Duplo A Completo

FACULTYOFMECHANICAL,MATERIALSANDAUTOMOTIVEENGINEERING
92420CapstoneII
2007BajaProjectSuspension
Submittedby:
Student EmailAddress(NonUwindsor)
WilliamBombardier (bomb_a_deer@hotmail.com)
AhmadFadel (ahmadluay@hotmail.com)
XiangdongDing (xiangdong_ding@hotmail.com)
IanFunkenhauser (jackass97867@hotmail.com)
BrianZuccato (bcz1358@hotmail.com)
MikeBowie (bowie3@hotmail.com)
YeTao (tzdd2002@hotmail.com)
BoHuang (wongbo12345@hotmail.com)
August3
rd
2007
Submitted To: Dr. Bruce Minaker
2007 Baja Project
Suspension

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1) Table of Contents
1) Table of Contents............................................................................................................. i
2) List of Tables................................................................................................................. iv
3) List of Figures................................................................................................................. v
4) List of Equations............................................................................................................ ix
5) Nomenclature.................................................................................................................. x
6) Introduction to Suspension Kinematics and Kinetics..................................................... 1
6.1) Suspension Kinetics................................................................................................. 1
6.1.1) Vehicle ride modeling (vertical dynamics) ...................................................... 2
6.1.2) Vehicle handling............................................................................................. 11
6.2) Suspension Kinematics.......................................................................................... 18
6.2.1) Track width and tire scrub.............................................................................. 18
6.2.2) Instant center and roll center position............................................................. 19
6.2.3) Camber angle.................................................................................................. 21
6.2.4) Caster angle and caster trail............................................................................ 24
6.2.5) Kingpin angle and scrub radius ...................................................................... 25
6.2.6) Toe angle, roll steer and bump steer............................................................... 27
6.2.7) Aligning torque or self centering moment...................................................... 30
6.2.8) Anti-dive/anti-squat ........................................................................................ 30
6.2.9) Motion ratio and wheel rate............................................................................ 33
6.2.10) Roll stiffness................................................................................................. 34
6.2.11) Vehicle ride height........................................................................................ 35
6.2.12) Understeering/Oversteering characteristics of vehicle................................. 35
6.3) Spring rate determination ...................................................................................... 37
7) 2007 Suspension Kinematics........................................................................................ 38
7.1) Choosing the dimensions of the vehicle................................................................ 38
7.2) Choosing the suspension points............................................................................. 40
7.3) Choosing the suspension geometry angles ............................................................ 41
7.4) Choosing the inner suspension points ................................................................... 42
7.5) Choosing the steering tie rods lengths................................................................... 47
7.6) Choosing the strut mounting points....................................................................... 48
7.7) Design front and rear suspension to be consistent................................................. 49
8) 2007 Suspension kinetics.............................................................................................. 52
8.1) Handling analysis on 2006 vehicle........................................................................ 52
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8.2) Approach to designing 2007 suspension kinetics.................................................. 53
8.3) 2007 front and rear suspension shocks.................................................................. 54
8.4) The required spring rates based on the Olley criteria............................................ 54
8.5) CarSim model for 2007 vehicle............................................................................. 56
8.6) Necessary combination of Elka Suspensions springs............................................ 64
8.7) Evaluation of spring rate in CarSim...................................................................... 65
8.8) Ride, bounce, pitch and wheel hop frequencies .................................................... 67
8.9) Prediction of vehicle performance in regards to the dynamic events.................... 72
9) Suspension Component Design.................................................................................... 74
9.1) Choice of Materials........................................................................................... 74
9.2) Front Suspension System.................................................................................. 75
9.2.1) Control Arms ............................................................................................ 75
9.2.2) Finite Element Analysis............................................................................ 76
9.2.3) Joints ......................................................................................................... 78
9.2.4) Steering tie rod and bump stop ................................................................. 80
9.3) Rear Suspension System........................................................................................ 82
9.3.1) Control Arms .................................................................................................. 82
9.3.2) Finite Element Analysis.................................................................................. 84
9.3.3) Joints............................................................................................................... 84
9.4) Installation ............................................................................................................. 85
10) Shocks (Dampers & Springs) ..................................................................................... 88
10.1) Chosen shocks ..................................................................................................... 88
10.2) Adjustable Damping............................................................................................ 89
10.3) Progressive spring rates....................................................................................... 90
11) Hubs & Uprights......................................................................................................... 93
11.1) Background & Research...................................................................................... 93
11.2) Concepts & Brainstorming.................................................................................. 93
11.3) CATIA Modeling ................................................................................................ 94
11.4) FEA...................................................................................................................... 95
11.5) Materials & Manufacturing Procedure Used....................................................... 95
11.6) Finished Product .................................................................................................. 95
11.6.1) Testing .......................................................................................................... 95
11.7) Recommendations for Improvements.................................................................. 96
12) Tires and Rims............................................................................................................ 97
12.1) Background and Research .................................................................................. 97
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12.2) Concepts and Brainstorming .............................................................................. 97
12.3) CATIA Modeling ............................................................................................. 105
12.4) Additional Analysis .......................................................................................... 105
12.5) Materials and Manufacturing Procedures Used................................................ 106
12.6) Finished Product ............................................................................................... 106
12.6.1) Product Assembly and Maintenance ......................................................... 106
12.6.2) Testing ........................................................................................................ 106
12.7) Recommendations for Improvement ................................................................ 107
13) Suspension tuning and testing .................................................................................. 108
13.1) Suspension kinematics adjustment and measurement ....................................... 108
13.2) Dynamic tuning of the suspension..................................................................... 111
13.3) Problems during testing..................................................................................... 112
14) Strain gage testing .................................................................................................... 116
14.1) Background & Research.................................................................................... 116
14.2) Concepts & Brainstorming................................................................................ 116
14.3) CATIA Modeling .............................................................................................. 118
14.4) FEA.................................................................................................................... 119
14.5) Additional Analysis ........................................................................................... 120
14.6) Materials & Manufacturing Procedure Used..................................................... 121
14.7) Recommendations for Improvements................................................................ 121
15) Suspension Prototype ............................................................................................... 122
15.1) Background & Research.................................................................................... 122
15.2) Concepts & Brainstorming................................................................................ 122
15.3) ADAMS Modeling ............................................................................................ 123
15.4) Additional Analysis ........................................................................................... 127
15.5) CATIA & FEA.................................................................................................. 127
15.6) Materials & Manufacturing Procedure Used..................................................... 129
15.7) Finished Product ................................................................................................ 130
15.7.1) Product Assembly & Maintenance............................................................. 130
15.7.2) Testing ........................................................................................................ 132
15.8) Recommendations for Improvements................................................................ 133
16) References and contacts............................................................................................ 139
16.1) Contacts ............................................................................................................. 139
16.2) Websites............................................................................................................. 140
16.3) Books and professional papers .......................................................................... 141
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17) Appendixes ............................................................................................................... 143
17.1) Appendix A........................................................................................................ 143
The derivation of the half car model....................................................................... 143
17.2) Appendix B........................................................................................................ 145
The derivation of the bicycle model ........................................................................ 145
17.3) Appendix C........................................................................................................ 148
17.4) Appendix D........................................................................................................ 154
Critical speed calculations of 2006 vehicle............................................................ 154
17.5) Appendix E........................................................................................................ 156
17.6) Appendix F........................................................................................................ 157
Predicted spring rates............................................................................................. 157
17.7) Appendix G........................................................................................................ 158
Acceleration Plots................................................................................................... 158
Acceleration and Cornering ................................................................................... 160
Braking.................................................................................................................... 161
Braking and Cornering........................................................................................... 162
S Shaped Plots......................................................................................................... 163
2007 Jump Performance......................................................................................... 165
Cornering................................................................................................................ 166
17.8) Appendix H........................................................................................................ 167
17.9) Appendix I ......................................................................................................... 180
17.10) Appendix J....................................................................................................... 193
Spreadsheets to record the data during testing........................................................ 193
17.11) Appendix K...................................................................................................... 197
17.11.1) Rear suspension assembly Bill of Material: ................................................. 197
17.11.2) Front suspension assembly Bill of Material ................................................. 201
17.12) Appendix L...................................................................................................... 205

2) List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of vehicle dimensions......................................................................... 40
Table 2: Static Suspension Angles.................................................................................... 42
Table 3: Estimated cornering stiffness of the 2006 tires................................................... 52
Table 4: Critical speed of 2006 vehicle ............................................................................ 52
Table 5: Weight of the vehicle and weight distribution.................................................... 54
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Table 6: Ride frequencies of the 2005 vehicle.................................................................. 55
Table 7: Required spring rates for 2007 vehicle based on Olley criteria.......................... 55
Table 8: The main and auxiliary springs required to obtained the appropriate ride
frequencies ................................................................................................................ 64
Table 9: Spring rate evaluation results.............................................................................. 66
Table 10: The frequencies of the vehicle.......................................................................... 67
Table 11: Summary of material properties ....................................................................... 74
Table 12: 2003 Testing Data............................................................................................. 97
Table 13: Tire Pressure ................................................................................................... 107

3) List of Figures
Figure 1: Vehicle axis system............................................................................................. 2
Figure 2: The quarter car model.......................................................................................... 3
Figure 3: Bounce/pitch model............................................................................................. 5
Figure 4: The half car model............................................................................................... 8
Figure 5: The front and the rear suspension amplitudes as a function of time ................... 9
Figure 6: Eigenvalues verses vehicle speed for an understeering vehicle........................ 15
Figure 7: Oversteering and Understeering Vehicle .......................................................... 16
Figure 8: The lateral force verses the slip angle ............................................................... 17
Figure 9: Vehicle track width ........................................................................................... 19
Figure 10: The roll axis of the vehicle.............................................................................. 19
Figure 11: The effect of the jacking forces....................................................................... 20
Figure 12: Roll center position of a double A-arm type of suspension ............................ 21
Figure 13: Definition of camber angle (note in the figure one is looking at the vehicle
from the front)........................................................................................................... 22
Figure 14: The effect camber has on the tire contact patch.............................................. 22
Figure 15: The effect of the camber angle on the cornering curve................................... 23
Figure 16: Caster angle and caster trail............................................................................. 24
Figure 17: Kingpin angle (steering inclination angle) and scrub radius........................... 26
Figure 18: Toe angle (note the view in the figure is the top view)................................... 27
Figure 19: The necessary steps to locate the tie rod position to have no toe angle change
with suspension travel............................................................................................... 29
Figure 20: The pitch center ............................................................................................... 31
Figure 21: Anti-dive suspension geometry....................................................................... 32
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Figure 22: Anti-squat suspension geometry ..................................................................... 32
Figure 23: Motion ratio..................................................................................................... 33
Figure 24: The lateral force verses the vertical force for a given slip angle..................... 36
Figure 25: Vehicle Dimensions ........................................................................................ 38
Figure 26: Rear end of vehicle.......................................................................................... 39
Figure 27: Front and Rear Uprights.................................................................................. 40
Figure 28: Wheel hub........................................................................................................ 41
Figure 29: ADAMS/Car suspension modeling................................................................. 43
Figure 30: Anti Squat Angle............................................................................................. 44
Figure 31: Anti Squat Reaction......................................................................................... 44
Figure 32: Longitudinal wheel travel................................................................................ 45
Figure 33: Roll Center Height and Swing Arm Length.................................................... 46
Figure 34: Camber Gain.................................................................................................... 46
Figure 35: Steering tie rod length ..................................................................................... 47
Figure 36: Tie rod clearance with control arm.................................................................. 48
Figure 37: Motion Ratio.................................................................................................... 48
Figure 38: Roll Center Lateral Position............................................................................ 50
Figure 39: Roll Center Vertical Position .......................................................................... 50
Figure 40: Roll Stiffness ................................................................................................... 51
Figure 41: Track Width Change ....................................................................................... 51
Figure 42: The three interfaces in CarSim........................................................................ 57
Figure 43: Vehicle model in CarSim................................................................................ 57
Figure 44: The mass, Inertia and vehicle dimensions screen in CarSim.......................... 58
Figure 45: The powertrain model in CarSim.................................................................... 59
Figure 46: The brake model in CarSim............................................................................. 60
Figure 47: The steering model in CarSim......................................................................... 61
Figure 48: The front suspension kinematics model in CarSim......................................... 62
Figure 49: The front suspension compliance model in CarSim........................................ 63
Figure 50: Motion amplitude ratio for front excitation..................................................... 68
Figure 51: Pitch/Excitation amplitude ratio for front excitation....................................... 68
Figure 52: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation.. 69
Figure 53: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation 69
Figure 54: Motion amplitude ratio for rear excitation ...................................................... 70
Figure 55: Pitch/Excitation amplitude ratio for rear excitation ........................................ 70
Figure 56: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation.. 71
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Figure 57: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation ... 71
Figure 58: The hill created to simulate the hill climb....................................................... 72
Figure 59: Suspension and traction course ....................................................................... 73
Figure 60: Front lower control arm................................................................................... 75
Figure 61: Front upper control arm................................................................................... 76
Figure 62: Front lower control arm FEA.......................................................................... 76
Figure 63: Front upright FEA........................................................................................... 77
Figure 64: Front suspension assembly FEA..................................................................... 78
Figure 65: Laser cut tabs................................................................................................... 78
Figure 66: Pivot joint construction ................................................................................... 79
Figure 67: Caster adjustment mechanism......................................................................... 80
Figure 68: Camber adjustment mechanism....................................................................... 80
Figure 69: Steering tie rod ................................................................................................ 81
Figure 70: Steering stop.................................................................................................... 81
Figure 71: Schematic of rear lower control arm............................................................... 82
Figure 72: Rear control arms ............................................................................................ 83
Figure 73: Aluminum rear upper control arm................................................................... 83
Figure 74: Rear suspension assmebly FEA ...................................................................... 84
Figure 75: Hiem joint........................................................................................................ 85
Figure 76: Upright to control arm pivot............................................................................ 85
Figure 77: Front control assembly.................................................................................... 86
Figure 78: Rear control assembly ..................................................................................... 87
Figure 79: Elka Suspensions coil over shock ................................................................... 88
Figure 80: Rebound and compression damping adjustment ............................................. 89
Figure 81: Suspension springs with the crossovers .......................................................... 91
Figure 82: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with longer sides of collars
facing up.................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 83: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with shorter sides of collars
facing up.................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 84: Final Catia model ............................................................................................ 94
Figure 85: Rear Assembly FEA........................................................................................ 95
Figure 86: Proposed test setup.......................................................................................... 96
Figure 87: Tire internal cord scenarios ............................................................................ 98
Figure 88 Tire contact patch reactions.............................................................................. 98
Figure 89 Contact patch aligning moment........................................................................ 99
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Figure 90 Internal Pressure Model.................................................................................... 99
Figure 91 Lateral force, traction force affect on slip %.................................................... 99
Figure 92 Aligning moment for vertical loads and slip angles....................................... 100
Figure 93 Lateral forces for brake forces at different slip angles ................................... 101
Figure 94 Lateral forces and aligning moments for different traction forces ................. 101
Figure 95 Vertical and longitudinal reactions for tire roll over a bump ......................... 103
Figure 96 Tire natural frequency vibration modes ......................................................... 103
Figure 97 Rolling loss factor graph ................................................................................ 104
Figure 98 CATIA Model of Rim.................................................................................... 105
Figure 99 CATIA Model of Rear Suspension Assembly ............................................... 106
Figure 100: Caster angle measurement........................................................................... 109
Figure 101: Toe angle measurement............................................................................... 110
Figure 102: Camber angle measurement ........................................................................ 111
Figure 103: Track with measurement ............................................................................. 112
Figure 104: The protection layer on the control arms..................................................... 113
Figure 105: The bend in the control arm........................................................................ 113
Figure 106: Angle iron to reinforce the rear control arms .............................................. 114
Figure 107: The wear in the bushings............................................................................. 114
Figure 108: Timken tapered needle roller bearings ........................................................ 115
Figure 109: Strain gauge testing specimen..................................................................... 117
Figure 110: Bending of test specimen ............................................................................ 117
Figure 111: Axial test on specimen ............................................................................... 118
Figure 112: Specimen modeled in Catia......................................................................... 118
Figure 113: 2004 lower control arm model .................................................................... 118
Figure 114: 2004 lower control arm FEA for 500 lb loading......................................... 119
Figure 115: Cantilever FEA simulation.......................................................................... 119
Figure 116: Axial FEA simulation.................................................................................. 120
Figure 117: 2007 control arm gauging locations ............................................................ 120
Figure 118: Tailing arm and Semi trailing arm.............................................................. 122
Figure 119: Semi trailing arm......................................................................................... 123
Figure 120: Tailing arm.................................................................................................. 123
Figure 121: New semi trailing arm................................................................................. 124
Figure 122: Camber angle comparison........................................................................... 124
Figure 123: Roll centre comparison................................................................................ 125
Figure 124: Toe angle comparison ................................................................................. 125
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Figure 125: Anti Squat comparison................................................................................ 126
Figure 126: Wheel travel track comparison.................................................................... 126
Figure 127: Prototype Suspension Assembly 1 .............................................................. 128
Figure 128: Prototype Suspension Assembly 2 .............................................................. 128
Figure 129: Rear Lower Control Arm FEA.................................................................... 129
Figure 130: Rear Upper Control Arm FEA.................................................................... 129
Figure 131: Prototype front view.................................................................................... 130
Figure 132: Prototype back view.................................................................................... 130
Figure 133: Prototype top view....................................................................................... 131
Figure 134: prototype side view ..................................................................................... 131
Figure 135: Joint and axis control................................................................................... 132
Figure 136: Camber checking 1...................................................................................... 132
Figure 137: Camber checking 2...................................................................................... 133
Figure 138: Semi trailing arm 1...................................................................................... 134
Figure 139: Semi trailing arm 2...................................................................................... 134
Figure 140: Tailing arm 1 ............................................................................................... 135
Figure 141: Tailing arm 2 ............................................................................................... 135
Figure 142: New Semi trailing arm 1 ............................................................................. 136
Figure 143: New Semi trailing arm 2 ............................................................................. 136
Figure 144: Other suspension 1 ...................................................................................... 137

4) List of Equations
Equation 1: The equations of the quarter car model ........................................................... 2
Equation 2: The natural frequencies of the unsprung and sprung mass ............................. 3
Equation 3: The natural frequency of the both the unsprung and sprung mass in hertz..... 4
Equation 4: The amplitudes of displacements of both masses (unsprung and sprung) ...... 4
Equation 5: Bounce and pitch equations of motion (neglecting damping)......................... 5
Equation 6: Motion ratios at each of the natural frequency................................................ 5
Equation 7: Natural frequencies in bounce and in pitch..................................................... 6
Equation 8: Equations of motion in bounce and pitch........................................................ 6
Equation 9: Bounce and pitch damped natural frequency .................................................. 7
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Equation 10: The half car model equations ........................................................................ 8
Equation 11: Sprung and unsprung mass.......................................................................... 10
Equation 12: The equations used in the bicycle model..................................................... 11
Equation 13: Equations of motion in steady state cornering ............................................ 12
Equation 14: Vehicle yaw rate as a function of the steering angle................................... 12
Equation 15: The cornering radius as a function of the kinematic cornering radius ........ 12
Equation 16: The kinematic turning radius....................................................................... 12
Equation 17: Body slip angle............................................................................................ 13
Equation 18: The body slip angle as a function of the steering angle .............................. 13
Equation 19: The limit of the / ratio for an understeering vehicle................................ 13
Equation 20: Critical speed of an oversteering vehicle .................................................... 14
Equation 21: Characteristic speed of an understeering vehicle ........................................ 14
Equation 22: Solution to the transients associated with the bicycle model ...................... 15
Equation 23: Magic tire Formula...................................................................................... 17
Equation 24: Tire cornering stiffness................................................................................ 18
Equation 25: Condition for proper Ackermann steering................................................... 29
Equation 26: Aligning moment......................................................................................... 30
Equation 27 : Wheel rate................................................................................................... 34
Equation 28: Roll stiffness as a function of ride rate........................................................ 34
Equation 29: 3 cases to determine whether the vehicle will oversteer or understeer based
on the bicycle model ................................................................................................. 35
Equation 30: Ride frequency ............................................................................................ 37
Equation 31: The spring rate of 4 springs in series........................................................... 64
Equation 32: Caster angle from measurements .............................................................. 108
Equation 33: Toe angle measurement............................................................................. 110
5) Nomenclature
R Actual cornering radius
0 R Low speed cornering radius (kinematic), obtained when cornering without lateral
slip.
m Mass of the vehicle
r Yaw rate
r& Rate of change of vehicle yaw rate
u Vehicles forward velocity
a Distance between the center of mass and the front axle
b Distance between the center of mass and the rear axle
f C The cornering stiffness of both of the front tires
r C The cornering stiffness of both of the rear tires
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f Front tire slip angle
r Rear tire slip angle
z F Normal load at the tire
y F Lateral Force at the tire
yz Lateral force coefficient
Camber angle
C Cornering stiffness
E Tire belt compression modulus
t b Tire belt thickness
w Tire belt width
t r Rim radius
s Sidewall vertical deflection when loaded (unitized percent)
t a Tire aspect ratio (height/width)
lat a Lateral acceleration
Steering angle
* Limit steering angle (based on a lateral acceleration of 0.5gs)
v Lateral velocity
v& Rate of change of the lateral velocity
I Yaw inertia
Body slip angle
f F Lateral force on both of the front tires
r F Lateral force on both of the rear tires
x The coordinate direction from the center of gravity to the front of the car. Also
this coordinate rotates with the vehicle, rotating frame of reference.
y The coordinate direction from the center of gravity to the side of the vehicle (the
lateral direction). Also this coordinate rotates with the vehicle, rotating frame of
reference.
t u Forward velocity of the tire
t v Lateral velocity of the tire
f Front tire slip angle
r Rear tire slip angle
f vt Lateral velocity of the front tire
tr v Lateral velocity of the rear tire
fr ut Forward velocity of the front right tire
fl ut Forward velocity of the front left tire
w t Vehicle width
t Time
s
m
Meters per second
2
s
m
Meters per second squared
g Gravity Constant (9.81m/s^2)
deg Degree
s
rad
Radians/second
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s sec, Second
m Meter
X Displacement of the vehicle in the x direction (forward)
Y Displacement of the vehicle in the y direction (lateral)
m Mass of the vehicle
a Distance between the center of mass and the front axle
b Distance between the center of mass and the rear axle
I Pitch inertia
t Time
f k Front suspension spring constant (for both of the front suspensions)
r k Rear suspension spring constant (for both of the rear suspensions)
f C Front damping coefficient (for both of the front suspensions)
r C Rear damping coefficient (for both of the rear suspensions)
tf k Front tire spring constant (for both of the front tires)
tr k Rear tire spring constant (for both of the rear tires)
s m Sprung mass
u m Unsprung mass
uf m Portion of the unsprung mass associated with the front of the vehicle
ur m Portion of the unsprung mass associated with the rear of the vehicle
y r Radius of gyration in pitch
s Z Vertical motion of the vehicle body
Vehicle pitch motion
f Z Vertical motion associated with the unsprung mass at the front of the vehicle
r Z Vertical motion associated with the unsprung mass at the rear of the vehicle
f h Disturbance (excitation) motion at the front of the vehicle
r h Disturbance (excitation) motion at the rear of the vehicle
n Natural frequency
Frequency of excitation
Damping ratio
1 f Approximate body motion frequency
2 f Approximate wheel hop frequency
2
s
m
Meters per second squared
deg Degree
s
rad
Radians/second
s sec, Second
m Meter
z H Hertz
lb Pound
in Inches
m
N
Newtons per meter
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s
m
N
Newtons per meter per second

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6) Introduction to Suspension Kinematics and Kinetics

Vehicle dynamics is the study of all forms of transportation (trains, airplanes,
boats, and automobiles). However vehicle dynamics as we know it is the study of the
performance of the automobile in all of its motions (ride, acceleration, cornering, and
baking). The vehicles suspension plays a key roll in each of these motions. The study of
a vehicles suspension can be broken into two major categories: suspension kinetics and
suspension kinematics. Suspension kinetics is a dynamic and a vibration analysis on the
vehicle and suspension systems. Suspension kinematics involves analyzing the motion of
the tires as the suspension compresses and extends. Each of these two divisions will be
analyzed in depth in the following sections.

6.1) Suspension Kinetics

Suspension kinetics is an analysis that is important to the overall performance of
the vehicle because it is what determines if the vehicle is capable of absorbing ground
loads; it is what judges the comfort of the driver, it is what determines if the vehicle will
roll or not; and it is what determines the resonant frequency of the chassis, the shock and
the tire; it is what determines the handling performance of the vehicle. The vehicle will
see a wide range of vibrations because of the speeds it travels and the boundaries it
travels on, thus it is important to analyze the resonant frequency of the suspension
components and the chassis. The ride quality (or vertical dynamics) of a vehicle can be
analyzed using the half car model. The handling performance of the vehicle can be
analyzed using the bicycle model. However before each of these models are considered
it is important to define the vehicle axis and the appropriate rotations about each of the
axis.
The conventional axis system is placed at the center of mass of the vehicle with
the x axis pointing towards the front of the vehicle, the y axis pointing towards the right
side of the vehicle, and the z axis pointing towards the bottom of the vehicle. The x axis
is known as the longitudinal axis, the y axis is known as the lateral axis, and the z axis is
known as the vertical axis. The rotation about the x axis is know as roll, the rotation
about the y axis is known as pitch and the rotation about the z axis is known as yaw
(Figure 1: Vehicle axis system).

Vehicle ride modeling is the study of the motions transmitted to the vehicle
chassis, and thus the motions felt by the passengers in the vehicle. The motions
transmitted to the vehicle chassis come from the vibration of the suspension as it absorbs
the motion coming from the disturbance at the ground. It is these vibrations that cause
the passengers to feel uncomfortable when they are riding in a vehicle. Therefore,
vehicle ride problems arise from the vibrations of the vehicle body (chassis). One of the
main objectives of the suspension system is to control the vibrations of the vehicle body
in order to provide a comfortable ride for the driver.

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Figure 1: Vehicle axis system
6.1.1) Vehicle ride modeling (vertical dynamics)

Mechanical vibrations in a vehicle represent a very complex field, and usually
require multiple degrees of freedom to accurately predict the vertical performance of the
vehicle. However, there exist two simplified models which when combined give an
accurate approximation as to the ride quality of the vehicle. These include the quarter car
model (corner model) (used to predict the motion of a single suspension unit) and the
bounce/pitch model (used to predict the motions of the sprung mass of the vehicle).
These models combined produce the half car model (four degrees of freedom model).
The vertical performance of the vehicle is directly linked to the sprung mass, the
unsprung mass, the pitch inertia, the suspension stiffness, the tire stiffness, the damping
in the tires, the damping in the suspension units, and the excitation frequency. Before the
half car model is introduced, the quarter car model and the bounce/pitch models will be
introduced.

The quarter car model is a model that models the motion of a single suspension
system (it models one corner of the car) (Figure 2: The quarter car model). The sprung
mass in this model represents some portion of the total sprung mass of the system. The
tire is excited because of the shape of the path it is following (the shape is not flat,
especially for an off road track). Applying Newtons 2
nd
law of motion the equations of
motion that govern the quarter car model are as follows (Equation 1: The equations of the
quarter car model).

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0 2 2 1 2 1 2 2
2 1 2 1 1
0
z k z C z k z C z z k z z C z m
z z k z z C z m
t t t t s s u
s s s
+ = + + + +
= + +
& & & & & &
& & & &

Equation 1: The equations of the quarter car model
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Figure 2: The quarter car model

This is a two degree of freedom system, thus there will be two natural frequencies (the
unsprung and sprung mass will each have a resonant frequency). The wheel hop
frequency is the frequency associated with the unsprung mass it is usually around 10Hz.
The body motion frequency is the frequency associated with the sprung mass and it is
usually around 1 to 1.25 Hz. Note, the damping ratios in most suspension systems is
relatively low, therefore the majority of the time the undamped natural frequency will be
really close to the damped natural frequency thus the damped natural frequency is usually
calculated by neglecting any damping in the system. The following equation can be used
to calculate the natural frequencies of the system. Note the natural frequencies are
calculated by neglecting damping in the system and neglecting any excitations (Equation
2: The natural frequencies of the unsprung and sprung mass).

