%
)3n its annual #eetin&s. the ;eneral @on&ress shall reeive a publi aount of
the annual transations of the ;eneral @ounil% The latter #ay. in ases of
e#er&eny. onvo+e the ;eneral @on&ress before the re&ular yearly ter#%
)I% The ;eneral @ounil shall onsist of wor+in& #en fro# the different
ountries represented in the !nternational 'ssoiation% !t shall fro# its own
#e#bers elet the offiers neessary for the transation of business. suh as a
treasurer. a &eneral seretary. orrespondin& seretaries for the different
ountries. et%
)(% The ;eneral @ounil shall for# an international a&eny between the different
national and loal &roups of the 'ssoiation. so that the wor+in& #en in one
ountry be onstantly infor#ed of the #ove#ents of their lass in every other
ountryJ that an in4uiry into the soial state of the different ountries of /urope
be #ade si#ultaneously. and under a o##on diretionJ that the 4uestions of
&eneral interest #ooted in one soiety be ventilated by allJ and that when
i##ediate pratial steps should be needed 66 as. for instane. in ase of
international 4uarrels 66 the ation of the assoiated soieties be si#ultaneous and
unifor#% >henever it see#s opportune. the ;eneral @ounil shall ta+e the
initiative of proposals to be laid before the different national or loal soieties% To
failitate the o##uniations. the ;eneral @ounil shall publish periodial
reports%
)7% 7ine the suess of the wor+in& #en's #ove#ent in eah ountry annot be
seured but by the power of union and o#bination. while. on the other hand. the
usefulness of the !nternational ;eneral @ounil #ust &reatly depend on the
iru#stane whether it has to deal with a few national entres of wor+in& #en's
assoiations. or with a &reat nu#ber of s#all and disonneted loal soietiesJ
the #e#bers of the !nternational 'ssoiation shall use their ut#ost efforts to
o#bine the disonneted wor+in& #en's soieties of their respetive ountries
into national bodies. represented by entral national or&ans%)
11,

The basi priniples of this @onstitution were later ratified by the @on&ress% 3ne of the
essential han&es introdued on 1ar$'s initiative was the abolition of the offie of the
8resident of the @entral. or as it was later alled. the ;eneral @ounil% The e$periene
of the ;eneral ;er#an :abour 2nion whih had been or&anised by :assalle showed
all the inonvenienes bound up with this utterly useless institution% 5or ondutin& its
#eetin&s the ;eneral @ounil now eleted a hair#an% The urrent affairs were ta+en
are of by a #eetin& of seretaries fro# the various national or&anisations in o6
operation with a &eneral seretary%
The @onstitution of the !nternational has been utilised #ore than one in the history of
the international labour #ove#ent% The sope of this wor+ does not allow a #ore
detailed study of the various han&es that were introdued into it durin& its ei&ht years%
!n its #ain features it re#ained unhan&ed% Towards the end of the 5irst !nternational.
#ore power was dele&ated to the ;eneral @ounil%
The all6absorbin& proble# of the te#porary @ounil was the allin& to&ether of an
!nternational @on&ress% This was the ause of heated disussions% 1ar$ #aintained
that all the preli#inary wor+ be o#pleted first so that the different ountries should
first have the opportunity of a4uaintin& the#selves with the proble#s onfrontin& the
!nternational and of or&anisation a bit% The /n&lish#en. on the ontrary. puttin& the
interests of their trade6union #ove#ent above everythin& else. de#anded the
i##ediate onvoation of a @on&ress% The 5renh e#i&rants in the @entral @ounil
were allied with the#%
The whole affair ter#inated in a o#pro#ise% !n 1F(I there was onvened not a
on&ress but a onferene% !t too+ #ae in :ondon and it was hiefly preoupied with
the e$a#ination of reports and the arran&in& of the order of business for the ne$t
on&ress% 7witzerland. /n&land. *el&iu#. and 5rane were represented% Thin&s did not
loo+ very pro#isin&. !t was deided to all a on&ress for 1ay. 1F((%
!n ;er#any. despite the e$istene of the ;eneral :abour 2nion. affairs were in an
even worse state% :assalle was +illed in a duel on 'u&ust 3,. 1F(H% !n aordane with
the onstitution of the 2nion% *ernhard *e+er. a #an of s#all apabilities and little
influene. bea#e president% ' #uh &reater influene was wielded by J% *%
7hweitzer <1F3361F7I=. the editor of the entral or&an of the 2nion. The 7oial6
De#orat% Aery soon. however. serious disa&ree#ents on 4uestions of internal politis
arose between hi# and >ilhel# :ieb+neht who had shortly before beo#e a #e#ber
of the editorial staff% 1ar$ and /n&els who had a&reed to ontribute to the paper. were
soon driven publily to dislai# all onnetions with it% The late 1ehrin& atte#pted to
111
defend 7hweitzerJ he asserted that in this ase 1ar$ and /n&els had been wron&% *ut
1ehrin& was in error% 'll the fats spea+ a&ainst hi#%
>e have already seen that there had been serious flaws in :assalle's tatis. that he
had allowed hi#self inad#issible strata&e#s with respet to the rulin& li4ue%
7hweitzer went even further% -e printed a series of artiles whih. 1ehrin& hi#self
ad#its. reated a very unpleasant i#pression by their syophanti rin&in& before
*is#ar+% 1ehrin& endeavoured to 0ustify it. lai#in& that suh #ethods were needed
in view of the prevailin& le&al onditions% :ieb+neht. the veteran revolutionist. ould
not. it was lai#ed. adapt hi#self and so he set his old friends and teahers upon
7hweitzer% 7hweitzer and :ieb+neht separated% The latter was supported by 1ar$
and /n&els. and even by their old opponents. suh as -ess. who. too. ould not
reonile the#selves with 7hweitzer's #ethods% The old revolutionists ni+na#ed
7hweitzer's party )*is#ar+'s 8arty%)
>hen the :ondon onferene #et. 1ar$'s friends in ;er#any had neither a
publiation nor real or&anisation% The :assalleans refused to have anythin& to do with
the !nternational% 's a result of the shis#. the ;er#ans were represented in the
!nternational only by the old ;er#an e#i&rants who were then do#iiled in /n&land
and 7witzerland%
't the :ondon onferene it bea#e lear that the finanes of the !nternational were
in a #ost deplorable state% !t appeared that for a whole year only about one hundred
and fifty dollars were olleted% The whole turnover a#ounted to about thirty6three
pounds sterlin&% >ith suh an ino#e it was diffiult to arry on ativity on a lar&e
sale% !t was hardly enou&h for #eetin& the #ost neessary e$penses%
Durin& the disussions of the order of business. other disa&ree#ents a#e to li&ht.
that arose between the 5renh#en who lived in :ondon and the 5renh#en who
represented the 8aris or&anisation% The latter were a&ainst ta+in& up the 4uestion of
8olish independene for they re&arded it as purely politial% 3n their part. the 5renh
e#i&rants. supported by so#e /n&lish#en. de#anded that the 4uestion of reli&ion be
plaed on the order of the dayJ they la#oured for an unflinhin& war upon reli&ious
pre0udie% 1ar$ delared hi#self a&ainst this% -e based his opposition on the sound
belief that in view of the still wea+ ties that were holdin& the labour #ove#ent of the
different ountries to&ether. the in0etion of the reli&ious 4uestion would &enerate
unneessary frition% -e. however. re#ained in the #inority%
'nother year elapsed before the first @on&ress was alled% Durin& the interval there
ourred a nu#ber of i#portant events% !n /n&land this was a year of intensive
politial onflit% The /n&lish trade unions. led by the wor+ers who were #e#bers of
112
the ;eneral @ounil. were arryin& on a stubborn stru&&le for a wider suffra&e% This
stru&&le. we repeat. was developin& under the diretion of the !nternational% 1ar$ tried
his ut#ost to prevent the /n&lish wor+ers fro# repeatin& their old #ista+es% -e
wanted the# to fi&ht independently without enterin& into entan&lin& allianes with the
radials% *ut in the be&innin& of 1F(( the old tendeny #anifested itself 66 the
tendeny that had aused suh har# to the /n&lish labour #ove#ent durin& the era of
@hartis#. and that is still havin& its deleterious effets on it% 7ine universal suffra&e
was the ob0et. the proletarian leaders. partly beause of finanial onsiderations.
entered into an a&ree#ent with the #ost radial setion of the bour&eois de#oray
whih had universal suffra&e on their pro&ra##e% To ondut this fi&ht a 0oint
o##ittee was or&anised. #ade up of the #ost varie&ated ele#ents% -ere. there were
suh hi&hly respetable de#orats as 8rofessor *eeslyJ here. too. were representatives
of the so6alled free professions 66 lawyers. 0ud&es. representatives of the petty. the
#iddle. and partiularly the o##erial bour&eoisie who. fro# the very be&innin&
were inlinin& toward o#pro#ise% The stru&&le was arried on in the /n&lish #anner%
1eetin&s and de#onstrations were arran&ed% !n July. 1F((. :ondon witnessed a
de#onstration. the size of whih it had not seen even in the ti#e of @hartis#% The
&overn#ent was finally onvined that onessions were unavoidable%
>e shall now reall that after the July Revolution of 1F3, a stron& #ove#ent for
parlia#entary refor#s had ta+en plae in /n&land% !t had all ul#inated in a
o#pro#ise. the wor+ers were heated in the #ost unpardonable fashion. and the ri&ht
to vote was won only by the industrial bour&eoisie% 7o it happened now% >hen the
&overn#ent saw that its retreat was inevitable. and that the ity wor+ers were in a
threatenin& #ood. it proposed a o#pro#ise 66 the broadenin& of the suffra&e ri&ht to
inlude the ity proletariat%
>e should speify that universal suffra&e #eant universal #ale suffra&e% The &rantin&
of this ri&ht to the wo#en was not even thou&ht of% The o#pro#ise was i##ediately
aepted by the bour&eois #e#bers of the o##ittee of eletoral refor#s% 7uffra&e
was &ranted to wor+ers who had a definite abode. even if it onsisted of one roo#. for
whih they paid a speifi #ini#u# rental% Thus the ri&ht to vote was won by al#ost
all the urban wor+ers. with the e$eption of the very indi&ent ones of who# there were
at the ti#e a onsiderable nu#ber in the /n&lish ities% The rural proletariat still
re#ained without the ri&ht to vote% This lever tri+ was invented b y Disraeli. the
leader of the /n&lish onservatives. and was subsribed to by the bour&eois refor#ers
who persuaded the wor+ers to aept the onessions with the view to a further
stru&&le for an e$tension of the suffra&e% *ut the rural wor+ers had to wait another
twenty years. while the wor+ers without per#anent ho#es were &iven suffra&e only
after the liberalisin& influene of the Revolution of 19,I in Russia%
113
/vents not less i#portant too+ plae in ;er#any in the years 1F(I61F((% ' furious
onflit bro+e out between 8russia and 'ustria% The #ooted 4uestion was he&e#ony
within ;er#any% *is#ar+'s ob0etive was the final e$lusion of 'ustria fro# the
;er#an @onfederation. and the elevation of 8russia to a do#inant plae a#on& the
re#ainin& ;er#an states% This ontroversy developed into an ar#ed onflit between
'ustria and 8russia% !n two or three wee+s 8russia. whih had no sruples about
enterin& into an alliane with !taly a&ainst another ;er#an state. s#ashed 'ustria to
piees and anne$ed several petty ;er#an states whih had been helpin& 'ustria 66 the
Kin&do# of -anover. the free ity of 5ran+fort. the -esse prinipality. et% 'ustria
was definitely thrown out of the ;er#an @onfederation% The ?orth6;er#an
@onfederation headed by 8russia was or&anized% To win the sy#pathies of the
wor+ers. *is#ar+ introdued universal suffra&e%
!n 5rane. ?apoleon was fored to #a+e so#e onessions% ' few laws dealin& with
o#binations of wor+ers were eli#inated fro# the ri#inal ode% The perseution of
eono#i or&anisations. partiularly o6operatives and soieties for #utual aid. was
wea+ened% The #oderate win& a#on& the wor+ers. with its e#phasis on le&al #eans.
was &ainin& stren&th% 3n the other hand *lan4uist or&anisations were &rowin&% These
fou&ht the !nternationalists tooth and nail. ausin& the# of abandonin& revolutionary
ation and of o4uettin& with *onaparte's &overn#ent%
!n 7witzerland. the wor+ers were en&a&ed in their loal affairs and only the e#i&rants
fro# other ountries too+ an interest in the !nternational% The ;er#an setion. headed
by *e+er. whih published the Aorbote. played the role of a entre for that portion of
the wor+ers in ;er#any who. unli+e the :assalleans. adhered to the !nternational%
The @on&ress onvened in ;eneva in 7epte#ber. 1F((. shortly after 8russia had
defeated 'ustria. and the /n&lish wor+ers had won what had then appeared to the# as
a &reat politial vitory over the bour&eoisie% The @on&ress was opened with a sandal%
*esides the 8roudhonists. there a#e fro# 5rane the *lan4uists. who also insisted on
partiipatin& in the wor+ of the @on&ress% These were #ostly students of very
revolutionary tendenies% They ated #ost pertinaiously. althou&h they had no
#andate% They were finally 4uite indeorously thrown outJ it was even ru#oured that
there was an atte#pt to drown the# in the :a+e ;eneva. but this is a fairy tale% *ut the
denoue#ent did not o#e off without the appliation of fisti and pedal ener&y. this
bein& the usual thin& when 5renh#en are e#broiled in a fational fi&ht%
>hen. however. the wor+ was started. a battle royal ourred between the
8roudhonists and the dele&ation of the ;eneral @ounil whih onsisted of /arius
and so#e /n&lish wor+ers% 1ar$ hi#self ould not o#e. he was busy puttin& the
finishin& touhes to the first volu#e of @apital% 5urther#ore. for a si+ #an who was
11H
also under the vi&ilant surveillane of 5renh and ;er#an spies suh a 0ourney would
have been diffiult% *ut 1ar$ wrote a very detailed report for the dele&ation
onernin& all the points to be ta+en up at the @on&ress%
The 5renh dele&ation presented a very painsta+in& report whih was an e$position of
the eono#i ideas of 8roudhon% They delared the#selves to be vi&orously opposed
to wo#an labour. lai#in& that nature itself desi&nated wo#an for a plae near the
fa#ily hearth. and that wo#an's plae is in the ho#e and not the fatory% Delarin&
the#selves definitely opposed to stri+es and to trade unions. they propounded the
ideas of o6operation and partiularly the or&anisation of e$han&e on the priniples of
#utualis#% The first onditions were a&ree#ents entered into by separate o6
operatives. and the establish#ent of free redit% They even insisted that the @on&ress
ratify an or&anisation for international redit. but all they sueeded in doin& was to
have a resolution adopted whih advised all the setions of the !nternational to ta+e up
the study of the 4uestion of redit and the onsolidation of all the wor+ers' loan
assoiations% They even ob0eted to le&islative interferene with the len&th of the
wor+day%
They #et with the opposition of the /n&lish and the ;er#an dele&ates% 8oint by point
they brou&ht forward in the for# of resolutions the orrespondin& parts of 1ar$'s
report%
This report insisted that the hief funtion of the !nternational was the unifiation and
o6ordination of the divers efforts of the wor+in& lass fi&htin& for its interests% !t was
neessary to weave suh ties so that the labourers of the different ountries should not
#erely feel the#selves o#rades in battle but that they should also wor+ as #e#bers
of one ar#y of liberation% !t was neessary to or&anise international aid in ases of
stri+es and to interfere with the free #ove#ent of stri+ebrea+ers fro# one ountry into
another%
's one of the #ost i#portant proble#s. 1ar$ stressed sientifi researh into the
onditions of the wor+in& lass whih should be instituted on the initiative of the
wor+in& lass itself% 'll the olleted #aterials should be direted to the ;eneral
@ounil to be wor+ed over% 1ar$ even indiated briefly the hief points of this
wor+in&6lass in4uiry%
The 4uestion of trade unions provo+ed #ost vehe#ent debates% The 5renh#en
ob0eted to stri+es and to any or&anised resistane to the e#ployers% The wor+ers #ust
see+ their salvation throu&h o6operatives only% The :ondon dele&ates pressed as a
ounter6proposal that setion of 1ar$'s report whih dealt with trade unions% This was
adopted by the @on&ressJ but the sa#e #isunderstandin& ourred here as had with
11I
re&ard to the other re&ulations of the 5irst !nternational% The e$at te$t was not +nown
for a lon& ti#e% The ;er#ans +new it throu&h a very unsatisfatory translation
published in *e+er's AorboteJ the 5renh +new it throu&h an even worse translation%
'll that had been said by 1ar$ in the 8overty of 8hilosophy and in the @o##unist
1anifesto onernin& trade unions as the basi nulei of the lass or&anisation of the
proletariat was restated by hi# in the resolution in a still #ore definite for#% There
were also pointed out the onte#porary proble#s of the trade unions and the defets
that were typial of the# when they where transfor#ed into narrow &uild
or&anisations :et us e$a#ine this a little #ore losely%
-ow did trade unions ori&inateP -ow have they developedP They are the result of the
stru&&le between apital and wa&e labour% !n this stru&&le. the wor+ers find the#selves
in very unfavourable iru#stanes% @apital is a soial fore onentrated and foused
in the hands of the apitalists% The wor+er has only his labour power at his disposal%
Thus all tal+ of a free a&ree#ent between the apitalist and the labourer is #ere ant
and nonsense% >hen the followers of 8roudhon prated of a free and a 0ust a&ree#ent.
they si#ply betrayed their i&norane of the #ehanis# of the apitalist proess of
prodution% 'n a&ree#ent between apital and labour an never be onluded on a 0ust
basis. even aordin& to the #oral standards of a soiety whih plaes the #aterial
#eans neessary for life and labour on one side and the livin& produtive ener&y on
the other% *ehind the individual apitalist there is a soial fore% The only thin& the
wor+ers have with whih to ounterat this fore is nu#bers% *ut this power of
nu#bers. the #ass. is destroyed by a division a#on& the wor+ers. whih is reated and
#aintained by the o#petition for 0obs% Thus the first proble# that onfronted the
wor+in& lass was the eli#ination of o#petition% Thus trade unions arose fro# the
voluntary atte#pts of the wor+ers the#selves to set aside. or at least to #odify. this
o#petition and to ahieve onditions for an a&ree#ent whih would enable the# to
rise above the status of #ere slaves% Their i##ediate proble# was li#ited to ordinary
needs. to the disovery of ways to stall the easeless usurpation of apital. to 4uestions
of wa&es and the nu#ber of wor+in& hours% @ontrary to the assertions of the
8roudhonists. this ativity is not only thorou&hly 0ust. it is also indispensable% !t is
unavoidable while the present syste# of prodution ontinues to e$ist% !t has to &o
further. and beo#e #ore &eneral 'nd this an only be ao#plished throu&h
eduation and international o#binations of wor+ers%
*ut they play another and not less i#portant rare. whih the followers of 8roudhon
understood as little in 1F(( as their teaher had understood it in 1FH7% 2nonsiously.
the trade unions served and still serve as points around whih wor+ers' or&anisations
were and are rystallised% Their funtion is re#inisent of the funtion of the
#uniipalities and the o##unes in the develop#ent of the bour&eoisie% 'nd if they
11(
are indispensable for the &uerrilla war between apital and labour. they are even #ore
i#portant as or&anized fators in the abolition of the very syste# of wa&e labour%
2nfortunately% the trade unions have not yet learly &rasped the full si&nifiane of
this aspet of their role in soial evolution% Too e$lusively absorbed in their loal and
i##ediate stru&&les with apital. the trade unions have not yet fully realised the fore
of their ativity a&ainst the syste# of wa&e slavery% This is why they +ept and still
+eep aloof fro# &eneral and politial #ove#ents%
1ar$ pointed out ertain si&ns whih indiated that the trade unions were apparently
be&innin& to wa+e up to so#e understandin& of their histori #ission% These si&ns he
saw in the partiipation of the /n&lish trade unions in the stru&&le for universal
suffra&e as well as in the resolutions adopted at their onferene in 7heffield
reo##endin& that all the trade unions 0oin the !nternational%
!n onlusion. 1ar$. who until now was diretin& his artillery at the followers of
8roudhon. addressed hi#self to the pure6and6si#ple trade unionists. ritiisin& the#
for their tendeny to li#it the#selves to 4uestions of wa&es and hours% *esides their
pri#ary proble#s. 1ar$ insisted. the unions #ust learn to at as onsious or&anisin&
entres of the wor+in& lass in the interests of its o#plete e#anipation% They #ust
assist any soial or politial #ove#ent whih aspires to this &oal% They #ust re&ard
the#selves as fi&hters and representatives of the entire wor+in& lass and #ust at
aordin&lyJ they should attrat into their ran+s all the wor+ers% They #ust be
indefati&ably soliitous about the interests of the wor+ers in the #ost poorly paid
branhes of industry. as. for instane. the far# labourers who. owin& to the peuliarity
of the onditions under whih they wor+. are onde#ned to i#potene% The trade
unions #ust onvine the entire world. that not only are they not narrow and selfish.
but that. on the ontrary. their ob0etive is the settin& free of oppressed #illions%
'lto&ether. the debates at the ;eneva @on&ress onernin& trade unions were of &reat
interest% The :ondon dele&ates defended their position very ably% To the# the
resolution was a #ere dedution fro# 1ar$'s e$haustive report whih. unfortunately.
was +nown only to the#% /ven when the 4uestions that were to be brou&ht before the
@on&ress had been disussed by the ;eneral @ounil. there spran& up serious
disa&ree#ents% 1ar$. therefore. proeeded to deliver before the @ounil the detailed
report in whih he had larified the si&nifiane of trade unions in the apitalist
proess of prodution% -e too+ advanta&e of this opportunity to present to his
audiene. in a very popular for#. his new theory of value and surplus value. to e$plain
to the# the interrelation of wa&es. profits. and pries% The #inutes of these #eetin&s
of the ;eneral @ounil i#press one with their profound seriousness of whih #any a
117
learned bour&eois institution #i&ht be envious% The wei&ht of all this sholarship and
siene was bein& offered in the servie of the wor+in& lass%
?ot less s+illfully did the :ondon dele&ates defend 1ar$'s resolution onernin& the
ei&ht6hour day% !n ontradistintion to the 5renh dele&ates. they #aintained to&ether
with 1ar$ that a ondition preedent to any further efforts to i#prove and liberate the
wor+in& lass and without whih all efforts would be futile was a le&islative li#itation
of the len&th of the wor+in& day% !t was essential to restore the health and the physial
ener&y of the wor+in& lass 66 the vast #a0ority of eah nation 66 and also to insure
the# the possibility of intelletual develop#ent. soial o##union. and politial
ativity% The @on&ress. on the reo##endation of the ;eneral @ounil. delared the
ei&ht6hour day as the le&islative #a$i#u#% This li#itin& of the wor+day to ei&ht hours
was one of the de#ands of the wor+ers in the 2nited 7tates% The ;eneva @on&ress
inorporated this de#and into the platfor# of the wor+in& lass of the whole world%
?i&ht wor+ was allowed only in e$eptional ases. in branhes of industry and ertain
professions definitely speified by the law% The ideal was the eli#ination of all ni&ht
wor+%
!t is re&rettable that 1ar$ did not e$patiate upon the 4uestion of wo#an labour in his
report% -e dee#ed it suffiient to say that the entire para&raph dealin& with a shorter
wor+day applied to all #ature wor+ers. wo#en as well as #en. with the additional
provision that wo#en were not to be ad#itted to any ni&ht wor+. or to any other wor+
whih would be ruinous for the fe#ale or&anis#. or whih would sub0et it to the
ation of poisonous or &enerally har#ful substanes% 'nd sine the #a0ority of the
5renh and 7wiss dele&ates had delared the#selves a&ainst any fe#ale labour. the
@on&ress found it easy to aept 1ar$'s thesis and to pass the resolution proposed by
the 5renh#en% Thus the result was that it would be best to prohibit wo#an labour. but
sine it was still in use. it was neessary to +eep it within the li#its su&&ested by
1ar$%
1ar$'s propositions pertainin& to hild and adolesent labour were adopted in toto
without any 8roudhonist additions or #odifiations% -ere it was su&&ested that the
tendeny of #odern industry to attrat hildren and adolesents of both se$es into a
partiipation in the &reat tas+s of soial prodution was pro&ressive. wholeso#e. and
le&iti#ate. despite the fat that under apitalis# it de&enerated into a horrible evil% !n a
rationally or&anised soiety. 1ar$ thou&ht. every hild fro# the a&e of nine upward
#ust en&a&e in produtive labour. 0ust as no physially able adult an be released fro#
a sub#ission to the law of nature whih de#ands physial and #ental wor+ fro# those
who want to live% !n onnetion with this 4uestion 1ar$ proposed an elaborate
pro&ra##e to o#bine physial and #ental labour% 7piritual and physial
11F
develop#ent plus a tehnial eduation whih would &ive the hildren a &rasp of the
sientifi priniples involved in #odern prodution 66 all this entered into his plan%
!n his report 1ar$ also touhed upon the proble# of ooperatives% -e here too+
oasion not #erely to destroy the illusions onernin& pure o6operatives. but to point
out the onditions anteedent to a suessful o6operative #ove#ent% 's in the
!nau&ural 'ddress. here too he preferred produers' to onsu#ers' o6operatives%
)Restrited. however. to the dwarfish for#s into whih individual wa&e slaves
an elaborate it by their private efforts. the o6operative syste# will never
transfor# apitalisti soiety% To onvert soial prodution into one lar&e and
har#onious syste# of free and o6operative labour. &eneral soial han&es are
wanted. han&es of the &eneral onditions of soiety. never to be realised save by
the transfer of the or&anised fores of soiety. viz9 the state power fro#
apitalists and landlords to the produers the#selves%)

>e see that here too 1ar$ was e#phasisin& the neessity for the wor+in& lass to win
politial power for itself% The pro0et of the @onstitution. with whih we have already
beo#e a4uainted. was aepted without any #odifiations% The efforts of the 5renh
dele&ates. who had already raised this 4uestion at the :ondon onferene. to interpret
the word )wor+) to #ean only physial wor+ and thus to e$lude the representatives of
intelletual labour. #et with a stron& opposition% The /n&lish dele&ates delared that
should suh a proposition be adopted. 1ar$. who had done so #uh for the
!nternational. would be a#on& the first ones to be shut out%
The ;eneva @on&ress effeted a olossal propa&anda weapon% 'll the resolutions
passed by this @on&ress whih for#ulated the basi de#ands of the proletariat and
whih were al#ost e$lusively written by 1ar$. entered into the pratial #ini#u#
pro&ra##es of all wor+in&6lass parties% The @on&ress #et with war# response fro#
all ountries. inludin& Russia% !t was i##ediately after the ;eneva @on&ress. whih
had &iven suh a powerful sti#ulus to the develop#ent of the international labour
#ove#ent. that the !nternational won &reat popularity for itself% 7o#e bour&eois6
de#orati or&anisations direted their attention to the !nternational. intendin& to
utilise it for their own purposes%
't the ne$t @on&ress. in :ausanne <1F(7=. a stru&&le bro+e out as to whether the new
international soiety. the :ea&ue for 8eae and 5reedo#. should be per#itted to
partiipate in the ne$t @on&ress% Those who were for partiipation won% 3nly at the
followin& @on&ress. at *russels <1F(F=. did the point of view of the ;eneral @ounil
triu#ph% !t was deided to su&&est to the :ea&ue that it 0oin the !nternational. and that
its #e#bers enter as a setion of the !nternational%
119
1ar$ was not present at these two @on&resses either% *efore the :ausanne @on&ress
o#pleted its wor+. the first volu#e of @apital was published% The *russels @on&ress.
at the su&&estion of the ;er#an dele&ation. passed a resolution whih ur&ed the
wor+ers of the different ountries to study @apital% The resolution pointed out that to
1ar$ belon&ed the honour of bein& )the first eono#ist who sub0eted apital to a
sientifi analysis and who redued it to its basi ele#ents%)
The *russels @on&ress also too+ up the 4uestion dealin& with the influene of
#ahinery on the onditions of the wor+in& lass. stri+es. and private ownership of
land% Resolutions were adopted in a spirit of o#pro#ise% ?evertheless it was here that
the point of view of soialis#. or olletivis# as it was then alled. won over the
5renh dele&ates% The neessity for a transition to olletive ownership of the #eans of
transportation and o##uniation as well as of land was now learly reo&nised% !n its
final for# this resolution was adopted by the @on&ress at *asle <1F(9=%
7ine the :ausanne @on&ress the entral politial 4uestion in the !nternational was
war and its prevention% 'fter the war of 1F((. after 8russia's vitory over 'ustria. the
opinion was urrent that the inevitable onse4uene would be an ar#ed onflit
between 5rane and 8russia% !n 1F(7 the relations between these two ountries reahed
a ruial sta&e% ?apoleon's position bea#e very inseure as a result of the
unsuessful olonial adventures into whih he plun&ed in the hope of raisin& his
presti&e% 't the insti&ation of several powerful finaniers he ontrived an e$pedition
into 1e$io% This provo+ed &reat irritation in the 2nited 7tates. whih &uarded #ost
0ealously a&ainst any infrin&e#ent of the 1onroe Dotrine% ?apoleon's pro0et a#e
to a dis&raeful end% Thin&s had to be pathed up in /urope% *ut there. too. failure
haunted hi#% -avin& been o#pelled to #a+e onessions in internal politis. he was
hopin& that a suessful anne$ation in /urope whih would round out the do#inions
of 5rane would doubtless stren&then his position% Thus in 1F(7 there arose the
:u$e#bour& 'ffair% 'fter various unsuessful atte#pts to lay hands on so#e territory
on the left ban+ of the Rhine. ?apoleon tried to buy fro# -olland the ;rand Duhy of
:u$e#bour&% 2p to 1F(( it had belon&ed to the ;er#an 2nion. but it was ruled by the
Kin& of -olland% ' 8russian &arrison whih had for#erly been stationed there was
fored to leave% ?ews of the bar&ain between ?apoleon and -olland reated &reat
o##otion a#on& the ;er#an patriots% There were ru#ours of war% ?apoleon.
alulatin& that he was not yet fully ready for it. turned ba+% -is presti&e suffered a
ruial blow% -e a&ain had to reede before the risin& wave of opposition%
Toward the ti#e of the *russels @on&ress the situation in /urope bea#e so aute that
war see#ed i##inent% The feelin& prevailed that it would brea+ out as soon as 5rane
and 8russia o#pleted their preparations and found a onvenient prete$t% The
perple$in& proble# of how to prevent the war. whih. it was well understood. would
12,
seriously in0ure the interests of the 5renh and the ;er#an wor+ers. was upper#ost in
the #inds of the proletariat% The proletarian #ove#ent was &rowin& rapidly.
partiularly on the ontinent% Therefore the !nternational. whih by 1F(F had
developed into a redoubtable fore at the head of the international wor+ers' #ove#ent.
ould not help beo#in& &reatly involved in the 4uestion% 'fter a series of heated
debates in whih so#e insisted that in ase of war. it would be neessary to all a
&eneral stri+e. while others #aintained that only soialis# ould brin& an end to all
war. the *russels @on&ress adopted a rather absurd resolution whih was the result of a
o#pro#ise%
*ut sine. toward the su##er of 1F(9. the phanto# of war had te#porarily
disappeared. eono#i and soial proble#s rose to the top at the *asle @on&ress% The
4uestion onernin& the o6operate ownership of all of the #eans of prodution whih
had already been superfiially disussed by the *russels @on&ress. was now for the
first ti#e put s4uarely before the dele&ates% Those who were opposed to private
ownership of land won a sweepin& vitory% The followers of 8roudhon were
irrevoably swa#ped% ?ew dissensions. however. arose at the @on&ress% !t was at
*asle that the fa#ous *a+unin first #ade his appearane as the representative of a
separate #ove#ent%
>here did he o#e fro#P >e have already #et hi# in *erlin at the be&innin& of the
forties% >e +now that he had been influened by the sa#e philosophi urrents whih
had influened 1ar$ and /n&els% !n 1FHF he was onneted with those of the ;er#an
e#i&rants in 8aris who had or&anised a revolutionary le&ion in order to invade
;er#any% Durin& the revolution itself he was in *ohe#ia where he was tryin& to unite
the 7lav revolutionists% -e later too+ a part in the insurretion of the 7a$on
revolutionists at Dresden. was arrested. onde#ned to death. but handed over to
?iholas !. who inarerated hi# in the 7hlusselbur& fortress% ' few years later. in the
rei&n of 'le$ander !!. he was e$iled to 7iberia fro# whih he esaped. #a+in& his way
throu&h Japan and '#eria ba+ to /urope% This happened in 1F(2% 't first he plun&ed
into Russian affairs. 0oined 'le$ander -erzen <1F1261F7,= wrote a few pa#phlets
dealin& with 7lav and Russian 4uestions and in whih he a&ain insisted upon the
neessity of a revolutionary alliane of the 7lavs. and #ade an unsuessful atte#pt to
0oin the 8olish insurretion% !n 1F(H he #et 1ar$ in :ondon. fro# who# he learned of
the foundin& of the !nternational and to who# he pro#ised his o6operation% -e left
for !taly. however. where he bea#e en&rossed in so#ethin& entirely different%
*a+unin now held the sa#e view that he had in 1FHF. that is that 1ar$ e$a&&erated the
i#portane of the wor+in& lass% 'ordin& to hi#. the intelli&entsia. the student lass.