[ ] 0 det
0
0
0
0
2
2
1
2
1
=
+

+
M k
z
z
k k k
k k
z
z
m
m
t s s
s s
u
s
& &
& &

Equation 2: The natural frequencies of the unsprung and sprung mass
Note the above equation in matrix form leads to an eigenvalue problem by assuming the
displacement of each mass to be harmonic (z = Zcos(t)). By solving the determinant
will lead to the natural frequencies of both masses in the system. The frequencies can be
approximated by the following equations (Equation 3: The natural frequency of the both
the unsprung and sprung mass in hertz).

2007 Baja Project
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4
hop) (wheel
2
1
motion) (body
2
1
2
1
u
t s
s
t s
t s
m
k k
f
m
k k
k k
f
+
=
+
=

Equation 3: The natural frequency of the both the unsprung and sprung mass in hertz
Some important observations can be made by solving the above equations. The first
observation is that the sprung mass is well isolated at high frequency, however it will be
poorly isolated at low frequencies, and in some cases, at low frequencies the amplitude of
the sprung mass can be amplified in such a way that it is greater than that of the
excitation amplitude.

Damping will have an effect on the amplitudes of motion even though it does not
have a significant effect on the natural frequencies. The easiest way to solve for the
amplitudes is to use a complex number approach (assume z = Ze
it
). If this is taken into
consideration the equations of motion will be as follows (Equation 4: The amplitudes of
displacements of both masses (unsprung and sprung)).

[ ]
[ ]
0
1
2
2
1
0
2
1 2
0
0
Z
t i k
k C i M
z
z
e Z
t i k
e
z
z
k C i M
t
t i
t
t i
+
+ + =
+
=
+ +

Equation 4: The amplitudes of displacements of both masses (unsprung and sprung)
Note, the result will be a complex number because of the phase lag between the motion
and the disturbance (this is because of the damping in the system, note the i term next to
the C in the equation of motion above). The amplitude is simply the sum of the squares
fo the real and imaginary parts of the answer obtain from the above equation
(
2 2
imaginary real Z + = ). The usual way to solve the equations to obtain the
amplitudes is to assume the excitation is one, and calculate the amplitudes of the
unsprung and sprung mass with respect to this input over a wide range of frequencies.
This will allow the amplitude ratios to be obtained over a wide range of frequencies. The
difference between the motion of the sprung and unsprung mass represents the
suspension shock travel, and the distance between the travel of the unsprung mass and the
excitation is the tire deflection. Tire deflection is a measure of handling because it is the
normal force that generates the necessary friction to propel the vehicle forward (ie if the
normal force is fluctuating up and down the tire is being prevented from griping the
road). Therefore, it can be seen that a stiffer suspension will hurt the tires capability from
gripping the road. The unsprung mass has almost no effect at low frequencies, but at
higher frequencies a lower unsprung mass will lead to lower tire deflections and thus
better handling performance of the vehicle. At mid range frequencies, a lower spring rate
2007 Baja Project
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5
leads to a reduction in tire deflections, and thus improves tire grip. However, a lower
spring rate allows for increased body motions which are detrimental to vehicle handling.

The bounce/pitch suspension model models the vehicle motions separately from
the wheel motions (Figure 3: Bounce/pitch model).

Figure 3: Bounce/pitch model
The equations of motion that govern this system can be obtained by applying Newtons
second law of motion in both pitch and bounce to the system (note damping will be first
neglected so that the natural frequency can be obtained) (Equation 5: Bounce and pitch
equations of motion (neglecting damping)).

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
0
0
y s
r f y s
r f s
r m I
b z b k a z a k r m
b z k a z k z m
=
= + +
= + + +

& &
& &

Equation 5: Bounce and pitch equations of motion (neglecting damping)
The equations of motion are coupled as can be seen above. If it is assumed that the
displacements are harmonic then the natural frequencies can be obtained (z = Zcos(t)
and = cos(t)). The following is the equation that would be obtained from assuming
the motions are harmonic for the natural frequencies (Equation 7: Natural frequencies in
bounce and in pitch). The motion ratios can be obtained at each of these frequencies by
substituting each of the results back into the equation of motion (Equation 6).

1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
D
D Z
D
D Z

Equation 6: Motion ratios at each of the natural frequency

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6
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
2
3 1 2 1 2 , 1
1
1
1
4
1
2
1
b k a k
r m
D
a k b k
m
D
k k
m
D
r
D
D D D D
r f
y s
f r
s
r f
s
y
+ =
=
+ =
+ + =

Equation 7: Natural frequencies in bounce and in pitch
The bounce and pitch natural frequencies are usually very close to one another. They are
usually between 1 to 1.5 Hz. The bounce and pitch equations of motion can be re written
to include damping in the equation of motion (damping is important when it is desired to
obtained the amplitudes of motion) (Equation 8: Equations of motion in bounce and
pitch).

+
+
=
+
+
=

f r f r
f r r f
f r f r
f r r f
y s
s
C a C b aC bC
aC bC C C
C
k a k b ak bk
ak bk k k
K
r m
m
M
z
K M
z
C M
z
z
K
z
C
z
M
2 2
2 2
2
1 1
0
0
0

&
&
& &
& &
&
&
& &
& &

Equation 8: Equations of motion in bounce and pitch
The above equations of motion can be solved to obtain the natural frequencies and
amplitude ratios, as well as the amplitudes for a given frequency. This can be done by
reducing the equations from second order to first order (Equation 9: Bounce and pitch
damped natural frequency).

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7
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] A eigenvalue s
s
sz
z
A Is
e
s
sz
z
A se
s
sz
z
e Ze z
Assume
z
z
A
z
z
C M K M
I
z
z
st st
st st
x x
=
=
= =

0
&
0
1 1
2 2 2 2
&
&
&
&
& &
& &
&
&

Equation 9: Bounce and pitch damped natural frequency
It is important to note that the eigenvalues will be complex numbers because of the phase
change; however the natural frequency is just the sum of squares of the real and
imaginary values. The damping ratio is the negative of the real part divided by the
natural frequency (=-a/n). The amplitudes at all frequencies can be solved by
assuming a value for either the pitch angle or the bounce and then solving the other value
over a wide range of frequencies.

The bounce/pitch model and the quarter car model are two of the most powerful
models to predict the vertical motion of the vehicle. These two models can be combined
to create the half car model. This model couples the motions of the front and rear
suspension through the motion of the sprung mass (both bounce and pitch). This model
allows the wheel hop frequencies to be obtained for both the front and rear suspensions at
the same time. As well as the pitch and body motion frequencies can be obtained. The
half car model predicts the motions of the both the front and both the rear suspension
units at once. There are certain assumptions used in this model, and these include that the
tires on either side of the vehicle have the same effect on the dynamics, and the width of
the vehicle is assumed to be constant. Also, it is assumed that the springs are linear, and
that the damping can be modeled as viscous dampers. The model consists of four
coupled equations used to find the motions associated with the sprung mass and both the
unsprung masses (Equation 10: The half car model equations) (Figure 4: The half car
model) (Appendix A).

2007 Baja Project
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8
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )( )
( )( )
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
tr r
tf f
r
f
s
tr r r r
tf f f f
r f r f r f
r f r f r f
r
f
s
r r r
f f f
r f r f r f
r f r f r f
r
f
s
ur
uf
s
k h
k h
Z
Z
Z
k k bk k
k k ak k
bk ak k b k a bk ak
k k bk ak k k
Z
Z
Z
C bC C
C aC C
bC aC C b C a bC aC
C C bC aC C C
Z
Z
Z
m
m
I
m
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 2
2 2

&
&
&
&
& &
& &
& &
& &

Equation 10: The half car model equations

Figure 4: The half car model
The following is a discussion on the important parameters that are applied in the half car
model.

The Suspension Stiffness and Damping

The suspension stiffness is one of the most important parameters when
considering the vertical performance of the vehicle. It is generally best to have a
moderate spring rates. This is because low spring rates reduce the tire deflection which
increases the tire grip, however it also allows for increased body motions (in roll and in
pitch) which are harmful to the overall handling performance of the vehicle. The
opposite is true for high spring rates. Therefore, there should be a compromise between
implementing high and low suspension stiffness. Also, according to Maurrie Olley the
following set of rules should be followed when designing a suspension system for the
comfort of the passenger, and they are:
1. Front suspension should have a 30% lower ride rate than rear suspension
2007 Baja Project
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9
2. Pitch and bounce frequencies should be close together, bounce frequency should
be 1.2 times the pitch frequency
3. Neither the bounce nor the roll frequency should be greater than 1.3Hz.

The reason for this is that the front of the vehicle will ride over the bump (or
disturbance) first creating an excitation in the front suspension, and then seconds later the
rear suspension will ride over the bump creating an excitation in the rear suspension. If
the two suspension rates are identical the phase lag between the front and the rear
suspensions will create an undesirable motion in pitch. There have been studies that have
shown that the driver/passenger is/are very uncomfortable in pitch motion, it tends to
cause neck muscle strains. Therefore, by increasing the suspension rate in the rear
suspension allows for the rear of the vehicle to catch up to the front of the vehicle
(Figure 5: The front and the rear suspension amplitudes as a function of time).

Figure 5: The front and the rear suspension amplitudes as a function of time
It can be seen from the figure above that there exists a phase lag between the front and
the rear excitations, and that by having a rear suspension rate higher than the front
suspension rate allows for the rear excitation to catch up to the front excitation.

The Tire Stiffness and Damping

The tires stiffness and the tires viscous damping coefficient are important to the
ride quality of the vehicle, but more importantly to the handling performance of the
vehicle. In typical passenger car vehicles the stiffness of the tires is of an order of
magnitude greater than the suspension stiffness. It is typically the tire deflection that is
important for the handling performance of the vehicle, because the tire deflection is one
of the parameters in which decides the tires grip capabilities. As the deflection of the tire
increases, the grip capabilities of the tire will decrease. It is very important to not allow
the tire to lose contact with the ground, because if it does the car will not be controllable
2007 Baja Project
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10
in handling. Typically, the damping coefficient of the tires is neglected because it is
generally very low compared to the other parameters in the system, and neglecting it
results in a small error in the analysis

The Sprung and Unsprung Mass

The mass of the vehicle is an important parameter in the analysis of the vertical
dynamics of the vehicle. The mass of the vehicle is one of the main parameters in which
will decide the deflections of both the front and the rear tires, and the suspension units
when they are excited. The mass of the vehicle is divided into two parts the sprung mass
and the unsprung mass. The sprung mass consists of everything the suspension units
have to support, and these include the chasis, and the engine. The unsprung mass
consists of everything the tires have to support, and these include the front and rear axles.
Typically the sprung mass is of an order of magnitude greater than the unsprung mass.
Therefore the following formula can be used to calculate the sprung mass and the
unsprung mass based on the mass of the vehicle (Equation 11: Sprung and unsprung
mass).

( )( ) kg kg ms
kg
lbs
kg .
lbs
m
m
m m m
m m m
u
u u
u s
65 . 1356 67 . 135 10
67 . 135
11
4535924 0
3290
11
10
= =
=
= =
+ =
+ =

Equation 11: Sprung and unsprung mass
When implementing the half car model the unsprung mass has to be further divided into
the unsprung mass supported by the front tires of the vehicle, and the unsprung mass
supported by the rear tires of the vehicle.

The Pitch Inertia

The pitch inertia is the inertia that arises in the rotation of the front and rear of the
vehicle with respect to the center of mass. The pitch inertia is usually calculated using
the radius of gyration. It is important in the study of the ride quality of the vehicle
because it is one of the significant parameters in which determine the amount of
deflection a vehicle will have in pitch. Generally, in order to have good ride quality in
pitch the radius of gyration should be around 1.2m, and the ratio of the radius of gyration
squared to the location of the front axle from the center of mass times the location of the
rear axles from the center of mass (
( )( ) b a
ry
2
) should be between 0.8 and 1.2. These
values provide a desirable ride in pitch because the center of oscillations in pitch and roll
will be close to the front and the rear axle, thus allowing the motion in pitch created at
one axle to somewhat cancel out the motion in pitch created at the other axle, and
2007 Baja Project
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11
therefore minimizing the overall motion in pitch felt by the driver.

The half car model leads to a good prediction of the vertical performance of the
vehicle or the ride quality of the vehicle.

6.1.2) Vehicle handling

The Handling performance of an automobile is important to the all around
performance of the vehicle. The handling performance will determine how the car will
execute in turning corners; its lateral performance. There are many important parameters
that determine the lateral performance of a vehicle, these include but are not limited to
the location of the center of mass, tire cornering stiffness, the steering angle, the lateral
velocity, the forward vehicle velocity, the lateral acceleration, the rotational speed (yaw
rate), the body slip angle, and the tire slip angle. The model usually used to predict the
lateral performance of the vehicle is the linear bicycle model.

There are certain assumptions used in this model, and these include that the tires
on either side of the vehicle have the same effect on the dynamics, and the width of the
vehicle is assumed to be constant. The model consists of two coupled equations used to
find the lateral acceleration and the rate of change of the vehicles yaw rate while
assuming the forward vehicle speed is held constant (its in the control of the driver)
(Equation 12: The equations used in the bicycle model) (Note, for a clarification of the
model see the derivation in Appendix B).

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+
+
+
+
f
f
r f r f
r f r f
aC
C
r
v
u
C b C a
u
bC aC
mu
u
bC aC
u
C C
r
v
I
m
2 2
0
0
&
&

Equation 12: The equations used in the bicycle model
Once the above equations of motion are solved for the yaw rate, lateral velocity, lateral
displacement and the vehicle yaw several other parameters can be solved for, and certain
characteristics of the vehicle can be determined. Also certain cases can be analyzed in
detail, and one such case is steady state cornering (lateral acceleration and rate of change
of the yaw rate are equal to zero) (Equation 13: Equations of motion in steady state
cornering). Solving the equations of motion in steady state leads to the following
important equations (Equation 14: Vehicle yaw rate as a function of the steering angle)
(Equation 15: The cornering radius as a function of the kinematic cornering radius).

2007 Baja Project
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12
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+
+
+
f
f
r f r f
r f r f
aC
C
r
v
u
C b C a
u
bC aC
mu
u
bC aC
u
C C
2 2

Equation 13: Equations of motion in steady state cornering
( )
( )
r f
r f
C C b a
bC aC mu
b a
u r
+

+
=
2

Equation 14: Vehicle yaw rate as a function of the steering angle
( )
( )
r f
r f
C C b a
bC aC mu
R
R
2
2
0
1
+

=
Equation 15: The cornering radius as a function of the kinematic cornering radius
The second equation (equation 15) is important because it describes the path the
understeer/oversteer characteristics of the vehicle. If the vehicle was cornering with no
lateral slipping than the vehicle would corner about a perfect circular path with a radius
of R
0
(R
0
is known as the kinematic turning radius) (Equation 16: The kinematic turning
radius).

Equation 16: The kinematic turning radius

The kinematic turning radius is the radius in which the driver is aiming for the vehicle to
follow. Examination of equation 15 reveals that if aC
f
< bC
r
than the vehicle will
understeer. If the vehicle understeers, the radius of the path will increase with vehicle
2007 Baja Project
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13
speed. In order to maintain the desired path of the vehicle the driver will have to increase
the steering angle with vehicle speed. If aC
f
> bC
r
the vehicle oversteers, and the
cornering radius will decrease with vehicle speed. The driver will have to decrease the
steering angle as the speed of the vehicle increases in order to maintain the desired path
of the vehicle. If aC
f
= bC
r
the vehicle neutral steers and will turn on the kinematic
turning radius. The radius of curvature will be independent of vehicle speed. It is also
important to note that understeer/oversteer characteristics is also affecting by the
inclination of the roll axis and the front and rear suspension roll stiffness as will be seen
in the suspension kinematics section. The cornering stiffness of the driving wheels will
change as the traction (driving) force increases (as the traction force increases the lateral
force will decrease (friction circle)). For a front wheel drive vehicle this effect is to force
the vehicle to understeer, and for a rear wheel drive to force the vehicle to oversteer.

When the vehicle is cornering it does not point in the direction it is traveling in,
this is known as body slip. The vehicle will experience a body slip angle (Equation 17:
Body slip angle).

u
v
= tan
Equation 17: Body slip angle
Using the steady state bicycle model the body slip angle can be solved for as a function
of the steering angle (Equation 18: The body slip angle as a function of the steering
angle).

( )
( )
( )
r f
r f
r
C C b a
bC aC mu
b a
C b a
amu
b
+

+
+
=
2
2

Equation 18: The body slip angle as a function of the steering angle
At low speeds, the / ratio will be positive which indicates that the rear wheels will track
inside the front wheels. However, at high speeds the opposite will be true; the rear
wheels will track outside the front wheels. For an understeering vehicle the / ratio will
tend to a limit; at high speeds it will be a constant (Equation 19: The limit of the / ratio
for an understeering vehicle).

r f
f
it
bC aC
aC
=
lim

Equation 19: The limit of the / ratio for an understeering vehicle
An oversteering vehicle will have larger slip angles than an understeering vehicle, and the
/ ratio will tend to infinity at a critical vehicle speed. The vehicle will become unstable
2007 Baja Project
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14
at the critical vehicle speed (Equation 20: Critical speed of an oversteering vehicle).

( )
( )
r f
r f
critical
bC aC m
b a C C
u
+
=
2

Equation 20: Critical speed of an oversteering vehicle
If the critical speed is reached the driver is capable of stabilizing the vehicle with steering
inputs. The r/ ratio will also go to infinity at the critical speed for an oversteering
vehicle; however for an understeering vehicle the r/ ratio will reach a maximum at the
characteristic speed (the highest amount of yaw rate for a given steering angle will occur
at this speed) (Equation 21: Characteristic speed of an understeering vehicle).

( )
( )
f r
r f
stic characteri
aC bC m
b a C C
u
+
=
2

Equation 21: Characteristic speed of an understeering vehicle
The transient effects of vehicle cornering can be considered by solving the bicycle
model with zero steering angle; the model is solved assuming that the driver is not going
to react (the steering angle is zero). It is important that the transient effects die out over
time; that is the amplitude of vehicle oscillations tends to zero over time. If it does not go
to zero, then the vehicle will be unstable. It is best to use an eigenvalue approach when
solving the bicycle model to analyze the transient effects of the vehicle (Equation 22:
Solution to the transients associated with the bicycle model). If s is smaller than zero the
vehicle will be stable. Analyzing the equation that determines the value of s will indicate
that if C is greater than zero than the vehicle will always be stable. This occurs for an
understeering vehicle. An understeering vehicle will always be stable. However, for an
oversteering vehicle the value of C will become negative at the critical speed. This is
implying that an oversteering vehicle will be stable up until the critical speed, but once
the critical speed is reached the vehicle will become unstable. It is also important to note
that the solution can take on real and complex solutions. We are generally looking for
our vehicle to have a stable response (want s to be negative or a complex number with a
as being negative) indicating that the yaw rate and lateral velocity will decay
exponentially to zero. If we have an unstable response the yaw rate and the lateral
velocity will increase when excited causing the vehicle to loose control. It is generally
better to design the vehicle so that it is an overall understeering vehicle because it is
guaranteed to be stable. Negative eigenvalues are basically indicating that the system is
capable of correcting itself (allow for the yaw rate and the lateral velocity to decay back
to zero) if excited without any input from the driver. The only difference between the
real and the imaginary parts is that in the imaginary part of the eigenvectors will fluctuate
as they decay to zero, a frequency will exist (Figure 6: Eigenvalues verses vehicle speed
for an understeering vehicle).
2007 Baja Project
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15
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
A
AC B B
s
bC aC mu C C b a C
C C Iu C b C a mu B
mIu A
u
C b C a
Is
u
bC aC
mu
u
bC aC
u
C C
ms
C Ms
C Ms
X C Ms
CXe MsXe
Xe x assume
r
v
x
Cx x M
r f r f
r f r f
r f r f
r f r f
st st
st
2
4
following the to leads t determinan the Solving
0 det
0
0
0
2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2

=
+ =
+ + + =
=
+
+
+
+
+
= +
= +
= +
= +
=
=
= + &

Equation 22: Solution to the transients associated with the bicycle model

Figure 6: Eigenvalues verses vehicle speed for an understeering vehicle
The eigenvectors are the associated response of the vehicle when it is operating at that
2007 Baja Project
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16
particular eigenvalue. As previously mentioned, these eigenvectors allow for the vehicle
to be a stable vehicle. Also as the vehicles speed is increased the s value decreases,
indicating that the yaw rate and lateral velocity will approach zero at a slower rate. That
is as the vehicles speed increases itll take a longer time for the yaw rate and the lateral
velocity to approach zero.

The tire cornering stiffness

The tire cornering stiffness is an important parameter in determining the handling
performance of the vehicle. It is to some extent arbitrary; each tire has its own stiffness,
and the tires on a vehicle can be changed. Therefore the cornering stiffness can be
chosen by the user to precisely predict turning (cornering) characteristics of the vehicle.
It is this parameter that will determine whether the car is an understeering (the actual
cornering radius increases with vehicle speed) or an oversteering (the actual cornering
radius decreases with vehicle speed) automobile because the center of mass of the vehicle
is a fixed parameter (Figure 7: Oversteering and Understeering Vehicle). It is generally
better to have an understeering vehicle, because the vehicle is normally more stable. In
an oversteering case, the vehicle oversteers the turn, and the driver will be forced to
decrease the steering angle as he/she turns in order to stay on the desired path (the path
the vehicle takes when there is no lateral slipping).

Figure 7: Oversteering and Understeering Vehicle
There are also more chances that the vehicle spins on the spot (about its own z-axis). In
an understeering case, the car understeers and the driver is forced to increase the steering
angle in order to stay on the desired path. There are several ways to determine the tires
cornering stiffness. Two of these ways are by using the magic tire model and second by
using an estimation given the tires dimensions.

Magic tire model

The stiffness can be estimated as the slope of the linear range on the lateral force
verses slip angle diagram, which can be obtained from the magic tire model (Figure 8:
The lateral force verses the slip angle, on the following page).
2007 Baja Project
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17

Figure 8: The lateral force verses the slip angle
However, tests will have to be done on the tire in order to determine the necessary
coefficients to apply the magic tire formula (Equation 23: Magic tire Formula).

( )( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] { }
( )
112 111 11
13 12 11
10 9 8
5
4
3
7 6
2 1
0
1 arctan 2 sin
arctan 1 arctan sin
a F a a
a F a F a S
a F a a S
CD
BCD
B
a
a
F
a BCD
a F a E
a F a
F D
a C
S S B E S E B C D Fy
z
z z v
z h
z
z
z yz
z yz
v h h
+ =
+ + =
+ + =
=
=
+ =
+ =
=
=
+ + + + =

Equation 23: Magic tire Formula

Tire Cornering Stiffness Obtained from the Tire Geometry

The tire cornering stiffness can also be obtained from the geometry of the tire by
assuming that the tire is a cantilever beam. This cantilever beam is acted on by a self-
aligning moment and a shearing stress which act together to generate contact patch twist
during cornering. With some manipulation of the tire slip angle (deflection) obtained
from the cantilever beam an expression for the cornering stiffness can be obtained
(Equation 24: Tire cornering stiffness).
2007 Baja Project
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18
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )

+
+
=
t t
t
t t
t
t t
t
wa r
swa
wa r
swa
wa r
w Eb
C
1 arccos sin 1 arccos sin
2
2
3

Equation 24: Tire cornering stiffness
6.2) Suspension Kinematics

Suspension kinematics is the study of the motions of the tire. It describes the
orientation of the tire as a function of wheel travel and steering angle. The motions of the
tire are highly dependent on the type of suspension. In general there are two types of
suspension systems; solid axles and independent suspensions. A solid axle suspension is
a suspension where the movement of one wheel is transmitted to the other wheel causing
them to move together. This type of suspension is essentially a dependent suspension,
the motion of the two wheels are correlated to one another. The biggest advantage of this
type is that the camber angle is not affected by vehicle body roll. The major
disadvantage of this type of suspension is the vibrations which are induced into the
system if the solid axle suspension also incorporates vehicle steering. Independent
suspension systems allow the left and right wheels to move independently; the movement
of one wheel will have no effect on the other wheel. The advantages of independent type
of suspensions are: they provide better resistance to steering vibrations; they provide a
high suspension roll stiffness; steering geometry is easily controlled; suspension
geometry is easily controlled; and they allow for higher wheel travel. The major
disadvantages are: the camber angle changes quite a bit over suspension travel; increased
unsprung mass; and the high cost of the system.

The study of suspension kinematics allows for several different suspension
parameters to be determined throughout suspension travel and steering angle. Some of
the most important parameters include: roll center position and instant center, camber
angle, caster angle, toe angle, tire scrub, kingpin angle, scrub radius, caster trail, aligning
moment, vehicle ride height, track width, wheel rates, roll stiffness, roll axis,
understeer/oversteer characteristics, roll steer, bump steer, motion ratio, and anti-
dive/anti-squat. The following will be a discussion of each of these parameters.
6.2.1) Track width and tire scrub

The track width is a measure of the distance between the center of the tire contact
patches at the front and rear of the vehicle (Figure 9: Vehicle track width). The track
width will change as the wheels travel through the suspension travel, and this change is
known as tire scrub. The change in the track width is a measure of the location of the
instant center of motion of the suspension. As the track width is changing the tires are
forced to push out or pull in at the ground, and thus the tires are forced to scrub against
the ground. Typically, if the suspension is in compression the tires will scrub out, and if
the suspension is in rebound the tires will scrub in. Tire scrub (track width change)
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causes the rolling tires to slip and therefore generates lateral forces. Thus if one wheel
goes over a bump (causes the tire to scrub) there will be a disturbance in the lateral
direction; one side of the vehicle can start to see a larger lateral force than the other and
the vehicle may begin to yaw. Therefore it is important that the change in the track width
be kept to a minimum.

Figure 9: Vehicle track width
6.2.2) Instant center and roll center position

The instant center is the point the wheel rotates about relative to the vehicle
chassis. It is a function of the geometry of the suspension system. The instant center is
important because it defines the position of the roll center. The roll center position is a
position where the lateral forces developed at the wheels are transmitted to the vehicle
sprung mass. This point will affect the behavior of both the sprung and unsprung mass
and thus effects the vehicles cornering characteristics. The roll center is defined as the
point in the transverse vertical plane where the lateral forces may be applied to the sprung
mass without producing any suspension roll. The definition of roll center derives from
the fact that a vehicle will posses a roll axis (Figure 10: The roll axis of the vehicle).

Figure 10: The roll axis of the vehicle

The roll axis is the instantaneous axis where the unsprung mass will rotate relative to the
sprung mass when a pure couple (moment) is applied to the unsprung mass. The roll
center is the intersection of the roll axis with the vertical plane at the front and rear of the
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vehicle. Typically, the roll center position is located based on the suspension geometry
and then the roll axis is located by defining a line which connects the two roll centers
together. The roll axis is also the instantaneous axis in which the whole vehicle rotates
with respect to the ground.

The amount of body roll depends on the height of the center of mass relative to
the roll center position. Therefore raising the roll center position closer to the center of
mass is equivalent to increasing the roll stiffness of the suspension. However, as the roll
center position is increased (roll center height measured from ground level is increased)
the amount of jacking forces will increase. The jacking forces are the forces that will
travel through the suspension components to the vehicle body; it is the force that is not
absorb by the suspension system. Thus as the amount of jacking forces increase, the
amount of forces absorbed by the shock will decrease. Forces generated at the tire have
two paths into the vehicle: a flexible path and a stiff path. The stiff path is through the
suspension components and the flexible path is through the suspension spring (Figure 11:
The effect of the jacking forces).

Figure 11: The effect of the jacking forces

Thus as the roll center is increased, the forces traveling through the stiff path will
increase and the forces traveling through the springs will decrease causing less spring
compression. The jacking forces will tend to lift the vehicle as it corners. Therefore,
there should be a balance in roll center height between suspension roll stiffness and the
jacking forces seen by the frame. It is important to note that the roll center is a fictitious
point. Forces that are traveling from the ground to the chassis will not pass through this
point. The location of this point will not be able to determine the suspension roll
stiffness, nor will it be able to determine the magnitude of the jacking forces. This point
is strictly there to give a relative idea of the roll characteristics of the vehicle.

The roll center position is calculated differently for each type of suspension
system. The procedure for calculating the roll center position will be outlined for the
double A-arm type of suspension only (if it is desired to learn how to calculate the roll
center position for a different suspension system, than it is advised to look in vehicle
dynamics text book). The first step is to locate the instant center. This is accomplished
by drawing a line that passes through each of the A-Arms when looking at the vehicle in
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the front view. The intersection of these lines represents the instant center. The second
step is to draw a line form the center of the tires contact patch to the instant center. The
point where the line drawn in step two intersects the center line of the vehicle represents
the roll center position (Figure 12: Roll center position of a double A-arm type of
suspension).

Figure 12: Roll center position of a double A-arm type of suspension
6.2.3) Camber angle

The camber angle is defined as the inclination of the tire with respect to the road
surface in the vertical plane (when looking at the vehicle from the front view). Negative
camber occurs when the top of tire points in towards the vehicle, and positive camber
occurs when the top of the tire points out away from the vehicle (chassis) (Figure 13:
Definition of camber angle (note in the figure one is looking at the vehicle from the
front)). Camber on a wheel will produce a lateral force which is known as camber thrust.
A rolling tire that is cambered will produce a lateral force which is in the direction the
tire is tilting in. When the camber angle is generating a lateral force with no slip angle
present it is known as camber thrust. Camber force or camber thrust is a function of the
following parameters: tire type, tire geometry, pressure, tread pattern, camber angle, slip
angles, traction or braking force, and the tire dimensions.

Camber thrust is easily understood by examining the contact patch of a tire. If the
contact patch of the tire is examined when the vehicle is not moving with no camber
angle, it will be an oval shape which represents the area the tire is in contact with the
ground. If he contact patch is examined when the vehicle is not moving with a camber
angle the contact patch will be an oval shape but will be curved in the direction of the tilt
of the tire.

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Figure 13: Definition of camber angle (note in the figure one is looking at the vehicle from the front)
If the contact patch is examined when the vehicle is moving with no sideslip angle and
with a camber angle the contact will be an oval shape that will not be distorted or curved
(Figure 14: The effect camber has on the tire contact patch).

Figure 14: The effect camber has on the tire contact patch

The camber thrust is the amount of force required to straighten out the contact patch so
that it is perfectly oval. Therefore, there are two things which generate a lateral force;
camber angle and slip angle. The lateral force generated by a slip angle will be greater
than the lateral force generated by a camber angle; that is the lateral force generated from
1 degree of slip angle will be greater than the lateral force generated from 1 degree of
camber angle. The cornering stiffness (Fy/) is generally five to six times greater than
the camber stiffness (Fy/). Thus, the effective cornering stiffness of a tire is the
addition of the cornering stiffness and the camber stiffness and it is this value that should
be used to predict the handling dynamics of a vehicle. For a tire that has a positive
camber angle the effect is to decrease the effective cornering stiffness, and for a tire that
has a negative camber angle, the effect is to increase the effective cornering stiffness.
Therefore, the peak lateral force is increased by adding negative camber to the tires
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which is a good thing; the lateral capabilities of the tire are increased (Figure 15: The
effect of the camber angle on the cornering curve).

Figure 15: The effect of the camber angle on the cornering curve
As can be seen in the figure above, the effective cornering stiffness of the tire does
increase as the tire is cambered in the negative direction.

The camber angle at which the maximum amount of lateral force will occur will
change with the initial lateral load (lateral load at 0 degree camber). As the initial load
increases the maximum load will occur at a later negative camber angle. Typically the
maximum amount of lateral force or maximum (Fy/Fz) will occur at a camber angle
between -2 and -7 degrees.

When a vehicle corners it will roll and thus will force the tires to camber by the
same amount on both sides; the tires will camber at the roll angle on both sides, one will
camber out and one will camber in. However, as the vehicle rolls, there will be weight
transfer from the left to the right and thus the suspension on one side of the vehicle will
be in jounce while the suspension on the other side will be in rebound. Therefore there
will be a change in the camber angle from the movement of the tire with respect to the
frame. Thus, the total camber angle when the vehicle is cornering is the addition of the
roll angle and the camber angle obtained from the kinematics of the suspension. The
amount of lateral force generated during roll will depend on both the roll angle and the
angle generated from the kinematics of the suspension; that is the amount of camber
thrust generated will depend on the roll angle.

In general, it is best to go with a static negative camber angle because it improves
the effective cornering stiffness of the tire and it increase the maximum lateral force or
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the Fy/Fz ratio. However too much of a negative camber angle is undesirable because
eventually it will start to decrease both the cornering stiffness and the Fy/Fz ratio. Also,
a large camber angle (negative or positive) increases tire wear which is undesirable. For
best performance the camber angle should remain between -2 and -7 degrees throughout
the suspension travel.

6.2.4) Caster angle and caster trail

The caster angle is defined as the angle between the steering axis and the vertical
plane viewed from the side of the tire. The caster trail is defined as the distance at the
ground between the center of the contact patch (also known as wheel contact point) the
point at which the steering axis intersects the ground (Figure 16: Caster angle and caster
trail).

Figure 16: Caster angle and caster trail
The caster angle is positive when the steering axis (the steering axis is defined as a line
that passes through the ball joints on the upper and lower control arms) is inclined in such
a way as it points to the front of the vehicle; a good way to remember positive caster
angle is from the forks of a motorcycle (they are always inclined to the front). The caster
angle defined in the figure above is a positive caster angle. Positive caster trail occurs
when the steering axis intersects the ground at a point that is in front of the center of the
contact patch. The caster trail defined in the figure above is a positive caster trail.

It is important that the caster angle and caster trail be positive because both of
these quantities will effect the aligning moment. The aligning moment is the moment
that will act against the driver as he/she is trying to steer the vehicle. It is important that
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this moment acts against the driver so that when the driver lets go of the steering wheel it
will correct itself; the moment will force the tire to re straighten itself.

Caster trail is important because it defines how much of a moment will be applied
to the steering axis; as the caster trail increases, the moment arm increases and thus the
moment acting on the steering axis will increase. It is this moment that is acting to self
center the tire if the caster trail is positive. However, if the caster trail is too large the
driver will have a difficult time trying to turn the wheels about the steering axis.

Caster angle will cause the wheel to rise or fall during steering. Caster angle
causes the wheel to displace up or down as the wheel is turning about the steering axis.
Therefore, if the caster geometry is the same on both sides the vehicle will roll as it is
being steered; one side will toe out and one side will toe in, thus one side will lift and one
side will fall causing the vehicle to roll. The caster angle also affects the camber angle as
the wheel is turned about the steering axis. With the same positive caster angle on both
wheels the outside tire in a turn will camber in a negative direction and the inside tire will
camber in a positive direction. This effect is a bit desirable because it allows the vehicle
to lean into the turn. Therefore, it is desirable to have a small positive caster angle and a
small to moderate caster trail to produce desirable results. The caster angle should not be
increased too much because it will cause too much camber angle change with steer and
will cause to tire to raise or fall too much with steer.
6.2.5) Kingpin angle and scrub radius

The kingpin angle is the angle between the steering axis and the vertical plane
when viewing the tire from the front. The scrub radius is the distance measured at the
ground level between the center of the contact patch and the point where the steering axis
intercepts the ground. The scrub radius is measured when looking at the wheel from the
front plane (Figure 17: Kingpin angle (steering inclination angle) and scrub radius). A
positive kingpin angle occurs when the steering axis points outward; note the kingpin
angle defined in the figure is positive. A positive scrub radius occurs when the steering
axis intercepts the ground at the inside of the tire; note the scrub radius shown in the
figure is a positive scrub radius.

It is important that the kingpin angle and scrub radius are positive because both of
these quantities will effect the aligning moment. The aligning moment is the moment
that will act against the driver as he/she is trying to steer the vehicle. It is important that
this moment acts against the driver so that when the driver lets go of the steering wheel it
will correct itself; the moment will force the tire to re straighten itself.

The effect of a positive kingpin angle is to raise the wheel as the wheel is turned
about the kingpin axis. The greater the kingpin angle is the more the wheel will rise as it
is being steered. Note, the wheel will rise regardless of the direction it is being turned. It
is to be noted that the greater the distance between the ball joints for a given kingpin
angle the greater the amount of lift that will occur. Essentially, the kingpin angle and the
length between the ball joints is trying to raise the wheel so that it can center the steering
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axis to provide less scrub while steering.

Figure 17: Kingpin angle (steering inclination angle) and scrub radius
The kingpin angle affects the camber angle as the wheel is steered about the steering axis.
With a positive kingpin angle, the tire will lean out as it is steered about the steering axis.
Therefore, the greater the steering angle, the greater the amount of positive camber
generated, and the greater the kingpin angle the greater the amount of change in the
camber angle. When a wheel is rolling over a bump, the effective rolling radius of the
tire will change, thus resulting in changes in the effective rolling speed of the tire. The
change in the rolling speed of the tire will give rise to a longitudinal force acting at the
wheel center, and this causes a kickback into the steering system. The reaction forces
caused by the change in the rolling speed will try to force the wheel to toe, and thus cause
a shock to the driver, and the driver will have to react quickly in order to correct this
change in toe angle. The amount of kickback is proportional to the distance between the
ball joints, the greater the distance, the greater the amount of kickback.

Driving and braking forces will introduce a torque about the steering axis, and this
torque will be proportional to the moment arm, the scrub radius. If the driving and
braking forces are different on either side of the vehicle than the driver will feel a net
steering torque acting to steer the vehicle. The amount the tire scrubs against the ground
as the wheel turns is dependent on the scrub radius. If one the wheels losses traction
when the vehicle is braking then the opposing wheel will toe an amount that is
determined by the compliance in the steering system. This will tend to steer the car in a
straight line even though the braking forces are the same on both sides. Note the last
effect described will only occur when the scrub radius is negative. In general, a small
negative scrub radius is desired, however if the scrub radius is negative than the kingpin
angle will be have to be large in order to ensure the aligning torque is positive.
Typically, a small positive scrub radius is used on vehicles with a small to moderate
kingpin angle is used. If the distance between the ball joints is large then a smaller
kingpin angle is used and if the distance is small then moderate kingpin angles are used.
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6.2.6) Toe angle, roll steer and bump steer

The toe angle is defined as the angle between the longitudinal axis of the vehicle
and a line passing through the center of the tire when viewed from the top (Figure 18:
Toe angle).

Figure 18: Toe angle (note the view in the figure is the top view)
Toe in occurs when the front of the tire points in towards the vehicle, and tow out occurs
when the front of the tire points away from the vehicle. The concept of toe in and toe out
is outlined in the figure above. The toe angle is a measure of the initial steer of the
vehicle. There will be usually some elastic deformation of the suspension under driving
or braking that will cause changes in the toe angle. Therefore, it is common practice to
put an initial toe angle on the suspension system so that the deformation in the system
will force the tire to straighten when the vehicle is driving or braking. The tire is usually
toed so that the tire will be straight when the vehicle is propelling forward. However, if
the braking acceleration is much higher than the driving acceleration then the tire will be
initially toed in so that it will straighten itself when the vehicle is braking.

It is important to recognize that the suspension and steering systems are coupled.
As the suspension goes through its travel, so does the tie rod and it is important that the
tire does not toe with suspension travel. The inside point of the tie rod is fixed (the point
at the steering rack) so that if the length of the tie rod is not at the correct length and the
tie rod does not have the same instant center as the suspension system then as the
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suspension travels and thus the tie rod travels (but not at the appropriate path) it will force
the tire to rotate about the steering axis. Bump steer by definition is toe angle change
with suspension travel. If one tire goes over a bump and experiences a toe angle change
the vehicle will steer. This condition is very troublesome for the driver because the
driver will consistently have to correct the vehicle as the vehicle travels over changes in
road conditions. Roll steer occurs when a vehicle rolls and there is weight transfer and
thus the suspension on the inside compresses and the suspension on the outside goes into
rebound. The net effect is that one side of the vehicle will toe in and one side of the
vehicle will toe out, thus forcing the vehicle to steer as it rolls. The steering geometry
can be chosen such that the more the vehicle rolls the more it will steer or the less it will
steer. Therefore, the oversteer/understeer characteristics can be controlled by the roll
steer effect. However, most of the time the suspension geometry and tie rod position and
length are chosen to minimize toe angle change with suspension travel, and thus
minimizing the effects of roll steer and bump steer.

The following is a discussion of how to choose the position and the length of the
tie rod in order to have no change in toe angle with suspension travel. This is a very
important concept and needs to be considered when designing the suspension and
steering systems. The tie rod should lie on a line passing through the instant center of the
suspension system, and on this line a proper length can be chosen. The following is a list
of the proper steps to take in order to choose the proper tie rod position and length.
1. Draw a line that passes through the steering axis (this line will pass through the
ball joints of the upper and lower control arms)
2. Draw a line that passes through the joints of the A-arms at the inside section of
the A-arms
3. Extend the lines drawn in steps 1 and 2 until they intercept, denote the
interception point as P2
4. Locate the instant center of the suspension system, and denote it as P1 or IC
5. Draw a line that goes from the outer tie rod point to the instant center, note the tie
rod must lie on this line
6. Draw a line that passes through the outer tie rod point and the outer point of the
upper control arm (the ball joint)
7. Calculate the angle between the line passing through the tie rod ends to the IC
(the line from step 5) and the line passing through the lower control arm points to
the IC, and denote this angle
8. Draw a line that connects the IC to P2
9. Draw a line that is at an angle of from the line drawn in step 8 and that starts
from the IC; draw this line until it intercepts the line drawn in step 6, denote the
interception point as P3
10. Draw a line that passes through P3 and the inner point of the upper control arm
and extend it until it intercepts the line from step 5
11. The interception point from step 10 locates the point where the inner tie rod point
must lie to have no toe angle change with wheel travel

The following figure will help clarify the steps (Figure 19: The necessary steps to locate
the tie rod position to have no toe angle change with suspension travel).
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Figure 19: The necessary steps to locate the tie rod position to have no toe angle change with
suspension travel
There is essentially two things that can be changed in order to deviate from the
ideal position and length. The first is to change the tie rod length and the second is to
raise or lower the steering rack. If the tie rod is shortened the deflection of the
suspension will cause toe out, and if it is lengthened the deflection of the suspension will
cause toe in. If the steering rack is raised the tire will toe in when it is in compression
and will toe out when it is in rebound (roll steer behavior). The opposite is true if the
steering rack is lowered.

In order for the wheels to roll without slip (especially at low speeds) there must be
toe out with steer. Therefore the toe angle must change with the steering angle. This can
be seen on most steering angle versus toe angle curves. It is not a linear relationship
between the two. This effect is usually known as Ackermann steering; the effect that
there must be some toe out with steer. For proper Ackermann steering to be designed
into the suspension system the following relationship must be true (Equation 25:
Condition for proper Ackermann steering).

( ) ( )
l
j
i o
= cot cot
Equation 25: Condition for proper Ackermann steering
If Ackermann geometry is introduced into the suspension system, then there will be an
increase in the slip angles at the outer tires when the vehicle is turning. Therefore, using
higher slip angles at the outer tire tends to generate more lateral forces with less steer
angles and rolling losses. The location of the rack position in respect to the longitudinal
position effects the amount of Ackermann steering generated. Therefore the height of the
rack and the size of the rack will be chosen first in order to optimize the bump steer and
roll steer characteristics of the suspension system. The longitudinal position of the rack
will be chosen last in order to obtain the desired amount of Ackermann steering. Most of
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the time a little bit of Ackermann steering is designed into the suspension system.
However, severe deviations from Ackermann steering lead to tire wear because
deviations from Ackermann lead to tire scrub.
6.2.7) Aligning torque or self centering moment

The aligning torque or self-centering moment is the moment that acts against the
driver when the driver is trying to steer the vehicle or is acting with the driver (assisting)
when the driver is trying to steer the vehicle. It is important that this moment acts in the
direction such that it acts against the driver when he/she is steering the vehicle. It is this
moment that will act to straighten out the tire, and this will aid in stabilizing the vehicle.
It is also important that this moment is not too large so that the driver can still steer the
vehicle without major difficulties. The steering angle, caster angle, kingpin angle, caster
trail, and scrub radius all affect the aligning torque (Equation 26: Aligning moment).

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) sin tan sin cos cos r r N M + =
Equation 26: Aligning moment
If either the scrub radius, caster trail, caster angle, steering angle, or kingpin angle is
negative than the other parameters must be positive in a way that ensures the moment is
positive; the moment acts to straighten out the tires. In general, all of the parameters
should be kept positive to ensure the aligning torque is positive.
6.2.8) Anti-dive/anti-squat

There will be weight transfer from the back to the front when the vehicle is
braking and from the front to the back when the vehicle is accelerating. The anit-
dive/anti-squat properties of a suspension are similar to the roll center concept applied
earlier (5.2.2). The anti-dive/anti-squat concept applies to the longitudinal force where as
the roll center concept applies to the lateral force. A portion of the forces will pass
through the suspension components and be transferred to the frame, and this amount is
depicted by the amount of anti-dive or anti-squat present. In the study of anti-dive/anti-
squat the roll center is known as the pitch center. The definition of the pitch canter is the
same as that of the roll center except it is the longitudinal force and not the lateral force
that is applied at the pitch center. The pitch center is the location where the longitudinal
forces can be applied without causing the vehicle to pitch.

The location of the pitch center is found in a similar way as that of the roll center
except it is calculated by looking at the vehicle from the side. The following is the
necessary steps to calculate the pitch center for double A-arm type of suspension only
(note to calculate the pitch center for a different type of suspension it is advised to refer
to a vehicle dynamics text). The first step is to locate the instant center of the front or
rear suspension in the side plane of the vehicle. This is done by drawing a line that
passes through both of the A-arms (the upper and the lower A-arm) and the interception
of these lines represents the instant center. The next step is to draw a line which connects
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the point at the center of the contact patch of the tire to the instant center. If the previous
steps were done for the front suspension, repeat the steps for the rear suspension. The
location where the lines going from each of the center of the tire contact patch to the
instant center of their appropriate suspension intercept one another represents the pitch
center. The following drawing can be used for clarification (Figure 20: The pitch center).

Figure 20: The pitch center
The pitch center can be used to indicate the amount of pitch generated. The distance
between the height of the pitch center and the height of the center of mass of the vehicle
gives an indication of the amount of pitch. The smaller this distance is the smaller the
amount of pitch generated will be. However, just like with the roll center is the fact that
the amount of jacking forces increases as the height of the pitch center is increased. Thus
there should be a compromise in the height of the pitch center; it should not be too high
because the jacking forces will be too high and it should not be too low because there will
be too susceptible to pitch.

The path of the tire in the longitudinal direction as a function of suspension travel
will determine whether the suspension is classified as anti-dive or anti-squat. If the
suspension is classified as anti-dive the point of contact of the tire will move forward
(towards the front of the vehicle) as the suspension compresses and with move rearward
as the suspension extends (goes into rebound) (Figure 21: Anti-dive suspension
geometry). If the suspension is classified as anti-squat the point of contact of the tire will
move rearward as the suspension compresses and will move forward as the suspension
extends (Figure 22: Anti-squat suspension geometry). Anti-dive designed into the
suspension system leads to harsh response over bumps; the suspension will be trying to
push into the bump instead of riding over it with ease. As the suspension goes over a
bump it will compress, and when the anti-dive suspension compresses it moves forward
and thus tries to push into the bump. This tends to cause a harsh response, and in some
cases can induce vibrations in the system which can be felt by the driver. However, anti-
squat designed into the suspension improves the performance of the suspension. The
suspension will ride over bumps with ease. As the suspension goes over a bump it
compresses and moves rearward, thus it will follow the path of the bump with ease and
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give the indication of a smooth ride to the driver.

Figure 21: Anti-dive suspension geometry

If anti-dive is designed into the suspension system it will prevent the vehicle from
diving; the vehicle dives when it is braking. If anti-squat is designed into the suspension
system it will prevent the vehicle from squatting. If anti-squat is designed into the
suspension it will assist the vehicle at diving, and if anti-dive is designed into the
suspension it will assist the vehicle at squatting. Therefore, it is common proactive to use
a small percentage of anti-squat in the rear and a small percentage of anti-dive in the
front.

Figure 22: Anti-squat suspension geometry
The reason why anti-squat is designed in the rear is that when the vehicle is squatting
weight is transferred to the rear. Therefore the effect of designing the suspension to
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prevent the vehicle from squatting will be greater by designing anti-squat into the rear
suspension because the weight is being transferred to the rear. This is the same reason
why anti-dive is designed into the front suspension; when the vehicle is diving weight is
being transferred to the front. However, since anti-dive leads to a harsh response over
bumps which are detrimental to the suspension system, therefore a small amount of anti-
squat is typically designed into the suspension to optimize the performance of the
suspension. It is important that the amount of anti-squat be kept to a small percentage in
both the front and rear when they are both designed for anti-squat. This is what is
typically done to suspensions today, a small amount of anti-squat is designed into both
the front and rear in order to improve the response of the suspension to changes in road
conditions.
6.2.9) Motion ratio and wheel rate

The motion ratio describes the amount of shock travel for a given wheel travel.
The motion ratio is simply the shock travel divided by the wheel travel. A motion ratio
of 0.6 implies that the shock will compress 0.6 inches when the wheel compresses 1 inch
(Figure 23: Motion ratio). As the motion ratio decreases the control arms will have to be
built stronger because the effective bending moment acting on them will increase. The
effective bending moment will increase because the moment arm will increase; the
moment arm is defined as (d
2
d
1
) from figure 23. Therefore it is more ideal to have a
motion ratio as close to one as possible so that the load put on the control arms is kept to
a minimum so that they can be designed as light as possible thus decreasing the unsprung
mass.

2
1
d
d
T
L
MR
=
Figure 23: Motion ratio
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The amount of force transmitted to the vehicle chassis is reduced when the motion
ratio increases. This implies that the wheel rate will increase as the motion ratio
increases. Since the motion ratio relates both the force and displacement of the spring to
the wheel center, it must be squared to relate the wheel rate (also known as wheel center
rate) to the spring rate (if the motion ratio is reduced then the amount of spring travel and
the amount of force absorb by the spring will decrease) (Equation 27 : Wheel rate).

( )
2
MR k k
s w
=
Equation 27 : Wheel rate
The wheel rate is the equivalent spring rate at the wheel. If a spring was attached at the
centerline of the wheel, then the spring rate of this spring would be equal to the wheel
rate. The forces act on the tire, and thus the wheel rate is what will give an indication as
to the amount of force that will be absorbed by the spring and not the spring rate.

A motion ratio as close to one as possible is desired for good ride quality of the
vehicle. A motion ratio of one is ideal because it reduces the amount of load into the
vehicle structure (more load is absorbed by the shock), it increases shock velocity, and it
reduces the unsprung mass because the suspension components do not have to absorb as
big of a load (the bending moment on the control arms decreases). However, the motion
ratio is typically limited because of the desired wheel travel and the chosen shock. This
is especially true for an off-road vehicle. Off road vehicles can have wheel travels
anywhere from 8 to 12in, and suspension shocks typically do not run that big (the shock
travel will typically not be as high as 8 to 12in). It is important that the amount of shock
travel and wheel travel is chosen before the motion ratio. If a wheel travel of 10in is
desired and the shocks chosen only have a travel of 6in (in compression and in rebound)
then the motion ratio is limited to 0.6 and should not exceed 0.6. The wheel travel and
shock travel should be chosen as close as possible to each other so that the motion ratio
can be optimized.
6.2.10) Roll stiffness

The roll stiffness is sometimes referred to as the roll rate. The roll stiffness of the
suspension system is the amount of roll moment needed to roll the suspension by one unit
of rotation (degree or radian). The roll stiffness of the suspension system is related to the
ride rate through the following equation (Equation 28: Roll stiffness as a function of ride
rate).

( )( )( )
2
12
2
t k
k
r
=

Equation 28: Roll stiffness as a function of ride rate
Note, the roll stiffness resulted will be in units of lb-ft/rad, the ride rate is in units of lb/in
and the track is in units of feet.
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6.2.11) Vehicle ride height

The ride height is also known as frame clearance. The ride height is the distance
between the ground (flat ground surface) and the vehicle chassis with the driver sitting in
the vehicle. The ride height is usually measured at the lowest point on the frame.
However if it is desired to measure the ride height at the front and rear of the vehicle it
can be taken as the lowest point at those portions of the vehicle.
6.2.12) Understeering/Oversteering characteristics of vehicle

There are a multiple of different parameters that affect the oversteering
/understeering characteristics of a vehicle. The main three parameters that affect the
oversteering /understeering characteristics of a vehicle are the effective cornering
stiffness of the front and rear tires and the weight distribution; the roll stiffness of the
front and rear suspensions; and the inclination of the roll axis. To determine whether the
vehicle will oversteer or understeer a turn each of these parameters should be considered,
however the governing effect is the effective cornering stiffness of the front and rear tires
and the weight distribution of the vehicle.

Analyzing the handling dynamics of the vehicle using the bicycle model reveals
the following three criteria to determine whether the vehicle will understeer or oversteer
(Equation 29: 3 cases to determine whether the vehicle will oversteer or understeer based
on the bicycle model).
steer neutral will vehicle the
understeer will vehicle the
oversteer will vehicle the
r f
r f
r f
bC aC
bC aC
bC aC
=
<
>

Equation 29: 3 cases to determine whether the vehicle will oversteer or understeer based on the
bicycle model
Note, the cornering stiffness in the above three cases is the effective cornering stiffness
(it includes the camber thrust effect). For further information on this effect refer to
section 5.1.2.

If the roll stiffness of the front suspension is greater than the roll stiffness of the
rear suspension the vehicle will understeer as it turns. The vehicle will oversteer as it
turns if the opposite is true. When a vehicle is cornering there will be weight transfer
from the inside tire to the outside tire, and the amount of weight transfer is depicted by
two things. The first is the lateral load transfer due to cornering forces (2F
y
h
r
/t) and the
second is the lateral load transfer due to vehicle roll (2k
/t). The first effect is

independent on the roll moment and the roll stiffness, but it is dependent on the roll
center height or the inclination of the roll axis; note the roll center height in this equation
is the difference between the height of the center of mass and the roll center height. As
the vertical force increases the lateral force will change as depicted by the cornering
curves of the tires (Fy/Fz verses slip angle). If the lateral force was plotted against the
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vertical force for a given slip angle it can be seen that the curve is non linear (Figure 24:
The lateral force verses the vertical force for a given slip angle).

Figure 24: The lateral force verses the vertical force for a given slip angle
The curve is non linear in a fashion such that the change in lateral force over the change
in vertical force decreases as the vertical force increases. This implies that if there is a
greater amount of weight transfer in the front of the vehicle than in the rear, the net result
will be that the overall lateral force in the front will decrease causing the vehicle to
understeer. The consider the following as an example, suppose both of the tires support a
vertical force of 800lb at a slip angle of 5 deg, thus each tire supports a lateral force of
760lb (total is 2*760 = 1520lb). Now if the vehicle corners and there is load transfer of
400lb, the inside tire will support a vertical load of 400lb and the outside a vertical load
of 1200lb. Thus the lateral load on the outside tire is 820lb and the lateral load on the
inside is 460 lb and the total lateral load is 1280lb. The previous analogy shows that the
lateral force will decrease as there is weight transfer for a given slip angle. If the tire
wants to keep the same lateral force the slip angle will have to increase. Thus, if there is
more weight transfer in the front than in the rear, the slip angle in the front will have to
increase in order to produce the lateral forces necessary to complete the turn and the net
effect is that the front will plough out and the vehicle understeers.

If the roll axis points downwards towards the front the roll center height (distance
between the height of the center of mass and the roll center height) will be higher in the
front than in the rear and if the roll stiffness is higher in the front than in the rear their
will be a greater amount of weight transfer in the front than in the rear thus causing the
vehicle to understeer. The inclination of the roll axis affects the coupling between yaw
and roll. If the roll axis is inclined downward towards the front of the car then it causes
the body to yaw out (understeer) of the turn as the body rolls. Having the roll stiffness
greater in the front than in the rear also causes the vehicle to yaw out in the turn
(understeer). Therefore these three parameters (or effects) can be used to control the
oversteering / understeering characteristics of the vehicle.
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6.3) Spring rate determination

The spring rate is one of the components of the vehicle where the designer has
control of its value. It is the spring rate along with the suspension geometry (motion
ratio) which determines the wheel rate. The wheel rate can be assumed to be equal to the
ride rate because the stiffness of the tires will be much greater than the effective stiffness
of the suspension. Therefore, for good quality the Maurice Olley criteria should be used
when choosing the spring rates of the front and rear suspension systems (this criterion is
outlined in section 5.1.1). The front ride rate should be 30% lower than the rear ride rate.
The ride frequencies of the front and rear suspensions can be calculated once the front
and rear ride rates are known (Equation 30: Ride frequency).