the representatives of the bour&eois de#oray. partiularly fro# a#on& the #iddle
lasses. were a #uh stron&er revolutionary ele#ent% >hile the !nternational was
stru&&lin& with the diffiulties it was at first enounterin& and was &radually beo#in&
121
the #ost influential international or&anisation. *a+unin was tryin& to or&anise his own
revolutionary soiety in !taly% -e then #i&rated to 7witzerland. and there 0oined the
bour&eois :ea&ue for 8eae and 5reedo#. and was even eleted to the entral
o##ittee of that or&anisation% !n 1F(F he left the :ea&ue. but instead of 0oinin& the
!nternational. he and his friends founded a new soiety. the !nternational 7oial6
De#orati 'lliane. whih a#e to be &enerally +nown as the 'lliane%
The new soiety too+ a hi&hly revolutionary stand% !t delared i#plaable war upon
;od and the 7tate% !t de#anded of its #e#bers that they be atheists% The eono#i
pro&ra##e was not distin&uished by any partiular larity% !t de#anded the eono#i
and soial levellin& of all lasses% Despite its revolutionary harater. the new
or&anisation did not even propose a onsistent soialist pro&ra##eJ it onfined itself
to a de#and for the abolition of the ri&ht of inheritane% 'n$ious not to fri&hten away
#e#bers of other lasses. it was areful not to stress its definite lass harater% The
new soiety applied to the ;eneral @ounil that it be ta+en into the !nternational as a
separate or&anisation. with its own onstitution and its own pro&ra##e%
>e are now approahin& the #ost e#barrassin& point% 7ine 1ar$ wielded a &reat
influene in the ;eneral @ounil. he is usually held responsible for all the deisions
that were #ade by the @ounil% 'lthou&h this is not always orret. in this ase 1ar$
was hiefly responsible% Thus. if we should believe not only *a+unin's partisans but
even those 1ar$ists who are inlined to defend the &reat bun&ler. thou&h very sinere
revolutionist. *a+unin. 1ar$ ated too preipitously when he insisted upon a deisive
refusal% >e. of ourse. are not so soft6hearted as to feel that the refusal to ad#it into
the !nternational a &roup that was &uilty of hobnobbin& with the bour&eoisie was too
pere#ptory%
:et us reall another iru#stane% *a+unin sent the pro&ra##e of the new 'lliane
to 1ar$J he also #ailed a personal letter under separate over% This was about four
years after *a+unin had written fro# !taly pro#isin& to wor+ for the !nternational% !t
was now dislosed that not only did he not +eep his pro#ise. but that he even e$erted
all his stren&th in favour of a bour&eois #ove#ent% True. he wrote that he now
understood better than he ever had before how ri&ht 1ar$ was in havin& hosen the
broad hi&hway of eono#i revolutionJ he ridiuled those who wandered astray alon&
the path of purely national and politial enterprises% -e added with pathos9
)7ine ta+in& leave sole#nly and publily fro# the bour&eoisie at the *erne
@on&ress. ! no lon&er +now any other soiety. any other environ#ent. than the
world of the wor+ers% 1y ountry is now the !nternational. of whih you are one
of the #ost i#portant founders% 7o you see. #y dear friend. that ! a# your
disiple. and proud of #y title%)
122

This letter always evo+es fro# *a+unin's friends tears of tenderness and a feelin& of
indi&nation a&ainst the heartless 1ar$ who so relentlessly pushed away the hand that
was strethed out to hi#% /ven 1ehrin& re#ar+ed that there were no reasons to doubt
the sinerity of these assuranes%
>e do not wish to doubt *a+unin's sinerity% *ut let us try to plae ourselves in
1ar$'s predia#ent% -e was. to be sure. a hard #an. but even 1ehrin& would have to
ad#it that up to the end of 1F(F his attitude toward *a+unin was that of e$tre#e
tolerane% The #ere readin& of it should #a+e it plain why this senti#ental letter
should have appeared very unonvinin& to 1ar$% !t was written not by a youn&ster.
but by a #an who was in his fifties. who one 0oined the )proletarian world) only to
desert it in favour of the )bour&eois world%) ?ow. after havin& bothered with it for four
years. and after havin& beo#e o#pletely disenhanted. he wished to stride )alon&
the broad hi&hway) a&ain by 0oinin& the !nternational. and advaned the #ost
inon&ruous lai#s% 1ar$. who had aepted *a+unin too trustin&ly in 1F(H. was now
#ore areful% -e was proved to have been ri&ht%
>hen the ;eneral @ounil ate&orially refused *a+unin's re4uest. the latter
announed that his soiety resolved to disband and to transfor# its setions. whih
would ontinue to hold to their own theoretial pro&ra##e. into setions of the
!nternational% The ;eneral @ounil a&reed to ad#it the setions of the for#er 'lliane
only on a o##on basis%
!t would see# that everythin& turned out well% *ut noJ very soon 1ar$ developed
well6founded suspiions that *a+unin had si#ply deeived the ;eneral @ounil. that
havin& offiially disbanded his soiety. in reality he left its entral or&anisation intat
for the purpose of subse4uently apturin& the !nternational% This is the ru$ of the
whole ontroversy% >e #i&ht ad#it that 1ar$ was not a &ood6natured #an. and that
*a+unin was very &ood. even an&eli% This is beside the point% >e have +nown for a
lon& ti#e that *a+unin was &uilty of sundry little sins% 'll #en are sinful% *a+unin's
defenders have to answer definitely9 >as there or was there not suh a seret
or&anisation in e$isteneP Did or did not *a+unin per#it hi#self to deeive the
;eneral @ounil when he assured it that he had disbanded his or&anisationP
?otwithstandin& our love for 1ar$. we would a&ree with *a+unin's friends in their
assertion that *a+unin was #aliiously slandered. had his friend. the historian of the
!nternational. the late ;uillau#e. proved that all this was #ere fition% 2nfortunately.
the 'lliane ontinued to e$ist and to ondut a stubborn battle with the !nternational%
The lovable and &ood *a+unin did not hesitate to resort to any #eans whih he
dee#ed neessary for the ao#plish#ent of his ends% >e shall not hold it a&ainst
hi#% Bet it appears ridiulous to see his ad#irers endeavour to #a+e of hi# a #an who
123
never had reourse to 4uestionable #eans and who. as one of his ad#irers assures us.
was never &uilty of any insinerity%
>hat then was the end whih *a+unin felt would 0ustify all the #eansP The
destrution of bour&eois soiety. the soial revolution 66 this was what *a+unin aspired
to% *ut 1ar$'s &oal was preisely the sa#e% The disrepany #ust have arisen in a
different do#ain% !n reality this sharp diver&ene between 1ar$ and *a+unin involves
the #ethodolo&y of revolution%
5irst destroy. and then everythin& will ta+e are of itself% Destroy 66 the sooner. the
better% !t would be suffiient to stir up the revolutionary intelli&entsia and the wor+ers
e#bittered throu&h want% The only thin& needed would be a &roup o#posed of
deter#ined people with the de#on of revolution in their souls% This was essentially the
whole of *a+unin's teahin&s% 3n the surfae it rese#bled >eitlin&'s teahin&s% *ut
the rese#blane was only superfiial. as was its rese#blane with *lan4ui's teahin&s%
The ru$ of the #atter was that *a+unin did not want even to hear of the proletarian
seizure of power% -e denied any for# of politial stru&&le insofar as it had to be
onduted on the &round of the e$istin& bour&eois soiety and was onerned with the
reation of #ore favourable onditions for the lass or&anisation of the proletariat%
That was why 1ar$ and all the others who dee#ed the politial stru&&le and the
or&anisation of the proletariat for the on4uest of politial power indispensable.
appeared to *a+unin and his disiples as wrethed opportunists who hindered the
o#in& of the soial revolution% That was also why the *a+uninists were so ready to
seize the opportunity of representin& 1ar$ as a #an who in order to #aterialise his
ideas would not hesitate to for&e the @onstitution of the !nternational% 8ublily. in
irulars and letters. the *a+uninists abused 1ar$ in the #ost vile lan&ua&eJ they did
not disdain anti6se#iti ats. or even suh absurd har&es as. for instane. 1ar$'s
bein& the a&ent of *is#ar+%
*a+unin had onnetions in !taly and 7witzerland% !n the 5renh re&ion of
7witzerland partiularly he had #any followers% >e annot at this point &o into a
detailed study of the auses of this pheno#enon% -is propa&anda was partiularly
suessful a#on& the i#ported labourers and the s+illed wath#a+ers who were
be&innin& to suffer fro# the o#petition of the developin& industries%
*a+unin a#e to the *asle @on&ress ba+ed by a onsiderable &roup% 's often
happens in suh ases. the first s+ir#ish bro+e out on entirely different &rounds%
*a+unin. who had always been vehe#ently opposed to any opportunis#. was
espeially pertinaious in de#andin& the i##ediate abolition of the inheritane ri&ht%
The dele&ates fro# the ;eneral @ounil insisted that suh a #easure was. as had been
indiated in the @o##unist 1anifesto. i#portant #erely as a transition #easure whih
12H
the proletariat would realise on seizin& politial power% 1eanwhile it would be
suffiient to attain a &reater ta$ on wealth and a li#ited ri&ht of inheritane% *a+unin.
however. too+ neither lo&i nor iru#stanes into onsideration% 5or hi# this de#and
was i#portant fro# the propa&anda point of view% >hen it a#e to a vote neither of
the resolutions had enou&h of a #a0ority% 'nother onflit arose between *a+unin and
:ieb+neht% !t happened that at the *asle @on&ress a new and si&nifiant ;er#an
&roup #ade its appearane for the first ti#e% 'bout this ti#e >ilhel# :ieb+neht and
'u&ust *ebel. after a furious fational stru&&le with 7hweitzer. had sueeded in
or&anisin& a separate party whih had adopted at its onstituent onvention at /isenah
<1F(9= the pro&ra##e of the !nternational% *a+unin's ativity in the :ea&ue for 8eae
and 5reedo# and his old 8an67lavi views were thorou&hly thrashed out and
unfavourably ritiised in the entral or&an of this party% 1ehrin& points out that 1ar$
personally e$pressed hi#self a&ainst this severe ritiis#. but. as we have seen in the
Ao&t episode. he was always held responsible for any at of the 1ar$ists% *a+unin
utilised the @on&ress to aven&e hi#self on :ieb+neht% The whole affair ended in a
te#porary reoniliation%
The ne$t @on&ress was supposed to ta+e plae in ;er#any% !t never onvened%
!##ediately after the *asle @on&ress the politial at#osphere bea#e so dense. that
an outbrea+ of war ould be e$peted at any #o#ent% *is#ar+. one of the &reatest
tri+sters in the history of the world. leverly duped his for#er teaher. ?apoleon%
-avin& thorou&hly prepared ;er#any for war. he so turned the tables that in view of
the whole world. 5rane appeared the a&&ressor%
>hen war atually did brea+ out <July 19. 1F7,=. it was 4uite une$peted% ?either the
5renh nor the ;er#an wor+ers found the#selves able to prevent it% ' few days after
the delaration of war <July 23= the ;eneral @ounil published the prola#ation
written by 1ar$%
!t be&an with a 4uotation fro# the !nau&ural 'ddress of the !nternational in whih
was onde#ned
)a forei&n poliy in pursuit of ri#inal desi&ns. playin& upon national pre0udies
and s4uanderin& in piratial wars the people's blood and treasure%)

Then followed a sathin& indit#ent of ?apoleon% 1ar$ presented a o#pat piture
of his fi&ht a&ainst the !nternational whih bea#e even #ore vehe#ent after the
5renh !nternationalists had inreased the sope of their violent a&itation a&ainst
?apoleon% >hihever side wins. added 1ar$. the last hour of the 7eond /#pire had
stru+% The end of the /#pire li+e its be&innin& will be a parody%
12I
*ut was the &uilt only ?apoleon'sP ?ot in the least% >e #ust bear in #ind that the
various &overn#ents and the rulin& lasses of /urope had for ei&hteen years aided
*onaparte in playin& the o#edy of a reonstruted /#pire%
1ar$. a ;er#an hi#self. severely atta+ed his own ountry% 5ro# the ;er#an point
of view this was a war of defene% *ut who had plaed ;er#any in a situation whih
would re4uire defeneP >ho evo+ed in ?apoleon the te#ptation to atta+ ;er#anyP
8russia% 7he had entered into an a&ree#ent with ?apoleon a&ainst 'ustria% 7hould
8russia be defeated. 5rane would flood ;er#any with 5renh soldiers% *ut what had
8russia herself done after her vitory over 'ustriaP !nstead of opposin& enslaved
5rane with a liberated ;er#any. she not only preserved all the har#s of the old
8russian re&i#e. but she even &rafted onto it all the harateristi features of the
*onaparte re&i#e%
The first deisive phase of the war ter#inated with a#azin& rapidity% The 5renh ar#y
proved to be entirely unprepared% @ontrary to the boastful delaration of the 5renh
1inister of >ar that everythin& was ready to the last button. it bea#e evident that if
there really were buttons there was nothin& to whih these buttons ould be attahed%
!n about si$ wee+s the re&ular 5renh ar#y was defeated% 3n 7epte#ber 2. ?apoleon
had already &iven up both hi#self and the &reat fortress of 7edan% 3n 7epte#ber H. a
republi was delared in 8aris% ?otwithstandin& 8russia's delaration that she was
fi&htin& the /#pire. the war ontinued% !t passed into the seond. #ore prolon&ed and
#ore stubborn phase%
!##ediately upon the prola#ation of a Republi in 5rane. the ;eneral @ounil
issued its seond 1anifesto onernin& the war <7epte#ber 9. 1F7,=% !t was a&ain
written by 1ar$. and by its profound analysis of the histori #o#ent. and its veritable
propheti insi&ht. it represented one of the #ost inspired piees of 1ar$'s writin&s%
>e shall reall now that 1ar$ had pro&nostiated even in the first 1anifesto that this
war would lead to the destrution of the 7eond /#pire% The seond 1anifesto started
out with a referene to this foreast% ?ot less orret was the ritiis# he had
previously #ade of 8russian forei&n poliy% The so6alled defensive war de&enerated
into a war on the 5renh people% :on& before the fall of 7edan and the apture of
?apoleon. as soon as the inredible disinte&ration of *onaparte's ar#y had beo#e a
+nown fat. the 8russian #ilitary a#arilla delared itself in favour of a poliy of
on4uest% 1ar$ e$posed the hyporitial behaviour of the liberal ;er#an bour&eoisie%
2tilisin& the infor#ation supplied by /n&els. who as a speialist had been assiduously
followin& up the develop#ent of the war and had foretold the fall of 7edan. 1ar$
e$posed the fallaious #ilitary ar&u#ents advaned by *is#ar+ and the 8russian
&enerals in 0ustifiation of the anne$ation of 'lsae and :orraine%
12(
*ein& opposed to any anne$ations or inde#nities. he #aintained that suh a fored
peae would lead to another war%
5rane would want to re&ain what she had lost and would see+ an alliane with
Russia% Tsarist Russia whih had lost its he&e#ony after the @ri#ean >ar would a&ain
beo#e the arbiter of the destinies of /urope% This inspired prophey. this foresi&ht of
the diretion /uropean history would ta+e. is a stri+in& and pratial proof of the
essential truth of the #aterialist oneption of history. !t is onluded in the followin&
words9
)Do the Teuton patriots really believe that liberty and peae will be &uaranteed to
;er#any by forin& 5rane into the ar#s of RussiaP !f the fortune of her ar#s.
the arro&ane of suess. and dynasti intri&ue lead ;er#any to a
dis#e#ber#ent of 5rane. there will then only re#ain two ourses open to her%
7he #ust at all ris+s beo#e the avowed tool of Russian a&&randise#ent. or.
after so#e short respite. #a+e a&ain ready for another 'defensive' war. not one of
those new6fan&led 'loalised' wars. but a war of raes 66 a war with the o#bined
7lavonian and Ro#an raes%)

3ur onte#porary ;er#an patriots were fated to see this prophey o#e true to the
last letter%
The 1anifesto was onluded with an e$position of the pratial proble#s that were
then onfrontin& the wor+in&6lass% The ;er#an wor+ers were ur&ed to de#and an
honourable peae and the reo&nition of the 5renh Republi% The 5renh wor+ers.
who were in even #ore diffiult straits. were advised to wath the bour&eois
republians vi&ilantly and to utilise the Republi for the purpose of rapidly developin&
their lass or&anisation and ahievin& their e#anipation%
!##ediate events fully 0ustified 1ar$'s distrust of the 5renh republians% Their
onte#ptible ondut and their readiness to enter into an a&ree#ent with *is#ar+
rather than #a+e the sli&htest onession to the wor+in& lass. brou&ht about the 8aris
@o##une <1arh 1F to 1ay 29. 1F71=% 'fter a heroi stru&&le that lasted three
#onths. this first e$peri#ent in the ditatorship of the proletariat under #ost
unfavourable onditions. failed% The ;eneral @ounil was not in a position to &ive the
5renh#en the neessary help% The 5renh and ;er#an ar#ies ut 8aris fro# the rest
of 5rane and the rest of the world% The @o##une. indeed. awa+ened universal
sy#pathy% There were revolutionary responses even in re#ote Russia%
Durin& the e$istene of the @o##une 1ar$ tried to +eep up o##uniation with
!nternationalists in 8aris% ' few days after the defeat of the @o##une 1ar$ wrote at
127
the re4uest of the ;eneral @ounil the now fa#ous 'ddress F -e stepped forth in
defene of the 8aris o##unards who were #ali&ned by the entire bour&eois press% -e
showed that the 8aris @o##une was a olossal step forward in the evolution of the
proletarian #ove#ent. that it was the prototype of the proletarian state whih would
underta+e the realisation of o##unis#% :on& before. as a result of the e$periene of
the Revolution of 1FHF. 1ar$ had o#e to the onlusion that the wor+in& lass. after
havin& seized power. ould not si#ply lay hold of the bour&eois apparatus of the state.