( )( )( )
W
k
m
k
r
2 . 32 12
2
1
= =
Equation 30: Ride frequency
Note in the equation above the weight is in lb and it is half of the weight supported by the
appropriate suspension (if the ride frequency calculation is for the front than the weight is
half of the weight supported by the front suspension). Also the ride rate is in lb/in in the
above equation and the frequency from the equation will be in hertz. Note the ride
frequency aid in determining the rear suspensions capable of catching up to the front
suspension when the vehicle goes over a bump thus minimizing the annoying motion felt
by the driver (pitch motion). Once the spring rates are known, the bounce, pitch, and roll
natural frequencies can be determined and compared to the Maurice Olley criteria
outlined in section 5.1.1.; the necessary equations to calculate these three natural
frequencies are also outlines in section 5.1.1 and in 5.2.9. The final step is to verify that
the spring rates chosen for the front and rear suspensions are stiff enough to absorb the
loads that they will see without bottoming out the suspension. The general rule is that if a
vehicle is designed to compete around a certain track than the spring rate should be
chosen such that the shock bottoms out only once as it travels around the track
(bottoming out is implying that the shock compresses to the point where it is just barely
touching the bump stop).

With this general introduction to suspension kinematics and kinetics it will be
easier to follow the section describing the suspension kinematics and kinetics of the 2007
vehicle.
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7) 2007 Suspension Kinematics

The independent double A-Arm suspension type was chosen for both the front
and the rear suspension systems. The double A-Arm type suspension was chosen because
it allows for the suspension characteristics to be easily adjusted and gives more control
over the toe, camber, and scrub over the range of wheel travel. Also this type of
suspension provides better packaging space inside the chassis and allows the wheels to
move independently and thus give the vehicle better handing over rough terrain. There
are several parameters that need to be considered when designing the kinematics
characteristics of the front and rear suspension systems, these parameters are:

- Wheel Base, Track Width and Ride Height
- Wheel Orientation
- Suspension Angles
- Roll center location and roll stiffness
- Unsprung mass
- Steering characteristics
- Acceleration and Braking

The steps taken to design the suspension kinematics for the 2007 Baja vehicle are
outlined below:
7.1) Choosing the dimensions of the vehicle

The front and rear characteristics are very closely related and therefore, must be
designed simultaneously. Before designing the suspension points, some parameters had to
be chosen based on last years Baja vehicle, these parameters are the Track width, Wheel
base and the Ride height as shown in Figure 25:

Figure 25: Vehicle Dimensions

Track Width: The track width of the vehicle was chosen to reduce the bending moment
Wheel Base
Rear Track
Front Track
Ride Height
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acting on the control arms as well as improve the turning radius and stability of the
vehicle. By increasing the track width the control arms are subject to higher stress as a
result of the bending moment induced by the shock acting on the control arms and the
vertical forces acting on the tire. On the other hand, the front track width should always
be wider than the rear. This allows the vehicle to handle better around corners and
reduces the turning radius. The rear track width of the 2007 vehicle was designed to be
1.5 shorter than the front track width. One of the main issues considered when choosing
the track width in the rear is the fact that the rear end of the frame was reduced to 4
inches by introducing a more compact differential assembly, this can perhaps be seen
clearer in Figure 26:

Figure 26: Rear end of vehicle
Wheel Base: The wheel base length has a great impact on the turning radius and the pitch
and bounce frequencies. However, it is mainly dictated by the length of the frame, where
the frame has to be designed to provide enough pedal room for the driver in the front and
room for the engine and drivetrain assembly in the rear. Therefore, the wheel base length
was reduced as much as possible while still satisfying the frame requirements.

Ride Height: In a Baja vehicle it is crucial to have enough ground clearance from the
bottom of the chassis to give the car the capability of going over any terrain, and thus
prevent direct hits to the chassis during the competition. One of the problems that faced
the University of Windsor Baja vehicle in the past was, having to go over of logs and
rocks during the maneuverability event because the vehicle did not have enough ground
clearance. On the other hand, designing for high ground clearance lifts the center of
gravity of the vehicle and thus increases the chances of rolling the vehicle. Therefore,
there is a tradeoff between the ground clearance and the center of gravity when it comes
to choosing the appropriate ride height of the vehicle. Given the fact that the compact
engine transmission assembly already contributes to wards a lower center of gravity, the
ride height was chosen to be 1 inch higher than the previous year to reduce the possibility
of damaging the chassis or the underbody when going over rough terrain. Therefore, the
initial chosen design dimensions of the 2007 Baja vehicle can be summarized Table 1:
Summary of vehicle dimensions:

4
Differential Assembly
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Table 1: Summary of vehicle dimensions
2006 2007
Front Track Width 49 47.5
Rear Track Width 48 46
Wheel Base 64 58
Ride Height 9 10
7.2) Choosing the suspension points
The other suspension points depend on the selection of the wheels, tires, hubs and
the uprights. The type and size of tires and wheels are the first things selected when
designing the suspension systems. It was decided to choose 21x7-10 tires and the 5x10
ITP Douglas rims. The uprights and wheel hubs were then chosen, both the front and rear
uprights are chosen from the Polaris 2006 Outlaw 500 ATVs due to their light weight and
compact geometry especially in the rear. The main advantages of the chosen front upright
is the fact that it has a smaller distance between the upper and lower ball joints. This
feature gives less kick back in the steering system and reduces the scrub radius of the
front suspension. The Outlaw uprights give a larger kingpin angle, however, due to the
short distance between the upper and lower ball joints, the amount of lift with steer is
minimized. Once the uprights are chosen the outer suspension geometry is constrained to
the uprights connection points, however, in order to accurately determine the location of
the outer points the uprights were sent to be CMMed and a 3-D model of the uprights was
obtained based on the CMM results. The following figure shows the 3-D model of the
front and rear uprights indicating the suspension points on each upright:

Figure 27: Front and Rear Uprights

After locating the outer control arms points, the wheel center point is located by
selecting the wheel hub. The Polaris 2006 Outlaw 500 wheel hub was selected for the
front since it is already compatible with the front upright. In the rear on the other hand,
LCA Rear - Outer LCA Front - Outer
UCA Rear - Outer
UCA Front - Outer
UCA - Outer
LCA - Outer
Tie rod - Outer
Brake Caliper
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the Polaris 2003 Predator wheel hub was selected. This wheel hub was chosen due to its
light weight design and the fact that it makes the wheel assembly more compact. In
addition to that, the 2003 Predator rear wheel hub is almost identical to the front wheel
hub of the 2006 Outlaw with the only difference is the spline pattern in the rear hubs.
Therefore, choosing these hubs was also an advantage in terms of the manufacturability
aspects of design. Once the front and rear wheel hubs were CMMed a 3-D model of the
hubs was obtained and the wheel center point was located. Figure 28 shows the 3-D
model of the wheel hub:

Figure 28: Wheel hub
7.3) Choosing the suspension geometry angles

One of the main advantages of the Short Long Arms Independent suspension is
that it allows the orientation of the wheels to be easily adjusted by setting the suspension
geometry. The main suspension alignment parameters are the camber angle, the toe angle
as well as the caster angle. It is very important to select the static angles to optimize the
performance of the vehicle since these angles have an impact on acceleration, braking
and steering. The following describes the factors that were considered when designing
the suspension geometry angles:

Camber Angle: The camber angle has a great impact on the handling characteristics of
the vehicle. Depending on the application, the camber angle can be designed to be
positive or negative. A positive camber angle reduces the contact patch of the tire, which
maximizes the amount of forces acting on the tire during cornering, result in an
undesirable tire wear patterns and hence affects the handling of the vehicle. Therefore,
the Baja vehicle was designed with a small negative camber angle in the front and rear
suspension systems to allow for better cornering characteristics and reduce the lateral
load going through the control arms. In addition to that a negative camber angle in
cornering allows the vehicle to have an over steer characteristic which is desirable. If the
initial static camber angle is set to zero the suspension will gain positive angle as the
wheel travel, thus it is important to set the static camber angle at a small negative value in
order to maintain the negative camber angle throughout the range of wheel travel.

Toe Angle: The main performance areas that are affected by the toe angle are the tire
wear, straight line stability, steering, acceleration and breaking. If the vehicle is designed
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with a toe out angle the wheels become at odds with each other, and thus any slight turn
in front wheels will cause the inner wheel to turn at a sharper angle than the outer wheel
and prompt a quick steering response. On the other hand if the vehicle is designed with a
toe in angle the wheels are aligned towards each other, which gives the vehicle more
straight line stability and makes the steering less responsive. The 2007 Baja vehicle was
designed with a slight toe in angle in order to maintain the straight line stability of the
vehicle, which plays an important role in the acceleration and hill climb events. Another
factor that was considered is the tire wear, in order to insure uniform tire wear patterns it
is logical to think that the toe angles should be set at zero to keep the tires aligned
straight. However, due to the small compliance in the suspension system, as the vehicle
accelerates the tire will try to toe out. Therefore, the static toe in angle set up on the Baja
car will accommodate for the toe out effect as the vehicle accelerates. The toe angle
alignment is perhaps not as important in the rear suspension as it is in the front
suspension and so the rear tires were aligned to zero toe angle.

Caster Angle: The caster angle has a great impact on the handling characteristics.
Depending on whether the vehicle is front wheel drive or rear while drive the caster angle
can be chosen to be negative or positive. Choosing a zero angle of caster is undesirable
since it allows the external vertical forces to travel through one point of contact which
introduces instability in the vehicle. Given the fact that the Baja vehicle is rear wheel
driven, a trailing positive caster angle is set at the front and rear wheels. The positive
caster angle provides a self centering force for the steering and makes the car easier to
drive in a straight line. On the other hand, a large caster angle is not recommended since
it will make the steering much heavier and less responsive. In the case of a Baja vehicle
where no power steering is available, keeping the caster angle within a small range is
crucial. Thus, the caster angle should be kept between 0 degrees to 5 degrees (positive
trailing). The static suspension geometry angles for the 2007 and 2006 Baja vehicles are
summarized in the following table:
Table 2: Static Suspension Angles
2006 2007
Front Camber -3 degrees -3 degrees
Rear Camber -2 degrees -2 degrees
Front Toe 0 degree 1 degree
Rear Toe 0 degrees 0 degrees
Caster 10 degrees 4 degrees
7.4) Choosing the inner suspension points

As mentioned earlier the outer suspension points are dictated by the vehicle
dimensions and the wheel hubs and uprights. Once the outer points are chosen, the inner
points are designed to optimize the suspension performance of the vehicle. The next step
is to use ADAMS/Car to manipulate the geometry and check the suspension
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characteristics until the optimal suspension geometry configuration is obtained. The
suspension points are input in ADAMS as shown in Figure 29:

Figure 29: ADAMS/Car suspension modeling

One constraint that dictates the inner suspension geometry is the ride height of the
vehicle, since the lower inner suspension points have to be the lowest points on the
chassis at a height of 10 inches from the ground. Another restraint is the steering rack
position, the steering rack points were chosen so that the rack is as low as possible, which
gives the driver more leg room in the front. Therefore, once the steering rack points and
the lower control arm points are decided, the upper control arm points are designed to
optimize the suspension performance. When choosing the inner suspension points the
following factors were taken into consideration:

Anti Squat and Anti Dive: The main causes for the squat and dive effects are the
braking and acceleration of the vehicle. In the case of the Baja vehicle which is a rear
wheel drive, as the vehicle begins to accelerate the vertical loads acting on the rear
suspension begin to increase as a result of the sprung mass distribution shifting to the
rear. At the same time the shift in weight distribution to the rear decreases the loads
acting on the front suspension. Therefore, as the vehicle accelerates the rear suspension is
forced to jounce and the front suspension is forced to rebound, this combination of jounce
and rebound results in the vehicle pitching towards the rear end. The same concept
applies when the vehicle is braking where in this case the weight will be transferred to the
front instead resulting in a forward dive resulting in large moments acting on the
suspension. Therefore, in order to reduce the amount of loads acting on the suspension
components during braking and acceleration, the suspension geometry has to be designed
to provide anti-squat and anti-dive forces, which will also reduce the vehicle pitch.
Ideally the vehicle should be designed to have both anti-squat and anti-dive, however,
that requires the front and rear suspensions are oriented opposite to each other. Therefore,
the Baja vehicle was designed to have anti-squat in the front and rear suspensions by
orienting the suspension geometry at 5 degrees from the horizontal as shown in Figure
30:
LCA-Front-Outer
LCA-Rear-
Wheel Center
UCA-Rear-
UCA-Front-Outer
LCA-Rear
UCA-Rear
UCA-Front
LCA-Front
UCA-Rear
LCA-Front
UCA-Front
LCA-Rear
Inner and outer tierod
i t
Wheel Center
LCA-Outer
UCA-Outer
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Figure 30: Anti Squat Angle
This suspension geometry configuration allows the vehicle to go over bumps and
rough terrain more easily by reducing the amount of loads acting on the suspension
system components as the tire approaches a bump. This can also be explained by the fact
that the wheel travel will follow a lateral profile that is perpendicular to the road profile:

Figure 31: Anti Squat Reaction

The longitudinal wheel travel profile of the front and rear suspension systems is
plotted below versus the vertical wheel travel of the wheels using ADAMS/Car (see
Figure 32). It is clear to see from the curves that the front and rear longitudinal curves
almost line up with each other and that implies that the front and rear wheel move in the
same longitudinal direction. It is also important to notice from the graph that for every 1
inch of vertical wheel travel there is approximately 0.1 inch longitudinal wheel travel and
thus the wheelbase length of the vehicle does not change much as the wheels go through
wheel travel.

= 5 degrees
Road Profile
Longitudinal Wheel
Travel Profile
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Figure 32: Longitudinal wheel travel

Roll Center Location: As the vehicle approaches a corner, the sprung mass distribution is
transferred laterally from one side to the other resulting in higher loads on the outside
turning wheels. This transfer in the weight distribution may cause the vehicle to roll
depending on the roll moment acting on the vehicle. The roll moment depends on the
location of the roll center and the vehicle center of gravity, where the distance between
the roll axis and the center of gravity represents the roll moment arm. The longitudinal
position of the roll center is not considered due to the fact that it does not have a great
impact on the roll moment arm; the lateral location of the roll center on the other hand is
given to be at the center line of the vehicle. Therefore, only the vertical position of the
roll center is considered when designing the suspension geometry. By connecting the roll
centers in the front and rear the vehicle roll axis is formed. The orientation of the roll axis
has a great impact on the oversteering and understeering characteriscs, desiging the roll
axis to be inclined towards the front of the vehicle results in understeering, while
oversteering is obtained when the roll axis is inclined towards the rear of the vehicle. In
general it is desirable to design the vehicle to have a small oversteering characteristic,
however, the 2007 Baja car incorporates a limited slip differential that helps whip the rear
end of the car around corners which contributes to oversteering. Therefore, the front roll
center height is designed to be lower than the rear roll center height so that the roll axis is
inclined towards the front, contributing to understeering and balancing off the
oversteering effect caused by the differential and the weight transfer.
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Figure 33: Roll Center Height and Swing Arm Length
Figure 33 illustrates how the vertical position of the roll center is located by
intersecting a line running from the center of the tire contact patch with the instant center
of the suspension. The lower suspension points are dictated by the ride height and hence
they can not be modified, however, the upper suspension points are used to adjust the roll
center as needed. The figure above shows that as the upper control arm points are brought
closer to the lower control arm points the roll center is increased, at the same time the
Swing Arm Length increases resulting in less track width change. Less track width
change with wheel travel reduces the camber gain. Thus, there is a trade off between the
optimal roll center and the optimal camber gain.

Camber Gain: As mentioned earlier, a small negative camber angle is set in the rear and
front suspensions at static in order to prevent positive camber gain during cornering.
However, even with the static angle set at a small negative camber, there will still be
some positive camber gain as the vehicle rolls during cornering. Therefore, the
suspension geometry is designed to increase the camber gain as the wheel travels. In
other words, the camber angle is maintained negative during bump and rebound. This can
be achieved by designing the control arm points such the A-Arms are unequal in length.
The following figure shows two possible configurations of the upper suspension points:

Figure 34: Camber Gain
Lower A-Arm Longer Upper A-Arm Longer
Vehicle Centerline
RC1
RC2
RC3
Swing Arm Length 1
Swing Arm Length 2
Swing Arm Length 3
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Bump Steer: The bump steer effect is simply the change in toe angle as the wheel travels.
Bump steer can be used to influence the oversteering or understeering characteristics of
the vehicle. If the front wheels are set to toe out during bump it will make the vehicle
understeer, while on the other hand, the vehicle will tend to oversteer if the front wheels
toe in with wheel travel. It is always desirable however to minimize the bump steer in
both the front and rear suspension systems, infact ideally the rear suspension system
should have no bump steer at all. The design criteria followed for the Baja car was to
keep bump steer as much as possible within +/-1 degree of toe.
7.5) Choosing the steering tie rods lengths

As mentioned earlier, bump steer is a very important parameter when it comes to
the suspension geometry. The length of the tie rod is basically designed to minimize the
bump steer as much as possible. Given the fact that the outer steering points are already
decided by the upright, and the steering rack height is chosen to allow for better leg room
for the driver, the only point that is left to be chosen is the inner tie rod point. An
important concept that needs to be considered is the instant center (IC) of the suspension
system; this point represents the center of rotation of the suspension swing arm as the
wheel bumps or rebounds. In order to minimize bump steer, a line connecting the inner
tie rod point and the outer tie rod point has to intersect the instant center of the
suspension (see figure below). By choosing the tie rod point to lie on that line, the control
arms and the steering tie rod will move together as one mechanism with the same center
of rotation, which reduces the change in the toe angle as the wheel travel.

Figure 35: Steering tie rod length
The position of the inner tie rod point however is also dictated by the clearance
with the frame. The worst case scenario is when the wheel is at maximum rebound and
the steering wheel is turned 360 degrees, this case is shown in Figure 36: Tie rod
clearance with control arm

As can be seen the tie rod point has to be designed to accommodate for the
clearance between the frame and tie rod. Therefore, choosing the tie rod points requires a
lot of iterations to obtain the optimal bump steer characteristic while still maintain the
clearance with frame.

IC
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Figure 36: Tie rod clearance with control arm
7.6) Choosing the strut mounting points

The position of the strut mounts has a great impact on the wheel travel range of
the suspension. Therefore, the intended maximum wheel travel range for the suspension
must be decided first, and then the strut mounting points can be designed to obtain the
desired wheel travel range. The amount of plunge in the shock is related to the suspension
wheel travel using the motion ratio, where the motion ratio is defined as the ratio of
displacement in the shock to the wheel displacement:

nt Displaceme Wheel
t Displacmen Shock
o MotionRati
_
_
=

Figure 37: Motion Ratio
From the figure shown above, the motion ratio can be calculated using the following
equation:
b a
b
o MotionRati
+
=
Knowing the plunge displacement in the shock which is 4 inches and a desired
total range of wheel travel of 10 inches, the motion ratio can be calculated and the
position of the lower shock mount can be obtained from the equation above. The factors
that were considered when designing the motion ratio are:
a
b
Clearance between
tierod and frame
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Bending moment: When choosing the lower shock mounting point, the amount of loads
applied by the shock on the control arms must be considered. From diagram shown
above, if the lower shock point is chosen to be very close to the wheel, the strut force has
a larger moment arm and thus inducing higher bending stress in the lower control arm.

Suspension Stiffness: The orientation of the shock (angle ) affects the overall stiffness
of the suspension. If is set to be close to 90 degrees, then the shock is almost vertical
and the suspension has a very high stiffness (wheel rate), while on the other hand, if the
is set to be close to zero, the suspension stiffness is very low. The roll stiffness is
similarly affected by the shock mount point positions, therefore, an iteration process was
used to obtain the shock points that achieve the desired wheel travel and optimize the
overall suspension stiffness.

Half Shafts: In the rear suspension the wheel travel is constrained by the angle
limitations of the Universal Joints of the half shafts. Therefore, it is important to design
the motion ratio such that at maximum bounce and rebound, the shocks are the first
components that bottom out by hitting the bump stops, since the bump stop help absorb
some energy. Otherwise, if the Universal Joints bottom out first, large amounts of loads
will be applied to the half shafts and transferred to the drive train assembly.
7.7) Design front and rear suspension to be consistent

The front and rear suspension systems geometry were designed by considering
each system separately, however, it is important to make sure that the front and rear
suspension characteristics are consistent with each other in order to optimize the full
vehicle suspension performance. The following parameters were compared for the front
and rear suspension systems:

Lateral Roll Center Position: The roll axis of the vehicle is formed by connecting the
front and rear roll center points. The lateral positions of the front and rear roll centers
have to follow the same pattern over wheel travel, otherwise the roll axis will not be
perpendicular to the centerline of the vehicle and the vehicle will be subject to yaw. The
following graph compares the front and rear lateral roll centers as they vary with wheel
travel:
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22
22.5
23
23.5
24
24.5
25
25.5
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Wheel Travel (in)
R
o
l
l

C
e
n
t
e
r

P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

R
i
g
h
t

T
i
r
e

(
i
n
)
Front Rear

Figure 38: Roll Center Lateral Position

Vertical Roll Center Position: The vehicle is designed with a roll axis that is inclined
towards the front in order to balance the oversteering characteristics. The vertical front
and rear roll center positions should also follow the same pattern through out wheel travel
with the rear roll center being always higher than the front:

-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Wheel Travel (in)
R
o
l
l

c
e
n
t
e
r

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

(
i
n
)
Front Rear

Figure 39: Roll Center Vertical Position
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Roll Stiffness: The roll stiffness is designed so that the front suspension is always stiffer
than the rear. Higher roll stiffness in the front allows the vehicle to have an oversteering
characteristic during cornering.

84000
85000
86000
87000
88000
89000
90000
91000
92000
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Rol l Angle (deg)
R
o
l
l

S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s

(
N
m
m
/
d
e
g
)
Front Rear

Figure 40: Roll Stiffness

Track Width: The change in track width in the front and rear should follow the same
pattern, where the front track width should always be higher than the rear track width in
order to reduce the vehicle turning radius.
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Wheel Travel (in)
T
r
a
c
k

W
i
d
t
h

(
i
n
)
Front Rear

Figure 41: Track Width Change
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8) 2007 Suspension kinetics

Suspension kinetics analysis of the 2007 vehicle involved choosing the spring
stiffness (spring rate), determining the bounce, pitch, ride and roll frequencies of the
vehicle, performing a handling analysis on the vehicle, and analyzing the overall
performance of the vehicle by running several different analyses in CarSim. The
following sections will describes how this was done for the 2007 vehicle. There will also
be a discussion on modeling in CarSim.

8.1) Handling analysis on 2006 vehicle

The suspension kinematics was designed before the suspension kinetics was
considered. However, when designing the suspension kinematics of the vehicle it was
decided to go with a vehicle that oversteers. This was decided because it will allow the
vehicle to turn sharper thru the corners thus allowing the vehicle to corner quicker.
However, an oversteering vehicle is unstable in yaw at the critical speed. Therefore, a
handling analysis was completed on the 2006 vehicle in order to determine the critical
speed of the 2006 vehicle. The critical speed of the 2006 vehicle will give an indication
of the critical speed of the 2007 vehicle. A handling analysis was completed using the
bicycle (see section 5.1.2).

The cornering stiffness of the front and rear tires was estimated using equation 24
(Table 3: Estimated cornering stiffness of the 2006 tires) (Appendix C).

Table 3: Estimated cornering stiffness of the 2006 tires
Cornering stiffness (N/rad)
Front (both tires) 1.1968e+005
Rear (both tires) 1.1968e+005

Given the cornering stiffness and other important parameters the critical speed of the
2006 vehicle can be calculated (Table 4: Critical speed of 2006 vehicle) (Appendix D).
Table 4: Critical speed of 2006 vehicle
Critical speed (m/s) 77.1811

The critical speed of the vehicle is very high (277.852km/h), therefore it can be seen that
it will be safe to design the vehicle to oversteer because it will never be capable of
reaching this speed with a 10hp engine. Thus, the vehicle will be stable in yaw
throughout its speed range. Therefore, better turning was designed into the vehicle
without worrying about instabilities.
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8.2) Approach to designing 2007 suspension kinetics

A suspension kinetics analysis is a dynamics analysis performed on the
suspension system. A dynamics analysis allows for the spring rates of the suspension to
be determined along with all of the natural frequencies of the vehicle (bounce, pitch, roll
and ride) and thus the ride and roll quality of the vehicle. The spring rates need to be
determined first, because the frequencies are directly dependent on them. Section 5.3
outlines how to determine the suspension spring rates to allow for good ride quality and
to ensure that the spring rates are capable of absorbing the loads which the vehicle will be
subjected to as it drives on an anticipated course. The following was the steps used to
determine the spring rates and the appropriate frequencies of the 2007 vehicle.
1. Determined the type of shocks to be used in the front and in the rear.
2. Received a list of all of the springs that can be ordered from the manufacturer
(main and auxiliary springs), therefore the selection of spring rates and
progression that can be used with the chosen shocks was known.
3. Used the Maurice Olley criteria to determine the required ride rates and
frequencies in the front and in the rear. The required spring rates can be
determined from the ride rates because the suspension geometry is known.
4. Found the necessary and desired combination of springs (one main and three
auxiliary springs; the springs will be in series) to end up close to the predicted
spring rates which were determined from the previous step.
5. Created a model in CarSim to evaluate the springs rates; to determine if the
springs are capable of absorbing the loads which they will see from an off road
course.
6. Evaluated the spring rates using 7 different analyses on the vehicle in CarSim:
acceleration, jumping performance, handling, cornering, acceleration and
cornering, braking, and braking and cornering.
7. If the results from step 6 reveal that the spring rates are not efficient enough, then
a new set of spring rates must be chosen and steps 4 to 6 need to be repeated until
step 6 produces valid results. It is to be noted that for good ride quality the ride
rates should not deviate from those outlined by the Olley criteria, and if this can
not be achieved than the motion ratio may need to be varied until this is achieved.
8. Determined the ride frequencies of the front and rear suspensions using the
equations outlined in section 5.3.
9. Determined the bounce, pitch and wheel hop frequencies of the vehicle using the
half car model (see section 5.1.1).
10. Determined the roll stiffness (see section 5.2.9) of the front and rear suspensions
11. Evaluated the handling performance of the vehicle
The steps outlined above were the steps taken to determine the kinetics of the 2007
vehicle. Once the kinetics were determined the dynamic events which would be seen at
the competition were evaluated in CarSim, and the times calculated were predicted with
actual times for a direct comparison.

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8.3) 2007 front and rear suspension shocks

There are many different types of suspension shocks that can be used for the baja
vehicle. The two most common types of shocks used are atv shocks and motocross
shocks. However, it is generally more desired to go with an atv shock for the baja
vehicle. Until 2005, the University of Windsor baja team used custom Billstein shocks
on their baja vehicle; custom implying that the damping, shock travel and spring rate
were designed specifically for their vehicle. In 2005, the baja team decided to use a coil
over shock suspension shock from Elka suspension. They decided to go with this shock
because the damping can be adjusted in compression and rebound thus allowing the
damping characteristics to be optimized through vehicle testing and not on paper. Due to
cost constraints at the beginning of suspension design, it was decided to use the same
suspension that was purchased in 2005 and to choose a set of new springs for the shocks
that will allow the ride quality of our vehicle to be optimized. It is advised that if these
same shocks are used next year that they get re-valved. Note the type of shock also
needed to be determined when designing the suspension kinematics because it plays an
important role in the motion ratio designed into the suspension geometry. Since it was
decided to go with the Elka coil over shock suspension shocks, the available main springs
and the available auxiliary springs which we could purchase was supplied by the
manufacturer (Appendix E).
8.4) The required spring rates based on the Olley criteria

The predict the necessary spring rates for the 2007 vehicle based on the Olley
criteria an accurate measurement of the weight and weight distribution is needed. It is
important that this step is completed close to the end of the project so that an accurate
measurement of the weight of the vehicle and weight distribution is known. The weight
of the vehicle and the weight distribution were not measured until the majority of the
components were on the vehicle. The vehicle weight and weight distribution was
measured once about 95% of the components were complete and on the vehicle (some of
the parts missing include: the body, the complete gas tank (the gas tank with a spill tank
designed around it; other words just the Briggs and Stratton gas tank was used with fuel
in it), and the seat cushioning) (Table 5: Weight of the vehicle and weight distribution).
Note, since the shocks from 2006 were being re used they were also assembled on the
vehicle at this point with the springs on them from 2006 so that an accurate measurement
of the weight of the vehicle can be measured. To get an idea, the weight and weight
distribution was measured on the same night the car drove for the first time.
Table 5: Weight of the vehicle and weight distribution
Vehicle weight with 170lb driver (lbs) 585
Front weight percent (%) 47
Rear weight percent (%) 53

The spring rates were calculated based on the methods outlined in section 5.3 and
5.1.1. The ride rate of the front suspension should be 30% lower than the ride rate of the
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rear suspension based on the Olley criteria. However, there is no indication as to where
the ride frequencies need to be in the front and in the rear in order to obtain the
appropriate ride rates. So the question becomes where did we start? In 2005, the
suspension shocks were purchased from Elka Suspensions, and Elka Suspensions chose
the spring rates for the 2005 team based on the weight of the vehicle, weight distribution,
and suspension geometry (motion ratio). Therefore, it was decided to use the 2005 data
and work backwards to solve for the ride frequencies of the front and rear suspension of
the 2005 vehicle (Table 6: Ride frequencies of the 2005 vehicle).
Table 6: Ride frequencies of the 2005 vehicle
Ride frequency (Hz)
Front 1.237
Rear 1.47

Elka Suspensions calculates their spring rates and ride rates based on actual test data,
therefore it was assumed that the ride frequencies of the 2007 vehicle should be around
the same values as those of 2005. The optimum way to determine the spring rated for the
2007 vehicle would by experimental test. However, due to time constraints this was not
feasible, and we had to start somewhere. Thus it was assumed that the ride frequencies
would be the same in the front and in the rear as those of 2005, and the spring rates were
calculated based on this criteria (Table 7: Required spring rates for 2007 vehicle based on
Olley criteria) (Appendix F).
Table 7: Required spring rates for 2007 vehicle based on Olley criteria
Spring rate (lbf/in)
Front 67.63
Rear 68.43

The results obtained are rather interesting. The front wheel rate is 37% lower than that of
the rear wheel rate, and the front ride frequency is 16% lower than the rear ride
frequency. However, it is the ride frequency that will determine the capabilities of the
rear suspension to catch up to the front suspension, and in order for this to occur the ride
frequency should be 30% less in the front than in the rear to allow for the rear to catch up
to the front. However, Maurice Olley did most of his analysis on suspensions on
automobiles which have close to twice as big of a wheelbase as the Baja car. Since the
wheelbase is half of what Maurince Olley was using the percentage is decreased to 16%
which will allow the rear to catch up to the front at a much faster pace. In other words,
the rear suspension will hit the bump sooner in a Baja car than in an automobile. It is
also to be noted that while we were waiting for other parts to go on the vehicle to get the
necessary measurements to calculate the values outlined above the CarSim model was
prepared. This allowed the spring rates to be evaluated at a much faster pace to ensure
that they would be in by the time we were ready for vehicle testing.

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8.5) CarSim model for 2007 vehicle

CarSim is a computer simulation of a vehicle. It is a simulation package that
allows the response of the vehicle to be determined over a wide range of road inputs. It is
a program that has been proven to be accurate and is widely used in Industry for vehicle
dynamics testing. The only downfall with CarSim is that it is highly dependent on
experimental data and on driver inputs, ie the driver needs to be simulated. CarSim was
used to evaluate the spring rates, predict the behavior of the vehicle through different
analyses, and to evaluate the performance of the vehicle in regards to what will be seen at
competition (dynamic events). The following is a discussion of how the model was
created in CarSim.

CarSim has three different interfaces, two of them which need inputs in order for
the program to run (Figure 42: The three interfaces in CarSim). The first interface
includes the vehicle model, the controls (driver inputs) of the vehicle and the
environment which the vehicle is going to drive on. The second interface is known as the
math model interface. It is in this interface where the simulation data is specified. The
last interface (or third interface) is known as the results interface. The last interface is
used to plot data, and to view the simulation in the animator. The first and the last
interfaces were the most used. The only parameter changed in the second interface was
the computation stop time. Once the vehicle model was created the only parameters
needed to be changed were the vehicle environment and the vehicle controls in order to
simulate the vehicle on the appropriate path and conditions.

The vehicle model is created by specifying the size of the vehicle (mass,
dimensions and Inertia) and by specifying certain parameters for each of the main major
parts of the vehicle (powertrain, brakes, steering, front suspension and rear suspension)
(Figure 43: Vehicle model in CarSim). The following is a brief description of the inputs
for the vehicle model which were used for the simulations on the 2007 vehicle. Note,
that if an input is unclear than it is advised to go to the library reference (help, about this
screen or push F1). The library reference was created by the staff of CarSim in order to
assist its users in preparing their models. In the library reference there will be a
description about each of the inputs.

The mass, dimensions and inertia of the vehicle are inputted in the model in the
spring mass: rigid sprung mass screen (Figure 44: The mass, Inertia and vehicle
dimensions screen in CarSim). A few notes about CarSim that need to be known before
any inputs are inputted into the model. Data can only be inputted into the model if the
screen is unlocked; the screen can be unlocked by clicking the lock on top of the screen.
It is advised to create a new screen every time one of the variables on the screen needs to
be changed. This will allow the changes to be tracked and the data references not to be
lost. A new screen can be created by clicking on new on the top of the screen. Once the
new screen is created, the vehicle model screen (or screen which references the new
screen created) needs to be updated so that it references the screen (file) you just created.
As an example, if a new screen (file) is created for the mass, dimensions and inertia of
the vehicle than it must be changed in the vehicle model to reference the file just created.
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If this is not done, than the program will still run with reference to the previous file.

Figure 42: The three interfaces in CarSim

Figure 43: Vehicle model in CarSim
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Figure 44: The mass, Inertia and vehicle dimensions screen in CarSim

The sprung mass of the vehicle was estimated to be an order of magnitude greater
than the unsprung mass (this is usually the case). The inertias of the vehicle were not
determined experimentally, thus they were left as the values estimated by CarSim. The
dimensions of the vehicle were determined by measuring the appropriate dimensions on
the vehicle.

The aerodynamics model was kept the same as that estimated by CarSim. The
drag coefficients were not tested on the 2007 vehicle, thus it was assumed that the values
predicted by CarSim were sufficient enough for the analysis to be performed on the
vehicle. The aerodynamic effects on the Baja vehicle will not be sufficient because the
speeds are not that high (aerodynamic effects depend on the square of the velocity).

The powertrain model was created based on the data obtained from the powertrain
team. The first step in creating the powertrain model was to specify if the vehicle was a
front drive, rear drive or all wheel drive vehicle. The 2007 Baja vehicle is a rear wheel
drive vehicle, thus this was specified in the vehicle model for powertrain. Once this was
specified, the Rear-wheel drive: RWD model was created (Figure 45: The powertrain
model in CarSim).

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Figure 45: The powertrain model in CarSim
The torque versus RPM curve specified by Briggs and Stratton was used as the engine
model. Since the powertrain consists of a manual transmission, the torque transfer device
was modeled as the clutch. The transmission model is comprised of the gear ratios of
each gear, the inertia of each gear and the upshift and downshift diagrams. Note, the
upshift diagrams were modeled assuming they were independent on the vehicle throttle,
however to accurately predict the upshift schedule experimental data is needed. The
differential was modeled as a limited slip differential indicating that there will be no
torque change between the left and right sides of the differential (this is by definition of
this type of differential). Note to get a more accurate model of the powertrain it is
advised to test the engine and obtain a fuel map for the engine. The model would be
more accurate if the fuel map of the engine would be known.

The brake model was created using the information specified by the brake team.
With the given information from the brake team the Brake system: 4-wheel system model
was created (Figure 46: The brake model in CarSim). The proportional gains were all
specified to be unity because the Baja vehicle is not equipped with a proportional valve.
A proportional valve is typically used on a vehicle to ensure that the front wheels lock
before the rear wheels thus ensuring the vehicle remains stable in yaw. However, the
master cylinder size was different for the front and for the rear thus ensuring that the front
wheels will always lock before the rear wheels. The braking torques for all four wheels
was inputted in the model using the values calculated by the brake team.

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Figure 46: The brake model in CarSim

The steering model was created with the assistance of the steering team for certain
parameters and by using some of the data calculated in ADAMS/Car for the suspension
geometry (kinematics) (Figure 47: The steering model in CarSim). The steering ratio was
obtained by the steering team; it is the amount the steering wheel has to turn to turn the
tire by one degree. The steering kinematics was obtained from the steering team. It is
the amount the wheel will turn for a given gearbox output. The rear steering is modeled
as zero, because the Baja car only has front wheel steering. It is assumed that the
compliance in the steering system is zero. The kingpin geometry was obtained from
ADAMS/Car and was inputted in the model by exporting the data from ADAMS/Car into
an excel spreadsheet and copying and pasting the data into CarSim. Since the steering
ratio is 2.25 to one than a moment of 1Nm of a steering moment gives 2.25Nm about the
kingpin axis (this is just an approximation, to get a more of an accurate result,
experimental data is needed) (this is the steering wheel torque).

The suspension model includes the suspension kinematics, suspension kinetics and the
tire data for both the front and rear suspensions. The suspension kinematics data for both
the front and rear suspensions was obtained by inputting the data calculated from
ADAMS/Car. The suspension compliance (kinetics) was obtained from ADAMS/Car,
Elka Suspensions, and from an in house Matlab program to calculate the spring rates.
Since tires are highly non-linear the only thing changed in the tire model was the
dimensions of the tire. The first step in creating the models is to specify in the vehicle
model screen the type of suspension in the front and in the rear. Since the suspensions in
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the front and in the rear are both independent this type of suspension was chosen for both
types.

Figure 47: The steering model in CarSim
Note, the inputs will only be briefly described for the front suspension; they can be
obtained in the rear in a similar fashion as they were obtained in the front.

The front suspension kinematics was created by creating a model of front
kinematics: independent for the front suspension (Figure 48: The front suspension
kinematics model in CarSim). The unsprung mass is usually an order of magnitude less
than the sprung mass. The track width and effective rolling radius were experimentally
calculated and then inserted into the model. It is to be noted that the curves for both the
left and right wheels are the same. The caster change was calculated by exporting the
curve of caster angle verses wheel travel into an excel file and calculating the change in
the caster angle from the static angle for all wheel travel. The longitudinal movement of
the wheel center with suspension travel can be directly exported from ADAMS/Car (it is
the wheel_travel_base in ADAMS/Car) into an excel spreadsheet and then copied and
pasted into CarSim. The camber angle versus wheel travel can be directly obtained from
ADAMS/Car and exported into an excel spreadsheet and then copied and pasted into
CarSim. The toe angle is inputted in CarSim in a similar fashion. The lateral movement
of the wheel center is found in a similar way as the longitudinal movement of the wheel
center (except the curve used in ADAMS/Car is wheel_travel_track curve).

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Figure 48: The front suspension kinematics model in CarSim

The suspension compliance (kinetics) was created by creating a model of front
compliance (Figure 49: The front suspension compliance model in CarSim). Note, tests
were done on the 2006 suspension springs in order to determine the progression rate of
the springs (see section 10). These test results were used as a basis to calculate the spring
rates for the 2007 springs. When the CarSim model was first created the spring rates
were not known, thus the test results from the 2006 vehicle were inputted into the model
so that once the model is created it can be tested to ensure it is functional. The spring
data was inputted into CarSim as a force verses displacement curve for both the extension
and compression loops. The 0 point on the x axis represents the static position of the
spring, thus the static position of the shock (or installation length) needs to be known (for
2007 this length was 18.375 in, so 4.375in of shock travel in compression and 1.625 in of
shock travel in extension). The test curves need to be shifted in order to take into account
the preload initially on the shocks; the amount of compression of the springs while the
vehicle is at the static position. The bump stops need to be also considered which
represent a sharp increase in the load once they are reached. The suspension roll stiffness
was obtained from ADAMS/Car. Therefore once the spring rates were determined they
were inputted into ADAMS/Car to find the suspension roll stiffness and then the roll
stiffness was exported into an excel spreadsheet and then copied and pasted into CarSim.
The motion ratio was calculated in excel by exporting the suspension travel verses wheel
travel curve from ADAMS/Car and the slope of this curve is the motion ratio by
definition. The shock data or damping data was obtained from Elka Suspensions and
then inputted into CarSim by copying and pasting the data into CarSim. The compliance
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coefficients were left to be equal to the values predicted by CarSim. In order to get an
accurate measurement of this, test data would be required.

Figure 49: The front suspension compliance model in CarSim

The only data inputted into the tire screens was the dimensions of the tires. The
tires are one of the most important parameters to vehicle dynamics analysis. However,
the tire is highly non-linear and experimental data would be required to properly model
the tires. Thus the tire curves and stiffness predicted by CarSim was used for the analysis
because the curves were obtained from experimental results.

The controls of the model are the driver inputs. It is in this section where the
reactions of the driver need to be specified in order to predict the performance of the
vehicle. If the vehicle is going to brake at a certain location in the model it needs to be
specified as the driver pushing on the brake pedal at that particular location on the track.
It is modeled as an increase in the master cylinder pressure. If the driver is going to steer
the car it must be specified in the steering control path. The speed of the vehicle can be
specified in the speed input section. This can be an initial vehicle speed, or a constant
target vehicle speed. The throttle position and the gear shift schedule can also be used as
inputs to the model. It is to be noted that the model will not do any of the controls unless
it is specified to. This implies that the vehicle will not shift gears unless you tell it to
through the gear shift control input.

The environment section is where the track the vehicle is to follow is specified. It
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is in this section where the road friction, the shape of the track and the elevation of the
track are all specified. This is an integral part of the analysis because it determines the
road conditions in which the vehicle is to be tested on.

The results interface is where all of the results can be viewed. The animate
function allows for the performance of the vehicle to be viewed in an animator. If certain
parameters are desired from the analysis than they can be plotted by choosing which
figures to plot (there is a total of 8 plots that can be plotted at once) and then clicking on
the plot bottom.
8.6) Necessary combination of Elka Suspensions springs

The predicted or required spring rates were estimated in section 8.5. They were
estimated based on measurements of the weight and weight distribution. The available
springs were supplied to us from the manufacturer (Elka Suspensions) (Appendix E). It
is to be noted that the spring rates of the chosen shocks are non linear; the springs get
stiffer as they are compressed. The estimated spring rate will be the static spring rate; the
spring rate that exist when the vehicle is at the static position. There are three auxiliary
springs and one main spring needed, and these springs are in series, thus the effective
spring rate can be calculated as follows (Equation 31: The spring rate of 4 springs in
series).

1
3 , 2 , 1 ,
1 1 1 1

+ + + =
aux aux aux main
k k k k
k
Equation 31: The spring rate of 4 springs in series
The springs required to obtain the required spring rate can be calculated by varying the
main and auxiliary springs until the proper spring rate is reached. One thing that can be
noted is that the required spring rate in the front is more or less equivalent to the required
spring rate in the rear (table 5). Therefore the main and auxiliary springs can be chosen
to be the same in the front and in the rear. A Matlab program was created in order to
chose the main and auxiliary springs for the front and the rear, and the following is the
results from the analysis (Table 8: The main and auxiliary springs required to obtained
the appropriate ride frequencies).
Table 8: The main and auxiliary springs required to obtained the appropriate ride frequencies
Front Rear
Main spring (lbf/in) 201.6 201.6
First auxiliary spring (lbf/in) 302.4 302.4
Second auxiliary spring (lbf/in) 302.4 302.4
Third auxiliary spring (lbf/in) 302.4 302.4
Equivalent spring rate (lbf/in) 67.2 67.2
Ride natural frequency (Hz) 1.2331 1.4567
Wheel rate (lb/in) 19.4145 30.5545
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The wheel rates (approximately equal to the ride rate) and the ride frequencies are pretty
close to the predicted values, therefore the chosen springs do meet the first part of the
Olley criteria. The Matlab program also included a section which verifies that the motion
ratio in the front and in the rear is chosen properly; the shock will allow for the predicted
wheel travel. The program also verified that a single suspension spring was capable of
absorbing the entire weight of the vehicle. The analysis showed positive results, thus
allowing the spring rates to be evaluated in CarSim in order to make sure that they will be
capable of absorbing the loads from the road conditions without bottoming out more than
once around the track it is to drive on (note the Matlab program can be found on the
attached cd).

8.7) Evaluation of spring rate in CarSim

The spring rates need to be evaluated in order to ensure that the suspension
system will be capable of absorbing the loads which are coming from the road.
Therefore, the chosen spring rates were evaluated in CarSim by running the vehicle
through 7 different analyses: acceleration, jumping performance, handling, cornering,
acceleration and cornering, braking, and braking and cornering. The spring rates were
evaluated by verifying if the compression of the shocks were at reasonable amounts; the
shocks were not bottoming out. The vehicle performance was also verified in order to
evaluate the performance of the vehicle in all aspects. Before the analyses can be
completed in CarSim the progression of the spring rates had to be determined. However,
this has to be done experimentally. Therefore, the progression of the spring rates were
estimated using the curves tested on the 2006 springs. The progression (exponential
growth of the load with compression) was estimated to be the same as that of the 2006
springs. The spring rate of the front suspension in 2006 was 71.186 lbf/in, therefore all
of the points were shifted down on the curve of the load verses displacement by
3.986lbf/in (71.186 67.2 = 3.986lbf/in) in order to estimate the curve for the 2007
springs. The curve was also shifted a bit to take into account 1in of pre load (estimated),
and the load was peaked by an appropriate amount at both extremes (maximum
compression of the spring and maximum extension of the spring) to take into account the
bump stops. The curve was then inputted into ADAMS/Car and a parallel wheel travel
analysis was completed on both the front and rear suspensions in order to obtain the roll
stiffness of both suspensions. The roll stiffness and the spring load versus displacement
curves were then inputted into CarSim.

The environment and control parts of CarSim need to be specified for each of the
analysis to be performed on the vehicle. The environment and the controls were first
created for each of the analysis by creating a model for each of them. A model is created
in the main window (the main window is the window where one can select run math
model) by clicking on new, and the models may be switched between one another by
clicking on the data sets drop down menu. The environment and controls will not be
explained for every case, and if is desired to check the environment and controls for each
case then the files can be checked which are located on the CD. As an example the
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environment and controls will be explained for the jump performance analysis of the
vehicle. The controls are as follows: no braking, no steering, an initial speed of 0km/h,
the throttle position is set in such a way that the driver presses on the gas pedal
immediately and holds his/her foot on it for the whole time, and the shifting is such that
the driver shifts from one gear to another every 1.15 seconds until he/she reaches 6
th
gear.
The environment is as follows: the x-y trajectory of the vehicle is a straight line; the
coefficient of friction is 0.5; the elevation is such that after the vehicle drives for 10m it
starts to climb the jump. The jump is 0.67m tall and is 2.3m long. The elevation after the
jump is flat.

The vehicle was tested in each of the environments created and the results are as
follows. The maximum spring compression and the maximum spring extension were
determined (Table 9: Spring rate evaluation results).
Table 9: Spring rate evaluation results
Analysis Maximum compression (in) Maximum extension (in)
Acceleration 0.370 0.878
Jumping performance 3.967 1.392
Handling 0.515 0.905
Cornering 0.155 0.437
Acceleration and cornering 0.591 0.896
Braking 0.946 1.118
Braking and cornering 1.174 1.126

Note, the suspension compression can be obtained by changing one of the plot options to
suspension compression and then clicking plot after the analysis is complete. Based on
the results it can be seen that the maximum extension and compression occur on the jump
performance analysis. Thus, one can conclude that the maximum extension is safe
because the shock can still be extended by an additional amount of (0.23in), which allows
some room for play. One may also conclude that the maximum compression is safe
because the shock can still be extended by an additional 0.408in. However, the bump
stop is included in the 4.375in of compression, and it is about 1.5in thick. Therefore, the
analysis is predicting that the shock will hit the bump stop, but the force is not capable of
compressing the shock to its full compression. The question then became is this safe
enough? It is usually best to go with a softer ride for ride comfort, and the rule of thumb
is that the suspension should be designed in order to let the suspension hit the bump stops
only once as the vehicle goes around the track (or the course). After analyzing the set up
for the jump it was determined that most jumps the vehicle will see will not be this steep
as the jump created, and the distance traveled by the vehicle after it hits the jump will be
a lot less because the vehicle will normally land on a table top (top of a hill); thus
potential energy will not be as high as predicted in his analysis. Thus, it was decided to
go with spring rates that were first chosen. Note, if this result would have been not
satisfactory than an iterative approach would be needed to determine the spring rates.

The roll angle, pitch angle, yaw angle, forces at the tires, and accelerations were
determined for each analysis and produced satisfactory results. The results will not be
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presented here, but can be check by running the analysis, see the files on the CD.
However, it is to be noted that in the evaluation of the spring rates, it was more important
to determine if the springs were capable of absorbing the load than to determine the
performance of the vehicle. However, the performance of the vehicle was evaluated to
ensure that the vehicle did perform well in all areas, and based on the results from all of
the analysis it was determined that this was the case. Note the animations of each of the
analysis can be seen in the attached video which can be found on the CD (Some of the
results can be found in Appendix G).
8.8) Ride, bounce, pitch and wheel hop frequencies

The ride, roll, bounce, and pitch frequencies can be calculated by following the
procedures outlined in section 6.1.1. The Matlab program based on the half car model
was created in order to calculate the frequencies and judge the ride quality of the vehicle.
It is to be noted that the suspension stiffness in this model is the wheel rate, and can be
calculated knowing the spring rate and motion ratio. The damping coefficient was
obtained from Elka Suspensions; they obtained it through testing methods. The pitch
inertia used in the model was the pitch inertia predicted by CarSim, the pitch inertia they
used in their models. The frequencies obtained from the Matlab analysis are as follows
(Table 10: The frequencies of the vehicle). The results from the analysis are in pretty
good agreement with the ride quality criteria specified by Maurice Olley. The pitch
frequency is greater than the bounce frequency and the bounce frequency is about 1.2
times less than the pitch frequency (1.18 to be exact).
Table 10: The frequencies of the vehicle
Frequency (Hz)
Bounce 1.1833
Pitch 1.3985
Wheel hop front 12.5511
Wheel hop rear 15.0445

The pitch frequency is not below 1.3 Hz as suggested by Maurice Olley, but is pretty
close to 1.3Hz. Therefore, the vehicle will perform well as vehicle ride is concerned.
The amplitude ratios were also studied for two different cases. The first case is the front
of the vehicle is being excited while the rear of the vehicle is not being excited, and the
second case is the opposite. The following amplitude ratios for a variety of frequencies
was obtained for both cases: vehicle bounce over input amplitude, vehicle pitch over the
input amplitude, motion of the unsprung mass in the front over input amplitude, motion
of the unsprung mass in the rear over input amplitude (note H1 is the input in the first
case and H2 is the input in the second) (figures 50-57).

The body motion frequencies of the front and rear suspension can be calculated
from the motion amplitude ratio curves (these frequencies are the frequencies close to 1
Hz). The wheel hop frequencies are also present in these curves (they are the second
hump). From these graphs it can be seen that it is at the low end frequencies where the
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loads coming from the road are transferred to the vehicle body on both bounce and pitch
modes.

Figure 50: Motion amplitude ratio for front excitation

Figure 51: Pitch/Excitation amplitude ratio for front excitation
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Figure 52: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation

Figure 53: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation
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Figure 54: Motion amplitude ratio for rear excitation

Figure 55: Pitch/Excitation amplitude ratio for rear excitation
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Figure 56: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation

Figure 57: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation

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Right at body motion frequencies the excitation amplitudes is amplified and the driver
will feel the most disturbances at this frequency. Thus, performing an analysis on the
vehicle ride comfort or vertical dynamics allowed the ride quality of the vehicle to be
predicted (for further details refer to the program on the CD).

8.9) Prediction of vehicle performance in regards to the dynamic
events

The performance of the vehicle was once again evaluated by analyzing how the
vehicle will perform at the dynamic events at the competition. The purpose of this was to
predict the performance of the vehicle and to compare the results obtained from CarSim
with actual test results. Therefore, four new models were created to simulate each of the
dynamic events at the competition (acceleration, hill climb, suspension and traction, and
maneuverability). Each of the models consists of an environment and a control file
created in order to simulate the performance of the vehicle at each of these events.
However, it will not be discussed how these were created, and if someone is interested
the files are attached with the CD.

Since one of the goals of this exercise was to compare the results to actual test
data, the acceleration and maneuverability tracks were created in CarSim to simulate the
tracks the actual vehicle was tested on. The vehicle was tested at a local track
(Powerband), and a portion of the course was mapped out to simulate the maneuverability
track, and this same track was created in CarSim. The acceleration times were calculated
for 100ft and 150ft distances, thus they were also calculated for the same distances in
CarSim. The hill climb event was not tested, because there was not a hill sufficiently
large enough to test the vehicle on. Therefore, a hill was created in CarSim and it was
verified if the vehicle could make it up the hill without any struggles. The gear shift
schedule was varied until the optimum (best time) was obtained in CarSim and this was
used as an indication for the driver (Figure 58: The hill created to simulate the hill climb).

Figure 58: The hill created to simulate the hill climb
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There was also no data for the suspension and traction course because it was unclear what
the course at the competition was going to be comprised of. Therefore a course which
consisted of a lot of bumps and a handling section was created in CarSim in order to
predict the performance of the vehicle as it travels along this course. The course was
created in CarSim anticipating the course to be like the one predicted (Figure 59:
Suspension and traction course).

By analyzing the performance of the vehicle and by predicting its behavior
allowed for a better in sight as to how to better prepare the vehicle for each of the events
at the competition. CarSim was also used to assist the driver in acceleration and in
maneuverability while testing the vehicle. This allowed the driver to get a better insight
of what path to follow for the maneuverability event and what gear to start in and o shift
up to for the acceleration event. The direct comparisons between CarSim simulations and
the testing can be found on a video which can be found on the attached CD.

Figure 59: Suspension and traction course
One of the areas needed for improvement as suspension kinetics is concerned is
the preparation before competition. The bounce and pitch frequencies of the vehicle
body were not known at the competition, and on e judge in particular was looking for
these values. Therefore it is advised that a spreadsheet be prepared ahead of time and
brought to competition to show the judges all of the relevant data as suspension kinetics
and kinematics is concerned.
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9) Suspension Component Design
9.1) Choice of Materials

Tubing materials: The suspension control arms are constructed of circular steel tubing.
Factors such as strength, weight and cost were considered when choosing the control arm
tubing materials. Table 11: Summary of material properties compares the different
aspects of some of the materials considered:
Table 11: Summary of material properties
Material Carbon
Content
(%)
Yield
Strength
(Mpa)
Tensile
Strength
(Mpa)
Elastic
Modulus
(Gpa)
Density
(1000
kg/m
3
)
Steel 4130
(Annealed)
30 % 436 670 190-210 7.7-8.03
Steel 1020
CD
20 % 390 470 190-210 7.7-8.03
Steel 1018
CD
18 % 370 440 190-210 7.7-8.03

There is not weight difference between any of these materials since they all have
the same density. Steel 4130 has higher carbon content than the other two alloys,
therefore, it has better mechanical properties. The only disadvantage with steel 4130 is
cost, however, since all steel tubing was donated, chormoly tubing was chosen for the
control arms.

Tabs materials: Steel 4130 was again chosen for the tabs materials due to its superior
properties. It was decided to use a minimum thickness of 0.08 inches steel plate for all the
tabs in the suspension systems. Laser and water jet cutting was then used to fabricate the
sheet metal into the required shapes and geometry for the suspension pick points tabs.