but that it would first have to de#olish this bureaurati #ahine and the polie fore
upon whih it rested% The e$periene of the @o##une proved to hi# the soundness of
his onvition% !t proved that havin& seized power. the proletariat was fored to reate
its own #ahinery of state adapted to its own needs% The sa#e e$periene of the
@o##une also showed that the proletarian state annot e$ist within the li#its of even
a entral ity% The power of the proletariat #ust e#brae the whole ountry for it to
have any hanes of beo#in& stren&thenedJ it #ust sweep over a nu#ber of apitalist
ountries in order to be assured of a final vitory%
*a+unin and his followers arrived at entirely different onlusions% Their opposition
to politis and the state bea#e even #ore fervent% They ur&ed the reation of
o##unes in separate towns as soon as possibleJ these o##unes would inspire other
towns to follow suit%
The defeat of the @o##une brou&ht about very unfavourable onse4uenes upon the
!nternational itself% The 5renh labour #ove#ent was paralysed for a few years% !t was
represented in the !nternational by a host of o##unard refu&ees a#on&st who# bitter
fational strife was ra&in&% This strife was arried over into the ;eneral @ounil%
The ;er#an labour #ove#ent also suffered a serious setba+% *ebel and :ieb+neht.
who protested a&ainst the anne$ation of 'lsae6:orraine. and who had delared their
solidarity with the 8aris @o##une. were arrested and onde#ned to onfine#ent in a
fortress% 7hweitzer who had lost the onfidene of the party was fored to leave it%
The followers of :ieb+neht and *ebel. the so6alled /isenahers. ontinued to wor+
independently of the :assalleans% These be&an to draw nearer to eah other only after
the &overn#ent had swooped down with e4ual feroity upon the two onflitin&
fations% The !nternational thus lost support fro# the two &reatest ountries on the
ontinent%
1oreover. there was a brea+ in the /n&lish labour #ove#ent too% The war between
the two #ost industrialised ontinental ountries had benefited the /n&lish bour&eoisie
not less than the last /uropean war benefited the '#erian% !t was able now to &ive
so#e share of its enor#ous profits to nu#erous wor+ers in the hief industries% The
trade unions &ained a &reater freedo# of ation% 7everal of the old laws that had ai#ed
12F
a&ainst the unions were abolished% 'll this had its effet on a few of the #e#bers of
the ;eneral @ounil. whih had been playin& an i#portant part in the trade6union
#ove#ent% To the e$tent with whih the !nternational was beo#in& #ore radial. to
the sa#e e$tent were #any of the unions &rowin& #ore and #ore #oderate% 2tilisin&
their position for personal advanta&es. they ontinued to be #e#bers of the ;eneral
@ounil only in for#% The @o##une and the bitter atta+s it aused to be brou&ht
upon the !nternational fri&htened the#% 'lthou&h the 1anifesto dealin& with the 8aris
@o##une had been written by 1ar$ at the re4uest of the ;eneral @ounil. these
#e#bers hastened to renoune their assoiation with it% This aused a shis# in the
/n&lish setion of the !nternational%
These were the iru#stanes under whih in 7epte#ber. 1F71. a onferene of the
!nternational was alled in :ondon% Two hief 4uestions were ta+en up at this
onferene. one of whih was the perple$in& 4uestion onernin& the stru&&le on the
politial field% !n onnetion with this. the 4uestion of 1ar$'s for&in& the @onstitution
of the !nternational. whih was pressed by the *a+uninists. was a&ain ta+en up% The
answer &iven by the resolution adopted. left not a shadow of a doubt% !t indiated the
o#plete defeat of the *a+uninists% 's it is not widely +nown. we shall ite the
onludin& para&raphs9
)!n presene of an unbridled reation whih violently rushes every effort at
e#anipation on the part of the wor+in& #en. and pretends to #aintain by brute
fore the distintion of lasses and the politial do#ination of the propertied
lasses resultin& fro# itJ %%%
)That this onstitution of the wor+in& lass into a politial party is indispensable
in order to insure the triu#ph of the soial Revolution and its ulti#ate end 66 the
abolition of lassesJ
)That the o#bination of fores whih the wor+in& lass has already effeted by
its eono#ial stru&&les ou&ht at the sa#e ti#e to serve as a lever for its
stru&&les a&ainst the politial powers of landlords and apitalists 66
)The @onferene realls to the #e#bers of the !nternational9
)That in the #ilitant state of the wor+in& lass% its eono#ial #ove#ent and its
politial ation are indissolubly united%)
The onferene had to enounter the *a+uninists on another sore% The onvition
that. despite *a+unin's protestations. his seret soiety ontinued to e$ist bea#e
fir#ly established in the ;eneral @ounil% The onferene therefore adopted a
resolution whih prohibited any or&anisation with an independent pro&ra##e to
129
funtion within the body of the !nternational% !n onnetion with this the onferene
a&ain too+ o&nisane of the *a+uninists' delaration that the 'lliane was disbanded
and announed that the inident was losed%
*ut there was still another re&ulation whih was intended to ause the diso#fiture of
*a+unin and his Russian followers% The onferene resolved to delare in the #ost
ate&orial #anner that the !nternational had nothin& to do with the ?iethayev affair.
that ?iethayev had falsely appropriated and utilised the na#e of the !nternational%
This deision was direted e$lusively at *a+unin. who. as was well +nown. had been
for a lon& ti#e onneted with ?iethayev. the Russian revolutionist who had fled
fro# Russia in 1arh. 1F(9% !n the 5all of the sa#e year ?iethayev returned to
Russia and with *a+unin's authority or&anised a speial *a+uninist &roup% 7uspetin&
a ertain student. !vanov. of bein& a &overn#ent spy. ?iethayev. aided by so#e of his
o#rades. #urdered hi# and a&ain fled to /urope% Those arrested in onnetion with
this affair were put on trial in the su##er of 1F71% 't the trial the proseution #ade
publi #any dou#ents in whih there was hopeless onfusion as to the relation of
*a+unin's soiety and its Russian branh with the !nternational% !t is enou&h to
o#pare these dou#ents with *a+unin's writin&s definitely to establish their
authorship% These dou#ents differed fro# his prola#ations addressed to his
/uropean o#rades by their &reater fran+ness% The passa&es orreted and added by
?iethayev ould be easily distin&uished by the &reater oarseness and arelessness of
presentation%
This affair has been &enerally interpreted in the followin& way% *a+unin. it had been
lai#ed. fell under the influene of ?iethayev who tri+ed hi# and used hi# for his
own purposes%
!ndeed. ?iethayev. a poorly eduated #an. who re0eted all theory as sterile. was
endowed with e$traordinary ener&y. an iron will. and an unsha+able devotion to the
revolution% 't the trial and in prison he showed his staunh #anliness and his
un4uenhable hatred for the oppressors and the e$ plotters of the people% Ready to do
anythin&. re&ardin& any #eans &ood if he thou&ht they would help hi# reah the &oal
to whih he had dediated his life. he never stooped to baseness for personal reasons%
!n this respet he was ino#parably superior to *a+unin. the latter never havin&
hesitated to enter into any deals if they furthered his personal ai#s% ?iethayev's #oral
superiority is beyond doubt% /verythin& points to the fat that *a+unin hi#self was
fully onsious of this. else how ould *a+unin respet and value so hi&hly a #an who
was his intelletual inferior%
Bet it would have been naive to dedue fro# all this that ?iethayev had i#posed his
revolutionary views on *a+unin% The onverse is #ore nearly the truthJ he was a
13,
disiple of *a+unin% *ut while our apostle of ruin proved hi#self to be an inonsistent
harater and an unstable revolutionist. ?iethayev was distin&uished by his iron
onsistenyJ he #ade all the pratial dedutions fro# the theoretial propositions of
his #aster% >hen *a+unin told hi# that he. *a+unin. ould not refuse to do the wor+
he had underta+en <a translation of @apital= beause he had reeived #oney in
advane. ?iethayev offered to free hi# of this obli&ation% This he ao#plished in a
very si#ple fashion% -e wrote to the inter#ediary between *a+unin and the publisher
de#andin& in the na#e of the revolutionary o##ittee. )The 8eople's Reven&e.) that
the &entle#an leave *a+unin alone if he did not wish to be +illed%
7ine. instead of the wor+ers en&a&ed in lar&e industries. he had always stressed the
!u#penproletariat as the real arriers of the soial revolution. sine he had re&arded
ri#inals and robbers as the #ost desirable ele#ents to be attrated into the
revolutionary ran+s. his disiple. ?iethayev. 4uite onsistently arrived at the
onlusion that it was neessary to or&anise a &roup of desperadoes in 7witzerland for
the purposes of e$propriation% *a+unin finally parted with his disiple. not beause of
a dfferene in priniples. but beause he was awed by ?iethayev's diretness%
*a+unin never dared to #a+e this separation publiJ ?iethayev was in possession of
too #any o#pro#isin& dou#ents%
!##ediately after the :ondon @onferene a still #ore sava&e battle bro+e out% The
*a+uninists delared open war a&ainst the ;eneral @ounil% They aused it of
shufflin& the onferene and of foistin& upon the !nternational the do&#a of the
neessity of or&anisin& the proletariat into a speial party for the purpose of &ainin&
politial power% They de#anded another @on&ress where this 4uestion would be
definitely settled%
This @on&ress for whih both parties had been preparin& #ost feverishly. onvened in
7epte#ber. 1F72% 5or the first ti#e 1ar$ was present in person% *a+unin was absent%
The resolution of the @onferene dealin& with politial ation was ratified% There was
one s#all addition whih was lifted verbati# fro# the !nau&ural 'ddress of the
!nternational% !t read9

)7ine the owners of land and apital are always usin& their politial privile&es to
protet and perpetuate their eono#i #onopolies and to enslave labour. the
&reat duty of the proletariat is to on4uer the politial power%)

' speial o##ission whih e$a#ined all the dou#ents pertainin& to the 'lliane
a#e to the onlusion that this soiety had been e$istin& as a seret or&anisation
131
within the !nternational. and proposed *a+unin's and ;uillau#e's e$pulsion% The
proposal was aepted%
The resolution dealin& with *a+unin's e$pulsion delared that besides the above6
#entioned &rounds *a+unin was e$pelled for a )personal reason%) This referred to the
?iethayev inident% !t see#s that the @on&ress had a#ple reasons for e$ludin&
*a+unin on purely politial &rounds% !t is ludirous. however. to turn this sad episode
in whih *a+unin was the viti# of his own la+ of harater into a ause for terrible
ausations a&ainst 1ar$% !t is still #ore ludirous when the whole affair is onstrued
in the followin& #anner% *a+unin. it is asserted. had done what #any other literary
#en are doin& 66 he had failed to perfor# the wor+ for whih the publisher had paid
hi#% >as this swindlin&P 3f ourse not% *ut when *a+unin's defenders insist that
1ar$ should not have bla#ed *a+unin. then it see#s that either they do not
understand or they for&et. that the 4uestion was not at all as to whether *a+unin did or
did not return to the publisher the #oney he had reeived in advane% The 4uestion
was #uh #ore serious% >here *a+unin and his friends saw #erely a fi+le yet
pardonable trans&ression whih resulted only in a loss to the publisher. the #e#bers of
the o##ission who had all the dou#ents at their disposal felt that it was a ri#inal
#isuse of the na#e of a revolutionary or&anisation whih had been in the #inds of
#ost people onneted with the !nternationalJ a #isuse for personal reasons. for the
purpose of freein& hi#self fro# #eetin& his peuniary obli&ations% -ad the dou#ent
whih was in the hands of the o##ission been #ade publi at that ti#e. it would
have afforded the &reatest satisfation to the bour&eois world% !t was written by
?iethayevJ its ontents. however. were not only not ontrary to *a+unin's priniples.
they were in fat in full har#ony with the#% >e #ust add that *a+unin parted with
?iethayev not beause of this affair but beause it appeared to hi# that ?iethayev
was ready to re&ard even hi# as an instru#ent for the attain#ent of revolutionary
ai#s% *a+unin's letters to his friends illustrate ade4uately how unere#oniously
*a+unin would hurl not only politial but also personal ausations at his opponents.
a#on& who# 1ar$ was inluded% >e +now now that it was *a+unin who was the
author of the notorious &uide for revolutionists whih was attributed to ?iethayev and
whih. when #ade publi at the trial. evo+ed &eneral indi&nation in the ran+s of the
revolutionists% *a+unin's friends obstinately denied his authorshipJ they piled it all up
a&ainst ?iethayev%
The -a&ue @on&ress was ended with /n&els' proposal that the per#anent residene of
the ;eneral @ounil be transferred to ?ew Bor+% >e have already seen that at this ti#e
the !nternational lost its #oorin&s not only in 5rane. where sine 1F72 the #ere
belon&in& to the !nternational was held to be a ri#e. and not only in ;er#any. but
also in /n&land% !t was presu#ed that the transfer of the !nternational would be a
te#porary one% !t turned out. however. that the -a&ue @on&ress was the last one that
132
had any si&nifiane in the history of the !nternational% !n 1F7( the ;eneral @ounil in
?ew Bor+ published the notie that the 5irst !nternational eased to e$ist%

133
C"A#TER IX
ENGELS M!&ES T! L!ND!N'
-!7 8'RT!@!8'T!3? !? T-/ ;/?/R': @32?@!:%
1'RC'7 !::?/77%
/?;/:7 T'K/7 -!7 8:'@/%
'nti6DGhrin&%
T-/ :'7T B/'R7 35 1'RC%
/?;/:7 '7 T-/ /D!T3R 35 1'RC'7 :!T/R'RB -/R!T';/%
T-/ R3:/ 35 /?;/:7 !? T-/ 7/@3?D !?T/R?'T!3?':%
T-/ D/'T- 35 /?;/:7%
>e have thus onluded the history of the 5irst !nternational. and we had no oasion
to #a+e #ention of /n&els% The for#ation of the !nternational was ao#plished
without hi#. and up to 1F7, he too+ only an insi&nifiant and an indiret part in it%
Durin& these years he had written a few artiles for so#e /n&lish labour 0ournals% -e
had also been aidin& 1ar$ for who# the first years of the !nternational were a&ain
years of bitter poverty% >ere it not for the help he obtained fro# /n&els and the s#all
inheritane whih was left to hi# by his old friend. >ilhel# >olff. to who# he had
dediated his @apital. 1ar$ would hardly have been able to overo#e penury and he
surely would have had no ti#e to prepare his #onu#ental wor+ for publiation% -ere
is a touhin& letter in whih 1ar$ infor#s /n&els that he had at last finished
orretin& the last pa&e9
)'t last.) he writes. )this volu#e is finished% ! owe it only to you. that this has
been possible% >ithout your self6sarifiin& aid it would have been i#possible
for #e to &o throu&h the olossal labour on these three volu#es% ! e#brae you
full of than+s%)

/n&els has been aused of havin& been a #anufaturer% This we #ust ad#it. but we
should also add that he had beo#e that for a short ti#e% 'fter his father's death in
1F(,. /n&els ontinued to wor+ in the apaity of a si#ple e#ployee% 3nly in 1F(H
did he beo#e a #e#ber of the fir# and one of the diretors of the plant% Durin& all
this ti#e he was tryin& to rid hi#self of this )do&'s trade%) -e was deterred by the
thou&ht not only of hi#self but of 1ar$% !n this re&ard his letters written to 1ar$ in
1F(F are very interestin&% !n the# he infor#ed 1ar$ that he was ondutin&
ne&otiations about leavin& the fir#. but that he wanted to ao#plish it in a way that
would insure his own and 1ar$'s eono#i independene% -e finally sueeded in
o#in& to an a&ree#ent with his partner% !n 1F(9 he left his fatory on onditions
whih enabled hi# to provide for his friend. thus definitely riddin& 1ar$ of the penury
that had been wei&hin& upon hi#% 3nly in 7epte#ber. 1F7,. did /n&els #ana&e to
#ove ba+ to :ondon%
13H
5or 1ar$. /n&els' arrival #eant #ore than personal happinessJ it #eant onsiderable
relief fro# the olossal labour whih he was perfor#in& for the ;eneral @ounil%
There were always a ountless nu#ber of representatives of various nations who# he
had either to #eet in person or to orrespond with% /n&els was noted for his lin&uisti
abilities sine his youth% -e +new how to write. and. as his friends 0ested he +new how
to sta##er. in twelve lan&ua&es% -e was therefore ideally e4uipped for ta+in& har&e
of the orrespondene with the various ountries% *esides. his lon& business
e$periene proved useful in that he. unli+e 1ar$. brou&ht effiieny and order into his
wor+%
/n&els too+ over this wor+ as soon as he bea#e a #e#ber of the ;eneral @ounil in
order to spare 1ar$ whose health was under#ined by e$essive poverty and privation%
-e also too+ upon hi#self still other parts of the wor+% 'n ener&eti #an. /n&els had
lon& been ravin& for the opportunity to do this wor+. and 0ud&in& by the #inutes of
the ;eneral @ounil. he very soon bea#e one of its #ost dili&ent #e#bers%
*ut this iru#stane had another side to it% /n&els #oved to :ondon after the
stru&&le with the *a+uninists had be&un and had already #ade itself felt in the ;eneral
@ounil% 1oreover. as we have seen. at this ti#e there was serious disord even a#on&
the /n&lish#en the#selves% !n brief. this was a ti#e of sharp onflit on the &round of
priniples and tatis%
!t is a #atter of o##on +nowled&e that stru&&les alon& purely dotrinal and tatial
lines are invariably o#pliated by a stron& ad#i$ture of the personal ele#ent 66 li+es
and disli+es. sy#pathies and pre0udies. et% !f suh a onflit brea+s out within the
boundaries of one re&ion. one effetive way to stop it is a te#porary han&e of
4uarters% 'lthou&h this #ethod is effiaious within the li#its of a distrit. a state. or
even an entire ountry. it was utterly inappliable within the !nternational% 'lto&ether
this #ethod of resolvin& ontradition has only a li#ited si&nifiane% !t is #uh better
to settle suh ontraditions either by way of a&ree#ent or by way of separation%
>e have already spo+en of the ob0etive auses whih brou&ht on the disturbane
within the /n&lish setion of the !nternational% >hat so#e historians of the
!nternational. and espeially historians dealin& with the /n&lish labour #ove#ent. do
not or annot understand is that the ;eneral @ounil whih fro# 1F(H to 1F72 was
diretin& the international labour #ove#ent. was at the sa#e ti#e also the diretin&
or&an of the /n&lish labour #ove#ent% 'nd if international affairs affeted the /n&lish
#ove#ent. then the onverse was also true. that is. every han&e in the /n&lish labour
#ove#ent was bound to be refleted in the international funtions of the ;eneral
@ounil% >e have pointed out in the last hapter how. as a result of the onessions
13I
#ade to the /n&lish wor+ers in the years 1F(761F71 66 the ri&ht to vote for the ity
wor+ers and the le&alisation of trade unions 66 the trade6union #e#bers of the ;eneral
@ounil be&an to tend toward #oderation% /arius. too. be&an to inline in that
diretionJ he now was a prosperous #an and. as it not infre4uently happens with
wor+ers. bea#e #uh #ore tolerant with the bour&eoisie% *ut besides /arius. there
were a nu#ber of other #e#bers of the ;eneral @ounil who disa&reed with 1ar$%
The appearane of /n&els as a #e#ber of the ;eneral @ounil. who was often fored
to ta+e the plae of 1ar$ added one #ore personal ele#ent to a&&ravate the already
strained onditions% Durin& the twenty years of his life in 1anhester. /n&els had lost
al#ost all ontat with the labour #ove#ent%
Durin& all that ti#e 1ar$ had stayed in :ondon. had +ept up his relations with the
@hartists. had written for their publiations. and had ta+en part in the ;er#an labour
irles and in e#i&rant life% -e had been #eetin& the o#rades. had delivered letures.