Bushing materials: Past Baja vehicles have always used Delran Nylon for all the
suspension bushings due to its durability and ease of machining. In the past it has been
proven that Delran Nylon can withstand wear and provide very smooth connections.
However, this year it was decided to try a different cheaper material which is HDPE
(High Density Polyethylene). After several test runs wit the Baja vehicle it was noticed
that the bushings were starting to wear resulting in compliance in the suspension
mechanism connections. Therefore, it was decided to replace all the suspension bushings
with a different material. In order to avoid any risks, Bronze oil impregnated was used
to make the bushings, this material has a much higher wear resistance yet at the same
time it is much heavier.
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9.2) Front Suspension System
9.2.1) Control Arms

Once the suspension points were designed in ADAMS/Car they were input into
CATIA in order to design the control arms structure. Each one of the designed
suspension points represents the center of a joint between two tubes. First CATIA was
used to form a wire frame model of the control arm by joining the suspension points. The
next step was to choose the appropriate tubing profile for each member of the control arm
structure. A circular profile was chosen for the tubing, due to its ease of
manufacturability and better aesthetics aspects. Given the fact that the strut is mounted to
the lower control arm, it is exposed to large loads during the suspension bounce and
rebound. Circular tubing of an outer diameter of 1 inch and a thickness of 0.065 inches
was used for the front lower control arm. The control arm members were drawn
separately as shown in Figure 60 below in order to obtain the exact dimensions and notch
sizes for all the members:

Figure 60: Front lower control arm
Similar procedure was followed when designing the upper control arm structure.
The loads traveled through the upper control arm are not as critical as the lower control
arm. A combination of two tube sizes was used for the upper control arm, where the main
control arm structure was made of 0.75 inches OD by 0.049 inches Thickness, while the
back tube that forms he pivot of the control arm with the frame is 1 inch OD by 0.049
thick inch. Despite the fact that the loads transferred through the upper control arm are
small, the back tube was added to support the structural rigidity of the control arm. Figure
61 below shows the structure of the upper control arm (Appendix H)

The clearance between the control arms, shocks and steering tie rods at full wheel
travel and steering was taken into consideration as well. An iterative design process was
used, where the control arms design was checked for clearance in ADAMS/Car then
modified accordingly in CATIA until a design that is easy to manufacture and at the same
Room for
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time provides the required clearance was obtained.

Figure 61: Front upper control arm
9.2.2) Finite Element Analysis

In order to accurately model the effects of lateral, normal and strut loads, an
assembly finite element model should be used. Furthermore, an FEA assembly model can
be used to examine the stresses acting on each of the suspension components. However,
in the case of the front suspension system it is very difficult to model the ball joint
between the control arms and the upright. Therefore, FEA analysis was done separately
on each of the front suspension components with special emphasis on critical parts. The
part that is most likely to experience the largest loads is the lower control arm. The
boundary conditions for the control arm were modeled as shown in below, where the ball
joint, the spring and the pivots where taken into consideration and modeled as restraints.
The load is applied at the lower strut mount as shown in Figure 62, the direction of the
force was chosen be acting along the strut line.

Figure 62: Front lower control arm FEA
Spring Element
Ball Joint Restraint Pivot Restraint
Loads
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The magnitude of the load was calculated based on the maximum vertical force acting on
the tire using the following equation:

( ) ( ) o MotionRati Force Tire Normal Force Strut = _ _ _

Where, the motion ratio was used to convert the normal tire force into the force acting
through the shock. A finite element analysis on the front suspension upright was also
done. The upright was modeled with the upper and lower ball joints boundary conditions
and the normal tire force acting on the spindle of the upright. Figure 63 further explains
how the upright was modeled and the FEA results:

Figure 63: Front upright FEA
Performing finite element analysis on the front suspension as one mechanism is
difficult due to the fact that it is not possible to model the ball joint connect between two
members, and thus the degrees of freedom of the system will not be accurately modeled.
However, if the ball joints are modeled as solid part that are fastened to the control arms
and the upright, then the results from the finite element analysis will simulate the worst
case scenario of the ball joint reaching their maximum rotation angle and the front
suspension bottoming out. Despite the fact that this model does not give an accurate
measure of the amount of stress through each member, it allows for simulating the effect
of the normal tire force as well as the strut force simultaneously. The full front
suspension FEA model is shown in Figure 64: Front suspension assembly FEA.
Upper Ball Joint Restraint
Lower Ball Joint Restraint
Steering Tie Rod
Ball Joint
Normal Tire Force
Maximum Stress
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Figure 64: Front suspension assembly FEA
9.2.3) Joints

Pivot Joints: The tabs and used to form pivot joints between the control arms and the
frame which allows the control arms to rotate as the wheel travel. The control arms are
connected to the frame by attaching them to steel tabs that are welded to the frame. The
tabs were made from a 0.080 inches thick steel 4130 sheet metal. Being subjected to large
bending and tensional stress, the tabs are considered the weakest link in the suspension
assembly and thus the strength of the suspension system is only as strong as the tabs. In
order to give the tabs more resistance to bending stress and increase the weld area, bends
were incorporated to the tabs structure as shown in Figure 65:

Figure 65: Laser cut tabs

The tabs were manufactured using water jet cutting, where the desired profile was
cut and then a bending machine was used to obtain the correct bends. Designing the
pivots and connection points to be as smooth as possible contributes to the overall
suspension stiffness. Any small resistance in the pivots or connections degrees of
freedom will add up to slow the movement of the suspension system as it rotates about its
instant center. Therefore, the suspension joints were designed with the appropriate
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bushings and lubrications to reduce friction and improve the suspension response. The
front suspension system incorporates two joints on each control arm, connecting it to the
frame and the wheel upright. The basic construction of a pivot joint is shown in Figure
66:

Figure 66: Pivot joint construction
As shown in the diagram, bronze bushings are used to prevent direct metal on
metal contact and allow the joint to move smoother. A small steel tube is used to run
through the joint assembly so that the joint pivots about that tube, it is also used as a
protection to the bolt that fastens the whole joint together. It can be seen from the
diagram above that the insert tubing that runs through the joint assembly was made
slightly longer than the length of the tube and the bushings, which leaves a small gab
between the bushing and the tab. This was done intentionally to prevent the tabs from
crushing on the bushings as the bolt is tighten to fasten the whole assembly and thus
allowing the joint to pivot freely. The bushings were also used in the front suspension
system to give more control over the caster angle orientation. The caster angle can be
changed by adjusting the bushing sizes on each side of the upper control pivot joint. This
caster adjustment method can be better understood from the following simplified diagram
(Figure 67: Caster adjustment mechanism).

Ball Joints: The control arm is connected to the upright using a ball joint which allows
for the front suspension to control the vertical travel and the steering angle of the wheel.
A Ricky Stator ball joint that allows 30 degrees rotation range is used in the front
suspension. The ball joint is attached to the control arm using a threaded steel insert that
has a hex head lip (see Figure 68).

The ball joint is fastened to the steel insert using the two nuts as shown in the
figure. If the nuts are unfastened and the steel insert is rotated it will result in moving the
ball joint out towards the wheel or in towards the frame. Thus, given the fact that this
mechanism is used for both the upper and lower control arms, it can be used to adjust the
camber angle orientation of the wheel without having to disassemble the suspension
Bolt
Insert Tubing Bushing
Tab
Tube
Gap
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system. This camber adjustment mechanism is very handy when it comes to finalizing the
suspension geometry before driving the car as it is very convenient to test different
camber angles.

Figure 67: Caster adjustment mechanism

Figure 68: Camber adjustment mechanism
9.2.4) Steering tie rod and bump stop

The tie rods are linkages connecting the steering rack to the wheel upright, where
the tie rod is connected to the steering rack through a left handed hiem joint and to the
wheel upright though a right handed ball joint. The steering tie rods are considered one of
the weakest links in the front suspension assembly. The tie rods take some of the loads
transferred from the wheel through the upright, breaking the steering tie rods after
landing from a jump was the main issue for past Baja vehicle. It was also noticed in the
past that the tie rod material itself can withstand high loads, however, it was at the joints
between the tie rod and the steering rack and the wheel upright is where the tie rod will
Insert Control Arm Upright
Bushing Control Arm Bushing
Nuts
Ball Joint
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most likely to break. Therefore, it was decided to use hiem and ball joints with stronger
material and bigger diameter, also steel 4130 with an OD of 0.75 inches and a thickness
of 0.065 inches was used to make the tie rods. A left hand and right hand threaded inserts
are welded to each end of the tie rods. The combination of left and right hand threads
allows the length of the tie rods to be easily adjusted to change the toe angle of the front
wheels.

Figure 69: Steering tie rod
The steering system also incorporates a steering stop that dictates the maximum
and minimum angle of steering. The main purpose of the steering stop is to prevent the
wheel upright from hitting the control arm as the wheel reaches maximum steering angle
and maximum wheel travel. A rubber sleeve was attached to the steering stop to absorb
some of the impact energy. For the convenience of packaging, the steering stop was
mounted on the upright where the tie rod attaches to the wheel upright. Figure 70 shows
the steering stop and how it was installed:

Figure 70: Steering stop
Ball Joint Tie rod Hiem Joint

Steering Stop
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9.3) Rear Suspension System
9.3.1) Control Arms

Similar procedure was applied when designing the rear suspension control arms
as the front control arms, where the suspension points were input into CATIA from
ADAMS/Car. Two main factors had to be considered when designing the rear control
arms; the first factor is the introduction of the differential uprights and the reduction in
the width of the rear end of the frame. This design change resulted in the control arms
being much longer than previous years, which increased the bending moment of the strut
force acting on the lower control arm. Another factor that had to be considered was the
clearance with other components of the suspension system. In order to save weight in the
unsprung mass of the vehicle, the small outlaw 500 uprights were used, however, that
resulted in the uprights being packaged very close to the center of the wheel and hence,
creating very small clearance room for the control arm joints. Also, there was a clearance
issue between the shock and the drive shaft, it was necessary to make sure that the control
arm is designed such that there is enough clearance room between the chock and the
drive shafts. These constraints are shown in Figure 71:

Figure 71: Schematic of rear lower control arm
The above diagram shows that due to the clearance constraints, the control arm
structure was designed such that the width of the control arm near the wheel is much
smaller than the width near the frame. This resulted in the shock mount point being
concentrated on one member rather than distributed equally on the entire control arm
structure. Thus, the strut force acting on the control arm has two main bending moment
arms, which is a weak point in the design; however, it was accounted for by using bigger
tubing for the control arm member that is subjected to highest bending stress. A circular
tubing of 1.25 inches OD and 0.065 thickness was used for the tube member which takes
most of the load from the strut. The rest of the control arm members were made out of 1
inch OD and 0.065 thickness circular tubing. The upper control arm design is not as
critical as the lower control arm, since most of the load is transferred though the lower
control arm. The main function of the upper control arm is to maintain the orientation of
the wheel and give better control over the suspension geometry. Clearance however, is
Rim Profile
Upright
Lower Strut Mount
Lower Control Arm
Bending Moment
Arms
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still a factor when designing the upper control arm, where the clearance with rim and the
shock being the main factors dictating the geometry of the upper control arm. 0.75 OD
circular tubing with 0.049 thickness was used for the structure of the upper control arm.
The ease of manufacturing was again taken into consideration when designing the rear
control arms, most of the members were designed to be straight and bends were reduced
where possible, however, it was necessary to add bends still due to the compact
packaging in the rear suspension assembly. Figure 72 shows the design model of the
upper and lower control arms, with each member of the structure being drawn separately
in order to obtain an accurate measure of the member lengths and notch sizes(Appendix
H):
Figure 72: Rear control arms
Given the fact that the upper control arms are not subjected to as high loads as the lower
control arms, the option making the upper control arms out of aluminum was considered.
Figure 73 shows a picture of the constructed aluminum upper control arm:

Figure 73: Aluminum rear upper control arm
Lower Control Arm
Upper Control Arm
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9.3.2) Finite Element Analysis

In order to obtain a better estimate of the stress in each component of the rear
suspension system, an assembly finite element analysis was done by modeling the joints
between each member. The rear suspension system is easier to model than the front
suspension due to the fact that all the joints in the rear are pivot joints with one degree of
freedom as appose to the ball joint in the front suspension. The normal loads of the tire
and the stiffness of the shock were modeled by applying vertical force at the wheel
upright and introducing a spring element at the lower shock mount on the control arm as
shown below:

Figure 74: Rear suspension assmebly FEA
9.3.3) Joints

Hiem Joints: similar to the front suspension system, the control arms are connected to
the frame using sheet metal tabs that are welded to the frame. However, in order to gain
more control over the rear suspension camber and toe angles, hiem joints were fastened
to the ends of the control arms and then attached to the tabs on the frame. By threading
the hiem joints in and out of the control arms ends, the length of each side of the control
arms is adjusted separately and hence given control over the wheel orientation. The joint
between the control arm and the tab is shown in details in Figure 75:

In order to give the joint more structural rigidity, small spacers were inserted
between the hiem joint and the tab walls; this will prevent the tab walls from crushing the
joint as the bolt is tightened.

Maximum Stress
Spring Element
Contact Connection
(UCA-Upright)
Contact
Pivot Joints
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Figure 75: Hiem joint

Pivot Joint (A-Arms to Upright): The joint connection between the control arms and the
uprights were constructed in similar manner to that of the front control arm pivot
connection with the frame, where a combination of bushings and steel insert were used to
make the joint less stiff. The length of the steel insert was made longer than the bushings
in order to make sure that the bolt fastening the joint together is not crushing the
bushings. The upright-control arm connection is shown in Figure 76:

Figure 76: Upright to control arm pivot
9.4) Installation

The installation of the suspension system on the frame was done by first
assembling each component of the suspension system which includes the upright, control
arms, bushings, pivot joints, hiem joints as well as ball joints. The suspension system
Bolt Tabs
Spacers
Hiem Joint
Bushings
Gap
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geometry points were designed to an accuracy of 0.01 inch, however, when it comes to
installing the suspension system on the frame, it is very difficult to maintain the
suspension points as desired in the design. In order to some what install the suspension
system close to the actual designed points, the tabs were not welded on the frame
directly, instead the tabs were attached to the control arms joints and then welded to the
frame.

The first step in locating the suspension points on the frame was setting the frame
on a flat table and the planar coordinates of the points were inscribed on the table. The
vertical location of the points was determined by using a threaded rod that is mounted on
a square block. The height can be located in the threaded rod by threading a nut on the
rod and then adjusting the height of the nut to match that of the desired suspension point.
Once the height is located using the nut, the threaded rod can now be moved on the flat
table where the planar coordinates of the suspension points are scribed. It is very
important to keep in mind that the suspension points obtained from ADAMS/Car
represent the center of the joints between the frame and the control arm and hence thus
clearance distance between the frame and the control arms had to be taken into
consideration. The approximate location of the suspension points is then marked on the
frame.

The installation of the front suspension system was done by first tack welding the
tabs for the lower control arm to the frame. The tabs for the upper control arms were tack
welded by first using a fixture as shown in the figure below to maintain the suspension
point geometry. The fixture shown in the figure consists of two magnetic base poles that
were used to attach a shaft to act as the upper control arm pivot point.

Figure 77: Front control assembly

The rear suspension system was assembled differently than the front suspension.
The control arms, upright, bushings, hiem joints and tabs were all assembled together
before attaching the rear suspension to the frame. The suspension points were then
located on the frame using a similar procedure to that used in the front. Small spacers and
the magnetic base poles where used to fix the entire suspension assembly to the frame
while it was being welded. The figure below shows the rear suspension assembly being
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welded to the frame:

Figure 78: Rear control assembly

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10) Shocks (Dampers & Springs)
10.1) Chosen shocks

The suspension shocks are one of the first things that need to be determined
because the suspension geometry is dependent on them. The motion ratio needs to be
determined such that the desired wheel travel will not bottom out the shocks. So if the
total designed wheel travel is 10in and the maximum shock travel is 6in, than the motion
ratio is limited to 0.6 (this was the case for when the suspension was designed in 2007).
Therefore, it is important that the suspension shocks are chosen early so that the correct
motion ratio is designed into the suspension system.

It was decided to use the suspension shocks (Elka Suspensions coil over shock
suspension shock) which were purchased in 2005 on our vehicle because of money
constraints at the beginning of the project (Figure 79: Elka Suspensions coil over shock).

Figure 79: Elka Suspensions coil over shock

These shocks were chosen because they have adjustable damping in both rebound and
compression; they have a progressive spring rate; and they have adjustable pre load. It is
to be noted that if it was not for cost constraints the same Elka Suspension shocks would
have been chosen, but they have been chosen with the reservoirs directly connected to the
shock and not with remote reservoirs and with a greater amount of shock travel. A
greater amount of shock travel would have been more desired because it would have
allowed the shock to be moved closer to the wheel in the rear and in the front thus
allowing the bending moment to decrease on the control arms, thus improving their
strength. It was also desired to have a greater shock travel because then the motion ratio
can increase which permits less amount of force to be transferred to the vehicle body thus
permitting a better ride. The Elka Suspensions coil over shock will also permit the
springs to be changed which allowed us to choose the appropriate springs to give us a
desired spring rate.

It is to be noted that in the past (before 2005) the University of Windsor Baja
teams used Billstein suspension shocks. These suspension shocks are designed for the
particular vehicle; the damping coefficient of the shocks is chosen based on the
dimensions of the suspension system and vehicle, it is not adjustable. It was more
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desired to go with the Elka Suspensions coil over shock suspension shocks because
theses shocks have adjustable damping which allows the damping of the suspension
system to be tuned through vehicle testing which is the more desired route to take. The
springs on the Elka Suspension coil over shocks suspension shocks are much narrower in
diameter (about half the diameter) which is more desired for clearance problems between
the upper control arm and the shock. It will be easier to design the upper control arm
around a narrower shock.
10.2) Adjustable Damping

The Elka Suspensions coil over shock suspension shocks have adjustable damping
in both rebound and compression. This is a desired feature because it allows the damping
of the suspension system to be tuned for optimum performance through vehicle testing.
The compression damping is adjusted by turning the knob on the remote reservoir, and
the rebound damping is adjusted by turning the knob at the bottom of the shock (Figure
80: Rebound and compression damping adjustment).

Figure 80: Rebound and compression damping adjustment
The compression knob is used to adjust the hydraulic resistance of the shock to high
speed impacts. The compression knob can be set to full hard or full soft or dome where
in between; there are 30 clicks of adjustment between full soft or full hard. A full hard
compression setting will provide a better resistance to impacts, but the ride will be stiffer.
A full soft setting will provide a smooth ride, but there will be less resistance to impacts.
The rebound knob can be set to full fast or full slow. The rebound adjustment is what
determines the speed at which the shock will return to its initial state after it is being
compressed from an impact; it determines the kickback of the suspension system. A
correct rebound adjustment would imply that the rear wheels will keep the maximum
traction of the vehicle by keeping the wheels on the ground without inducing any
kickback to the vehicle; without launching the driver from the vehicle. There are 50
clicks of rebound adjustment between full soft and full hard. With a full fast position the
shock will return to its initial position very fast, and the effect is that the rear of the
Compression
damping
Rebound damping
adjustment
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vehicle will kick and move from side to side after hitting a series of bumps. In this
situation the driver will as if he/she is being launched from the car. With a full slow
position the shock will return to its initial position very slow, and the effect is that the
suspension shock will not have time to return to its initial position when a series of
bumps is encountered. In this case the shock will run out of suspension travel and may
bottom out. It is not recommended that the rebound position be set to full soft or full
hard.

The compression and rebound settings that best suit the vehicle need to be
determined through vehicle testing. There are 30 clicks of compression adjustment and
50 clicks of rebound adjustment, so where did we start; what values were they set at the
beginning of testing? The initial values of the compression and rebound settings were set
to be equal to the values used by the 2006 team. The settings were then changed in order
to optimize the performance of the vehicle by testing the vehicle through a various
amount of tests. The compression and rebound settings were first adjusted as the
acceleration and braking of the vehicle were tested. The reason for this was because the
vehicle needs to be tested in gradual steps. If the settings are not properly set or there
was a mistake in the calculations for the appropriate spring rates then the vehicle should
not jump over jumps because this is where major damage can occur. Thus, the vehicle
was first tested in braking and acceleration and the jounce and rebound of the suspension
were verified. If the spring rates were not chosen properly the pitch of the vehicle will be
noticeable as the vehicle is accelerating or braking. The estimated pitch of the vehicle
was determined from the analysis performed on the vehicle in CarSim, and this value was
used to verify if the suspension compression or extension was too much while the vehicle
was accelerating or braking. The compression and rebound settings were also adjusted
while testing the acceleration and braking performance of the vehicle. The performance
of the vehicle was then evaluated as the vehicle drove over a series of bumps, and the
compression and extension of the shocks were verified. The rebound setting was also
changed in order to eliminate the kickback of the vehicle and to eliminate the shock from
bottoming out. The final test performed on the vehicle in order to tune the suspension
was a jump performance of the vehicle, and the compression damping was adjusted in
order to ensure that the suspension shocks had enough impact resistance set into them.
Once the compression damping was set, the rebound damping was set in order to ensure
that the vehicle did not kickback after hitting the jump.

10.3) Progressive spring rates

The Elka coil over shock suspension shocks have a progressive spring rate. This
implies that more the springs are compressed the stiffer they become. A progressive
spring rate is obtained by stacking several springs in series. With the Elka suspension
coil over shocks there are three auxiliary springs and one main spring. The main spring
is at the bottom and the auxiliary springs are stacked on top it. The main spring will not
start to compress until the auxiliary springs are compressed. There is a crossover
between each of the springs when they are assembled on the suspension shock (Figure
81: Suspension springs with the crossovers). Each crossover has a longer side and a
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softer side, and the manner in which they are placed in the shock play a role in depicting
the spring progression. If all of the crossovers are placed in the shock in a manner that
the larger portion (longer sides) of the crossover is facing up (as depicted in the figure),
then the effect is to increase the spring progression. The crossovers are what determines
how much the auxiliary springs will compress, thus the effect of putting the longer sides
facing up is to cancel out the active stroke of the auxiliary springs sooner when the shock
is in compression. If all the crossovers are placed in the shock in a manner where the
shorter sides face up than the effect is to reduce the progression of the springs, and the
rate decreases.

Figure 81: Suspension springs with the crossovers
This leads to a softer ride, but the suspension will be more susceptible to bottoming out.
The positions of the crossovers were changed while testing the vehicle and the optimum
position was found through vehicle testing. The positions of the crossovers were chosen
to allow for a soft ride, but to ensure that the suspension shocks do not bottom out more
than once around the track.

The 2006 shocks were tested on a test rig to determine the progression of the
springs and to determine the effect of the position of the crossovers. The following is the
results for when the longer side of the crossovers are all facing up and for when the
shorter side of the crossovers are all facing up for the front suspension of the 2006
vehicle (Figure 82: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with longer sides of
collars facing up) (Figure 83: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with shorter
sides of collars facing up). It can be seen from the results that the springs are indeed
progressive springs and that by placing the crossovers in the shock with the longer side
facing up does indeed lead to a higher spring rate. These curves were used to predict the
load verses displacement curve of the 2007 shocks which were inputted into the CarSim
model and ADAMS/Car models.

It is recommended that a new set of suspension shocks with a greater shock travel
be chosen for next year if there are funds to do so. If there are money constraints as there
was in 2007, and the Elka Suspension coil over shock suspension shocks are re used on
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the vehicle than it is advised that the shocks get sent back to Elka Suspension to get re
valved. Further information regarding the suspension shocks can be found in Appendix
L.

Load vs. Position
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
-50 0 50 100 150 200
Position (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
N
)

Figure 82: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with longer sides of collars facing up

Load vs. Position
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 50 100 150 200
Position (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
N
)

Figure 83: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with shorter sides of collars facing up
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11) Hubs & Uprights
11.1) Background & Research

Front uprights were selected for their robust structure, lightweight design and
optimal outer suspension points. The design utilized is that of the 2006 Polaris Outlaw
500 ATV. Stock OEM front and rear hubs were selected from Polariss 2006 Outlaw 500
and Predator ATV models respectively.

The rear suspension uprights were designed with goals of reducing size and
weight, increasing strength and ease of manufacturing. Polariss 2006 Outlaw 500 ATV
setup was modified to accommodate the rear control arms while maintaining consistent
suspension points to promote interchangeability. A casting method was investigated but
turned down mainly due to material availability and strength. After thorough
investigation, a CNC process was implemented.

11.2) Concepts & Brainstorming

Aside from the rear uprights, OEM Polaris parts were used. With that said, the
topic of discussion will be primarily centered on the rear upright design. The machining
method used was selected from a number of possible options listed below:
1. Machine from a piece of stock billet Aluminum (It may be expensive to do
manually as a production part, but if this part were to be put into production a CNC
program would be written and it would be much less expensive) This process would be
stronger than the OEM Polaris part which is the case for the following 3 process
options, since the original part is die cast Aluminum.
2. Green Sand mold (Aluminum Sand casting) - A process by which we use the
part and have to literally pound "green sand" around each half of the part for Aluminum
to be poured into. Only final machining is required which results in minimal wasted
material.
3. Monoshell Casting (recommended) - This is where we would roughly replicate
the part by carving a shape with wax. The oversized shape is then dipped into plaster of
Paris then sand about 3 times. Once the layers are hard, the wax is melted out (through a
small hole drilled into it) then immediately, Aluminum is poured. This process implies a
self-tempering process as well. The shell is then broken off and final machining is
employed.
4. Machined from steel - Producing it with steel would not be smart since it is too
heavy for our purpose. If steel were to be used, the stock piece of steel and machining
would cost nearly the same as Aluminum, but a harder machining process and heavier
result. If the uprights were constructed using separate steel parts, bolts should not be
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used as a fastening method, welding would be optimal. For such a thick part, major edge
preparation and groove cutting would be required. In addition, TIG welding must be
used (skilled trade). Basically, making it out of sections and welding would cost as much
as machining it, since there is so much time spent manually prepping edges and TIG
welding. To the added cost you must add weight, so now what you have is a part that
would cost nearly the same as machining the block of Aluminum, but heavier.
Monoshell casting was seriously considered at Nemak but was rejected for the
following reasons:
The rear upright is made from A356 Al with a T6 temper. An A356 alloy has
superior properties when compared to A319 (the alloy used to produce the engine
blocks). The A319 should not be used for suspension components without again,
significantly altering the part.
A hand poured casting is a very risky process, especially when being performed
by an inexperienced pourer. This is a risk that could jeopardize the teams
performance in the endurance race (the most heavily weighted portion of this
competition).
If testing (destructive and non-destructive) is to be performed on the finished part,
there will not be sufficient time to arrange this once we finally have a finished
part. Fixturing must be made as well as arrangements and machine time at the
testing facility.
Through speaking to a member of the 2006 U of W casting team, it was explained
that this process took 2 years to perfect one part. Seeing as a dissimilar part is to
be produced, time becomes a major issue

Several design iterations were considered before finalizing the current structure.
This evolution is shown in Appendix I

11.3) CATIA Modeling

Catia V5 was used extensively to arrive at the final design of the rear upright.
After a specific design was developed it was then validated using Catias FEA package.
Not only was the part simulated as an individual piece, but also it was thoroughly tested
as an assembly with the remaining rear suspension parts. A final model is shown below
in (Figure 84: Final Catia model).

Figure 84: Final Catia model
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11.4) FEA

The rear uprights structure exhibits several important design considerations that
were used to help strengthen the part, add minimal weight and best accommodate the
control arms. Such features include re-enforced webbing to support both upper and lower
rear control arms; added underlying surface structure that proved to increase strength
with an insignificant addition of weight; a slightly decreased overall width to fit the
control arm assembly. The finalized design geometry was kept very simplistic as to
minimize CNC machining time.

An assembly FEA of the rear suspension assembly is shown below in (Figure 85: Rear
Assembly FEA).

Figure 85: Rear Assembly FEA
11.5) Materials & Manufacturing Procedure Used

A more robust structure was possible using a CNC process and 6061-T6
Aluminum for its high strength to weight ratio and high modulus of toughness. Although
a greater cost of manufacturing resulted, the advantage of increased strength and weight
reduction highly outweighed this downfall. This design offered a 25% reduction in
weight when compared to the lightest used in previous years.

The finalized design geometry was kept very simplistic as to minimize CNC
machining time. This was accomplished by limiting complexity which results in
reducing the number of required tooling changes. This in turn reduced overall time for
part production and thus cost.
11.6) Finished Product
11.6.1) Testing

Testing of the OEM parts was not performed since they were approved for
production at Polaris Industries. We felt this was enough proof that the parts will hold up
for Baja SAE since ATVs are designed for much more rigorous activities.

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Since the rear upright is a rather robust part, testing was implemented using only
FEA. It was determined that parts like tabs for instance would fail long before this part.
Considering the process used to manufacture this part, the structure is far stronger than
the part this one is based upon (cast OEM Polaris).

Other testing methods that were considered and recommended include
tensile/compressive and fatigue. Tensile/compression tests can easily be performed using
an Instron machine with the appropriate fixturing. This type of set-up was planned but
omitted due to timing and priority (Figure 86: Proposed test setup).

Figure 86: Proposed test setup
It was recommended by Polaris to do fatigue testing as an assembly. This is how
they test the parts at their facility. A fixture that tests the fatigue properties of the
assembly supports a full quarter of the vehicles suspension. This also gives a good idea
of how the part functions as an assembly with all the appropriate bearings and accessories
fitted and to provide the most realistic test of the part.
11.7) Recommendations for Improvements

The front hubs, uprights and rear hubs were merely selected and therefore no
actual design was required of these parts. The rear uprights although required extensive
analysis and were developed from scratch.