had often had serious alterations with the#. but on the whole the relations with
)father) 1ar$. as we see by the re#inisenes written even by those who had parted
with hi# politially. were war#. o#radely. and full of love% 8artiularly war#
relations had been established between the wor+ers and 1ar$ durin& the period of the
!nternational% The #e#bers of the ;eneral @ounil who had been observin& 1ar$ in
his din&y apart#ent. who had seen hi# in need 66 he had not lived any better than any
/n&lish wor+er 66 who had +nown hi# in the @ounil. who had always found hi#
ready to throw up his studies. his beloved sientifi wor+. in order to devote his ti#e
and his ener&y to the wor+in& lass. re&arded hi# with the profoundest respet%
>ithout o#pensation. re0etin& all ostentatious advanta&es. delinin& all honorary
titles. he had laboured without stint%
>ith /n&els it was 4uite different% The /n&lish #e#bers of the ;eneral @ounil did
not +now hi# at all% The other #e#bers +new hi# 0ust as little% 3nly a#on& the
;er#an o#rades were there so#e who re#e#bered hi#. but even there he had to
wor+ hard to win a position for hi#self% 5or to #ost #e#bers he was a rih #an. a
1anhester #anufaturer. who. it was said. had twenty6five years previous written a
&ood boo+ in ;er#an about the /n&lish wor+ers% -avin& #in&led for about twenty
years in an al#ost e$lusively bour&eois environ#ent. a#on& sto+#ar+et wolves and
industrial haw+s. /n&els. who was always noted for his deorous behaviour. a4uired
even #ore fastidious #anners% 'lways spi+ and span. always even. of old e$terior.
invariably polite. with #ilitary #anneris#s. he would not utter a stron& word% -e was
hopelessly dry and old%
This was the desription of /n&els &iven by people who had +nown hi# in the forties%
>e +now that in the editorial offies of the ?eue Rheinishe Deitun&. whenever 1ar$
13(
would be on leave of absene. /n&els would provo+e serious ob0etions by his
hau&hty air of intelletual superiority% :ess i#pulsive than 1ar$. he was #uh #ore
unendurable in his personal relations. and in ontradistintion to >ilhel# >olff and
1ar$ who were ideal o#rades and &uides. repelled #any wor+ers%
3nly &radually did /n&els ad0ust hi#self to his new settin&. and lose his for#er
habits% !n the #eanti#e. and these were diffiult years to boot. /n&els. havin& to
substitute for 1ar$ #ore and #ore often. a&&ravated the already strained relations in
the ;eneral @ounil% This #ay serve as an e$planation why not only /arius but even
-er#ann Jun&. an old ollaborator of 1ar$. who for a lon& ti#e had been the ;eneral
7eretary of the !nternational. had very lose personal bonds with 1ar$ and who had
very willin&ly and #ost deliately been helpin& 1ar$ to arry his onerous obli&ations.
now abandoned the or&anisation%
The whole affair was. alas. not without fairy tales and &ossip usto#ary in suh ases%
's we have already stated. #any people. 0ust beause they did not +now /n&els. ould
not understand why 1ar$ loved and lauded his friend F, #uh% !t is enou&h to read the
dis&ustin& and vile re#inisenes of -enry 1ayers -ynd#an <1FH261923=. the
founder of the /n&lish soial6de#oray. to see how base were their e$planations%
'ordin& to the#. it appeared that 1ar$ valued /n&els' friendship so hi&hly beause
the latter was rih and was providin& for hi#% The ondut of several /n&lish#en was
partiularly onte#ptibleJ a#on& the# was a ertain 7#ith. who later bea#e the
interpreter at the on&resses of the 7eond !nternational% Durin& the reent war he was
li+e -ynd#an. a notorious soial6patriot% /n&els ould never for&ive either hi# or the
others their vilifyin& a#pai&n a&ainst 1ar$% 7hortly before his death /n&els threw
down the stairs the sa#e 1r% 7#ith who now a#e to visit hi#%
*ut then. in the be&innin& of the seventies. this alu#ny in its #ost #ali&nant for#s.
was spreadin& also a#on& the ;er#an wor+ers of the :assallean persuasion. who
were o#in& to :ondon% *ut /n&els' partiipation sharpened the shis# not only in
:ondon% >e +now that outside of Russia *a+unin and his adherents onentrated their
wor+ in the :atin ountries 66 !taly. 7pain. 7outhern 5rane. 8ortu&al. the 5renh and
!talian parts of 7witzerland% !taly was espeially valued by *a+unin. for there was a
predo#inane of the !u#penproletariat. the hobo6proletariat. in who# he diserned the
ardinal revolutionary fore% There was also the youth. whih had no hope of #a+in& a
areer in bour&eois soiety% There. too. flourished banditry and robbery as for#s in
whih the protest of the poor peasantry e$pressed itself% !n other words. there the
ele#ents to whih he was attahin& suh &reat i#portane in Russia 66 the peasantry.
the hobo6proletariat. the robbers 66 were all &reatly developed%
137
The #ain orrespondene with these ountries was arried on by /n&els% This
orrespondene. as #ay be 0ud&ed by a few preserved opies <the effiient /n&els
would always retain a opy for hi#self= was onduted in a spirit of relentless
opposition to the *a+uninists%
The fa#ous pa#phlet on *a+unin's 'lliane. whih was a report of the o##ission of
the -a&ue @on&ress. and whih #ost austially lashed and e$posed the *a+uninist
poliy and tatis. was written by /n&els and :afar&ue% 1ar$ ontributed only to the
onludin& hapter. thou&h he was. of ourse. in o#plete aord with the indit#ent
of *a+uninis#%
'fter 1F73. 1ar$ left the publi arena% !n this year he o#pleted the seond edition of
the first volu#e of @apital and was editin& a 5renh translation whih was finally
published in 1F7I% !f we should add to this a postsript whih he wrote for the old
boo+ about the @o##unist :ea&ue. and the s#all artile written for the !talian
o#rades it would #a+e up the su# total of everythin& 1ar$ had published up to
1FF,%% 's #uh as his shattered health per#itted hi# he ontinued to labour over his
#a&nu# opus. the first draft of whih 1ar$ had o#pleted in the early si$ties% *ut he
did not sueed in #a+in& ready for publiation even the seond volu#e over whih
he was then labourin&% >e +now now that the last #anusript whih was inorporated
in this volu#e was written in 1F7F% 'ny strenuous intelletual wor+ was a #enae to
his overwrou&ht brain% Durin& these years 1ar$'s fa#ily and /n&els were in perpetual
fear for 1ar$'s life whih was always threatened by a sudden stro+e% The #i&hty
or&anis#. one apable of superhu#an labour. was &radually beo#in& wea+er%
/n&els' touhin& are. his efforts to do everythin& possible to restore his old friend to
health. were of little avail% *efore 1ar$ lay his &reat wor+ in the rou&h. and as soon as
he would feel a trifle better. as soon as the dan&er of death would beo#e #ore
re#ote. as soon as the physiians would allow hi# to wor+ a few hours a day. he
would resu#e his labours% The onsiousness that he would never be able to o#plete
this wor+ was a ontinuous torture to hi#% )To be inapable of wor+.) 1ar$ would say.
)is to any hu#an bein& who does not wish to be si#ply an ani#al the e4uivalent of a
death sentene ) 'fter 1F7F he was fored to &ive up all wor+ on @apital in the hope
that he would be able to return to it at so#e #ore auspiious ti#e% This hope was not
fulfilled% -e was still able to #a+e notes. he still +ept up with the develop#ent of the
international labour #ove#ent and too+ an ative intelletual part in it. answerin&
nu#erous in4uiries whih were o#in& to hi# fro# various ountries% -is list of
addresses reahed partiularly i#posin& di#ensions toward the be&innin& of the
ei&hties% To&ether with /n&els. who at this ti#e too+ over #ost of the wor+. he a&ain
bea#e a well6infor#ed #an. an e$pert on the rapidly developin& labour #ove#ent
within whih the ideas of the @o##unist 1anifesto were &ainin& asendany% ' &reat
13F
deal of redit in this #atter was due to /n&els who. in the seventies. and while 1ar$
was still alive. was developin& a very ener&eti ativity%
The stru&&le between the 1ar$ists and the *a+uninists in the 5irst !nternational has
often been &reatly e$a&&erated% There were indeed 4uite a few *a+uninists. but even
a#on& the# there was a variety of ele#ents. united only in their onslau&ht on the
;eneral @ounil% Thin&s were #uh worse with the 1ar$ists% *ehind 1ar$ and /n&els
there was only a s#all &roup of people. who were a4uainted with the @o##unist
1anifesto and who understood fully all the teahin&s of 1ar$% The publiation of
@apital was in the be&innin& of very little help% 5or the vast #a0ority it was in the full
sense of the words a &ranite ro+ at whih they #ost dili&ently nibbledJ that was all%
The writin&s of the ;er#an soialists durin& the first half of the seventies. even the
brohures written by >ilhel# :ieb+neht. who was a student of 1ar$. show the
deplorable state in whih the study of 1ar$ian theory was at that ti#e% The pa&es of
the entral or&an of the ;er#an party were often filled with the #ost &rotes4ue
#i$ture of various soialist syste#s% The #ethod of 1ar$ and /n&els. the #aterialist
oneption of history. and the teahin& about the lass stru&&le 66 all this re#ained a
sealed boo+% :ieb+neht hi#self so little &rasped the 1ar$ian philosophy that he
onfused the dialeti #aterialis# of 1ar$ and /n&els. with the natural6historial
#aterialis# of Jaob 1oleshott <1F2261F93=. and :udwi& *uhner <1F2H61F99=%
5inally. /n&els too+ upon hi#self the tas+ of defendin& and disse#inatin& the tenets
of 1ar$is#. while 1ar$. as we have seen. was vainly tryin& to o#plete his @apital%
/n&els pouned now upon an artile that espeially appealed to hi#. now upon a fat
of onte#porary history in order that he #i&ht illustrate with individual ases the
profound differene between sientifi soialis# and other soialist syste#s. or throw
li&ht on so#e obsure pratial 4uestion fro# the point of view of sientifi soialis#.
or show the pratial appliation of his #ethod%
7ine the fa#ous ;er#an 8roudhonist 1ulber&er was publishin& in the entral or&an
of the ;er#an 7oial6De#oray a series of artiles dealin& with the housin& 4uestion
/n&els. seizin& upon this as a &ood prete$t showed the has# that separated 1ar$is#
fro# 8roudhonis# <Die >ohnun&sfra&e=% *esides this #a&nifient supple#ent to
1ar$'s boo+. 8overty of 8hilosophy. he ast the luid li&ht of 1ar$is# upon one of the
hief fators deter#inin& the ondition of the wor+in& lass%
-e republished his old wor+. the 8easant >ar in ;er#any. with a new prefae in
order to illustrate to his youn& o#rades the #anner in whih the #aterialist
oneption of history #i&ht be applied to one of the #ost i#portant episodes in the
history of ;er#any and the ;er#an peasantry%
139
>hen the ;er#an Reihsta& was disussin& the 4uestion of how the 8russian
landowners #ade seure their profitable business of renderin& the ;er#ans into a
habitually drun+en people. /n&els proeeded to write a brohure 8russian 7hnaps in
the ;er#an Reihsta&. in whih. besides e$posin& the desires of the 8russian Jun+ers.
he e$plained the histori role of :andlordis# and 8russian Jun+erdo#% 'll these wor+s
of /n&els added to his other artiles dealin& with ;er#an history #ade it subse4uently
possible for Kauts+y and 1ehrin& to popularise. and develop in their wor+s on
;er#an history. the basi ideas of /n&els%
*ut /n&els' &reatest servies belon& to the years 1F7( and 1F77% !n 1F7I the
:assalleans and the /isenahers had united on the basis of the so6alled ;otha
8ro&ra##e 66 a poor o#pro#ise between 1ar$is# and its distorted double. +nown
by the na#e of :assalleanis#% 1ar$ and /n&els protested #ost vi&orously. not
beause they were opposed to unifiation but beause they de#anded a han&e in the
pro&ra##e in aordane with their su&&estions% They insisted. with very &ood reason
that thou&h unifiation was indubitably neessary. it nevertheless. was not at all
desirable to adopt a bad pro&ra##e as the theoretial foundation of this unifiationJ
that it would be preferable to postpone the adoption of a pro&ra##e for a little while
and to be satisfied in the #eanwhile with a &eneral platfor# fit for everyday pratial
wor+% !n this affair 'u&ust *ebel <1FH,61913= and >ilhel# *ra+e <1FH261FF,=. were
also opposed to :ieb+neht%
3nly a few #onths later 1ar$ and /n&els had oasion to be onvined that in the
#atter of theoretial preparation the two fations were on the sa#e low level% '#on&
the youn& #e#bers of the party. the intelletuals as well as the wor+ers. the teahin&s
of /u&en DGhrin& <1F33619,1=. the fa#ous ;er#an philosopher and eono#ist. were
winnin& wide popularity% 't one ti#e he had been assistant professor at the *erlin
2niversity. and had won &reat sy#pathy owin& to his personality and the darin& of his
re#ar+s. unusual for a ;er#an professor% Thou&h blind. he letured on the history of
#ehanis. on politial eono#y and on philosophy% -is versatility was a#azin&J no
doubt. he was a re#ar+able personality% >hen he a#e out with his austi ritiis# of
the reo&nised soialist teahin&s and partiularly those of 1ar$. his letures #ade a
tre#endous i#pression% To the students and the wor+ers it appeared that his was a
)voie of life in the real# of thou&ht%) DGhrin& e#phasised the si&nifiane of ation.