It is suggested that a more cost effective method is used to produce these parts, as
CNC is a very expensive route. Especially when considering this project as having
potential for mass production, a casting method or one of similar cost should be
implemented.
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12) Tires and Rims
12.1) Background and Research

The tires and rims were researched to give the best combination of tread pattern
and low unsprung mass for competing purposes. Rims needed to be lightweight and
ductile to resist cracking if disturbed during the competition. Tires needed to be selected
to give the best off-road endurance possible. Inexpensive tires and rims would assist with
our cost report.
Table 12: 2003 Testing Data
Wheel/Tire Calculations
Tire
size
upr/btm

tire
height
Centerline

X
factor
Y
factor
wheel
width
OFFSET
(from center)
18 8.3 4 12.3 2.794 1.517 5 1.517
19 8.3 4.5 12.8 2.908 1.403 5 1.403
20 8.3 5 13.3 3.022 1.289 5 1.289
21 8.3 5.5 13.8 3.135 1.176 5 1.176
22 8.3 6 14.3 3.249 1.062 5 1.062
23 8.3 6.5 14.8 3.362 0.949 5 0.949

Fast Trekker tires were selected based on this test data (completed in 2004). Just
prior to the competition, we were interested in Dunlop tires based on the tread pattern
observed from one tire we obtained. So, three more tires were ordered to give the vehicle
a full set and the vehicle was tested with these four tires. The Dunlop tires prove to give
better cornering performance, a more responsive ride and gave a faster vehicle speed.
Therefore it was decided to use these tires at competition.
12.2) Concepts and Brainstorming

The tire provides three main functions:
1. It supports the weight of the vehicle, while cushioning against shocks/bumps in
the road.
2. It develops longitudinal forces for acceleration and braking.
3. It develops lateral forces for braking.
The design of a tire is very complex and non-linear, difficult to model. Tread pattern for
the best support of off-road driving was desired, so we chose radial-ply style tires. The
tread pattern is shown below (Figure 87: Tire internal cord scenarios)

Specifications of the 2007 tires are P21-7-10. The manufacturer is Dunlop and the max.
Pressure is 36 psi.
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Figure 87: Tire internal cord scenarios

Under acceleration and braking, there is more slippage than normal because of the
rubber deforming to overcome changing friction forces, due to the changing distribution
of the normal forces.

Figure 88 Tire contact patch reactions
Upon cornering, the tires experience shear forces acting on the contact patch in
contact with the ground. The distribution of the forces is asymmetric, so the tire patch in
contact with the terrain is under elastic deformation while cornering due to the lateral
forces. The net lateral force induces a self-aligning moment about the tire vertical axis so
that the moment applied by the steering rack on the tire is balanced.
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Figure 89 Contact patch aligning moment

Tire stiffness is modeled as a series of springs. They are located at the surface of
the tires that are in contact with the ground. Smaller slip angles induce smaller lateral
forces during cornering, so understeering is desired whenever possible.

Tires are essentially modeled as pressure vessels, with the internal forces caused
by the air pressure inside the tire tubes.

Figure 90 Internal Pressure Model

As the tire provides traction force by gripping the road, it must slip relative to the
road. Behavior is evident by the following graph (Figure 91 Lateral force, traction force
affect on slip %).

Figure 91 Lateral force, traction force affect on slip %
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Slip angle is defined according to the following behavior for different slip angles.
Theoretically it is the angle during cornering between the tires direction of heading and
the tires direction of travel.

Figure 92 Aligning moment for vertical loads and slip angles

At low slip angles, lateral force is linearly related to the slip angle.

F
y
= C
*
, C

is the cornering stiffness

The magnitude of the cornering stiffness is dependant on a list of parameters:
1. Tire size, type
2. Number of cords in tire
3. Cord angles (radial, bias-ply type dependant)
4. Wheel width
5. Tread
6. Load inflation pressure
Vehicle cornering speed is irrelevant. Larger tires have greater cornering
stiffnesses for a specified loading. They also have higher load capacity than smaller tires.
For tires with the same diameters but greater widths than normal tires carcass stiffnesses
(in the interior cords of the tire) will be higher than normal, so cornering stiffness will
also be higher.

Aligning moment is dependant on the size of the contact patch and the growth of
the slip region. Shear stress and torque responsible for aligning moment are dependant
on the distance from the centerline of the contact patch and the tire centre. So, the mean
contributors to the aligning moment are the tread elements edge of the contact patch. At
greater slip angles, the aligning moment decreases.

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Figure 93 Lateral forces for brake forces at different slip angles
This plot shows the general effect on lateral force when braking is applied for
different slip angles. As the driver hits the brake pedal, the net lateral force decreases due
to the increase in the tire, induced by the braking demand. Knowing that the friction limit
for a tire is defined by the dynamic coefficient of friction multiplied by the load, it is
evident that the friction can be increased for a lateral force, a braking force or a
combination of both. However, the vector sum of the two must not exceed the friction
limit defined by the plot. Therefore, the limit is defined as a friction circle in the plane of
longitudinal and lateral forces.

Figure 94 Lateral forces and aligning moments for different traction forces

Using zero traction force as a reference, it is clear that when lateral forces are
applied the aligning moment decreases. So, applying a braking force tends to stiffen the
tires with respect to the mechanism that generates lateral force. The reduction of aligning
moment implies a reduction in the net lateral force acting on the contact patch, because of
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the decrease in shear stresses at the contact patch. High sensitivity to the vertical load is
evident in the plots. The sensitivity is due to the moments influence by the size of the
contact patch. Doubling the load doubles the size of the contact patch, where aligning
moment is most affected (at extremities of the contact patch). So, the aligning moment
increases gradually as shown in the graph with increasing vertical load (traction force
increase induces vertical load increase).

When the vehicle is operated under combined braking and cornering, the
longitudinal and lateral forces change from their independent behaviours drastically.
Longitudinal slip generally decreases the lateral force for a given slip angle. An increase
in slip angle reduces the longitudinal force developed for a certain braking condition.

As traction forces are applied towards their maximum value, lateral force
decreases because the friction approaches its limits. As well, the aligning moment
decreases to the point where it may even be negative towards the braking limit. Negative
aligning moment tends to steer the wheels to a greater slip angle, as well as affect the
stability in braking through the steering system.

For a positive normal traction force the lateral force decreases slightly and the
aligning moment increases drastically. Near the maximum braking force, both lateral
force and aligning moment decrease. However, the aligning moment never becomes
negative for the maximum driving force.

In regards to vehicle performance, braking during a steady turn causes the tires to
slip and the lateral forces to decrease. This alters the path of the vehicle while braking.
Also, when steering is applied during braking, the vehicle will have lower steering and
braking performance compared to the results when applied independently. The minimum
decrease in braking performance occurs while cornering with a lateral acceleration of
0.3g. As the maximum braking force is approached, the vehicle response can be
degraded to the point of total loss of control. The description of the control loss depends
on the order in which the front and rear tires approach the wheel-lock condition. Front-
wheel lockup will make the vehicle unsteerable while rear-wheel lockup will induce spin-
out motion.

For ideal tires, lateral force is zero for zero slip angle. In reality, this is not the
case. At small slip angles, real tires show the above behavior for forward and reverse
gear selections. The lateral force behaves differently for forward and reverse drives, and
usually has a nonzero value at = 0. This is the result of the cords in the radial-ply tires
for the BAJA vehicle, due to the angles of these cords in the belt layers. To avoid this
imbalance in forces, belts are made with alternating belt layers at opposite angles.
However, perfectly balancing the cords is impossible. So, a free-rolling tire will not
travel in a straight line, but will travel in a skewed line with respect to its center plane.
As well, when rolling forward, if the tire experiences a force to the right, it will
experience a force to the right when it rolls in the opposite direction due to the cords.
Thus, when tire lateral force is measured with zero slip angle, the result is the force
averaged from both directions of travel. Ply-steer is dependant on the vertical reaction of
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the tire.

Figure 95 Vertical and longitudinal reactions for tire roll over a bump

Reactions plotted above show that as the tire collides with the leading edge of the
bump, the vertical force starts to rise due to the vertical displacement of the tire. The
force continues to rise until the tire completely rolls out of the depression. A longitudinal
force is also generated due to the suspension control arms providing the pulling force
required for the tire to rise up onto the bump. Thus, the tire will have a reaction. Once
on the bump, the vertical force increases so the rolling resistance increases. The
longitudinal force decreases and will not return to its original value but will rise again
when the control arms balance to adjust to a new height to balance the vertical forces.

During vehicle operation, the tire also acts as a vibration absorber, smoothing out
the roughness in the terrain. This influences the vertical motion of the body and wheels.
So, vibration analysis needed to be considered. The tire has a natural frequency in which
it will resonate, affecting the transmission of vibrations to the vehicle frame. This may
also cause vehicle frame resonance. A large amount of tire mass is concentrated at the
treads. These treads connect to the tires by sidewalls which are compatible with treads.
This compatibility allows the treads to resonate when excited by road inputs. Vibration
modes and corresponding tire behaviors are shown here.

Figure 96 Tire natural frequency vibration modes
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The first mode involves a simple vertical disturbance without distortions. It is
easily excited with vertical forces in the contact patch at a certain frequency. The motion
is vertical, so it is transmitted to the wheel and suspension control arms.

The second mode shows an elliptical vibration such that the oscillation is
symmetrical about the horizontal and vertical axes. The top and bottom of the tire are
always moving out of phase such that there is no disturbance to the wheel. Vertical loads
at the control patch are generally absorbed by the tire avoiding their transmission to the
wheel and suspension control arms. Similarly, the third and higher modes are effective in
avoiding transmission of vibrations to the wheel and control arms, and have similar
elliptical vibrations except with more axes of symmetry. In-between these modal
resonant frequencies the tire does not resonate. There are no axes of symmetry for
vibration isolation. This asymmetry results in net forces that are imposed around the
circumference of the wheel, with the net force affecting the motion of the wheel. The
contact patch is stationary, so the tire is a very stiff element for all vertical forces acting
on it at these frequencies. The natural frequencies of the tires and the frame respectively
were = 10 Hz for wheel hop, = 1 Hz for body motion. Damping in the tire was very
small relative to the damping in the suspension (shocks), so tire cornering stiffness was
usually negligible for vibration frequency calculations. For the entire suspension system,
compression damping was usually less than rebound damping. So, there is little
difference between damped and undamped natural frequencies.

Rolling loss factor determines how much of the wheel radius is subtracted from
the original to obtain the effective radius. This is the slope of the angular speed and the
speed of the vehicle relationship. V = *Re

Figure 97 Rolling loss factor graph

An appropriate rim offset for the tires was needed for proper track width. For
example, if a 5 rim had its centreface 1 from one outer surface, 4 from the inner
surface, the track width (distance between centerlines of tires) would be greater for the
outer surface pointing away from the vehicle, and vice-versa. The track width affects the
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scrub (distance the tire displaces when the vertical load is placed on the frame.

Tires needed to have the best tread pattern possible for off-road driving. Material
selected was required to be low weight for rotation support purposes. Specifically,
centrifugal forces are applied to the rims more than the actual tire when the tires are
rolling. Stresses would result from these forces, so the material would also need to be
tough enough to tolerate this while still being low weight. Tire tubes were used for the
purpose of preventing leaks if the rims were disturbed during the competition.

The rim width was selected for compatibility with our 7 tires, so we selected 5
thick rims to give a 1 offset from the face of each tire. The surface where our hubs were
bolted to inside the rim is 1 from one outer surface and 4 from the other surface. So,
the track width is adjustable depending on which side of the rim you want to face away
from the vehicle. The rims that we found at the shop in the CARE centre that we utilized
are made of aluminum. Rim type is TIP.

Rims were modeled in CATIA for comparison purposes.

Figure 98 CATIA Model of Rim
12.4) Additional Analysis

Full assemblies of rims, hubs, uprights, and control arms were made for the rear
suspension.

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Figure 99 CATIA Model of Rear Suspension Assembly
12.5) Materials and Manufacturing Procedures Used

Material selected for the rims was aluminum, for lightweight and ductility
purposes. If our rims were disturbed during the competition, the aluminum would just
dent, where a brittle material would crack. This crack would propagate across the rim
face and the vehicle would no longer be operable. Tire material was the natural material
of all tires i.e. rubber.

12.6.1) Product Assembly and Maintenance

Rims and tires were put together by first deflating the tire if necessary and sliding
the rims into the tire using a lever tool to ply the tire side surfaces up to provide enough
clearance for the rim to enter the tire body. This was taken care of by Bruce Durfy,
technician at the CARE Centre at the University of Windsor. Tubes were inserted into
the tire for the purpose of easier filling and to prevent leakage during the competition.
12.6.2) Testing

Tires and rims were tested many times prior to competition by driving the vehicle
on the CARE Centre parking lot, the once open-dirt field across the street from the CARE
Centre, Dylan Langloiss off-road course in Kingsville. Cornering stiffnesses were
calculated for each tire for turning the vehicle around a corner at a certain slip angle.
Scrub was measured by weight being applied to the rear and front parts of the vehicle.
This is the distance the tires displace laterally when the frame is loaded enough (eg. when
the vehicle land from a high jump). Tire pressures were adjusted for each of the dynamic
events at the competition for optimal vehicle performance. The following table illustrates
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our optimal pressure readings for each event.

Table 13: Tire Pressure
Event Name Front Tire Pressure [psi] Rear Tire Pressure [psi]
Suspension & Traction 15 5
Maneuverability 8 4
Hill Climb 16 4
Acceleration 8 4
Endurance 8 4

The logic behind our tire pressures is behind the off-road conditions of each
event. For Suspension and Traction, the front tire pressure is set at 15psi giving a
differential of 10 psi with the rear tire pressure to give maximum traction in the front for
steep hill climbs while not dragging the vehicle down in the rear. For maneuverability,
the same effect is desired without as steep hills. Likewise, Hill Climb requires the most
traction with a front pressure of 16psi and a differential of 11 psi with the rear.
Acceleration pressures were set at 8psi for the front, 4psi in the rear for stability upon
achieving high vehicle acceleration. Endurance was a four hour race with many steep
hills, so the tires needed to last with good uphill climb capabilities, so a front tire pressure
of 8psi with a rear tire pressure of 4psi was selected. As well, at low tire pressures the
shock should be adjusted so that minimum threads are showing to give minimum preload.
This is to minimize the already large contact patch causing traction with the road, giving
the shocks some control over the ride quality. So, powertrain has the most influence over
the tires rather than the suspension system. Likewise, at high tire pressures the shock
should be adjusted so that the maximum number of threads are showing for maximum
preload. This is to maximize the tire contact patch with the ground, to give the tires an
adequate amount of control of the ride quality since they are such a high pressure that
they are basically solid, having little control over the traction with the terrain. So,
without this preload the powertrain system has all the control over the tire ride, so there is
not as much shock absorption by the shock and strut systems as compared with low
pressures.
12.7) Recommendations for Improvement

During the second trial of the suspension and traction event, the tires hit a rock
and the vehicle was pulled from the event. An alternate tread pattern is a possibility for
improving the tire durability in these situations. Rims were adequate in resisting fatigue
failure for the four hour endurance race. They resisted fracture for the four other
dynamic events as well.

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13) Suspension tuning and testing
13.1) Suspension kinematics adjustment and measurement

Suspension tuning and testing is extremely important and is a key to optimization
of the vehicle performance in all aspects. The first step in tuning the suspension of the
2007 vehicle was to adjust the suspension geometry to the designed conditions. It is
merely impossible to fabricate and assemble the suspension to the exact designed static
suspension kinematic parameters (toe, camber, and caster static angles). Thus, there was
adjustability designed into the suspension system in order to adjust the static kinematic
parameters to the designed values. The front suspension has the option of adjusting the
toe, caster and camber angles, and the rear suspension has the option adjusting the toe
and camber angles. The following is a discussion of how these angles were measured on
the vehicle.

The caster angle was measured only in the front because it can only be adjusted in
the front and because it is one of the most important parameters in the front suspension.
The reason for this is it effects the aligning moment, and it is absolutely necessary that
the aligning moment is positive. The caster angle was measured with just the upright
connected to the control arms. The frame was positioned at the proper ride height (the
ride height that would be obtained if the driver was in the vehicle). A belt was used to
compress the shock on the measurement side of the vehicle so that the shock compresses
to its static amount. The upright was rotated about the kingpin axis, so that the ball joints
can be assessed. A square was positioned on the ground and close to the ball joints. A
string was positioned in the middle of the ball joint on the upper control arm and was
tightened to the ball joint of the lower control arm. Two longitudinal distances were
measured between the square and the string (distances were measured between the two
ball joints) (L
1
and L
2
) and the length in the vertical direction between the longitudinal
measurements was measured (L
3
). These distances can be used to measure the caster
angle (Equation 32: Caster angle from measurements) (Figure 100: Caster angle
measurement).

=

3
1 2 1
tan
L
L L

Equation 32: Caster angle from measurements
If the caster angle is measured and is not equal to or close to the desired value, than the
bushing size of the upper control arms needs to be changed in order to change the caster
angle, and the measurement process needs to be repeated.

The toe angle was measured in the front and in the rear of one side of the vehicle
simultaneously (with one setup). The toe angle measurement should be performed when
the vehicle is at its static position; therefore the static ride height of the vehicle was set.
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Figure 100: Caster angle measurement
The angle was measured using two jack stands, a rope, and a measuring device (tape
measure or vernier caliper). The rope was wrapped around one jack stand and then
pulled tight and wrapped around the second jack stand. The two jack stands with the
rope tight between them was pushed close to the vehicle and the distance between the
rope and the centerline of the vehicle was measured at the front and rear of the vehicle.
The position of the two jacks with the rope tight between them was moved until the two
distances were equal to each other. The locations on the tire where measurements were
going to be taken were marked on the tire with a marker. The measurements were taken
at the middle of the tire (middle of the tire when looking at the side view of the vehicle;
the middle distance between the top and bottom of the tire) and the distance between the
center and the front and the center and the rear of the tire was marked as the same. The
distance between the rope and the marked location on the tire was measured at the front
and at the rear marked locations on the tire (L
1
and L
2
), and the distance between the two
measurements was taken (L
3
). These measurements were taken for both the front and
rear tires which allowed for the toe angle to be measured at the front and at the rear
(Equation 33: Toe angle measurement) (Figure 101: Toe angle measurement).
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=

3
2 1 1
tan
L
L L
angle toe
Equation 33: Toe angle measurement

Figure 101: Toe angle measurement
The toe angle in the front suspension was adjusted by changing the length of the tie rod
and it was adjusted by changing the heim joints in the rear. The toe angles were
measured on both sides of the vehicle. If the measured toe angle is not equal to or close
to the desired value than the static toe angle needs to be changes and the measurement
process needs to be repeated.

The camber angle was measured using a camber angle measurement tool (note
this tool belongs to Formula SAE). A flat piece of metal was placed on the tire in the
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middle of the tire when looking at the vehicle from the side view. The camber angle
measurement tool was placed on this piece of metal and the measurement was read from
the tool (Figure 102: Camber angle measurement).

Figure 102: Camber angle measurement
The camber angle for each tire was measured independently, and if the values were not
equal to or close to the desired static values than they need to be adjusted to the desired
values. The camber angle is adjusted in the front by rotating the camber adjustment
insert and is adjusted in the rear by changing the heim joints. If the measured values
were not close to the desired values than the camber angle needs to be changed and the
measurement process needs to be repeated.

The wheelbase and track width of the vehicle were measured using a tape
measure. The track width was measured by taking the distance between the inside of the
left tire and the outside of the rear tire; the opposite can also be done (Figure 103: Track
with measurement). The wheelbase was measured in a similar way as the track width.
The distance was taken by measuring the distance between the front of the front tire and
the front of the rear tire at the centerline of the vehicle. The wheelbase can also be
measured by taking the distance between the front and rear spindles.
13.2) Dynamic tuning of the suspension

The Elka Suspension coil over shock suspension shocks have adjustable damping
in rebound and compression, have an adjustable progressive spring rate, and have
adjustable pre-load. All of these parameters were adjusted in order to optimize the
performance of the vehicle in all aspects. These parameters were adjusted by performing
various dynamic tests on the vehicle. These parameters were adjusted by running
through three different dynamic tests. The first test was to test the acceleration and
braking performance of the vehicle. The second test the vehicle was driven on a course
that consisted of a series of bumps and some sharp corners. The third test the jump
performance of the vehicle was evaluated. The performance of the vehicle was evaluated
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for each of the tests and the shocks adjustments were changed in order to optimize the
performance of the vehicle.

Figure 103: Track with measurement
The compression damping is used to adjust the shocks resistance to impact and to
measure the quality of the ride. The rebound adjustment is used to determine how fast
the shock returns to its original position after it is being compressed. The rebound
damping is used to adjust the kickback of the suspension. The pre load and the position
of the crossovers will determine the effective spring rate of the shocks (the progression of
the shocks). A greater pre load and placing the crossovers such that the longer end is
facing up both lead to a greater spring rate, and thus increase the resistance of the shock
to impacts. A higher spring rate also leads to a stiffer ride (for more details about the
shocks refer to section 10). A spreadsheet was created in order to keep track of the
changes in the suspension system (Appendix J). It is a good idea to keep track of the
changes made in the suspension system because this will allow for the information to be
stored which will allow the optimum performance of the vehicle to be assessed after all
three of the tests are complete.
13.3) Problems during testing

There were a few suspension issues which arose while the vehicle was being
tested. The first issue that came about was the front portion of the rear lower control arm
bent. The exact cause of the bend was not known, however it was determined that it was
caused by impacting something, possibly a rock in the ground. It was decided to put a
protection layer on the front of the front and rear control arms in order to protect them
from impacts. The protection layer consists of a layer of PVC tubing which is covered by
a layer of rubber tubing and finally held together using shrink wrap. The rubber layer is
used to absorb some of the impact energy while the PVC tubing is used to take some of
the load and to reinforce the control arm (Figure 104: The protection layer on the control
arms). It is recommended that the protection layer be used on the lower control arms at
the front and the rear because it was an idea that was recommended by the judges. It is
also recommended that a bumper be added to the rear of the vehicle in order to protect
the rear assembly of the vehicle. The upper control arm got dented in during competition
because another car rear ended our car.

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Figure 104: The protection layer on the control arms

The second issue that came about was the bending of the rear control arm. The
vehicle was tested by running it over a big jump at the testing grounds for the Baja
vehicle (Powerband). The impacts of the jump caused the rear control to bend directly
underneath where the shock connects to the control arm (Figure 105: The bend in the
control arm).

Figure 105: The bend in the control arm
The control was bent back and a new one was created with a greater diameter and wall
thickness. The control ended up bending a second type, thus a third one was built and it
was reinforced by putting angle iron underneath the control arm (Figure 106: Angle iron
to reinforce the rear control arms). It is to be noted that it was expected that the control
arm was bending because the shock would lock up before coming close to bottoming out.
The control arm kept bending on the same side, so the expected reason is that something
is wrong with the shock that it is causing it to lock up sooner than it should. Thus, if
these shocks are re used next year than they need to be re-valved.

The third issue that occurred while testing the vehicle was the wear in the
bushings. After putting many hours on the vehicle, the bushings wore down to a point
where there was too much play in the suspension system (Figure 107: The wear in the
bushings).

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Figure 106: Angle iron to reinforce the rear control arms

Figure 107: The wear in the bushings
This issue was resolved by changing the bushings to oil impregnated bronze. This
material is more resistance to wear and has an oil impregnated into it which allows
lubrication to be present even after the material starts to wear. The lower control
bushings in the font and all of the bushings in the rear were changed to the oil
impregnated bronze bushings.

The fourth issue that arose was an outside bearing on the front suspension
exploded. The front suspension was originally assembled with the original Polaris
bearings. These bearings are cheaply made and are not strong enough to support the
loads seen by the vehicle. One of the outside bearings was disassembled and there was a
minimum amount of balls in the bearing which is not good. Therefore, it was decided to
go with Timken tapered needle roller bearings for the inside and outside front suspension
bearings (Figure 108: Timken tapered needle roller bearings). These bearings were
assembled into the wheel hub and were tested through several tests and at competition
and proved themselves as they did not break or explode. Thus, it is highly recommended
that these bearings be used on next years vehicle.

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Figure 108: Timken tapered needle roller bearings

The final suspension issue that arose during testing was that a heim joint seized.
This caused an additional load on the suspension system and could lead to failures. This
could also be one of the reasons why the rear control arm bent. This issue was overcome
by greasing the heim joints before each test. Thus it is recommended that all of the heim
joints equipped on the vehicle are equipped with a grease nipple, thus permitting them to
be greased on a per test basis.

It is very important to have time to test the car. There are five major issues that
occurred to the suspension system while the vehicle was being tested and they would
have not been spotted if it wasnt for vehicle testing and poor results could have arose
from this. Thus, it is recommended that the vehicle should be done 2 months before
competition permitting time for vehicle testing.
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14) Strain gage testing

It was decided to complete strain gauge testing on the car since the control arms
showed significant damage after testing the completed vehicle. Also, during the design
portion of the competition, judges placed a lot of emphasis on strain gauge testing the
vehicle; the judges were very impressed by teams who completed this task. Before the
testing commenced, research was completed to make sure that the project could
accurately be accomplished. Rob Rieveley provided excellent insight on strain gauging
and had many comments and suggestions regarding the topic. After numerous meetings
with Rob, it was decided to strain gauge one quarter of the car (symmetry may be
applied) but a lot of background work had to be completed before actually applying
gauges to the car.

Many documents were read prior to physically completing the task regarding how
to apply gauges, different types of circuits, temperature compensations and so on to
become familiar with the concept of strain gauging. A lot of useful information can be
found in Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements 4
th
edition by
Figliola/Beasley as well as on the internet. Please refer to
</home/ends/uwbaja/2007/Strain Gage Testing> on the Baja drive for relevant
information regarding strain gauging.

An earlier test was carried out by performing static tests using a control arm from
the 2004 Baja car which yielded less than satisfactory results. The objective was to
correlate between actual and theoretical results using Catias FEA package. Much
knowledge was gained by working alongside Pat Seguin, Engineering Technologist and
Lucian Pop, Civil Engineering Technician. It was then realized that a much simpler test
had to be performed to better understand the strain gauging concept.


A fixture was constructed from 4130 steel to support the 2004 control arm during
the static test. The orientation of this test setup is further elaborated in the FEA
subsection below.

Testing on a steel specimen was completed prior to testing on the actual car. This
was completed to learn how to apply gauges and to learn all the necessary concepts and
procedures needed to fully understand basic strain gauging operations. The steel
specimen was constructed out of the same material as the control arms and had a box tube
attached to one end as shown below in Figure 109: Strain gauge testing specimen.

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Figure 109: Strain gauge testing specimen
Before the strain gauges were mounted to the specimen, it was cleaned and
polished using a fine sand paper. Pat Seguin was contacted for help in applying the
gauges. He went through the necessary steps and procedures needed to successfully
apply a strain gauge. Gauges were mounted on the top and bottom of the specimen. Two
gauges were needed to account for temperature change in the specimen during testing and
also, in this set up, the gauges could detect tension and compression.

The box tube was used to securely attach the specimen to the fixtures used for
testing. Axial and bending tests were completed on the specimen. For the bending test,
the specimen was clamped horizontally to the side of a metal fixture and weights were
attached to the end of the specimen as illustrated in Figure 110: Bending of test specimen.
For the axial test, the specimen was clamped vertically to the top of a truss and weights
were attached to the end of the specimen as illustrated in Figure 111: Axial test on
specimen. The tests were conducted in the Structures Lab in Essex Hall under the
supervision of Pat Seguin. The data obtained from the tests were compared to the data
obtained from the Catia model to quantify the results. Fully understanding the data
acquired from the strain gauge experiment is the key to being successful when
implementing strain gauges on the Baja car.

Figure 110: Bending of test specimen
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Figure 111: Axial test on specimen

The specimen was modeled in Catia with the correct dimensions and material
properties applied. The Catia model of the test specimen is illustrated inFigure 112:
Specimen modeled in Catia, while the control arm Catia model is illustrated in Figure
113 : 2004 lower control arm model.