of stru&&le. of protestJ he stressed the politial fator as a&ainst the eono#i oneJ he
pointed out the i#portane of fore and violene in history% !n his pole#i he +new no
restraints and abused profusely not only 1ar$ but also :assalle% -e was not even
asha#ed to ite the fat that 1ar$ was a Jew. as an ar&u#ent a&ainst hi#%
/n&els hesitated for a lon& ti#e before he deided to stri+e a&ainst DGhrin&% -e
finally &ave way to the soliitations of his ;er#an friends and in 1F77 published in the
1H,
Aorwarts. the entral or&an of the party. a series of artiles in whih he sub0eted
DGhrin&'s views to sathin& ritiis#% This provo+ed indi&nation even a#on& so#e of
his o#rades in the party% DGhrin&'s followers. /duard *ernstein <1FI, 66 =. the future
theoretiian of revisionis#. and Johann 1ost <1FH(619,(=. the future ;er#an6
'#erian anarhist. were the #ost outstandin&% 't the onvention of the ;er#an
7oial6De#orats a nu#ber of dele&ates. a#on& who# was also the old :assallean
>alteih. atta+ed /n&els #erilessly% !t reahed the point where a resolution was
al#ost adopted whih would prohibit the further publiation of /n&els' artiles in the
entral or&an of the party. whih re&arded 1ar$ and :assalle as their teahers%
'n inoneivable sandal would have resulted. had it not been for one oniliator who
proposed a lever way out by su&&estin& that the publiation of /n&els' artiles be
ontinued not in the entral or&an proper but in a speial supple#ent% This was passed%
These artiles were olleted and published in boo+ for# in 1F7F under the title -err
/u&en DGhrin&'s 2#wPlzun& der >issenshaft or. as it has later beo#e +nown. 'nti6
DGhrin&% !t was epoh6#a+in& in the history of 1ar$is#% !t was fro# this boo+ that
the youn&er &eneration whih be&an its ativity durin& the seond half of the seventies
learned what was sientifi soialis#. what were its philosophi pre#ises. what was its
#ethod% 'nti6DGhrin& proved the best introdution to the study of @apital% ' perusal of
the artiles written in those days by would6be 1ar$ists reveals a view #ost awry of
the proble#s and the #ethods of @apital% 5or the disse#ination of 1ar$is# as a
speial #ethod and a speial syste#. no boo+ e$ept @apital itself. has done as #uh
as 'nti6DGhrin&% 'll the youn& 1ar$ists who entered the publi arena in the early
ei&hties 66 *ernstein. Karl Kauts+y <1FIH 66 =. ;eor&e 8le+hanov <1FI7191F= 66 were
brou&ht up on this boo+%
*ut this boo+ left its i#print not only on the upper layers of the party% 't the
soliitation of the 5renh 1ar$ists. /n&els. in 1FF,. e$trated a few hapters whih
were translated into the 5renh and whih bea#e one of the #ost fa#ous 1ar$ist
boo+s as widely read as the @o##unist 1anifesto% This was the well6+nown
7oialis# 66 2topian and 7ientifi% !t was i##ediately translated into 8olish. and a
year and a half later. into Russian% 'll this /n&els ao#plished while 1ar$ was still
alive% /n&els benefited by his advie and even his o6operation% !n 'nti6DGhrin&. for
instane. 1ar$ wrote one o#plete hapter%
't the be&innin& of the ei&hties a han&e too+ plae in the /uropean labour
#ove#ent% 3win& to /n&els' tireless labours and his splendid popularisin& &ifts.
1ar$is# was steadily &ainin& &round% !n 1F7(. in ;er#any. the 7oial6De#orati
8arty was delared ille&al% 'fter a te#porary onfusion 1ar$is# be&an to rise to the
top% *ebel shows in his re#inisenes that it was the old #en fro# :ondon who
1H1
played an i#portant part in this turn of affairs. for they de#anded. under the threat of a
publi protest. the disontinuane of what they alled )the sandal) and the
irreonilable stru&&le a&ainst all atte#pts to enter into any relations with the
bour&eoisie%
!n 5rane at the 1arseilles @on&ress of 1F79 a new labour party with a soialist
pro&ra##e was or&anised% -ere a youn& &roup of 1ar$ists. headed by the e$6
*a+uninist. Jules ;uesde <1FHI61921=. a#e to the fore% !n 1FF,. it was deided to
for#ulate a new pro&ra##e% ;uesde and his o#rades went to :ondon to see 1ar$.
who was ta+in& an ative part in the wor+in& out of the pro&ra##e% Refusin& to
subsribe to several of the points dealin& with the pratial aspet of the wor+ on
whih the 5renh#en were insistin& beause of their loal propa&anda value. 1ar$
proeeded to for#ulate the funda#ental priniples of the pro&ra##e% -e one #ore
de#onstrated his ability to o#prehend the peuliarly 5renh onditions by
for#ulatin& a pro&ra##e whih would be understood by every 5renh#an but fro#
whih the basi ideas of o##unis# would follow with inontrovertible lo&i% The
5renh pro&ra##e served as the pattern for all the subse4uent pro&ra##es 66 the
Russian. the 'ustrian. the ;er#an /rfurt% 'fter ;uesde and :afar&ue had o#posed
their o##entaries to this pro&ra##e. *ernstein translated it into ;er#an and
8le+hanov into Russian under the title. >hat the 7oial6De#orats >ant% This boo+ as
well as /n&els' brohure served as a te$t whih was studied by the first Russian
1ar$ists and whih was used in the teahin& of 1ar$is# in wor+in&#en's irles%
1ar$ had also o#posed for the 5renh o#rades a detailed 4uestionnaire as an aid in
the investi&ation of the onditions of the wor+in& lass% This appeared without 1ar$'s
si&nature% >hile the 4uestionnaire drawn up by 1ar$ for the ;eneva @on&ress of 1F((
ontained only about fifteen 4ueries. the new 4uestionnaire was #ade up of over one
hundred 4uestions whih overed to the #inutesMinde$%ht#) detail. the livin&
onditions of the wor+ers% !t was one of the #ost e$haustive in4uiries at the ti#e and it
ould have been o#posed only by suh a profound student of the labour #ove#ent as
1ar$% !t offered additional proof of 1ar$'s ability to approah onrete onditions. to
o#prehend onrete reality despite his reputed penhant for abstrations% The
apaity for analysin& reality and for arrivin& at &eneral onlusions on the basis of
suh analysis does not yet si&nify the absene of reality. the soarin& in nebulous
abstrations%
1ar$ and /n&els followed the develop#ent of the Russian Revolution very arefully%
They studied the Russian lan&ua&e% 1ar$ too+ it up 4uite late in life. but he #astered it
suffiiently well to be able to read Dobrolyubov. @hernishevs+y. and even suh writers
as 7alti+ov67hhedrin. who were partiularly diffiult for a forei&ner to understand%
1ar$ was already able to read the Russian translation of his @apital% -is popularity in
1H2
Russia was steadily on the inrease. even after the -a&ue @on&ress% 's the riti of
bour&eois politial eono#y he was re&arded as a &reat authority and his influene.
diret and indiret. was felt in #ost of the eono#i and politial writin&s in Russia%
8eter :avrov <1F23619,,=. and his followers were under the diret influene of 1ar$.
thou&h they did #ana&e to in0et so#e idealist notions into 1ar$ian #aterialis#%
:ater in their history. the Russian *a+uninists too re&arded 1ar$ with &reat respet%
7o#e of the &reatest 1ar$ians. ;eor&e 8le+hanov. Aera 7assulith <1FI1 66 =. 8aul
'$elrod <1FI,6192F=. :eo Deutsh <1FIQ=.were *a+uninists in their early years% 1ar$
and /n&els valued &reatly the #ove#ent +nown by the na#e of ?arodnaya Aolya <the
8eople's >ill=%
There are a nu#ber of 1ar$'s #anusripts and letters whih show how arefully 1ar$
studied Russian literature and Russian soio6eono#i relations% -avin& thorou&hly
#astered the data dealin& with the state of a&riulture in Russia. he did not #erely
point out the hief auses of Russian rop6failures. but he established the law of their
periodiity% -is dedutions have been 0ustified by history up to and inludin& the last
rop6failure in 7oviet Russia% 1uh of the Russian #aterial whih 1ar$ intended to
utilise in his third volu#e in onnetion with the study of the a&riultural 4uestion was
destined to &o to waste beause of his failin& health% The #anusript #aterial left by
1ar$ ontains four drafts of a reply to an in4uiry of Aera 7assulith re&ardin& the
Russian syste# of o##unal landholdin& <1ir=%
The last year and a half of 1ar$'s life was a slow proess of dyin&% *efore hi# he had
the rou&h opy of a &i&anti wor+ to whih he would turn as soon as he had a
#o#ent's respite% !n the days of his pri#e. he had reated the essential ontours of a
#odel. a draft. in whih the basi laws of apitalist prodution and e$han&e were
e$pressed% *ut he had not the stren&th left to trans#it this into an or&anis# as livin& as
the first volu#e of @apital%
5inally. when fate brou&ht down al#ost si#ultaneously the two heavy blows of the
death of his wife and his dau&hter. upon his e$hausted. disease6ridden. e#aiated
or&anis#. it ould not withstand the sho+% The feroious 1ar$ was. stran&e as it #ay
see#. a #ost devoted fa#ily #an and #ost deliate in his personal ontats% 3n
readin& the letters 1ar$ had written to his dau&hter. whose death affeted hi# so #uh
that his nearest friends feared a fatal relapse. one wonders where this stern #an found
suh a sprin& of tenderness and sensitiveness%
8hilistines and revolutionary novies are a#azed and nonplussed when they read the
last pa&es of 1ar$'s life% !t is not &ood. to be sure. when a revolutionist devotes even a
part of his ener&y to thin&s outside the revolution% ' real revolutionist. aordin& to
1H3
those who are often only +ni&hts for an hour. ou&ht all the ti#e. every #inute of his
life. be on &uard% -e #ust be #oulded of revolutionary ada#ant. aloof fro# all hu#an
e#otions%
3ne should 0ud&e hu#anly% >e all en0oy the thou&ht that those who# we have
re&arded with &reat reverene and awe are after all people li+e ourselves. only a bit
wiser. #ore eduated. and #ore useful to the ause of the revolution% !t was only in the
old. pseudo6lassial dra#as that #en were depited as heroes9 they wal+ed and the
#ountains would tre#ble. they sta#ped their feet and the earth would ra+J they even
ate and dran+ li+e heroes%
1ar$. too. has been fre4uently portrayed in the above #anner% !t is thus that he
appears in the desriptions of hi# &iven by the lovely old @lara Det+in. who is
&enerally inlined to elevated and sole#n tones% >hen 1ar$ is thus represented. it
see#s that people for&et that he hi#self. in answer to the 4uestion as to what was his
favourite #otto. replied. )! a# a #an. and nothin& hu#an is alien to #e%) ?or were
sins alien to hi#. and he #ore than one re&retted his e$essive trust in so#e ases
and his fla&rant in0ustie in other% 7o#e of his ad#irers found it easy to for&ive 1ar$
his inveterate love for wine <1ar$ was a native of the 1oselle distrit= but they found
it #ore diffiult to bear his inessant s#o+in&% -e hi#self would 0estin&ly re#ar+ that
the royalties he reeived fro# the sale of @apital were not enou&h to pay for the
tobao he had onsu#ed while writin& it% 3win& to his poverty he would s#o+e the
heapest brands of tobaoJ a &reat deal of life and health was thus puffed away by
hi#% This was the ause of hroni bronhitis whih bea#e partiularly #ali&nant
durin& the last years of his life%
1ar$ died on 1arh 1H. 1FF3% 'nd /n&els was ri&ht when on the day of 1ar$'s death
he wrote to the latter's old o#rade. 5. '. 7or&e9
)'ll pheno#ena. even the #ost terrible. whih ta+e plae in aordane with
natural laws. are not without their own onsolation% 7uh is the ase now% The art
of healin& ould probably have added to his life a ouple of years of ve&etatin&
e$istene. the life of a helpless #an. #aintained by physiians as a tribute to their
own s+ill. and dyin& by inhes instead of suddenlyJ but suh a life 1ar$ would
hardly have endured% To live. onfronted with his #any unfinished tas+s. and to
suffer the pains of Tantalus at the thou&ht of the i#possibility of arryin& the# to
a onlusion. would have been for hi# a thousand ti#es #ore dreadful than the
peaeful death that fell to his lot%
)'Death is terrible not to the dyin&. but to the one who re#ains a#on& the livin&.'
it was his wont to reiterate. with /piurus. but to see this #i&hty &enius a ruin
dra&&in& on its e$istene for the &reater &lory of #ediine and to hear the 0ibes of
1HH
the philistines. who#. in the days of his flower. he had so #erilessly flayed 66
no. what has happened is a thousand ti#es preferableJ no. it will be a thousand
ti#es better. when. the day after to6#orrow. we arry hi# out to the &rave where
his wife sleeps%
)!n #y opinion. after all he had lived throu&h. whih was learer to #e than to
all the physiians. there was no alternative%
)*e this as it #ay% -u#anity has &rown shorter by a head. the #ost &ifted head
it has had at its disposal%
)The proletarian #ove#ent will &o on. but the entre is &one. the entre whither
in ruial #o#ents 5renh#en. Russians. '#erians. and ;er#ans hastened for
aid. where they always reeived the lear and irrefutable ounsel. whih ould
only be &iven by a &enius in perfet o##and of his sub0et%)

/n&els was now onfronted with so#e very harassin& proble#s% ' brilliant writer and
one of the best stylists in the ;er#an lan&ua&e. a widely eduated #an yet at the sa#e
ti#e a speialist in several do#ains of hu#an +nowled&e. he. willy6nilly. reeded to a
seondary position while 1ar$ was alive%

)! hope ! #ay be per#itted here to #a+e a re#ar+ by way of personal
e$planation% Referene has fre4uently been #ade in reent days to #y share in
the for#ation of this theory. and ! an therefore hardly avoid the neessity of
here #a+in&. in a few words. a final state#ent on this sub0et%
)! annot deny that ! had an independent share before as well as durin& #y forty
years of wor+ with 1ar$. in layin& down as well as 66 #ore partiularly 66 in the
elaboration of the theory% *ut the overwhel#in& part of the basi and leadin&
ideas espeially in the do#ains of history and eono#is. as well as the final and
+een state#ent of the# belon&s to 1ar$% >hat ! ontributed. 1ar$ ould have
easily filled in without #y aid. with the e$eption perhaps of two or three speial
branhes of +nowled&e% *ut what 1ar$ did. ! ould have never done% 1ar$ stood
hi&her. saw farther. had a wider. #ore o#prehensive and swifter view than all of
us% 1ar$ was a &eniusJ we were at #ost talents% >ithout hi# our theory would
have been far fro# what it is now% !t is therefore 0ustly alled by his na#e%)

/n&els. in his own words. had now to play first fiddleJ he had been playin& seond
fiddle all his life and had always found &reat 0oy in the fat that the first fiddle was
played with suh #arvellous virtuosity by 1ar$% *oth of the# played fro# notes
1HI
whih only they ould so easily read% The first -erulean tas+ that fell to /n&els was
the ollatin& of 1ar$'s literary le&ay% @ontrary to the petty insinuations of an !talian
professor. who had one presented hi#self to 1ar$ and had showered upon hi# #ost
flatterin& e$pressions of adulation. but who now dared to su&&est in print that the
referenes 1ar$ had #ade in the first volu#e of @apital to the seond and third
volu#es were #erely alulated to deeive the publi. 1ar$'s papers revealed
#anusripts for a seond. third. and even fourth volu#e% 2nfortunately. all this was
left in suh disorder that /n&els. who was not in a position to devote his entire ti#e to
this tas+. was fored to wor+ over these papers for a period of eleven years% 1ar$
wrote very ille&ibly. usin& at ti#es steno&raphi haraters of his own invention%
7hortly before his death. when it had finally beo#e lear to hi# that he would not be
able to finish his wor+. 1ar$ re#ar+ed to his youn&er dau&hter that perhaps /n&els
would be able to do so#ethin& with his papers%
5ortunately. /n&els sueeded in o#pletin& the ardinal part of this wor+% -e edited
the seond and third volu#es% >e #i&ht ad#it that besides /n&els there was hardly a
#an would be apable of perfor#in& this &reat tas+% These volu#es have so#e faults.