Figure 112: Specimen modeled in Catia

Figure 113 : 2004 lower control arm model
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14.4) FEA

Data acquired from the static strain gauge test was used to calculate the Von
Mises stresses. This was used for comparison with the stresses calculated using Catia
FEA technology. The FEA for a 500 lb loading is shown in Figure 114 - 2004 lower
control arm FEA for 500 lb loading. The maximum stress was found at the bottom of the
control arm just above the clamped cylinders, which are shown in the figure. Percentage
errors were calculated with Microsoft Excel 2003 formula option.

Figure 114 - 2004 lower control arm FEA for 500 lb loading

An FEA analysis was completed using Catia to simulate the testing performed in the
Structures Lab. The results from the FEA quantified the results obtained from the static
testing with a reasonable 6.8% error that may have been a result of several factors. These
include exact material properties, gauge mounting (adhesive), precise dimensions and
equipment inaccuracy. Two separate analyses were conducted as described below.

1) Cantilever FEA simulation of the specimen.

Figure 115 - Cantilever FEA simulation

The above image illustrates the Von Misses stresses (left) and displacement (right) of the
specimen in the cantilever set up. It was found that the highest Von Misses stresses
occurred where the shaft attached to the box beam and the largest deflection occurred at
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the end of the shaft. These results were very similar to the actual results found from the
strain gauge test conducted in the Structures Lab.

2) Axial FEA simulation of the specimen

Figure 116 - Axial FEA simulation

Figure 116 illustrates the Von Misses Stress (left) and the displacement (right) of the specimen in the
axial set up. Similar to the bending simulation, the highest Von Misses stress was found to be where
the shaft attaches to the box beam and the largest deflection was found to be at the end of the shaft.
Once again, these results were found to be comparable to the results found during the physical axial
test of the specimen.


Strain gauge testing was also completed on the Baja car. Strain gauges were
mounted on the control arms to detect the maximum bending and axial strain. The
gauges were strategically mounted in locations of peak stress as indicated by Catia. This
is illustrated in the figure below. Additional gauges are mounted opposite to the ones in
view. This was tested to quantify the results obtained from the complete vehicle
assembly FEA. Obtaining these stresses could provide better input for the analysis
completed using the simulation programs.

Figure 117 - 2007 control arm gauging locations

Gauge 1 2 3 4 5
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Loads were applied to the vehicle with the instrumentation installed. This was
carried out at the Structures lab in Essex Hall to obtain actual strain values that can be
compared to the FEA.

Materials used can be found on the Baja drive in the 2007 and 2004 folders.

Obtain a wireless data acquisition system with enough inputs to analyze each
point of concern on a full quarter of the car (symmetry may be applied). With a wireless
system, strains obtained from a realistic dynamic testing environment can be achieved.
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15) Suspension Prototype

Prototype design goal is to find an ideal rear suspension which includes
maintaining traction at all times, minimizing bump steer, and providing enough travel to
absorb the impacts from the rough terrain. Various independent suspension systems were
analyzed by ADAMS and CATIA software. The analysis concentrated on systems
performance, including camber angle, toe angle, roll centre height, anti squat and wheel
travel track. Three possible options were considered, the trailing arm, semi trailing arm
and the new semi trailing arm.


The rear suspension system is important to a vehicles overall ride and handing,
which include live-axle, semi-independent, and independent. Independent rear
suspensions are mainly found on some RWD cars and 4WD vehicles. Independent
suspensions have a centrally mounted final driver with axles extending from it. In an
independent rear suspension system, each rear wheel can move independently of the
opposite rear wheel. There are double wishbone suspension, McPherson struts
suspension, trailing link suspension and semi-trailing link suspension. Combined with
double A arm and semi trailing arm, we try to develop a new semi trailing arm. Due to
the complexity and feasibility for Mini Baja, we only take the following suspensions to
compare and analyze: trailing arm, semi trailing arm and new semi trailing arm.

Figure 118: Tailing arm and Semi trailing arm
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15.3) ADAMS Modeling

Design goals for the rear suspension include maintaining a certain ride height and
roll center height, minimizing toe angle during the wheel travel, and achieving a certain
range of camber angle and anti squat during whole wheel travel. Based on above factors
and issues, three possible options were considered, the trailing arm, the semi trailing arm,
and new semi trailing arm.

1. Semi-trailing arm

Figure 119: Semi trailing arm

2. Trailing arm

Figure 120: Tailing arm

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3. New semi-trailing arm

Figure 121: New semi trailing arm

Figure 122: Camber angle comparison
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Figure 123: Roll centre comparison

Figure 124: Toe angle comparison

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Figure 125: Anti Squat comparison

Figure 126: Wheel travel track comparison

The difference between the trailing arm and semi-trailing arm is that the axis of
the trailing arm is at right angles to the vehicle centerline whereas the semi-trailing arm
axis angle inboard and toward the rear.

The trailing arm is relatively simple and is popular on FWD vehicles. It offers the
advantage that the car body floor pan can be smooth and more free space can be obtained
for power train between the suspension control arms. If the pivot axes lie parallel to the
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floor, the compressing and rebounding wheels undergo no track width, camber or toe-in
change, and the wheel base simply shortens slightly. If torsion springs are applied, the
length of the control arm can be used to influence the progressivity of the springing to
achieve better vibration behavior under load. The low body roll centre at floor level is a
disadvantage as is the fact that the wheels incline more with the body when cornering
than with other independent wheel suspensions.

The semi trailing arm is a special type of half trailing and half transverse, which is
fitted mainly in RWD and four-wheel drive cars. We can analyze it by splitting it into
two vectors, one is the trailing component and another is the transverse component. The
trailing component leads to understeer. On the other hand, the transverse component is
actually equals to a swing axle suspension, which always introduce oversteer due to body
roll. As a result, the two components cancel each other and result in near neutral steering
response. Semi-trailing has a disadvantage - when the wheel moves up and down, camber
angle changes, unlike double A arm.

No matter semi-trailing arm or trailing arm suspensions, since they are rigidly
attached to the wheels, inevitably more shock and noise could be transferred to the car
body. The new semi trailing arm is a combination type of double A arm and semi
training arm. It is simpler than double A arm, which will reduce the unsprung weight.
However, it will keep the advantage of double A arm, such as characteristic of no mutual
wheel influence. Moreover, it will overcome some of the disadvantages of semi-trailing
arm, especially under hard cornering or running on bumpy roads.


The double a-arm offers good wheel control and large wheel travel abilities. The
trailing arm suspension allows even more control over wheel angles; however this system
is more considered on front-wheel drive vehicles, and more exposed to harsh conditions.
Instead of using just 4 rod ends on the double A arm, the trailing arm and semi trailing
arm uses more complex components. This dramatically increases the overall cost for the
system, and is not worth the added adjustability. The new semi trailing arm is not chosen
due to the uncertain performance. The added simplicity of the system and better
maneuverability are outweighed by the better performing double a-arm in this scenario.
Combined with the large travel, wheel angle control and better performance the double a-
arm was selected.

15.5) CATIA & FEA

The rough design of the prototype rear suspension has been modeled in Catia v5
in an assembly drawing. The design was based on ADAMS/CAR simulation. Since this is
a prototype design, the default property of steel in Catia was applied.

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Figure 127: Prototype Suspension Assembly 1

Figure 128: Prototype Suspension Assembly 2

We separated the upper and lower control arm for the Finite Element Analysis.
For the upper control arm the resultant force was applied on the end connecting to the
upright. And also the force applied by the shock mounted on the lower control arm was
considered. For the lower control arm, the resultant force is only applied on the outer
point while the inner ends are assumed to be clamped in the analysis.
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Figure 129: Rear Lower Control Arm FEA

Figure 130: Rear Upper Control Arm FEA


Based on feasibility and cost factors, prototype team only built one suspension
prototype, new semi trailing arm. The material is the remaining PVC pipes which were
used for frame teams mockup. Prototype team drew the part draft in paper according to
ADAMS and CATIA data, then cut PVC pipes into required parts, then glued together.
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Actually, these parts can not assembly together when we attempted to attach them to
frame mockup. Therefore, the sizes of the final prototype are modified to fit the frame
mockup. The size adjustment for lower control arms was not too much, but the upper
control arm was extent 1.5 inch.

15.7.1) Product Assembly & Maintenance
The following pictures show the different views of the prototype:

Figure 131: Prototype front view

Figure 132: Prototype back view
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Figure 133: Prototype top view

Figure 134: prototype side view

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Figure 135: Joint and axis control
15.7.2) Testing

After the prototype was built, the wheel travel distance, camber angle, toe angle,
caster angle and force distribution were checked. Therefore, the following characteristics
were got for this new semi trailing arm:
1. Large wheel travel distance, larger than 12;
2. Small camber and toe angle change;
3. Large caster angle change.

Figure 136: Camber checking 1

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Figure 137: Camber checking 2


Based on 2007 Min Baja competition experience and past Windsor competition
records, Hill climbing is the choke point of Windsor team. The original reason of this
choke point is too heavy during hill climbing when the engine power is limited.
Therefore, how to effectively reduce vehicle weight will be the most critical issue for the
future Windsor Mini Baja team. As suspension team, how to reduce the weight of
suspension but keep a good performance is the most important thing. Prototype team
spent more time to pay attention to various rear suspensions during 2007 competition.
There are varieties of suspensions which are pretty simple but achieved nice
performances. Semi trailing arms were pretty popular in 2007 completion; even though
the majority of vehicles were equipped with double A arm. Dramatically, the champion
team from Brazil was equipped with non-independent suspension, some kind of live-axle
suspension. There are also some pretty simple independent suspensions, which only
connected one arm with the spring strut and drive shift. The trend of future rear
suspension will be multiform, simple and light weight.
The following pictures were come from 2007 Mini Baja competition teams.

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1. Semi-trailing arm

Figure 138: Semi trailing arm 1

Figure 139: Semi trailing arm 2

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2. Trailing arm

Figure 140: Tailing arm 1

Figure 141: Tailing arm 2
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3. New semi-trailing arm

Figure 142: New Semi trailing arm 1

Figure 143: New Semi trailing arm 2

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4. Other suspensions

Figure 144: Other suspension 1


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16) References and contacts
16.1) Contacts
-CarSim training and license:

Damon A. Becker
Mechanical Simulation
912 North Main Street, Suite 210
Ann Arbor, MI 48104 USA
Phone: (734) 668-2930
Fax: (734) 668-2877
Email: dbecker@carsim.com

- Custom Rear Upright CNC:

Omni Tool Ltd.
Rino S. Marinelli
5495 Outer Drive
Windsor, ON N9A 6J3
Phone: (519)-737-7147
Fax: 1(519)-737-7448
Email: Rino.marinelli@omni-tool.com

- Aluminum Casting:

Robert Mackay, Ph.D.
Metallurgical Engineering Specialist
Nemak Engineering Centre
4655 G.N. Booth Drive
Windsor, ON N9C 4G5
Phone: 1-519-972-2005
Fax: 1-519-972-1133
E-mail: rmackay7@nemak.com

- Fabrication of control arms:

Dino Favaro
Valco Fabricating & Machining
Division of Valiant Machine & Tool Inc
1235 St Luke Road,
Windsor, ON
N8Y 4W7
Phone: 519-971-9666

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- Water Jet cut tabs:

Dan Pominville
Centerline (Windsor) Limited
415 Moton Drive, Windsor, Ontario
N9J 3T8
Phone: (519) 734-8464

- Power coating control arms:

Robert Brant
SES Power Coating
786 Howard Ave
R.R.#1 McGregor, Ontario
Phone: (519) 726-4658

- OEM Polaris parts:

Pat McArdle
Polaris Industries
7290 East Viking Boulevard
Wyoming, MN 55092
Email: pat.mcardle@polarisind.com.

16.2) Websites

1. Picture of camber angle. Retrieved July 2007, from
http://www.redranger.com.au/images/Faqs/Camber%20angle.JPG

2. Vehicle suspension system, (2006). Retrieved January 2007, from
http://www.twbbs.net.tw/1297490.html

3. Automobile Ride, Handling, and Suspension Design, (2006). Retrieved January
2006, From http://www.rqriley.com/suspensn.htm

4. SAE Mini Baja, (2007). Retrieved January 2007, from
http://www.egr.msu.edu/baja

5. Independent Suspension, (2000). Retrieved January 2000, from
http://www.autozine.org/technical_school/suspension/tech_suspension21.htm

6. Suspension geometry, (1999). Retrieved January 2006, from
http://www.rqriley.com/suspensn.htm

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7. Suspension geometry. Retrieved March 2005, from
http://home.scarlet.be/~be067749/58/c1/index.htm (Note this website is
recommended as a reference)

8. Tire curve, Retrieved April 2006, from
http://code.eng.buffalo.edu/dat/sites/tire/img54.gif

9. Camber angle, Retrieved April 2006, from
http://www.crcc.org.uk/images/image004.jpg

10. Toe angle, Retrieved March 2006, from
http://www.bastiantire.com/images/toe_in.gif

11. Kingpin axis, Retrieved May 2006,
http://www.desertrides.com/reference/images/terms/sai-scrub.gif

12. Tire slip angle, Retrieved April 2006,
http://www.donpalmer.co.uk/cchandbook/images/tyrebasics.gif

16.3) Books and professional papers

1. Dixon, John C., (1996) Tires, Suspension and Handling, Warrendale, PA: Society
of Automotive Engineers

2. Milliken ,William F., Milliken, Douglas L., (1995) Race Car Vehicle Dynamics,
Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers (Note this is a recommended
book to buy)

3. Genta, Giancarlo (1997) Motor Vehicle Dynamics, Singapore: World Scientific
Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd

4. Hewson, P., (2005) Method for estimation tyre cornering stiffness from basic tyre
information, UK, School of Computing and Engineering, University of
Huddersfield

5. Gillespie, T. D. (Thomas D.) (1992) Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics,
Warrendale, PA : Society of Automotive Engineers (Note this is a recommended
book to buy)

6. Rajamani, Rajesh. (2005) Vehicle dynamics and control, New York : Springer

7. Wong, J. Y. (Jo Yung) (2001) Theory of ground vehicles, New York : John Wiley

8. Erjavec, Jack (2006) Automotive suspension and steering, Clifton Park, NY :
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142
Thomson Delmar Learning

9. Reimpell, Jrnsen. & Stoll, Helmut (1996) The automotive chassis: engineering
principles, Warrendale, PA : Society of Automotive Engineers

10. Matschinsky, Wolfgang (2000) Road vehicle suspensions, London, UK:
Professional Engineering Pub

11. BOSCH, (2004) Automotive Handbook 6
th
Edition, Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers

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( ) f f s C Z a Z
& & &
+ ( ) f f s k Z a Z +
( ) tf f k Z
( )( ) f tf h k F =
17) Appendixes
17.1) Appendix A
The derivation of the half car model
FBDs: Sprung mass:
The unsprung mass at the front of the vehicle
The unsprung mass at the front of the vehicle:
From the first FBD (free body diagram)
m
s

Z
s

( ) f f s k Z a Z +
( ) r r s k Z b Z
( ) f f s C Z a Z
& & &
+
( ) r r s C Z b Z
& & &

Z
f

( ) r r s C Z b Z
& & &
( ) r r s k Z b Z
( ) tr r k Z
( )( ) r tr h k F =
Z
r

m
uf

m
ur

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144
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
0

= + + + +
= + + + + +
=
= + + + + + +
= + +
=
r r s f f s r r s f f s
r r s r r s f f s f f s
axes pitch
r r s f f s r r s f f s s s
s s r r s f f s r r s f f s
s s Zs
bk Z b Z ak Z a Z bC Z b Z aC Z a Z I
I k Z b Z C Z b Z b k Z a Z C Z a Z a
I M
k Z b Z k Z a Z C Z b Z C Z a Z Z m
Z m C Z b Z C Z a Z k Z b Z k Z a Z
Z m F

& & & & & & & &
& & & & & & & &
& &
& & & & & & & &
& & & & & & & &
& &

From the second FBD:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) tf f tf f f s f f s f f uf
f uf tf f tf f f f s f f s
f uf Zf
k h k Z k a Z Z C a Z Z Z m
Z m k h k Z C Z a Z k Z a Z
Z m F
= + + + + +
= + + + +
=

& & & & &
& & & & &
& &

From the third FBD:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) tr r tr r r s r r s r r ur
r ur tr r tr r r r s r r s
r ur Zr
k h k Z C b Z Z k b Z Z Z m
Z m k h k Z C Z b Z k Z b Z
Z m F
= + + +
= + +
=

& & & & &
& & & & &
& &

Combining all of the equations into matrix form yields the equations of the half car
model:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )( )
( )( )
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
tr r
tf f
r
f
s
tr r r r
tf f f f
r f r f r f
r f r f r f
r
f
s
r r r
f f f
r f r f r f
r f r f r f
r
f
s
ur
uf
s
k h
k h
Z
Z
Z
k k bk k
k k ak k
bk ak k b k a bk ak
k k bk ak k k
Z
Z
Z
C bC C
C aC C
bC aC C b C a bC aC
C C bC aC C C
Z
Z
Z
m
m
I
m
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 2
2 2

&
&
&
&
& &
& &
& &
& &

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17.2) Appendix B
The derivation of the bicycle model
FBD:

Defining body slip angle and the steering angle:

From the FBD (free body diagram)
( )
(2)
M
(1)
G
r I bF aF
r I
ru v m F F
ma Fy
r f
r f
lat
&
&
&
=
=
+ = +
=

It is possible to further simplify the equations by assuming that the lateral force is linearly
related to the tire slip angle through the cornering stiffness. This is usually acceptable for
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146
a laterally acceleration of up to 0.4 to 0.5gs.
r r r
f f f
C F
C F
=
=

By considering the front and the rear tires separately, it is possible to find expressions for
the tire slip angles () using kinematics.

( )
( )
rb v v
t
r u u u
t
r u u u
ra v v
tr
w
trl tfl
w
trr tfr
tf
=
+ = =
= =
+ =
2
2

Further assume that the vehicles forward velocity (u) is much greater than the width of
the vehicle (u >> r(t/2)), therefore
( )
( )
( )
( )
u
rb v
u
ra v
u u u u u
r
f
trl trr tfl tfr
=
+
= +
= = = =

tan
tan
Also, assume small angles, thus
( )
( )
( )
u
rb v
u
ra v
r
f
+
=

tan

So equation 1 becomes
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147
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

f
r f r f
r f
C r mu
u
bC aC
v
u
C C
v m
mru C
u
rb v
C
u
ra v
v m
=
+
+

+
=
&
&

Equation 2 becomes
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

f
r f r f
r f
aC r
u
C b C a
v
u
bC aC
r I
bC
u
rb v
aC
u
ra v
r I
=
+
+

+
=
2 2
&
&

Combining equation 1, and 2 into matrix form leads to the linear bicycle model
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+
+
+
+
f
f
r f r f
r f r f
aC
C
r
v
u
C b C a
u
bC aC
mu
u
bC aC
u
C C
r
v
I
m
2 2
0
0
&
&

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17.3) Appendix C

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17.4) Appendix D
Critical speed calculations of 2006 vehicle

The cornering stiffness of the front and rear tires were calculated using equation 24.
( )
( )
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )

+
+
=
=
= =
=

=
=
=
=
=
=
t t
t
t t
t
t t
t
wa r
swa
wa r
swa
wa r
w Eb
C
m
in
m in ID
r
in
in in
w
ID OD
a
m
in
m
in w
m . b
s
m
N
x E
1 arccos sin 1 arccos sin
2
radius) (inner 127 . 0
0254 . 0
2
10
2
ratio) (aspect 785714 . 0
7
2
10 21
2
tire) the of (width 1778 . 0
0254 . 0
7
kness) (belt thic 015 0
) deflection vertical (sidewall 15 . 0
modulus) n compressio (belt 10 27
2
3
2
6

( )( )( )( )
( )( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( )( )( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
rad
N
C
C
5 . 59419
785714 . 0 1771 . 0 127 . 0
785714 . 0 1778 . 0 15 . 0
1 cos sin
785714 . 0 1771 . 0 127 . 0
785714 . 0 1778 . 0 15 . 0
1 cos sin 785714 . 0 1771 . 0 127 . 0
1778 . 0 015 . 0 10 27 2
1
1 2
3 6
=

+
+

Since the same type of tire is used in the front and in the rear the cornering stiffness will
be the same in the front and rear. The following is the calculation of the critical speed.

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155
( )( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
h
km
277.852
1
6 . 3
m
77.1811
27 . 5915 27 . 5915
u
5 . 59419 2 0.715264m 5 . 59419 2 0.910336m 155 . 272
6256 . 1 5 . 59419 2 5 . 59419 2
u
1.6256m b a l
0.715264m 0.910336m - 1.6256m b
0.910336m 1.6256m
600
336
155 . 272
lb
g 0.4535924k
600
2
2
2
2 2
critical
2
critical
=
= =
=

=
= + =
= =
=
=
=
=
s
m
h
km
s
s
m
Ns
mkg
kgmN
m N
rad
N
rad
N
kg
m
rad
N
rad
N
lb
lb
a
kg lb m

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17.5) Appendix E

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17.6) Appendix F
Predicted spring rates

The following shows the analysis used to determine the predicted spring rates. The
wheel rates can be predicted from the ride frequencies.
( )( ) ( )
( )
in
lbf
k
in
ft
s
ft
lb
cycle
rad
s
cycles
k
g
w
f k
rf
rf
front
front n rf
5386 . 19
12
2 . 32 2
1 . 1
585
47 . 0
2 237 . 1
2
2
2
2
2
,
=

Similarly,
in
lbf
k
rr
1148 . 31 =
The spring rates can be calculated from the wheel rates and the motion ratios of the front
and rear suspensions.
( )
( )
in
lbf
k
in
lbf
k
MR
k
k
f
f
f
rf
f
6295 . 67
5375 . 0
5386 . 19
2
2
=
=
=

Similarly,
in
lbf
k
r
4321 . 68 =

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17.7) Appendix G
Acceleration Plots

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Acceleration and Cornering

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Braking

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Braking and Cornering

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S Shaped Plots

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2007 Jump Performance

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Cornering

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17.8) Appendix H

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Picture
Maximum
Stress
(Pa) Asthetics Clearance
Ease of
Manufacturing Weight Total
Lower
control
Arm 1

5 3 1 1 1 11
Lower
control
Arm 2

2 2 1 2 4 11
Lower
control
Arm 3

4 4 1 3 2 14
Lower
control
Arm 4

1 FAILS 5 3 0
Lower
control
Arm 5

3 5 1 4 5 18

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17.9) Appendix I

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Weight saving methods were investigated but were not significant enough to jeopardize
strength

Arrived at final product

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17.10) Appendix J
Spreadsheets to record the data during testing
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Weight per Tire (lb) Shock Preload (in)
Test
Number
Test
Date
Vehicle
Weight
(lb)
Vehicle
Weight with
Driver (lb)
Driver
Front
left
Front
right
Rear
left
Rear
right
Front
left
Front
right
Rear
left
Rear
right
Ride
Height
(1in)
N/A
2006
Vehicle 465 635 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
1
May
14/07 419 590 Herman 140 140 155 155 2.307 2.345 2.254 2.252 10.125
2
May
15/07
3
May
15/07
4
May
15/07
5
May
15/07
6
7
May
19/07 406 Kamil 135 129 151 152 2.182 2.22 2.004 2.002
8 2.017 2.016
9
May
28/07 2.185 2.216 2.503 2.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
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Camber Angle (degree) Toe Angle (degree)
Rebound Adjustment (clicks from full
fast position)
Compression Adjustment (clicks from
full soft position) Test
Number
Front
left
Front
right
Rear
left
Rear
right
Front
left
Front
right
Rear
left
Rear
right
Front
left
Front
right
Rear
left
Rear
right
Front
left
Front
right
Rear
left
Rear
right
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 30 24 40 26 12 7 0 3
1 -3 -3 -2.1 -1.8 0.37 0.25 0 0.37 24 24 26 26 7 7 3 3
2
3 19 19 21 21
4 19 19 21 21 4 4 0 0
5 15 15 17 17 4 4 0 0
6
7
8
9 -2 -2 0.3 0.3 22 22 10 10
10 32 32 15 15
11 20 20 20 20
12 5 5
13 10 10
14 15 15
15 10 10
16 5 5
17 3 3
18 5 5
19 15 15 20 20 20 20
20 10 10 10 10
21 3 3
22 5 5 5 5
23 -1.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.25
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Tire Pressure (psi) Turnbuckle position (in)
Spacing between
rotors and frame (in) Test
Number
Front
left
Front
right
Rear
left
Rear
right
Left
top
Left
bottom
Right
top
Right
bottom
Left
side Right side
Notes
N/A
1
2 7 6.2 6 6
3
4 Control arm rear dented
5 6.25 6.25 6.5 6.5
6 0.352 0.425 0.317 0.333 0.132 0.327
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
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17.11) Appendix K
17.11.1) Rear suspension assembly Bill of Material:
Picture
Part
Description
# of
part
s
Material Specifications Supplier Manufacturer

Tire 2 Rubber
KT851B - 9 lbs
21x7-10
Tires Unlimited Dunlop

Rim 2 Aluminum
T-9 Pro Series
10x5
ITP

Wheel Hub 2 Aluminum Predetator Polaris Polaris

Upright 2 Aluminum Outlaw 500 Polaris Polaris
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198 198

Bearing 2
2- Race Roller
Bearing
Polaris Polrais

Bushings 24
Bronze (Oil
impregnated)
Canadian bearing
Machined in the
shop
Upper insert
tubing
2 Steel 4130
0.5" x 0.049
thick x 4 inches
length
EMJ tubing
Machined in
shop

Lower Insert
tubing
2 Steel 4130
0.5" x 0.049
thick x 7 inches
length
EMJ tubing
Machined in
shop

Upper Drill
Rod
4
High Grade
Steel
M10 x 6 inches
and
M10 x 8 inches
Essex Metal
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199 199

Lower Control
Arm
2 Steel 4130 EMJ tubing
Fabricated at
Valient

Upper Control
Arm
Fabricated at
Valient
Large Hiem
J oints
2 Chormonely
ASM-ASB Rod
ends Right
Hand 5/8"- 18
Aurora Bearing Aurora Bearing

Small Hiem
J oints
6 Mild Steel
AM-AB Rod
ends Right
Hand M10-1.5
Aurora Bearing Aurora Bearing
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200 200

Tabs 18 Steel 4130

Shoulder
Bolts
2
High Grade
Steel
1/2" Shoulder
Bolt (length of
1.25")
Fastenal Fastenal

Shoulder
Bolts
8
High Grade
Steel
M10 Shoulder
bolt (length of
30mm )
Fastenal Fastenal

Lock Nuts 8
High Grade
Steel
M8 Nylock Nuts Fastenal Fastenal

Lock Nuts 2
High Grade
Steel
3/8 Nylock Nuts Fastenal Fastenal

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17.11.2) Front suspension assembly Bill of Material
Picture
Part
Description
# of
parts
Material Specifications Supplier Manufacturer

Tire 2 Rubber
KT851B - 9 lbs
21x7-10
Tires Unlimited
(www.tiresunlimited.com)
Dunlop

Rim 2 Aluminum
T-9 Pro Series
10x5
ITP

Wheel Hub 2 Aluminum Outlaw 500 Polaris Polaris

Upright 2 Aluminum Outlaw 500 Polaris Polaris
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202 202

Bearing 4
tapered needle
roller bearings
Timken Timken

Bushings 12
Bronze (Oil
impregnated)
Canadian bearing
Machined in
the shop
Upper insert
tubing
2 Steel 4130
0.5" x 0.049
thick x 12
inches length
EMJ tubing
Machined in
shop

Lower Insert
tubing
4 Steel 4130
0.5" x 0.049
thick x 3
inches length
EMJ tubing
Machined in
shop
Upper Drill
Rod
2
High Grade
Steel
M10 x 12
inches
Essex Metal

Lower Drill
Rod
2
High Grade
Steel
M10 x 8 inches Essex Metal
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203 203

Lower
Control Arm
Fabricated at
Valient

Upper
Control Arm
Fabricated at
Valient

Ball J oint 4 Mild Steel M16 x 1.75 RH Ricky Stator YAMAHA

Steering
Hiem J oint
2 Mild Steel M12 x 1.5 RH Polaris Polaris

Steering
Hiem J oint
2 Mild Steel
AB M10 x1.5
Left handed
Aurora Bearing
Aurora
Bearing
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204 204

Tabs 14 Steel 4130

Shoulder
Bolts

High Grade
Steel
M10 Shoulder
bolt (length of
50mm )
Fastenal FAstenal

Lock Nuts 4
High Grade
Steel
M8 Nylock
Nuts
Fastenal Fastenal

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17.12) Appendix L
Other Relevant information

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