but. as they are published now. the na#e of /n&els fully deserves to stand beside that
of 1ar$% There is very little hope that we #ay seure 1ar$'s ori&inal #anusripts as
they reahed /n&els% >ith the e$eption of the first volu#e. 1ar$'s @apital is
aessible to us only throu&h /n&els' version of it%
5or#erly. partiularly after the de#ise of the 5irst !nternational. 1ar$ and /n&els
to&ether had been perfor#in& the part of the erstwhile ;eneral @ounil% ?ow all the
wor+ of #ediation and +eepin& up relations a#on& various soialist &roups. as well as
the wor+ of onsultant and of purveyor of infor#ation. pressed as an ever6&rowin&
burden on /n&els alone% ?ot lon& after the death of 1ar$. the international labour
#ove#ent #anifested vi&orous si&ns of life% !n 1FF( there be&an tal+ about the
or&anisation of a new !nternational% *ut even after 1FF9. that is. after the first on&ress
whih or&anised the 7eond !nternational but whih did not provide for a per#anent
entral bureau up to 19,,. /n&els was ta+in& a very ative part as literateur and
adviser to the labour #ove#ents of well6ni&h all the ountries of /urope% The old
;eneral @ounil. whih onsisted of nu#erous #e#bers and of a nu#ber of
seretaries fro# the several ountries. was now e#bodied in /n&els% 's soon as a new
&roup of 1ar$ists would sprin& up in any ountry. it would forthwith turn to /n&els
for ounselJ and with his unanny +nowled&e of lan&ua&es he would #ana&e. now
orretly. now interspersed with so#e errors. to reply in the &roup's native ton&ue% -e
followed the labour #ove#ents in the different ountries by readin& their respetive
publiations in the ori&inal% This too+ up a &ood deal of his ti#e. but it enabled hi# to
stren&then the influene of 1ar$is# in those ountries by his s+illful appliation of
1ar$'s for#ula to the speifi onditions of eah ountry% There is literally no ountry
1H(
whih was not served by /n&els in his apaity of writer% >e find hi# writin& artiles
not #erely for ;er#an and 'ustrian or&ans. not only for the 5renh. but we see hi#
writin& a new introdution to the 8olish translation of the @o##unist 1anifesto. and
helpin& the 7panish and Danish. the *ul&arian and 7erbian 1ar$ists with his ounsel
and su&&estions%
The aid whih /n&els &ave youn& Russian 1ar$ists deserves speial #ention% 7ine
he +new the lan&ua&e he ould +eep in diret and i##ediate touh with Russian
1ar$ian literature% 'nd it was only beause of his influene that. notwithstandin& the
enor#ous presti&e of the ?arodnaya Aotya. the /#anipation of :abour &roup ould
so speedily establish ties with ;er#an 1ar$is#% !t was solely beause of /n&els that
they ould overo#e the distrust whih western /urope. and ;er#any espeially. felt
toward the labour #ove#ent and the 1ar$is# of an 'siati ountry li+e Russia% !n
1FF9 8le+hanov #ade a speial trip to :ondon to see /n&els and to a4uaint hi# with
the new tendenies in the Russian revolutionary #ove#ent% /n&els even wrote a
speial artile dealin& with the forei&n poliy of Russian @zaris# for the first Russian
1ar$ist periodial%
/n&els very soon beheld the fruits of his ener&eti ativity% >hen the 7eond
!nternational was founded /n&els did not ta+e a diret part in the wor+ of its
on&resses% -e avoided publi appearanes and he onfined hi#self to &ivin& advie
to those of his disiples who were now at the hel# of the labour #ove#ent in various
ountriesJ they infor#ed hi# of everythin& i#portant that ourred. soliitin& his
advie and the santion of his authority% 7o#e parties won for the#selves &reat
influene whih they #aintained in the !nternational. than+s to /n&els' ba+in&%
Toward the end of his life this perpetual interourse with only the heads of the leadin&
parties of the different ountries resulted in so#e inonsistenies% Thus. while he
i##ediately rose a&ainst the infatuation of the 5renh 1ar$ists with the peasant
4uestion and defended the proletarian harater of the pro&ra##e. he apitulated
before his ;er#an o#rades. who fearin& the revival of the law a&ainst soialists.
persuaded hi# to #odify the vi&our of his introdution to 1ar$'s study The @lass
7tru&&les in 5rane 66 a brilliant appliation of the ideas of a relentless lass stru&&le
and the ditatorship of the proletariat%
!n the introdution to the fourth ;er#an edition of the @o##unist 1anifesto whih
he wrote on the first international elebration of the 5irst of 1ay <1F9,=. /n&els after
pointin& out the inspirin& &rowth of the international labour #ove#ent. e$pressed his
re&rets that 1ar$ was not alon&side of hi# to see this with his own eyes% >hile 1ar$
was +nown only to the advaned ele#ents of the wor+in&6lass #ove#ent. /n&els.
who +new the si&nifiane of advertisin& and revolted a&ainst the shroud of dar+ness
whih the apitalist press was tryin& to throw over 1ar$'s @apital. but who shran+
1H7
fro# any +ind of self6advertisin& not less than his friend. did toward the end of his life
beo#e one of the #ost popular #en in the international labour #ove#ent% -e had
oasion to onvine hi#self of this when. surrenderin& to the insistene of his friends.
he visited the /uropean ontinent in 1F93% 1ass ovations and reeptions. whih
:assalle had one reo##ended not #erely as a #eans of propa&anda but also as a
#eans of distin&uishin&. advertisin& and elevatin& the leaders above the #ass 66 these
assu#ed &randiose proportions si#ply beause of the now olossal di#ensions of the
labour #ove#ent% ' si#ilar ovation was arran&ed for /n&els at the Durih @on&ress
where he wished to be only a &uest. and where only toward the end of the elebration.
he was persuaded to deliver a short speeh%
/n&els. unli+e 1ar$. retained his ability to wor+ al#ost to the a&e of seventy6five% 's
late as 1F9I he wrote an interestin& letter to Aitor 'dler whih ontained su&&estions
as to how the seond and third volu#es of @apital should be read% 't about the sa#e
ti#e he also wrote an interestin& supple#ent to the third volu#e% -e was #a+in&
ready to write the history of the 5irst !nternational% !n the very heat of all this #ental
wor+ he was overo#e by a ruel si+ness whih finally brou&ht his life to an end on
'u&ust I. 1F9I%
1ar$ was buried in :ondon in one &rave with his wife and his &randhild% !t is
#ar+ed by a si#ple stone% >hen *ebel wrote to /n&els that he intended to propose
that a #onu#ent be ereted on 1ar$'s &rave. /n&els replied that 1ar$'s dau&hters
were unalterably opposed to this% >hen /n&els died re#ation was 0ust be&innin& to
o#e into vo&ue% /n&els in his will as+ed that his body be re#ated. and that his ashes
be dropped into the sea% 2pon his death the 4uestion arose as to whether his will
should or should not be arried out% 1any of his ;er#an o#rades were relutant to
&ive up the idea of a &rave and a worthy #onu#ent% 5ortunately. there were enou&h
o#rades who insisted that his will be o#plied with% -is body was burned. and the
urn with the ashes was let down into the sea%
*oth friends have left behind the# a #onu#ent stron&er than any &ranite. #ore
elo4uent than any epitaph% They have left us a #ethod of sientifi researh. rules of
revolutionary strate&y and tatis% They have left an ine$haustible treasure of
+nowled&e whih is still servin& as a fatho#less soure for the study and the
o#prehension of surroundin& reality%
1HF
David
RIA2AN!&
(orn# 1)7*
'ied# 193)
David *orisovih ;oldendah% *orn in 3dessa. 2+raine. 1arh 1,% 't 1I. 0oined
?arodni+ revolutionaries% 'rrested by Tsarist polie. spent five years in prison% 't a&e
19. #ade first trip to Russia 1ar$ist irles abroad% >hen returnin& fro# seond suh
trip in 1F91. was a&ain arrested at the border% 'fter 1I #onths awaitin& trial. was
sentened to four years solitary onfine#ent and hard labor%
>ith the 5ebruary Revolution of 1917. Riazanov returned to Russia% !n 'u&ust. he
0oined the *olshevi+s% !n 191F. he be&an or&anizin& 1ar$ist arhives% !n 192,.
Riazanov was #ade diretor of the new 1ar$6/n&els !nstitute <whih bea#e the
1ar$6/n&els6:enin !nstitute in 1931=% 7oon. Riazanov's e#issaries were out buyin& up
whatever opies of 1ar$ M /n&els wor+s and letters they ould find% 's Dir+ 7trui+
noted in a brief 1973 introdution to Riazanov9
R*y 193,. Kthe !nstituteL possessed hundreds of ori&inal dou#ents. II.,,,
pa&es of photostats. 32.,,, pa#phlets. and a library of HI,.,,, boo+s and bound
periodials% 'part fro# the ad#inistrative offies. the arhive. and the library. it
had wor+in& roo#s. a #useu#. and a publishin& depart#ent%S
' onte#porary of that ti#e desribed Riazanov9
)The i#pression he left was one of i##ense. al#ost volani ener&y This
powerful build added to this i#pressionTand tireless in olletin& every srap
about. or pertainin& to. 1ar$ and /n&els% -is speehes at 8arty on&resses.
#ar+ed by &reat wit. often arried hi# in sheer enthusias# beyond the bounds of
lo&i% -e did not hesitate to ross swords with anyone. not even with :enin% -e
was treated for this reason with rather an a#used respet. as a +ind of a&ed lion.
but one whose bar+ or &rowl usually had a &rain of two of truth worth listenin&
to%S
Riazanov's 1enshevi+ sy#pathies finally au&ht up with hi# in 193,. when he was
relieved of duties and spent #ore ti#e in prison% Kirov &ranted hi# per#ission to
return to :enin&rad. but after Kirov's assassination. Riazanov had to return to 7aratov.
where he died in 193F%
1H9
D' ' Ria3onov
by *oris 7ouvarine
<Translated fro# :a @riti4ue soiale. no%2. July 1931. pp%H96I,%=
66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
D% *% Riazonov. )the #ost renowned and the #ost i#portant of the 1ar$ist sholars of
our ti#e). as said by the offiial or&an of the @o##unist !nternational <!npreorr.
no%2(. 19th 1arh 193,=. )the #ost e#inent #ar$olo&ist of our ti#e) <!zvestia. 1,th
1arh. 193,=. )a world sientifi personality) who had &iven )over forty years of
ative life to the ause of the wor+in& lass) <8ravda. 1,th 1arh. 193,=. was arrested
and i#prisoned in 1osow last 5ebruary. deported to a a#p in 7uzdal. and then to
7aratov for an unspeified ter#. without trial. and without any opportunity of provin&
his innoene. or of defendin& hi#self. by a si#ple &overn#ental polie #easure%
Riazonov be&an his politial life at the a&e of seventeen by or&anisin& a soialist irle
in 3dessa% 3ne of the very first. it was onneted with 8le+hanov's :ea&ue for the
/#anipation of :abour. the seedbed of Russian 7oial De#oray. and undertoo+ to
publish the prinipal wor+s of 1ar$is# in the Russian lan&ua&e% 'rrested in 1F91. he
suffered five years of prison and fored labour. and then a lon& deportation%
-e went abroad in 19,, and ollaborated with the !s+ra and Darya of 8le+hanov. :enin
and 1artov and with the ;er#an soial de#orati press. reatin& the *orba &roup
that +ept itself apart fro# the *olshevi+s and the 1enshevi+s. devotin& itself #ainly
to #ar$ist publishin&% The revolution of 19,I brou&ht hi# ba+ to Russia. where he
too+ an ative part in the stru&&le a&ainst zaris# and in the newborn trade union
#ove#ent 9 he is noteworthy for bein& one of the founders of the railway#en's lerial
union% 'rrested and sentened to deportation one a&ain in 19,7. he sueeded in
&ettin& abroad%
There he arried on an intense ativity as a writer. historian. leturer and teaher in the
)party shools) <notably :enin's at :on&0u#eau=. and as a #ilitant of every sort% -is
wor+s on 1ar$ and /n&els' ideas as re&ards Russia #ar+ an epoh in the study of the
4uestion% -e published 'n&lo6Russian Relations in the Aiew of Karl 1ar$. then Karl
1ar$ and the Russians in the 1FH,s. be&an a history of the 5irst !nternational. and was
entrusted by the ;er#an 7oial De#oray with editin& part of the )literary le&ay) of
1ar$ and /n&els by publishin& two volu#es with Dietz <a publiation that was
interrupted by the war=% !n the #eanti#e he ontributed to :enin's papers and
#a&azines%
1I,
The first volu#e of his history of the !nternational. where he set ri&ht the defor#ations
and falsifiations of the 'narhist historians with a wealth of dou#entation produed
by by an i##ense labour. was o#posed in 191H. but the war prevented it fro#
o#in& out% Riazonov too+ part in the Di##erwald @onferene durin& the war. a#e
ba+ to Russia after the 1arh revolution. 0oined the *olshevi+ 8arty at the ti#e of its
defeat <the July Days=. and too+ part in the 3tober revolution by wor+in& #ainly on
the #ilitary side of thin&s%
7uessively 8eoples' @o##issar for @o##uniations in 3dessa. 3dessa's
representative in the @onstituent 'sse#bly and a #e#ber of the /$eutive of the
Railway#en's 2nion. he reated the 'rhive @entre in 191F. bea#e a professor at
7verdlov 2niversity. too+ part in foundin& the 7oialist 'ade#y <later rena#ed
@o##unist=. and in 1921 )or&anised a sientifi institute that was the pride of our
revolutionary siene). as 8ravda said on 1,th 1arh 193,. the 1ar$6/n&els
!nstituteK1L%
This !nstitute. 8ravda went on. )under Riazonov's diret sientifi and ad#inistrative
leadership. ao#plished i#pressive wor+) <on this sub0et% %f% the later artile by
:%*%=% Riazonov. said 8ravda. whose 0ar&on we e$use ourselves for 4uotin&. is )in the
front ran+ of those who are stru&&lin& for the triu#ph of the revolutionary theory of
the proletariat). as #uh by )his onsiderable sientifi and investi&ative ativity in
the sphere of #ar$olo&y) <we are ris+in& this neolo&is# as the only possible
translation of the Russian ter#= as by his ativity )in the world trade union #ove#ent)
<really in the Russian trade unions=%
Riazonov has published several olletions of #ar$ist artiles and studies sine the
revolution 9 The !nternational 8roletariat and the >ar. ;eor&e 8le+hanov and the
:ea&ue '5or the /#anipation of :abour'. 7+ethes in the -istory of 1ar$is#. The
Tas+s of the Trade 2nions *efore and Durin& the Ditatorship of the 8roletariat. and
1ar$ and /n&els <onferenes=% *ut his prinipal written wor+ is sattered a#on&
nu#erous prefaes. introdutions. footnotes in the wor+s edited by hi#. studies.
su##aries. and ritial. historial or dou#entary notes in the #a&azines that he
founded and edited 9 The 1ar$6/n&els 'rhives. and The 'nnals of 1ar$is#%
/ndowed with an e$eptional #e#ory and a apaity for wor+. and easily #asterin&
the four #ain /uropean lan&ua&es. he a4uired an enylopedi erudition that was
hi&hly re&arded outside the onfines of his own party% -e alone ould at the sa#e ti#e
arran&e and brin& to fruition the @o#plete >or+s of 1ar$ and /n&els. 8le+hanov.
Kauts+y and :afar&ue. deipher the #ass of unedited #aterials left behind by 1ar$
and /n&els. unover the bul+ of their orrespondane. repair the alterations and fill up
1I1
the &aps in all previous publiations. and edit the 1ar$ist :ibrary. then the :ibrary of
1aterialis# <;assendi. -obbes. :a 1ettrie. -elvetius. d'-olbah. Diderot. J% Toland.
8riestley and 5euerbah= and -e&el's philosophial wor+sK2L. et%. whilst diretin& the
!nstitute. fillin& up libraries. and or&anisin& e$hibitions%
-e was at the sa#e ti#e wor+in& onsientiously as a #e#ber of the /$eutive
@o##ittee of the 7oviets on that body's bud&etary o##ission% -e was the first
o##unist eleted to the 'ade#y of 7ienes% -e uneasin&ly partiipated in the life
of the party and trade unions as a onsious #ar$ist. a de#orati o##unist. in other
words. opposed to any ditatorship over the proletariat% >hen the 'll6Russian Trades
2nion @on&ress of 1921 had at his insti&ation adopted a resolution that did not
onfor# to the so6alled oneptions of '*olshevis#'. aordin& to whih the trade
unions are a passive instru#ent of the party. whereas Riazonov's resolution allowed
the# to onsider the @entral @o##ittee's trade union poliy. it too+ #easures to
restore order 9 To#s+y. the @on&ress hair#an. was sent to Tur+estan. and Riazonov
was forbidden aess by the party to his trade union. suh as ta+in& the floor durin&
any #eetin&. or to run a ourse on it at the universityK3L%
-e then devoted hi#self entirely to historial wor+ and #ar$ist ulture. outside of the
fations and &roupin&s. #aintainin& his ritial spirit and his faulties of 0ud&e#ent
intat. preservin& the !nstitute fro# passin& fads. and #aintainin& the best traditions of
sientifi. 4ualified. honest and onsientious wor+ there. a happy ontrast with the
proeedin&s of institutions entrusted to servile funtionaries%
>hen the 7oialist 'ade#y. with his approval. too+ the na#e of @o##unist in 192H.
Riazonov said 9 )! a# not a *olshevi+. ! a# not a 1enshevi+. ! a# not a :eninist% ! a#
only a #ar$ist. and. as a #ar$ist. ! a# a o##unist) <?ewsletter of the @o##unist
'ade#y. no%F. 1osow. 192H=% This speeh. already subversive at the ti#e. is today
re&arded as a ri#e of lUse6ditatorship in 7oviet RussiaKHL%
3n the oasion of Riazonov's si$tieth birthday last year the 7oviet press showered
praises and flowers on this old #an. )who wor+s not as a #an si$ty years old. but li+e
three youn& #en of twenty)% The /$eutive @o##ittee of the 7oviets onferred upon
hi# the ridiulous order of the Red *anner of :abour% 'll the offiial or&anisations.
the /$eutive of the @o##unist !nternational. the @entral @o##ittee of the the 8arty.
the :enin !nstitute. the @o##unist 'ade#y. the 'ade#y of 7ienes. the state
publishers. et%. offered hi# their war# and hyporitial on&ratulations% They an be
read in the 8ravda and !zvestia of the 1,th 1arh. and in an e$tensive olletion 9 ?a
boiVvo# postou <1osow. 193,=. followed by eulo&isti letters fro# KalininKIL.
Ry+ov and @lara Det+in. lyrial artiles by Deborin. :unahars+y. 7te+lov. :ozovs+y
and 1ilyutinK(L. and speehes by 8o+rovs+y.K7L *u+harin and others%
1I2
3ne year later. and Riazonov was arrested. i#prisoned and deported without any for#
of trial. the wor+ of the !nstitute was suspended. and al#ost all of his ollaborators
were realled% 'n o#nipotent and autorati power had onde#ned hi# without trial.
and without even allowin& hi# to be heard% The last refu&e of soial siene and
#ar$ist ulture in Russia had eased to e$ist%
>ith this barbarous e$ploit. the ditatorship of the seretariat has perhaps delivered a
#ortal blow at a &reat and disinterested servant of the proletariat and of o##unis#%
!t has surely lost a preious soure of +nowled&e. and destroyed a study entre uni4ue
in the world% *ut it #ay at least at the sa#e ti#e have dispelled the last #ira&e apable
of reatin& illusions abroad. and by revealin& its real nature. proved the absolute
ino#patibility between post6:eninist *olshevis# and #ar$is#%
*oris 7ouvarine
66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
5ootnotes9
K1L 7hortly before his arrest he invited our own Re& ;roves to wor+ with hi# in
1osow on the /n&lish editions of the wor+s of 1ar$ and /n&elsJ fortunately. ;roves
did not ta+e up the offer <translator's note=%
K2L 8ierre ;assendi <1I9261(II= was aa ato#ist philosopherJ Tho#as -obbes <1IFF6
1(79= was an e#pirial thin+er. the author of :eviathanJ Julien 3ffroy de la 1ettrie
<17,9617I1= was a #aterialist thin+er who believed that psyholo&ial states depended
diretly on physial onditionsJ @laude 'drien -elvetius <171I61771= believed that all
ideas were the i#pression of e$ternal ob0etsJ 8aul -einrih Dietrih. *aron von
-olbah <1721617F9= was a #aterialist philosopher. the author of the 7ystU#e de la
?atureJ John Toland <1(7,61722= was a #aterialist thin+er. a disiple of :o+e. who
thou&ht that there was a diret orrespondene between thou&ht and ob0etJ Joseph
8riestly <173361F,H= was an /n&lish he#ist and philosopherJ :udwi& 5euerbah
<1F,H61F72= was a -e&elian thin+er who influened 1ar$J ;eor& >ilhel# 5riedrih
-e&el <177,61F31= was the fore#ost e$ponent of dialetial philosophy <translator's
note=%
K3L @%f% !n Defene of the Russian Revolution. :ondon. 199I. pp%2376H2 <translator's
note=%
1I3
KHL ' pun 9 lUse6#a0estV #eans treasonous speeh a&ainst the rown <translator's note=%
KIL1i+hail !vanovih Kalinin <1F7I619H(= sueeded 7verdlov as 8resident of the
/$eutive of the 7oviets. and hene head of state of the 2%7%7%R% <translator's note=%
K(L 'bra# 1oiseyevih Joffe. alled Deborin <1FF1619(3= was the 2%7%7%R%'s fore#ost
-e&elian philosopher in the 192,s 9 7talin denouned hi# as a )1enshevi+ idealist)J
Buri 1i+hailovih 7te+lov <1F73619H1= was an 3ld *olshevi+. and editor of !zvestiaJ
Aladi#ir 8avlovih 1ilyutin <1FFH6193F= 0oined the R%7%D%:%8% in 19,3 and bea#e a
*olshevi+% -e was re&arded as an e$pert on the peasant 4uestion% -e died in prison
durin& the pur&es <translator's note=%
K7L 1i+hail 8o+rovs+y <1F(F61932= 0oined the R%7%D%:%8% in 19,I. and sided with the
*olshevi+s% -e was a historian of Russia. and held various posts in the state apparatus
<translator's note=%
66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
1IH
The Mar40En5e6s Institute
by ):% *%)
<Translated fro# :a @riti4ue soiale. no%2. July 1931. pp%I162%=
The 1ar$6/n&els !nstitute was founded towards the end of the year 192,. but was only
able to install itself in the buildin& it has sine oupied a year later <previously the
town residene of the Dol&oru+ov prines K1L=. situated in 1osow's Dna#en+a
4uarter. for#erly the 1alo6Dna#en+y setor. now 1ar$6/n&els 7treet%
!n a pa#phlet published in 1929 the !nstitute's founder. D% Riazonov. infor#ed us that
the @entral @o##ittee of the @o##unist 8arty 6 followin& the entire preparatory wor+
of Riazonov. about whih the pa#phlet was silent 6 had ori&inally proposed that he
or&anise a )1useu# of 1ar$is#)% *ut Riazonov envisa&ed so#ethin& &reater. #ore
i#portant. and also #ore useful% -e obtained its per#ission to reate a sientifi
institute. a sort of )laboratory) where historian and ativist ali+e ould study )in the
#ost favourable onditions the birth. develop#ent and spread of the theory and
pratie of sientifi soialis#). whose ai# was to ontribute the ut#ost )to the
sientifi propa&anda of #ar$is#)%
!t should be said strai&htaway that the !nstitute. while re#ainin& stritly faithful to its
ai#. and without ever departin& fro# the ideas that had aused it to be set up. soon
e$tended the field of its researhes and even. #ay it be said. its a#bitions% ?othin&.
whether lose or distant. that touhes upon the pro0et of liberatin& the people and the
wor+in& lass #ove#ent throu&hout the world and soialist thou&ht. is alien to it%
!n 192H the !nstitute was inluded a#on& the ultural establish#ents of the @entral
/$eutive @o##ittee of the 2%7%7%R%. in other words reo&nised as a state institution.
and funtionin& 6in view of its e$eptional i#portane 6 under the i##ediate ontrol
of the @entral /$eutive @o##ittee%
5ro# 192H onwards . after four years of e$istene 6 inludin& years of fa#ine and ivil
war 6 Riazonov was able to say. and not without pride. that the 1ar$6/n&els !nstitute
was a#on& the fore#ost in the world% !n fat. on the 1st January 192I the !nstitute's
library already possessed 1I.(2F seleted volu#es% 1oreover. its arhives ontained
nu#erous #anusripts of 1ar$ and /n&els. and #yriads of others of the hi&hest
interest on the history and #en of the 5irst !nternational. 7aint67i#onis#.
5ourrieris#K2L. and the revolutionary and wor+in& lass #ove#ent 6 a#on& the# the
0ournal #aintained by :assalle in his youthK3L. and so#e two hundred letters of the
1II
sa#e sort to his a4uaintanes% 5inally. it had a4uired the rarest publiations with
whih 1ar$ and /n&els had ollaborated 6inludin& the AorwWrts published by 1ar$
in 8aris in 1FHH. and the Rheinishe Deitun& of 1FH26H3%
To be&in with the !nstitute drew its boo+s fro# the nationalised libraries. a#on& the#
that of TaniVev. ontainin& an e$ellent olletion of soialist authors. and a rare
olletion of prints fro# the ti#e of the 5renh revolution% -owever. this soure was
4ui+ly e$hausted. for even in the rihest libraries of the di&nitaries of the old re&i#e
and other aristorats he was only able to find a few boo+s that were of interest to the
!nstitute 9 the previous politial onditions would in no way allow those who were
interested to proure forei&n publiations that dealt with the soial 4uestions and
revolutionary #ove#ents of /uropeJ even so#e boo+s by Renan and 1iheletKHLwere
forbiddenJ soialist publiations were never freely ad#itted into Russia%
Riazonov bou&ht the library of Theodore 1autner <a soialist boo+6lover=. that of Karl
;rGnber& <a historian of soialis#=. and that of 1% >indelband. onsistin& of
philosophial wor+s% -e obtained all that was neessary to o#plete the olletions
fro# abroad and undertoo+ researh in the arhives and the &reat /uropean libraries.
havin& #anusripts and dou#ents photo&raphed. and even so#e printed #atter that
ould not be found in libraries%
This is how the #aterials were photoopied relatin& to the wor+ of 1ar$ and /n&els
onserved in the arhives of the ;er#an 7oial De#orati 8arty. the essential
dou#ents on the life and trial of *abeufKIL in the national arhives in 8aris. on the
revolution of 1FHF. the trial of 'u&uste *lan4uiK(L. the 8aris @o##une of 1793K7L. the
@o##une of 1F71KFL. et%%%
't present the !nstitute has olleted thousands of photo&raphs to #a+e up the
neessary dou#entation. as #uh for &eneral resarh as for publishin&% '#on& the
publiations of the !nstitute we should note the #onu#ental edition of the wor+s of
Karl 1ar$ and 5rederi+ /n&els in twenty6seven volu#es <of whih seven have
appeared=. the 1ar$6/n&els 'rhives and the 'nnals of 1ar$is#. rih in studies and
dou#ents. the 1aterialist :ibrary <inludin& the wor+s of -olbah. -obbes. Diderot.
5euerbah. :a 1ettrie. et%=. the @o#plete >or+s of ;% A% 8le+hanov. Russia's
fore#ost theoretiian of #ar$is#. those of K% Kauts+y. of 8% :afar&ue. the 1ar$ist
:ibrary. inludin& the best edition of The @o##unist 1anifesto. annotated by
Riazonov. the :ibrary of the @lassis of 8olitial /ono#y. et%
The !nstitute now has #ore than H,,.,,, volu#es. inludin& a very fine olletion on
the 5renh revolution. with the wor+s and publiations of 1arat. Robespierre.
'naharsis @lootzK9L. and *abeuf in first editions. the very rare brohures and
1I(
pa#phlets of the /nra&VsK1,L. the #ost preious periodials. suh as the '#i du
8euple. the 8Ure Duhesne. the Tribun du 8euple. et%J a o#plete olletion. also in
the ori&inal editions. of the wor+s of Robert 3wenK11L. inludin& #any brohures.
#anifestos. et%. not #entioned in the re#ar+able *iblio&raphy of Robert 3wen <2nd
enlar&ed edition. 192I=J a re#ar+able olletion of the *ritish eono#istsJ an al#ost
o#plete olletion of the periodials of 1FHF <over H,, titles=. and #ost of the
publiations relatin& to the events of 1FHF in the various ountriesJ and the #ain
publiations of the wor+in& lass and on the wor+in& lass #ove#ent. et%
'#on& reent a4uisitions we #i&ht #ention a file of The Ti#es fro# its foundation
to the warJ a very rare file of the ?ew Bor+ Tribune. inludin& the years when 1ar$
and /n&els ollaborated with itJ the uni4ue olletion of 1% -elfert. wholly devoted to
the revolutionary #ove#ent of 1FHF6H9 in 'ustria. -un&ary. !taly and the slav
ountries. a#ountin& to I.,,, volu#es. 1,.,,, posters. plaards. prola#ations. et%.
H.I,, prints and portraits. and 1.,,, auto&raph lettersJ a olletion of #anusripts.
#ost of the# unpublished. of ;rahus *abeuf. inludin& his letters to his son /#il.
his wife. and his writin&s durin& his trialJ and a re#ar+able olletion of posters.
plaards. artoons and other dou#ents fro# the ti#e of the @o##une%
>hereas a partial dou#entation is &enerally to be found in #ost of the i#portant
/uropean libraries. only relatin& to the soial #ove#ent of suh and suh a ountry
<and even within these li#its. often ino#plete=. the various olletions of the !nstitute
#a+e up a uni4ue entre of dou#entation on the wor+in& lass #ove#ent in /urope%
The !nstitute is or&anised in suh a way as to assist wor+ and #a+e it produtiveJ it is a
entre of study and of publiation at one and the sa#e ti#eJ it is divided into different
setions or abinets for#in& two seriesJ a historial series. and an ideolo&ial series%
The historial series inludes these setions 9 ;er#an <the rihest=. I,.,,, volu#esJ
5renh <al#ost H,.,,, volu#es=J /n&lishJ and eah has its own arhives%
The ideolo&ial series inludes these setions 9 8hilosophy <2I.,,, volu#es=J
7oialis#. where the 1autner. ;rGnber& and TaniVev olletions are depositedJ
8olitial /ono#y <2,.,,, volu#es=J 7oiolo&y. :aw and 8olitisJ and arhives are
also attahed to eah abinet%
The !nstitute also has a #useu#. where prints. sta#ps. portraits. and #edals are
e$hibited 6 set up for instrution. not for #arvellin&. with the sole ai# of enoura&in&
wor+% !t or&anises e$hibitions #ethodially% 'n e$hibition on the 5renh revolution in
192F aroused the liveliest interest%
1I7
To our +nowled&e. it was the first underta+in& of its +ind to be #ade abroad% !t was an
e$ellent illustration of the !nstitute's #ethods. its eduational outloo+. its researhes
and its wealth% !t allowed shoolhildren and wor+ers to study the forerunners of
#odern ideas and the pioneers of soialis#. to follow the events of the revolution in
the order in whih they happened. to &et to +now a little about the #en and the
at#osphere. and to for# an opinion of the press of the ti#e. and how it represented the
ations of the popular #asses and the stru&&le of the lasses and parties%
!n the sa#e #ethodial #anner. and with the sa#e sientifi preoupations. the
!nstitute or&anised an i#portant e$hibition on the @o##une of 1F71% 2ni4ue #aterial
was arran&ed in four spaious roo#s <inludin& 37I authenti dou#ents of the ti#e.
223 periodial publiations. a 4uantity of prints and artoons. and two fla&s= on the
7eond /#pire. the war and the sie&e of 8aris. the ori&ins of the @o##une. its 72
days of e$istene. and its bloody suppression%
>e should also #ention a re#ar+able 1ar$6/n&els e$hibition. pitorially very rih in
rare editions. providin& authenti new infor#ation on the life and wor+ of the founders
of sientifi soialis#. on the ori&in and develop#ent of #ar$is#. and on its
distribution throu&hout the world%
7uh. in su#. is the unpreedented wor+ of the 1ar$6/n&els !nstitute. orrespondin&
to the new needs of our ti#e%
:% *%
5ootnotes
K1L 8aul <1F((61927= and 8eter Dol&oru+ov <1F((619HI= were twin prines. and
leaders of the @adets% They e#i&rated after the revolution. but 8aul returned to Russia
in seret. and was aptured and shot <translator's note=%
K2L @laude -enri de Rouvry. @o#te de 7aint67i#on <17(,61F2I= was an early utopian
thin+erJ 5ranXois 1arie @harles 5ourrier <177261F37= was the founder of the 5renh
shool of utopian soialists <translator's note=%
K3L 5erdinand :asalle <1F2I61F(H= founded the ;eneral 'ssoiation of ;er#an
>or+ers. whih united with the followers of *ebel to set up the 7D8 <translator's
note=%
KHL Joseph /rnest Renan <1F23692= was a 5renh orientalist. whose researhes alled
in 4uestion the truths of @hristianityJ the sandal reated by his :ife of Jesus ost hi#
1IF
his hair at the @ollU&e de 5raneJ Jules 1ihelet <179F61F7H= was a historian of the
5renh revolution. and a supporter of the 8aris @o##une <translator's note=%
KIL 5ranXois /#ile ';rahus' *abeuf <17(,61797= was the leader of the @onspiray of
/4uals in the 5renh revolution <translator's note=%
K(L :ouis 'u&uste *lan4ui <1F,I61FF1= advoated the seizure of power on behalf of
the wor+in& lass by a onspiratorial Vlite% -is trial was a notorious #isarria&e of
0ustie 9 he was sentened to ten years in prison in 1FH9. but even afterwards the
&overn#ent would not release hi# <translator's note=%
K7L The eletion of the @ounil of the 8aris @o##une on 1,th 'u&ust 1793 spar+ed
off the opposition to the reation a&ainst the 5renh revolution% !t de#anded '*read for
'll' <translator's note=%
KFL The 8aris @o##une of 1F71 was a brief period when the 8aris wor+ers too+
ontrol of the ity after 5rane's defeat in the 5rano68russian >ar <translator's note=%
K9L Jean68aul 1arat <17H361793=. the '8eople's friend' was a leadin& radial durin& the
5renh revolutionJ 1a$i#ilien Robespierre <17I,6199H= was the Jaobin leader durin&
the terrorJ Jean6*aptiste. alled ''naharsis' @lootz <17II6179H= was a ;er#an atheist
who wanted to spread the 5renh revolution abroadJ he was &uillotined after an atta+
on Robespierre <translator's note=%
K1,L The /nra&Vs were the followers of Aarlet and Rou&e. who rallied the sansulottes
a&ainst the reation durin& the 5renh revolution% The newspapers na#ed were all put
out by the left durin& the revolution <translator's note=%
K11L Robert 3wen <177161FIF= was a philanthropi otton #anufaturer and utopian
thin+er. who ori&inated the theory that 'onditions deter#ine onsiousness'
<translator's note=%
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1I9